CPT1: Computing Fundamentals

117
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
1.9 HARDWARE

Components of the processor


Candidates should be able to:
34. Describe the function and purpose of the control unit, memory
unit and ALU (arithmetic logic unit) as individual parts of a
computer.

Control Unit
The Control Unit manages the execution of instructions by fetching them from memory, then
decoding and executing them one at a time.

Memory unit
The memory unit is where the data and instructions are held so that they can be accessed by the
processor.

The memory unit stores:
the parts of the operating system that are currently in use;
the parts of the application programs that are currently in use;
the data files that are currently in use.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The Arithmetic Logic Unit performs the arithmetic and logical operations on the data.

The ALU performs, for example, addition and subtraction, and logic operations such as AND, and
OR.

CPT1: Computing Fundamentals

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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Registers


Candidates should be able to:
35. Explain the need for, and use of, registers in the functioning of
the processor (Program Counter, Memory Address Register,
Memory Data Register, Current Instruction Register and
Accumulator).

A register is a small area of memory, within the processor itself, where data or control information
is temporarily stored.

Registers are used because transferring data to and from a register is much quicker than transferring
the data between the processor and main memory.

Special purpose registers
A processor will consist of special purpose and general purpose registers. The common special
purpose registers are as follows:
Accumulator (AX)
This accumulator is used as a temporary store for the result of the last arithmetic or logical
operation.
Program Counter (PC)
This program counter holds the address of the next instruction that will be fetched from main
memory.
Memory Data Register (MDR)
Also known as the Memory Buffer Register (MBR), this register contains the data/instruction that is
currently being copied from/to main memory.
Memory Address Register (MAR)
This register contains the memory location of the data or instruction that is being transferred
between the CPU and main memory (or another component).
Current Instruction Register/Instruction Register (CIR/IR)
This register holds the current instruction while it is being decoded and executed.

CPT1: Computing Fundamentals
119
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
System bus


Candidates should be able to:
36. Explain the need for, and describe the use of, buses to convey
information (Data, Address and Control buses).

The System bus is a set of parallel lines that connect the internal components of a computer.

The system bus is comprises of three separate elements:
address bus;
data bus;
control bus.

Address bus
The address bus is the set of parallel lines that carries the memory address (location) of where data
is to be read from or written to.

The address bus is a one-way bus in that the addresses are always provided by the processor.
A wide address bus is necessary if large amounts of memory need to be used.



To address 16 Mbytes of memory the address bus must have at least 24 lines (2
24
= 16 Meg!)

CPT1: Computing Fundamentals

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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Data bus
The data bus is the set of parallel lines that carry the program instructions and data between the
internal components such as CPU and the main memory, or main memory and secondary storage.

This is a two-way bus in that the data can be transferred in either direction from the CPU to main
memory, or from main memory to the CPU.
A wide data bus allows data to be transmitted quickly and is an important factor in determining the
overall speed of a computer.

The diagram below shows that a 32-bit bus transmits data four times as fast as an 8-bit data bus:



Control bus
The control bus is the set of parallel lines that carries control signals that provide status
information and controls the flow of data.

Note that the control bus is two-way although some of the lines are only one way!
Signals carried on the control bus
The control bus will carry signals for the following:
status indicates whether data is to be read or written;
timing ensures that the data transfers are kept in sync.;
transfer acknowledgement confirming that a data transfer was successful;
interrupt both interrupt request and acknowledgement.



CPT1: Computing Fundamentals
121
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Connectivity of devices


Candidates should be able to:
37. Describe the connectivity of devices (methods of hard wiring,
and wireless connections).
Hard wiring
Connecting computers as a network
Although wireless connections are becoming more popular, the most common method used to
connect computers together is still to use cable.
The standard types of cable are:
Coaxial similar to the cable that links an antenna to a television. It carries an electric
signal down a single, central wire. This type of cabling is not used very much any more.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) effectively telephone cable, but of better quality and with
8 wires. This is the most common type of cable to use with Local Area Networks and can
transmit data at speeds of up to 100 Mbps.
Fibre-optic the same cable as is used for cable television. This type of cable consists of a
very thin strand of glass, or plastic, that is completely surrounded by glass, or plastic, of a
different density. This allows a pulse of light to bounce down the cable. When travelling
along fibre-optic cable, the data literally travels at the speed of light!

Connecting computers and peripherals
The two modern ways of connecting a peripheral to a computer is to use USB or FireWire:
USB (universal serial bus) this is the most common way of connecting peripherals (such
as printers, scanners and digital cameras) to your computer. USB originally allowed data to
be transferred at 12 Mbps, but in its latest form (known as USB2) it can transfer data at
speeds of up to 480 Mbps.
FireWire (also known as i-link or 1394) a fast way of connecting a peripheral device to
your PC. It is usually used with Digital Camcorders and external HDDs. Speeds of up to 800
Mbps can be achieved with FireWire 2.


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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Wireless
Wireless media do not use an electrical or optical conductor. In most cases the earths atmosphere is
the physical path for the data. The common types of wireless media that transmit data use electro-
magnetic waves and are:
Radio waves the distances that can be covered by radio waves are dependent upon the
frequency, but can be hundreds of miles.
Microwaves these are transmitted at much higher frequencies than radio waves and will
provide better performance. Satellite dishes are often used with microwave transmission
where communication can be directly between two systems within the same geographical
area or it can make use of a satellite in geosynchronous orbit 50 000 km above the earth.
Infrared this uses invisible infrared light to transmit the data. Most household remote
controls (used with televisions and videos, etc.) use infrared transmissions. Infrared
transmissions are either point-to-point or they can be reflected off walls and ceilings; they
cannot travel more than a few metres and they cannot pass through walls.

Diagram showing the range of electromagnetic waves that can be used to transmit data:


Bluetooth
Bluetooth is one of the latest radio technologies that enables devices such as computers, mobile
phones, hands-free kits and other peripherals to be connected without cables up to 30 feet away.
Like many modern wireless devices (including portable phones and wireless computers) it uses
waves with a frequency of 2.4 GHz.

CPT1: Computing Fundamentals
123
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Network topologies

Topology refers to the way in which computers and other networked devices are interconnected it
describes the physical layout of the cables and interconnecting devices.

The three most basic topologies are the bus, ring and star.
Bus
A bus topology is one in which the nodes are connected by a single cable and the data is transmitted
in both directions along the cable, to all the nodes.

This means that all the nodes receive all transmitted data. An Ethernet bus (the most common type
of local area network) can have a maximum length of 185 metres and a maximum of 30 nodes.
Note that there must be terminators at either end of the cable preventing the signals being
reflected back down the cable.



The advantages of a bus network are:
it is quick and inexpensive to install (single length of cable);
additional computers can be added easily (up to the maximum of 30).

The disadvantages are:
a cable fault will affect the whole network;
network performance degrades under a heavy load (maximum computers on an Ethernet bus
is 30).

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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Ring
A ring network is one in which the nodes are linked in a closed loop and the data is transmitted in a
single direction around the loop.



There are Repeaters at each node to boost the data signals as they pass around the ring. The use of
repeaters allows a ring network to cover larger distances than other types of local area network, and
if using optical fibre cable, ring networks can span a distance of up to 100 kilometres. The first
implementation of this type of network was the Cambridge Ring, which is shown below. Now the
most important implementation is the IBM token ring.
The advantages of a ring topology are:
there is no dependence on a central computer each node can handle data transmission to
and from itself;
very high transmission rates are possible;
transmission of messages around the ring is relatively simple and avoids collisions because
the transmission is in only one direction.

The disadvantages are:
if one node breaks down, transmission between the other nodes might be disrupted;
extending an existing ring can be difficult because of the rewiring required.
not very secure because data travels all the way around the ring and so there are plenty of
opportunities for messages to be intercepted.

Note that the first two disadvantages are overcome with a Token-Ring implementation.
CPT1: Computing Fundamentals
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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Star
A star topology is one in which each node is connected directly to a central hub using its own,
dedicated cable, with all communications between workstations go through this hub.



This was originally the configuration for IBM mainframe systems, when dumb or semi-dumb
terminals were linked to a central computer. It is now the most common topology used within
LANs and many WANs.
It is usual, but not essential, to have one or more servers connected to the hub. In these server-based
networks, most of the communication is between workstations and a server.
The advantages of a star topology are:
if there is a cable fault only one node is affected;
the data transmission rate can vary on each link allowing old and new computers to
communicate with each other;
there is greater security of transmissions if a switch is used as the hub;
cabling faults are easy to locate because the hubs usually use LEDs to indicate working
connections;

The disadvantages of a star network are:
hub failure affects all users although local processing can still take in some systems;
cabling can be difficult individual cables must go between each computer and the hub
this can add to the installation time and cost.


CPT1: Computing Fundamentals

126
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Primary memory


Candidates should be able to:
38. Describe the differences between types of primary memory and
explain their uses.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
ROM is computer memory, which contains pre-recorded data that can be read, but not modified or
deleted.

Note that:
with most ROM chips, the information is burnt in during manufacture..
ROM is non-volatile and so retains its contents when the power is removed.

The uses of ROM are to store:
the bootstrap loader within most personal computers the bootstrap loader is the first
program that is executed at start-up and its job is to load the operating system;
fonts within laser printers;
the character pattern memory this is the pattern of pixels that are lit up for each text
character, when a command-line interface is being used.

RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is the main memory of the computer, which can be both read and written to.

Note that:
any part of RAM can be accessed at any time by using its memory address, rather than
having to access it sequentially, from the beginning;
RAM is volatile its contents are lost when the computer is turned off;
computers have more RAM than ROM.

The uses of RAM are to store:
the parts of the operating system that are currently in use the operating system needs to be
stored here so that it can be updated with newer versions;
the parts of the application programs that are currently in use;
the data files that are currently in use.


CPT1: Computing Fundamentals
127
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Secondary storage (backing store/auxiliary memory)


Candidates should be able to:
39. Describe the basic features, advantages, disadvantages and
uses of secondary storage media.

Secondary storage is the non-volatile, long-term store for programs and data that are not currently
in use.

Secondary storage is needed because:
main memory is volatile contents are lost when the power is turned off;
main memory is finite cannot store everything.

Measurement of storage
The common units to measure storage capacity are:
Bytes
Kilobytes (1024 bytes)
Megabytes (1024 Kilobytes)
Gigabytes (1024 Megabytes)
Terabytes (1024 Gigabytes)

Types of Media
Secondary storage can either be magnetic, optical or electronic (although it is usually magnetic) and
the most common secondary storage device in a computer is the hard disk.

Magnetic Media Optical Media Electronic Media
Floppy Diskette CD-ROM Memory cards/sticks (for
games and cameras)
Hard disk drive (HDD) CD-R USB pens
Zip disk CD-RW
Tape/DAT DVD
Blu-Ray

CPT1: Computing Fundamentals

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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Magnetic media
Magnetic media are tapes or disks that are coated with iron oxide (or similar magnetic material).
The iron oxide particles are aligned by a read/write head so that all particles that represent a 1 bit
point in one direction and all particles that represent a 0 point in the perpendicular direction.
Floppy diskette
Floppy diskettes (usually called floppy disks) consist of a thin sheet of
magnetic coated plastic encased in a hard plastic casing typically of 7 cm square.
Most floppy diskettes are of the High Density type and have a capacity of
1.44Mb.
A diskette used to be the standard for transferring very small files from one
computer to another. It was also used as a boot up disk if a hard disk became corrupted. Floppy
disks are now effectively redundant due to their small capacity, slow access speeds and lack of
reliability.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
All standalone PCs come equipped with an in-built
hard disk, the capacity of which is nowadays
measured in gigabytes. A new PC typically has a
200+ Gbyte disk. The hard disk is used for storing
software including the operating system, other
systems software, application programs and the data-
files.
Magnetic disks require formatting before use. This is
essentially a process of marking out the surface into
usable areas in a way that allows the disk drive to
find its way about the medium when reading and
writing at a later time.
Hard drives have a very fast transfer rate.
Zip Disks
A zip drives is similar to floppy drives in that the individual disks are removable. The individual
disks, however, have a much larger capacity zip disks are made with capacities of either 100 or
250 Mbytes.
Tapes and Cartridges
Digital Audio Tapes (DAT) (cartridges) are sealed units similar to an audio cassette. The main use
of DAT are to hold backup-up copies of hard disks within medium to large organisations they can
store 1os of gigabytes of data.
Note that data on tape is stored sequentially i.e. a tape is read/written from beginning to end.
This is okay for writing the data, but it can take a long time to access specific data that you may
want recovered.
CPT1: Computing Fundamentals
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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Optical media
Optical media, such as CD-ROM and DVD, use a laser to detect pits (holes) in a disk the
existence if a pit represents a 1 and the non-existence of a pit represents a 0.
CD-ROM
These disks are the same size as audio CDs and are read by
a laser in the same way. On CD-ROMs the data cannot be
changed. Access is slower than a hard disk because the spin
speed is slower. A CD-ROM can store about 700 Mbytes of
data. They are used in situations where the data does not
age quickly. Examples include encyclopaedias, large
catalogues and telephone directories. Software is usually
supplied on CD-ROM.
CD-R (Recordable)
Sometimes called WORM disks (Write Once Read Many)
CD-Rs allow the user to write onto the surface of a CD-
ROM. This can only be done once since the surface is
permanently changed during the writing process. The
resulting disc can be read by a normal CD ROM drive. CD-
Rs are useful for archiving data or for small-scale CD-
ROM production. Capacity varies slightly between two
different standards CD-R74 and CD-R80. The former can
hold 74 minutes of audio and 650 Mbytes of computer data
while the latter holds 80minutes of audio or 700 Mbytes of
computer data.
CD-RW (Re-writable)
Re-writable CDs are used in a similar way to CD-Rs, but their surface is not permanently changed
when data is written to it. This means that data can be deleted and space on the disk is freed. CD-
RWs contain a crystalline compound that is made up of silver, indium, antimony and tellurium
metals. When this compound is heated and cooled slowly, it becomes reflective to light. When the
compound is heated to a hotter temperature and then cooled quickly, it become absorbent to light
the absorbent areas are the equivalent of the pits on a standard CD. The laser that is used within
CD-rewriters has three intensities one to make the crystalline compound reflective, one to make
the compound absorbent and the third, low intensity setting is used for reading data.
Digital versatile disk (DVD)
Originally referred to as digital video disks, DVDs have gradually replaced CD drives in computers.
DVDs are exactly the same size and thickness as a standard CD, but the tracks are much closer
together and the pits are much smaller. DVDs can store data on both sides of the disk although, in
most DVD drives, they need to be physically removed and flipped over for the second side to be
read.
Magneto-Optical Storage
Note that some devices are classed
as magneto-optical. These are disks
that have a magnetic surface that can
only be magnetised when heated to
about 200C. A laser beam is used to
heat a spot on the surface that is then
magnetised to record the data. The
direction of magnetisation affects the
light reflecting off the surface, so the
data can be read optically. These
devices provide about 125 megabytes
of storage on a disc the same size as
a floppy. They can be used for
backup and archiving data and for
transferring data from one system to
another. In addition to their vastly
increased storage space compared to
a floppy disk, they have the
advantage that the data stored is less
vulnerable to stray magnetic fields
and temperature effects since the
surface of the disc must be heated
before the data can be changed.
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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
As well as storing data on both sides, DVD can also store data within two layers on each side and
this gives rise to four different standards of DVD:

Number of sides Number of layers Capacity
1 1 4.7 Gb
1 2 8.5 Gb
2 1 9.4 Gb
2 2 17 Gb

As writable DVD drives have become more readily available, these have started to replace
videotapes (although it is also common to use recording equipment containing a hard disk). DVDs
can store up to 17 Gbytes of data this allows up to eight hours of video to be stored on one small
disk.
There are several advantages of recording onto DVD as opposed to magnetic tape:
Disks can be randomly accessed the user can move to any part of a film easily;
DVDs store the data digitally the quality of the images or sound does not deteriorate with
constant use;
The digital storage allows the images and sound to be much higher quality than tape.

Electronic flash media
Electronic media use millions of electronic switches to store data.

Memory cards and sticks
These are typically used to add extra storage in cameras, mobile phones and games consoles (most
of these devices have some built-in memory). This technology has developed rapidly over the last
7/8 years and this has led to a variety of different shapes and sizes of memory card, each being
developed for a specific purpose.

USB flash drives
These are the most recent development in file storage. They are small devices with built-in memory
cards. They can plug into the USB port of a computer and they function as a portable hard drive.
They have the advantage over portable hard disk drives in that they have no moving parts and are
therefore much more suitable for carrying around. Their disadvantage is that their capacity is much
smaller a maximum of about 8 gigabytes at present.
These devices are known by many names including: flash drives; USB pens; USB keys and simply
as USB drives.
CPT1: Computing Fundamentals
131
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Secondary storage summary
Magnetic media
Media Capacity Speed
Price
[2008]
Uses
Floppy Disk 1.44 Mb V Slow
VERY RARE NOW.
Backing up small amounts of data eg word
processing files.
Zip Disk 100/250 Mb Medium
VERY RARE NOW.
Backing up work on a home computer
Hard Disk > 200 Gb Fast 40
Storage of operating system, application
programs and user produced data-files.
Tape/DAT > 70 Gb V Slow
Backing up large amounts of data eg on a
network file server.

Optical media
Media Capacity Speed
Price
[2008]
Uses
CD-ROM 650/700 Mb Medium 30p each Distribution of commercial software
CD-R/RW 650/700 Mb Medium 50p each
Backing/archiving up work and software on a
home computer.
DVD 4.7 17 Gb Quite fast
Distribution of software particularly ones
that contain a lot of multimedia and videos;
backing up files on the hard disk
DVD-R/RW 4.7 9.4 Gb Quite fast
Backing/archiving up work and software on a
home computer.
Blu-ray 25 100+ Gb ?? Distribution of High Definition movies

Electronic media
Media Capacity Speed
Price
[2008]
Uses
Flash Card ! 8+ Gb Quite fast
Storing digital images (from a digital camera);
Storing contact details and diary information
(mobile phone).
USB Pens ! 8+ Gb Quite fast
Transferring files from one computer to
another;
Backing up personal files.


CPT1: Computing Fundamentals

132
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Buffers and interrupts


Candidates should be able to:
40. Describe the transfer of data between different devices and
primary memory, including the uses of buffers and interrupts.
Buffer
A buffer is an area of memory between two components/devices into which data is temporarily
stored during data transfers between components/devices that operate at different speeds.

Peripheral devices operate at slower speeds than the processor. To allow for these speed differences
a buffer needs to be used.



The buffer may be built into the I/O controller of the computer or of the peripheral device (or both!)

Interrupt
An interrupt is a signal from a device to the processor, to indicate that it wants attention.

Transferring/sending data to a printer
When a document is printed, it is first spooled to the hard disk and added to the print queue. When
it is the documents turn to be printed the following process is repeated:
the print buffer is filled;
the buffer is then emptied to the printer;
when the buffer is empty (or nearly empty), an interrupt is sent to processor;
this requests the buffer to be refilled.

Note that when the buffer is being emptied, the processor can continue with other tasks.