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BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB
Viva Voce


BJT TRANSISTOR

1.What is transistor?
A semiconductor device with three connections, capable of amplification in addition to rectification.

2. What is valve?
A device for controlling the passage of fluid through a pipe or duct, especially an automatic device
allowing movement in one direction only.

3. What is thermal runaway?
Thermal runaway refers to a situation where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a
way that causes a further increase in temperature, often leading to a destructive result

4. What is bipolar and uni-polar transistor?
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor that relies on the
contact of two types of semiconductor for its operation.
Uni-polar transistors, also called Field-effect transistors (FET), use only one of the two types of
carrier

5. What is PNP and NPN transistor?
NPN Transistor: A bipolar transistor with a p-type base sandwiched between an n-type emitter, and n-
type collector.
PNP Transistor: A bipolar transistor with an n-type base sandwiched between a p-type emitter and a
p-type collector.

6. What type of charge carriers are responsible for conduction of current in NPN transistor?
Electrons are majority charge carriers in NPN transistor.

7. What type of charge carriers are responsible for conduction of current in PNP transistor?
Holes are majority charge carriers in a PNP transistor.

8. What is meant by voltage gain of transistor?
When used in a circuit with a resistor as the collector load, the voltage gain of the circuit is just the
current gain of the transistor, times the resistance of the resistor

9. What are three basic configurations of transistor?
A transistor may be connected in any one of three basic configurations common emitter (CE), common
base (CB), and common collector (CC).

10. What is meant by common base configuration?
In this configuration base terminal is connected as a common terminal. The input is applied between
the emitter and base terminals. The output is taken between the collector and base terminals.
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Input characteristics:
The output (CB) voltage is maintained constant and the input voltage (EB) is set at several convenient
levels. For each level of input voltage, the input current I
E
is recorded. I
E
is then plotted versus V
EB
to give
the common-base input characteristics.


Output characteristics:
The emitter current I
E
is held constant at each of several fixed levels. For each fixed value of I
E
, the
output voltage V
CB
is adjusted in convenient steps and the corresponding levels of collector current I
C

are recorded. For each fixed value of I
E,
I
C
is almost equal to I
E
and appears to remain constant when V
CB
is increased.



11. What are characteristics of CE configuration?
In this configuration emitter terminal is connected as a common terminal. The input is applied
between the base and emitter terminals. The output is taken between the collector and base
terminals.











Input characteristics:
The output voltage V
CE
is maintained constant and the input voltage V
BE
is set at several convenient
levels. For each level of input voltage, the input current I
B
is recorded. I
B
is then plotted versus V
BE
to give
the common-base input characteristics.
Output characteristics:
The Base current I
B
is held constant at each of several fixed levels. For each fixed value of I
B
, the output
voltage V
CE
is adjusted in convenient steps and the corresponding levels of collector current I
C
are
recorded. For each fixed value of I
B,
I
C
level is recorded at each V
CE
step. For each I
B
level, I
C
is plotted
versus V
CE
to give a family of characteristics.



12. What are characteristics of CC configuration?
In this configuration collector terminal is connected as a common terminal. The input is applied
between the base and collector terminals. The output is taken between the emitter and collector
terminals
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Input characteristics:
The common-collector input characteristics are quite different from either common base or common-
emitter input characteristics. The difference is due to the fact that the input voltage (V
BC
) is largely
determined by (V
EC
) level.
V
EC
= V
EB
+ V
BC

V
EB
= V
EC
- V
BC


Output characteristics:
The operation is much similar to that of C-E configuration. When the base current is I
CO,
the emitter
current will be zero and consequently no current will flow in the load. When the base current is
increased, the transistor passes through active region and eventually reaches saturation. Under the
saturation conditions all the supply voltage, except for a very small drop across the transistor will appear
across the load resistor.

13. What is common collector circuit?
The common-collector circuit is a basic transistor amplifier with current gain.



CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

1. What is CRO?
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time
and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies.

2. Explain the block diagram of CRO.












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3. Mention parts of CRO.









K, an indirectly heated cathode which provides a source of electrons for the beam by boiling
them out of the cathode.
P, the anode (or plate) which is circular with a small central hole. The potential of P creates an
electric field which accelerates the electrons, some of which emerge from the hole as a fine
beam. This beam lies along the central axis of the tube.
G, the grid. Controlling the potential of the grid controls the number of electrons for the beam,
and hence the intensity of the spot on the screen where the beam hits.
F, the focusing cylinder. This aids in concentrating the electron beam into a thin straight line
much as a lens operates in optics.
X, Y, deflection plate pairs. The X plates are used for deflecting the beam left to right (the x
direction) by means of the ramp voltage. The Y plates are used for deflection of the beam in
the vertical direction. Voltages on the X and Y sets of plates determine where the beam will
strike the screen and cause a spot of light.
S, the screen. This is coated on the inside with a material which fluoresces with green light
(usually) where the electrons are striking.

4. What are the applications of CRO?
Five possible uses:
* Calibrate an oscillator
* Compare two frequency generators
* Phase shift determination b/w V and I in any CR circuit
* Study Beats phenomenon
* Study Lisajjous figures

5. List the front panel knobs of CRO.













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1. Onoff switch.
2. INTENS.-This is the intensity control connected to the grid G to control the beam intensity and hence
the brightness of the screen spot. Dont run the intensity too high, just bright enough for clear visibility.
Always have the spot sweeping left to right or the beam may burn a hole in the screen.
3. FOCUS allows you to obtain a clearly defined line on the screen .
4. POSITION allows you to adjust the vertical position of the waveform on the screen.(There is one of
these for each channel).
5. AMPL/DIV. is a control of the Y (ie. vertical) amplitude of the signal on the screen.(There is one of
these for each channel).
6. AC/DC switch-This should be left in the DC position unless you cannot get a signal on-screen
otherwise. (There is one of these for each channel).
7. A&B/ADD switch-This allows you to display both input channels separately or to combine them into
one.
8. +/- switch-This allows you to invert the B channel on the display.
9. Channel A input
10. Channel B input
11. X POSITION-These allow you to adjust the horizontal position of the signals on the screen.
12. LEVEL-This allows you to determine the trigger level; ie. the point of the waveform at which the
ramp voltage will begin in timebase mode.
13. ms/s-This defines the multiplication factor for the horizontal scale in timebase mode. (See 15
below.)
14. MAGN-The horizontal scale units are to be multiplied by this setting in both timebase and xy modes.
To avoid confusion, leave it at x1 unless you really need to change it.
15. Time/Div-This selector controls the frequency at which the beam sweeps horizontally across the
screen in timebase mode, as well as whether the oscilloscope is in timebase mode or xy (x VIA A) mode.
This switch has the following positions:
(a) X VIA A-In this position, an external signal connected to input A is used in place of the internally
generated ramp. (This is also known as xy mode.)
(b) .5, 1, 2, 5, etc. Here the internally generated ramp voltage will repeat such that each large (cm)
horizontal division corresponds to .5, 1, 2, 5, etc. ms. or s depending on the multiplier and magnitude
settings. (Note also the x1/x5 switch in 14 above.)
16. The following controls are for triggering of the scope, and only have an effect in timebase mode.
17. A/B selector-This allows you to choose which signal to use for triggering.
18. -/+ will force the ramp signal to synchronize its starting time to either the decreasing or increasing
part of the unknown signal you are studying.
19. INT/EXT-This will determine whether the ramp will be synchronized to the signal chosen by the A/B
switch or by whatever signal is applied to the EXT. SYNC. input. (See 21 below.)
20. AC/TV selectors- Ive never figured out what this does; find whichever position works.
21. External trigger input

6. What is CRT?
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced when an electron
beam strikes a phosphorescent surface.




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LOGIC GATES, HALF ADDER & FULL ADDER

1. What are the logic gates?
A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it performs a
logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output

2. List the basic gates.
AND, NOT & OR gates

3. NOT gate is also known as inverter.

4. Explain different types of logic gates.
AND - True if A and B are both True
OR - True if either A or B are True
NOT - Inverts value: True if input is False; False if input is True
XOR - True if either A or B are True, but False if both are True
NAND - AND followed by NOT: False only if A and B are both True
NOR - OR followed by NOT: True only if A and B are both False
XNOR - XOR followed

5. Explain the universal gates.
NAND and NOR gates are called as Universal Gates as they can be used to create all other logic gates.
These two gates are the digital building blocks

6. What is half adder? How it is realized using logic gates?
The half adder is an example of a simple, functional digital circuit built from two logic gates. The half
adder adds to one-bit binary numbers (AB). The output is the sum of the two bits (S) and the carry (C).

7. What is full adder? How it is realized using logic gates?
The full-adder circuit adds three one-bit binary numbers (C A B) and outputs two one-bit binary
numbers, a sum (S) and a carry (C1). The full-adder is usually a component in a cascade of adders,
which add 8, 16, 32, etc. binary numbers. The carry input for the full-adder circuit is from the carry
output from the circuit "above" itself in the cascade. The carry output from the full adder is fed to
another full adder "below" itself in the cascade.


OSCILLATORS

1. State the Barkhausen criterion for oscillators?
The Barkhausen stability criterion is a mathematical condition to determine when a linear electronic
circuit will oscillate. It was put forth in 1921 by German physicist Heinrich Georg Barkhausen (1881
1956). It is widely used in the design of electronic oscillators, and also in the design of general negative
feedback circuits such as op amps, to prevent them from oscillating.




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2. Draw the circuit diagram of general oscillator.

















3. What is tank circuit?
A tank circuit is typically a combination of 'capacitive' and 'inductive' circuits that exchange 'energy' back
and forth.

4. What is Hartley oscillator?
The Hartley oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that relies on two inductors and a capacitor for
its operation. The circuit was invented in 1915 by American engineer Ralph Hartley.

5. What is the frequency of Hartley oscillator?
f=1/2sqrt LtC , Lt=L1+L2

6. Write expression for frequency of oscillator.
f= 1/[sqrt(L1+L2)C]

7. Define phase shift oscillator.
A phase-shift oscillator is a linear electronic oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave output. It
consists of an inverting amplifier element such as a transistor or op amp with its output fed back to its
input through a phase-shift network consisting of resistors and capacitors


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8. Write the expression for frequency of RC phase shift oscillator.
fr= 1/2RCsqrt2n

10. The total phase shift of oscillator is 1 .

11. Which type of feedback is used in oscillator?
Positive feedback is used in oscillators to keep them running or oscillating

12. RC phase shift oscillator is suitable for audio frequencies only.




SEMI CONDUCTORS AND ZENER DIODE

1. What is Semi conductor?
A substance that can act as an electrical conductor or insulator depending on chemical alterations or
external conditions. Examples are silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide.

2. Classify semiconductors?
Semiconductors are classified in two types:
(i) Intrinsic semiconductors (ii) Extrinsic semiconductors

3. What is doping in semi-conductors?
In semiconductor production, doping intentionally introduces impurities into an extremely pure (also
referred to as intrinsic) semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical properties. The
impurities are dependent upon the type of semiconductor.

4. What is meant by intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors?
Intrinsic semiconductor: A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors: Those semiconductors in which some impurity atoms are embedded are
known as extrinsic semiconductors.

5. Define PN junction diode?
A solid state photosensitive device with a junction between a p-type and n-type semiconducting
material.

6. Explain construction and working of PN junction diode?
PN junction diode is used to have a P and N layer junction, it can be forward or reverse layer.
Movement across the junction occurs due to the different accumulation of electron in the either side
of the junction.





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7. Draw the I-V characteristics of PN junction?
















8. What is N- type of semi conductor?
N-type Semiconductor Material (N): A semiconductor material in which the majority carriers are
electrons, and there is an excess of electrons over holes

9. What is P- type of semi conductor?
P-type Semiconductor Material (P): A semiconductor material in which holes are the majority carriers
and there is a deficiency of electrons.

10. What is Fermi level?
The Fermi level is the energy that pertains to electrons in a semiconductor.

11. What is static resistance?
This is measured when diode id forward biased and input is a D.C signal. The ratio of voltage applied
to the current flowing through diode gives static resistance.

12. What is dynamic resistance?
This is measured when input is A.C signal. Since A.C signal varies continuously the resistance offered
also changes continuously. The ratio of change in voltage to change in current gives dynamic
resistance. This is measured when input is A.C signal. Since A.C signal varies continuously the
resistance offered also changes continuously. The ratio of change in voltage to change in current
gives dynamic resistance.

13. What is cut-off voltage of Si and Ge?
0.6-0.7 V for Si and 0.3 for Ge at room temperature.

14. Among Si and Ge is which is preferred more and why?
Si is preferred over Ge because strong material with same crystal structure as diamonds. Si has
stable reverse breakdown voltage and more stable with temperature.



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15. What is depletion region?
A region in a semiconductor device, usually at the juncture of P-type and N-type materials, in which
there is neither an excess of electrons nor of holes. Large depletion regions inhibit current flow.

16. What is diode and draw its symbol?
A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of current in one direction
only.





17. What are the operating conditions of PN junction?
The p-n junction diode will perform satisfactorily only if it is operated within certain limiting values
or conditions. They are:
1. Maximum forward current: It is the highest instantaneous current under forward bias.
2. Peak inverse voltage
3. Maximum power rating: It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without
damaging it.

18. Define Zener diode and draw its symbol?
A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as
an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a
certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee voltage" or "zener voltage" or
"avalanche point".





19. What is forward and reverse bias in PN junction diode?

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20. Write diode current equation.







RECTIFIERS WITHOUT FILTERS


1.What is rectifier?
Rectifier is a circuit which converts bi-directional signal to uni-directional signal.

2. Explain the working of Half Wave Rectifier (HWR).
In HWR either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked.

3. What is the average current Idc?
The current obtained by adding together the product of current flowing in circuit and times for which
they flow and dividing by total time considered. For Idc the average value is constant.

4. What is DC output Voltage Vdc?
It is the nominal voltage setting. In adapters this voltage is preset. With open frame power supplies a
voltage adjust potentiometer is standard. The adjustable range is usually 5%.

5. Define Ripple factor.
The amplitude variation present in a DC power supply due to insufficient filtering.

6. What is Peak Inverse Voltage PIV?
Peak Inverse Voltage is either the maximum voltage that diode rectifier can block, alternatively the
maximum that rectifier needs to block in given application.

7. What is transformer utilization factor (TUF)?
The ratio of DC power delivered to load to AC rating of transformer secondary.

8. Explain the working of Full Wave Rectifier (FWR).
FWR is a circuit which converts AC voltage in to pulsating DC voltage using both half cycles of applied
AC voltage.

9. Mention advantage and disadvantage of HWR & FWR.
HWR Advantage : It gives pure DC.
Disadvantage : It conducts on every other half cycle.
FWR Advantage : Full wave allows for higher average values.
Disadvantage : It uses so many diodes.


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10. Why is FWR is preferred over HWR?
The FWR conducts on every half cycle whereas HWR conducts on every other half cycle.

11. What is meant by rectification?
The process of converting alternating current into pulsating direct current.

12. What is bridge rectifier?
A full-wave rectifier in which the rectifier diodes are connected in a bridge circuit to allow current to
the load during both the positive and negative alternation of the supply voltage

13. What is power supply unit?
A defined unit that is the source of electrical power for a device, circuit, subsystem or system.

14. What is ripple frequency?
Frequency of ripple present in the output of DC source.

15. What is pulsating DC?
Pulsating DC is DC that changes value at regular/irregular intervals.


RECTIFIERS WITH FILTERS

1. What are the two main types of current?
AC & DC.

2. What are the merits of AC over DC?
AC electrical distribution systems can easily allow changes in voltage using transformers. This gives AC
electrical distribution systems a great advantage compared to DC.

3. What are the merits of DC over AC?
DC does not experience the electromagnetic inductance losses (or cause the electromagnetic
interference) that AC power does since the voltage does not change over time. These losses can be
minimized in AC by minimizing the frequency, but never completely eliminated

4. What is conduction current?
A current due to a flow of conduction electrons through a body.

5. What is unit and symbol of current?
Unit: Ampere Symbol: I

6. Define one Ampere?
AMPERE(A): The unit of measurement for electrical current in coulombs (6.25 x 1018 electrons) per
second. One ampere results in a circuit that has one ohm resistance when one volt is applied to the
circuit.



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7. What is meant by EMF?
ELECTRO MOTIVE FORCE (E): The force which causes an electrical current in a circuit when there is a
difference in potential.

8. What is meant by conductivity?
Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct electric current.

9. What is meaning of one Ohm?
OHM (): The unit of electrical resistance. A circuit component has a resistance of one ohm when
one volt applied to the component produces a current of one ampere.

10. What is the unit & symbol of resistance?
Unit: Ohm Symbol: R

11. Define Ohms law.
The law stating that the direct current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between its ends. It is usually formulated as V = IR, where V is the potential difference, or
voltage, I is the current, and R is the resistance of the conductor.

12. What is meant by resistivity?
A measure of the resisting power of a specified material to the flow of an electric current

13. What is resistor?
A circuit component that provides resistance to current in the circuit.

14. What is battery? What is an AC?
BATTERY: An electrical device consisting of one or more cells which converts chemical or solar
energy into electrical energy. A battery provides a source of steady-state DC voltage.
ALTERNATING CURRENT - AC VOLTAGE: Either voltage or current that varies smoothly from zero to
a maximum value in one direction, or polarity, and returns to zero. It then reverses its direction
(polarity) and rises to a maximum value in the opposite direction, and then returns to zero to
complete the cycle. This cycle is repeated continuously. The number of cycles per second is its
frequency, measured in hertz (Hz).

15. What are the uses of multimeter?
*Measuring AC and DC voltage.
*Measuring AC and DC current.
*Measuring resistance (ohm meter)
*Testing semiconductors (using the ohms range or the range)
*Testing electrolytic capacitors (ohms range)
*Logic probe (volts range)

16. What do you mean by cycle and frequency?
CYCLE: An interval of time during which a characteristic, often regularly repeated event or sequence
of events occurs
FREQUENCY: The rate at which something occurs or is repeated over a particular period of time or in
a given sample

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17. What is sinusoidal wave?
SINE (sinusoidal) WAVE: A waveform whose amplitude at any time through a rotation of an angle
from 0 to 360 is a function of the sine of an angle.

18. What is meant by time period & amplitude?
TIME PERIOD: The time between cycles of a periodic wave.
AMPLITUDE: The level or strength of a signal as measured by the height of its waveform.
Electronic waveforms can be displayed and measured on an oscilloscope.

19. What is phase?
The relative timing of one signal to another, usually expressed in degrees of shift.

20. What is peak value of AC?
The amplitude (or peak value) of waveform is a measure of the extent of its voltage or current
excursion from the resting value (usually zero). The peak-to-peak value for a wave which is
symmetrical about its resting value is twice its peak value as shown here.









21. What is average value of AC?
The average value of a waveform, which swings symmetrically above and below zero, will be
obviously zero, when measured over a long period of time. Hence, average values of currents and
voltages are invariably taken over one complete half-cycle (either positive or negative) rather than
over one complete full-cycle (which would result in an average value of zero).

22. What is RMS value of AC?
The R.M.S. (or effective) value of an alternating voltage or current (AC) is the value which would
produce the same amount of heat energy in a resistor as a direct voltage or current (DC) of the same
magnitude.

23. What is peak factor?
Peak factor helps in determination of dielectric strength of insulating material.

24. What is inductance?
INDUCTANCE (L): The capability of a coil to store energy in a magnetic field surrounding it which
results in a property that tends to oppose any change in the existing current in the coil.

25. What is inductor?
An electrical component that opposes changes in current flow and stores electrical energy as a
magnetic field. Although all wires have inductive properties, an inductor component is usually a coil
of wire. Transformers use this same principle.

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26. What is choke?
An inductance which is designed to pass large amount of DC current. It usually is used in power
supply filters to help reduce ripple; although, there are inductances called rf chokes (rfc) which
prevent rf from feeding to a circuit.

27. What is transformer?
A set of coils wound on an iron core in which a magnetic field couples energy between two or more
coils or windings.

28. What is primary winding?
Turns of wire on a transformer core, used to transfer voltage from the input to the core.

29. What is secondary winding?
Turns of wire on a transformer core, used to transfer voltage from the core to the outside load.

30. What are the advantages of using transformer in electronic equipments?
Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which makes long-distance
transmission economically practical.

31. What is voltage step down transformer?
230V.

32. What is mains transformer?
Generator transformer is called main transformer. The output of a generator is connected to a main
transformer. It steps up the generating voltage.

33. What is capacitor?
A device made up of two metallic plates separated by a dielectric or insulating material. Use to store
electrical energy in the electrostatic field between the plates.

34. What is capacitance?
CAPACITANCE (C): The capability to store charge in an electrostatic field. It can be expressed as equal
to the charge Q in coulombs that is stored divided by the voltage E in volts that supplied the charge.
Capacitance tends to oppose any change in voltage. The unit is farads.

35. What is one farad?
FARAD (F): The basic unit for capacitance. A capacitor has a value of one farad when it has stored
one coulomb of charge with one volt across it.

36. What are the effects of capacitance?
PLATE AREA: All other factors being equal, greater plate area gives greater capacitance; less plate
area gives less capacitance.
PLATE SPACING: All other factors being equal, further plate spacing gives less capacitance; closer
plate spacing gives greater capacitance.
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL: All other factors being equal, greater permittivity of the dielectric gives
greater capacitance; less permittivity of the dielectric gives less capacitance.


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37. What is meant by impedance?
IMPEDANCE (Z): In a circuit, the opposition that circuit elements present alternating current. The
impedance includes both resistance and reactance.

38. What is meant by reactance?
REACTANCE (X): The opposition that a pure inductance or a pure capacitance provides to current in
an ac circuit.

39. Why filters are used?
You use filters at the output of a rectifier to smooth out the pulsating DC. With no filter, the output
would pulse between peak value (less diode forward drop) and zero.

40. How many filters are there?
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to
remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.
Electronic filters can be:
passive or active
analog or digital
high-pass, low-pass, bandpass, band-reject (band reject; notch), or all-pass.
discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
linear or non-linear
infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)

41. Draw input and output wave form of HWR.








42. How many types of diodes are present?