COASTAL BLUE CARBON

methods for assessing carbon stocks and emissions factors

in mangroves, tidal salt marshes, and seagrass meadows
Coordinators of the International Blue Carbon Initiative
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FRONT COVER: KElTH A. E||ENBOGEN; BACK COVER: TROND |ARSEN, Ol
COASTAL BLUE CARBON
methods for assessing carbon stocks and emissions factors
in mangroves, tidal salt marshes, and seagrass meadows
2
EDITORS
Jenn|fer Howard - Oonservat|on lnternat|ona|
Sarah Hoyt - Duke n|vers|ty
K|rsten lsensee - lntergovernmenta| Oceanograph|c Oomm|ss|on of NESOO
Em||y P|dgeon - Oonservat|on lnternat|ona|
Mac|ej Te|szewsk| - lnst|tute of Oceano|ogy of Po||sh Academy of Sc|ences
LEAD AUTHORS
James Fourqurean - F|or|da lnternat|ona| n|vers|ty
Bever|y Johnson - Bates Oo||ege
J. Boone Kaufman - Oregon State n|vers|ty
H||ary Kennedy - n|vers|ty of Bangor
Oather|ne |ove|ock - n|vers|ty of Oueens|and
J. Patr|ck Megon|ga| - Sm|thson|an Env|ronmenta| Research Oenter
Abdu||ha (Fa|z} Rahman - n|vers|ty of Texas-Pan Amer|can
Ne|| Sa|nt||an - New South Wa|es Ofce of Env|ronment and Her|tage, Austra||a
Marc S|mard - Jet Propu|s|on |aboratory, Oa||forn|a lnst|tute of Techno|ogy
CO-AUTHORS
Dan|e| M. A|ong| - Austra||an lnst|tute of Mar|ne Sc|ence
M|gue| O|fuentes - Trop|ca| Agr|cu|tura| Research and H|gher Educat|on Oenter (OATlE}
Margareth Oopert|no - Federa| n|vers|ty Foundat|on of R|o Grande (FRG}
Steve Orooks - Env|ronmenta| Sc|ence Assoc|ates
Oar|os Duarte - Med|terranean lnst|tute for Advanced Stud|es (lMEDEA, OSlO-lB} and
the n|vers|ty of Western Austra||a
lg|no Emmer - S||vestrum
M|gue| Fortes - n|vers|ty of the Ph|||pp|nes
Ohandra G|r| - S Geo|og|ca| Survey
Dorothee Herr - lnternat|ona| n|on for Oonservat|on of Nature
Andreas Hutahaean - Agency for Research and Deve|opment of Mar|ne and F|sher|es
James Ka|ro - Kenya Mar|ne and F|sher|es Research lnst|tute
Dan|e| |afo|ey - lnternat|ona| n|on for Oonservat|on of Nature
Nur|a Marb - Med|terranean lnst|tute for Advanced Stud|es (lMEDEA, OSlO-lB}
James Morr|s - n|vers|ty of South Oaro||na
Dan|e| Murd|yarso - Oenter for lnternat|ona| Forestry Research
Marco Ouesada - Oonservat|on lnternat|ona|
Peter Ra|ph - n|vers|ty of Techno|ogy Sydney
Oscar Serano - Ed|th Oowan n|vers|ty and the n|vers|ty of Western Austra||a
Jorge |u|s va|des - lntergovernmenta| Oceanograph|c Oomm|ss|on of NESOO
Tonny Wagey - M|n|stry of Mar|ne Afa|rs and F|sher|es, lndones|a
SUGGESTED CITATION
Howard, J., Hoyt, S., lsensee, K., Te|szewsk|, M., P|dgeon, E. (eds.} (2014}. Ooasta| B|ue Oarbon:
Methods for assess|ng carbon stocks and em|ss|ons factors |n mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes,
and seagrasses. Oonservat|on lnternat|ona|, lntergovernmenta| Oceanograph|c Oomm|ss|on of
NESOO, lnternat|ona| n|on for Oonservat|on of Nature. Ar||ngton, v|rg|n|a, SA.
(SPO/OC/BRO/2014/5)
3
STEVE CROOKS, ESA
CONTENTS
15 Chapter 1 - Why Measure Oarbon Stocks
25 Chapter 2 - Oonceptua||z|ng the Project and Deve|op|ng a F|e|d Measurement P|an
39 Chapter 3 - F|e|d Samp||ng of So|| Oarbon Poo|s |n Ooasta| Ecosystems
67 Chapter 4 - F|e|d Samp||ng of vegetat|ve Oarbon Poo|s |n Ooasta| Ecosystems
109 Chapter 5 - How to Est|mate Oarbon D|ox|de Em|ss|ons
123 Chapter 6 - Remote Sens|ng and Mapp|ng
137 Chapter 7 - Data Management
145 Appendices
173 References
4
FIGURE LIST
Figure 1.1 B|ue carbon ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 1.2 T|da| sa|t marsh so|| samp|e, Beaufort, NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 1.3 Mechan|sms by wh|ch carbon moves |nto and out of coasta| wet|ands . . 20
Figure 2.1 Steps to prepar|ng a measurement p|an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 2.2 Examp|e of mangrove strat|fcat|on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 2.3 Oarbon poo|s |n mangrove ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 2.4 Oarbon poo|s |n t|da| sa|t marsh ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 2.5 Oarbon poo|s |n seagrass ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 2.6 P|ot |ocat|on strateg|es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 2.7 P|ot nest|ng and c|uster|ng des|gns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 3.1 Mean carbon storage |n the above- and be|owground b|omass |n . . . . . . 40
coasta| vegetat|ve ecosystems versus terrestr|a| forest
Figure 3.2 Examp|es of organ|c and m|nera| so|| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 3.3 Equ|pment typ|ca||y needed for fe|d co||ect|ons of so|| carbon . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 3.4 Measur|ng so|| depth w|th a so|| depth probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 3.5 Samp||ng a so|| core us|ng a so|| auger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 3.6 Seagrass cor|ng dev|ces. PvO tubes, rubber stopper, and syr|nge . . . . . . 46
Figure 3.7 A demonstrat|on of method used to dr|ve core |nto so|| |n . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
seagrass meadows
Figure 3.8 Set up for core samp||ng |n seagrass ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 3.9 D|agram of so|| core compact|on that can occur wh||e samp||ng . . . . . . . . 48
Figure 3.10 So|| core ||ner that has been cut |engthw|se to expose the so|| . . . . . . . . . 49
for arch|v|ng and subsamp||ng
Figure 3.11 Examp|es of cores from water saturated/|oose so|| types . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 3.12 Oores are co||ected us|ng a corer w|th predr|||ed samp||ng ports. . . . . . . . 51
Figure 3.13 A|ternat|ve core samp||ng strateg|es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Figure 3.14 Oore sub-samp||ng strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 3.15 Oo||ect|on of so|| samp|es from open-face auger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 3.16 Samp|es are each p|aced |n |nd|v|dua|, numbered conta|ners . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 3.17 Remova| of samp|e from syr|nge and prepar|ng |t for oven dry|ng . . . . . . . 55
Figure 3.18 So|| samp|e coo||ng to room temperature |n des|ccator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 3.19 Bu|k dens|ty of cores from t|da| sa|t marsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 3.20 Dec|s|on tree to determ|n|ng wh|ch method |s best for ca|cu|at|ng . . . . . . 57
the organ|c carbon component of so||
Figure 3.21 Gr|nd|ng and homogen|zat|on of a so|| samp|e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 3.22 Ohromatogram resu|ts from a OHN ana|yzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5
Figure 3.23 Prepar|ng a dr|ed samp|e for OHN ana|ys|s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 3.24 Testing for carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 4.1 O|ass|fcat|on of mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 4.2 He|ght d|ferences among mangrove vegetat|on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 4.3 P|ot sca|e depends on the component be|ng assessed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 4.4 Est|mat|ng d|ameter at breast he|ght for |rregu|ar mangrove trees . . . . . . . 73
Figure 4.5 Oompar|son of tree b|omass est|mates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 4.6 F|e|d measurement techn|ques for dwarf mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 4.7 Examp|es of dead tree decay status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 4.8 ||anas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 4.9 Examp|es of pa|m p|ants found |n mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 4.10 Pneumatophores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 4.11 Pre-|abe||ed p|ast|c bags conta|n|ng ||tter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 4.12 Downed wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4.13 Examp|es of woody debr|s transcect strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 4.14 Examp|e of a wood debr|s transect for samp||ng downed wood . . . . . . . . 88
|n mangroves us|ng the ||ne |ntersect techn|que
Figure 4.15 Sa|t marsh abundance by mar|ne ecoreg|on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Figure 4.16 Zonat|on of sa|t marsh vegetat|on |n herb dom|nated systems . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 4.17 Recommended P|acement of samp||ng p|ots |n t|da| sa|t marshes . . . . . . 93
Figure 4.18 Measur|ng stem he|ght and w|dth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 4.19 A||ometr|c equat|ons between stem b|omass and he|ght . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 4.20 F|e|d measurement techn|ques for shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 4.21 T|da| sa|t marsh |eaf ||tter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 4.22 Examp|es of common seagrass spec|es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 4.23 B|omass samp||ng/cor|ng |n seagrass meadows |n Oeara, Braz|| . . . . . . 102
Figure 4.24 Above and be|owground b|omass for R. maritime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 4.25 Ep|phytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 4.26 Ep|phyte remova| and process|ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figure 5.1 Estab||sh|ng a reference datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 5.2 Efect of accret|on and eros|on on so|| samp|es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 5.3 D|agram of a Surface E|evat|on Tab|e (SET} marker hor|zon (MH} . . . . . . 113
method used to detect changes |n so|| surface e|evat|on
Figure 5.4 D|agram of how carbon |osses may be accounted for where . . . . . . . . . 115
the soil surface has subsided or been eroded
Figure 5.5 D|agram of stat|c chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 5.6 Proport|on of OH
4
gas |n a fux chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6
Figure 6.1 Efect of p|xe| s|ze on the v|sua| appearance of an area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 6.2 Examp|e |mage from |ANDSAT-8 data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Figure 6.3 Examp|e |mage from MODlS data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Figure 6.4 Examp|e of a fa|se|y co|ored |mage from SRTM e|evat|on data . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 6.5 Examp|e lmage from PA|SAR data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Figure 6.6 Steps for process|ng remot|y sensed |mages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 6.7 G|oba| d|str|but|on of mangroves prepared us|ng |andsat sate|||te . . . . . 134
data at 30 m spat|a| reso|ut|on of year 2000
Figure 7.1 Photo po|nt mon|tor|ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 7.2 Examp|e of a data sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure D1 The re|at|onsh|p of organ|c matter ca|cu|ated v|a |oss on |gn|t|on . . . . . . 161
to carbon concentrat|on (percent} ca|cu|ated v|a dry combust|on
for mangrove so|| samp|es from the repub||c of Pa|au
Figure D2 The re|at|onsh|p of organ|c matter (% |Ol} w|th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
organ|c carbon (% OO} for t|da| sa|t marsh samp|es |n Ma|ne
Figure D3 The re|at|onsh|p of organ|c matter (% |Ol} w|th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
organ|c carbon (% OO} for seagrasses
7
TABLE LIST
Table 1.1 T|ers that may be used to assess carbon em|ss|on factors . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 1.2 Mean and range va|ues of organ|c carbon stocks (b|omass and so||} . . . . 23
for mangrove, t|da| sa|t marsh, and seagrass ecosystems and
CO
2
equ|va|ents
Table 3.1 Equ|pment typ|ca||y needed for fe|d co||ect|ons of so|| carbon . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 3.2 Soil coring devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 3.3 Oompar|son of |aboratory techn|ques to determ|ne percent . . . . . . . . . . . 57
organic carbon
Table 3.4 Determ|n|ng % lnorgan|c carbon by ac|d|fcat|on method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 3.5 Determ|n|ng % lnorgan|c carbon by e|ementa| ana|ys|s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 3.6 Determ|n|ng % |Ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 3.7 Re|at|onsh|p between % |Ol and % O
org
for the d|ferent ecosystems . . . . 63
Table 4.1 Wood dens|ty of mangrove spec|es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 4.2 A||ometr|c equat|ons for comput|ng b|omass of mangrove trees . . . . . . . . 76
where on|y parameters of d|ameter (dbh} and wood dens|ty are used
Table 4.3 A||ometr|c equat|ons for comput|ng b|omass of mangrove trees . . . . . . . . 77
where parameters of d|ameter (dbh} and he|ght are used for
spec|es spec|fc equat|ons, and d|ameter and wood dens|ty
are used for genera| equat|on
Table 4.4 The wood dens|ty and mean d|ameter of the standard wood debr|s . . . . . 81
s|ze c|asses of downed mangrove wood
Table 4.5 Oommon|y used s|ze c|asses of wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Table 4.6 The wood dens|ty and mean d|ameter of the standard wood s|ze . . . . . . 89
c|asses of downed mangrove forests
Table 4.7 Equat|ons to pred|ct be|owground root and rh|zome b|omass on . . . . . . . 97
the bas|s of aboveground b|omass
Table 4.8 Oarbon stocks for a range of seagrass beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 5.1 Examp|e of how to determ|ne mo|es of gas mo|ecu|es w|th|n . . . . . . . . . 121
a fux chamber
Table 6.1 Advantages and d|sadvantages of remote sens|ng techn|ques . . . . . . . . 125
Table 7.1 Examp|es of the types of data co||ected |n a typ|ca| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
coastal blue carbon project
8
ACRONYMS
A
AGEDl Abu Dhab| G|oba| Env|ronmenta| Data ln|t|at|ve
Arcv|ew ArcGlS for Desktop pages
Arc O|osed segment of a d|ferent|ab|e curve |n the two d|mens|ona| p|ane
ASF A|aska Sate|||te Fac|||ty
B
B B|omass
C
C Carbon
CaCO
3
Oa|c|um carbonate
ODM O|ean Deve|opment Mechan|sm
OGlAR Oonsu|tat|ve Group on lnternat|ona| Agr|cu|tura| Research
CH
4
Methane
OHN ana|yzer E|ementa| ana|yzer of ma|n|y carbon, hydrogen and n|trogen
Ol Oonfdence lnterva|
CI Conservation International
OlFOR Oenter for lnternat|ona| Forestry Research
CO
2
Oarbon D|ox|de
C
org
Organic Carbon
D
D
30
Ma|nstem d|ameter at 30 cm he|ght
DAAC NASAs Distributed Active Archive Center
D
base
Ma|nstem basa| d|ameter
DBD Dry Bu|k Dens|ty
dbh D|ameter at Breast He|ght
DEM Digital Elevation Maps
DIC Dissolved Inorganic Carbon
D
max
Ma|nstem max|mum d|ameter of samp|ed trees
D
top
Ma|nstem top d|ameter
E
EO Ed|th Oowan n|vers|ty Western Austra||a
eq|v Equ|va|ent
Eqn Equat|on
9
Equ|v Equ|va|ent
ESRl Env|ronmenta| Systems Research lnst|tute
Evl Enhanced vegetat|on lndex
F
Fl F|or|da lnternat|ona| n|vers|ty
FRG Fundao n|vers|dade Federa| do R|o Grande, Federa| n|vers|ty
Foundat|on of R|o Grande
G
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GlS Geograph|c lnformat|on System
G|AS Geosc|ence |aser A|t|meter System
GPS G|oba| Pos|t|on|ng System
H
H Hor|zonta| transverse waves
H Height
H Hydrogen
H
2
O
2
Hydrogen perox|de
HO| Hydrogen ch|or|de
HH Hor|zonta| transm|tt|ng, Hor|zonta| rece|v|ng waves
H
max
Max|mum He|ght
Hv Hor|zonta| transm|tt|ng, vert|ca| rece|v|ng waves
I
ICESat Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite
lD ldent|ty Document, ldent|fer
IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
lOO lntergovernmenta| Oceanograph|c Oomm|ss|on
lPOO lntergovernmenta| Pane| on O||mate Ohange
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
J
JAA Japan Aerospace Exp|orat|on Agency`s
K
KlOST Korea lnst|tute of Ocean Sc|ence and Techno|ogy
KKP Agency for Research and Deve|opment of Mar|ne and F|sher|es
(Ba|t|tbang KP}, lndones|a
10
L
|OOS n|ted Nat|on`s |and Oover O|ass|fca|ton System
|PDAAO |and Processes D|str|buted Act|ve Arch|ve Oenter
|n Natura| |ogar|thm
|Ol |oss on lgn|t|on
M
MH SET marker hor|zon
MODlS Moderate Reso|ut|on lmag|ng Spectrorad|ometer
N
n Number of subsamp|es
N Nitrogen
N
2
Dinitrogen
N
2
O N|trous ox|de
NASA Nat|ona| Aeronaut|cs and Space Adm|n|strat|on
ND No Data
NDvl Norma||zed D|ference vegetat|on lndex
NSlDO Nat|ona| Snow and lce Data Oenter
O
O Oxygen
OEH NSW Ofce of Env|ronment and Her|tage North South Wa|es
ORN| Oak R|dge Nat|ona| |aboratory
OS Oregon State n|vers|typage 20
P
p Wood dens|ty
PA|SAR Phased Array | band Synthet|c Aperture Radar
POA Pr|nc|pa| Oomponent Ana|ys|s
PvO Po|yv|ny| ch|or|de
Q
OMD Ouadrat|c Mean D|ameter
R
R
2
Ooefc|ent of determ|nat|on
RAE Restore Amer|can`s Estuar|es
11
REDD Reduc|ng Em|ss|ons from Deforestat|on and Forest Degradat|on
RFDl Radar Forest Degradat|on lndex
S
SAR Synthet|c aperture radar
SOBA Se|f Oonta|ned nderwater Breath|ng Apparatus
SD Standard Deviation
SERO Sm|thson|an Env|ronmenta| Research Oenter
SET Surface Elevation Table
SRTM Shutt|e Radar Topography M|ss|on
STS NASA`s Space Transportat|on System
SWBD SRTM Water Body Data
T
T Temperture
T
1
ln|t|a| Assessment
T
2
Subsequent Assessments
TanDEM TerraSAR add on for D|g|ta| E|evat|on Measurement
th Tree Height
U
NEP n|ted Nat|ons Env|ronment Programme
NESOO n|ted Nat|ons Educat|ona| Sc|ent|fc and Ou|tura| Organ|zat|on
USD United States dollar
SGS S Geo|og|ca| Survey
TS n|vers|ty of Techno|ogy Sydney
W n|vers|ty of W|scons|n, SA
WB Bangor n|vers|ty, Wa|es, K
V
v vert|ca| transverse waves
vOS ver|fed Oarbon Standard
vH vert|ca| transm|tt|ng, Hor|zonta| rece|v|ng waves
vl vegetat|on lndex
vv vert|ca| transm|tt|ng, vert|ca| rece|v|ng waves
W
WOMO Wor|d Oonservat|on Mon|tor|ng Oentre
W |ength of the p|ant canopy
12
UNITS LIST
atmos Atmosphere
C Degree Celsius
cm Oent|meter
cm
3
Oub|c cent|meter
e Eu|er`s number, approx. 2.71828
h Hour
ha Hectare
g Gram
K Kelvin
kg K||ogram
| ||ter
m Meter
m
2
Square meter
Mg Megagram
mg M||||gram
m|n M|nute
m| M||||||ter
mo| Mo|e
% Percent
n Mathemat|ca| constant, the rat|o of a c|rc|e`s c|rcumference to |ts d|ameter,
approx|mate|y equa| to 3.14159
$ Dollar
o Standard dev|at|on
t Metric ton
13
KEY WORDS
Active Remote Sensing - A remote-sens|ng system, such as radar, that produces
e|ectromagnet|c rad|at|on and measures |ts refect|on back from a surface.
Activity Data - Geograph|ca| data show|ng the types of |and coverage and use |n a g|ven area.
Allochthonous Carbon - Oarbon produced |n one |ocat|on and depos|ted |n another. ln
the context of b|ue carbon systems, th|s type of carbon resu|ts from the hydrodynam|c
env|ronment |n wh|ch they are found where sed|ments and assoc|ated carbon |s transported
from ne|ghbor|ng ecosystems (ofshore and terrestr|a|}.
Allometric Equations - A||ometr|c equat|ons estab||sh quant|tat|ve re|at|onsh|ps between
key character|st|cs that are easy to measure (|.e., stem he|ght/d|ameter} and other propert|es
that are often more d|fcu|t to assess (|.e., b|omass}.
Autochthonous Carbon - Oarbon produced and depos|ted |n the same |ocat|on. ln the
context of b|ue carbon systems, th|s type of carbon resu|ts from vegetat|on uptake of OO
2
from
the ocean and/or atmosphere that gets converted for use by p|ant t|ssue and decomposes
|nto the surround|ng so||.
Blue Carbon - The carbon stored |n mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes, and seagrass meadows
w|th|n the so||, the ||v|ng b|omass above ground (|eaves, branches, stems}, the ||v|ng b|omass
be|ow ground (roots}, an the non-||v|ng b|omass (||tter and dead wood}.
Carbon Inventory - A carbon |nventory |s an account|ng of carbon ga|ns and |osses em|tted
to or removed from the atmosphere/ocean over a per|od of t|me. Po||cy makers use |nventor|es
to estab||sh a base||ne for track|ng em|ss|on trends, deve|op|ng m|t|gat|on strateg|es and
policies, and assessing progress
Carbon Pool - Oarbon poo|s refer to carbon reservo|rs such as so||, vegetat|on, water, and the
atmosphere that absorb and re|ease carbon. Together carbon poo|s make up a carbon stock.
Carbon Stock - A carbon stock |s the tota| amount of organ|c carbon stored |n a b|ue carbon
ecosystem of a known s|ze. A carbon stock |s the sum of one or more carbon poo|s.
Emission Factors - A term used to descr|be changes |n the carbon content of a pre-defned
area due to change |n |and coverage and use (|.e., convers|on from mangroves to shr|mp
ponds} or changes w|th|n a |and use type (|.e., nutr|ent enr|chment of seagrass}.
Flux Method - Th|s method est|mates the GHG fux between the so|| and vegetat|on and the
atmosphere/water co|umn through d|rect measurements or by mode||ng and resu|ts |n T|er 2
and 3 est|mates.
Gain-loss Method - Th|s method est|mates the d|ference |n carbon stocks based on em|ss|ons
factors for spec|fc act|v|t|es (e.g., p|ant|ngs, dra|nage, rewett|ng, deforestat|on} der|ved from
the sc|ent|fc ||terature and country act|v|ty data and resu|ts |n T|er 1 and 2 est|mates.
Inorganic Soil Carbon - The term so|| |norgan|c carbon refers to the carbon component of
carbonates (|.e., ca|c|um carbonate} and can be found |n coasta| so||s |n the form of she||s
and/or p|eces of cora|.
14
IPCC Tiers - The lPOO has |dent|fed three t|ers of deta|| |n carbon |nventor|es that refect the
degrees of certa|nty or accuracy of a carbon stock |nventory (assessment}.
Tier 1 - T|er 1 assessments have the |east accuracy and certa|nty and are based on
s|mp||fed assumpt|ons and pub||shed lPOO defau|t va|ues for act|v|ty data and em|ss|ons
factors. T|er 1 assessments may have a |arge error range of +/- 50% for aboveground
poo|s and +/- 90% for the var|ab|e so|| carbon poo|s.
Tier 2 - T|er 2 assessments |nc|ude some country or s|te-spec|fc data and hence have
|ncreased accuracy and reso|ut|on. For examp|e, a country may know the mean carbon
stock for d|ferent ecosystem types w|th|n the country.
Tier 3 - T|er 3 assessments requ|re h|gh|y spec|fc data of the carbon stocks |n each
component ecosystem or |and use area, and repeated measurements of key carbon
stocks through t|me to prov|de est|mates of change or fux of carbon |nto or out of the area.
Est|mates of carbon fux can be prov|ded through d|rect fe|d measurements or by mode||ng.
Mangrove - A mangrove |s a tree, shrub, pa|m or ground fern, genera||y exceed|ng one ha|f
meter |n he|ght that norma||y grows above mean sea |eve| |n the |ntert|da| zone of mar|ne
coasta| env|ronments and estuar|ne marg|ns. A mangrove |s a|so the t|da| hab|tat compr|s|ng
such trees and shrubs.
Passive Remote Sensing - A remote-sens|ng system, such as an aer|a| photography
|mag|ng system, that on|y detects energy natura||y refected or em|tted by an object.
Resolution - ln remote sens|ng reso|ut|on of an |mage |s an |nd|cat|on of |ts potent|a| deta||,
where the sma||er the p|xe| the h|gher the deta||. ln other words, 250 meters reso|ut|on data
cou|d |dent|fy any earth|y feature that |s 250 meters by 250 meters (usefu| for mapp|ng
ecosystem extent}. H|gher reso|ut|on data, such as 30 meters can be used to mon|tor |n
more deta|| (usefu| for |dent|fy|ng encroachment by aquacu|ture}.
Seagrass Meadows - Seagrasses are fower|ng p|ants be|ong|ng to four p|ant fam|||es, a|| |n
the order A||smata|es, wh|ch grow |n mar|ne, fu||y sa||ne env|ronments. There are 12 genera
w|th some 58 spec|es known.
Soil Organic Carbon - The term so|| organ|c carbon refers to the carbon component of
the so|| organ|c matter. The amount of so|| organ|c carbon depends on so|| texture, c||mate,
vegetat|on and h|stor|ca| and current |and use/management.
Soil Organic Matter - The term so|| organ|c matter |s used to descr|be the organ|c const|tuents
|n the so|| (undecyed t|ssues from dead p|ants and an|ma|s, products produced as these
decompose and the so|| m|crob|a| b|omass}.
Stock Diherence Method - Th|s method est|mates the d|ference |n carbon stocks measured
at two po|nts |n t|me and resu|ts |n T|er 3 est|mates.
Stratication - A techn|que used to d|v|de |arge heterogeneous s|tes (wh|ch requ|re many
samp|es to account for var|at|on} |nto sma||er more homogeneous areas (where fewer samp|es
are needed} and |s a|so usefu| when fe|d cond|t|ons, |og|st|ca| |ssues, and resource ||m|tat|ons
prevent dense samp||ng reg|mes
Tidal Salt Marsh - A t|da| sa|t marsh |s a coasta| ecosystem |n the upper |ntert|da| zone
between |and and open sa|t water or brack|sh water that |s regu|ar|y fooded by the t|des. lt
|s dom|nated by dense stands of sa|t to|erant p|ants such as herbs, grasses, or |ow shrubs.
15
11
MIGUEL ANGEL MATEO
Why Measure Carbon Stocks
16
1
BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT
Ooasta| ecosystems are cr|t|ca| to ma|nta|n|ng human we||-be|ng and g|oba| b|od|vers|ty. ln
part|cu|ar, mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes, and seagrasses prov|de numerous benefts and
serv|ces that contr|bute to peop|e`s ab|||ty to m|t|gate and adapt to the |mpacts of c||mate
change (Fig. 1.1}. Many of these serv|ces are essent|a| for c||mate adaptat|on and res|||ence
a|ong coasts, |nc|ud|ng protect|on from storm surge and sea |eve| r|se, eros|on prevent|on
a|ong shore||nes, coasta| water qua||ty regu|at|on, nutr|ent recyc||ng, sed|ment trapp|ng,
hab|tat prov|s|on for numerous commerc|a||y |mportant and endangered mar|ne spec|es, and
food secur|ty for many coasta| commun|t|es around the wor|d (Kennedy 1984; Robertson &
A|ong| 1992; K|ng & |ester 1995; Hogarth 1999; Beck et al. 2001; Kath|resan & B|ngham
2001; Saenger 2002; Mumby 2006; Gedan et al. 2009; Barb|er et al. 2011; Sousa et al.
2012; Ou||en-nsworth & nsworth 2013}. ln add|t|on, these ecosystems he|p m|t|gate
c||mate change by sequester|ng and stor|ng s|gn|fcant amounts carbon, known as coasta|
b|ue carbon, from the atmosphere and oceans (Duarte et al. 2005; Bou|||on et al. 2008;
|o lacono et al. 2008; Duarte et al. 2010; Kennedy et al. 2010; Donato et al. 2011; Mc|eod
et al. 2011; Fourqurean et a|. 2012a; Pend|eton et al. 2012; Ohmura 2013; |avery et al. 2013}.
Desp|te the|r benefts and serv|ces, coasta| b|ue carbon ecosystems are some of the most
threatened ecosystems on earth, w|th an est|mated 340,000 to 980,000 hectares be|ng
destroyed each year (Murray et al. 2011}. A|though the|r h|stor|ca| extent |s d|fcu|t to determ|ne
due to dramat|c |osses wh|ch occurred before accurate mapp|ng was poss|b|e, |t |s est|mated
that up to 67% of the h|stor|ca| g|oba| mangrove range, 35% of t|da| sa|t marshes, and 29%
of seagrasses have been |ost. lf these trends cont|nue at current rates, a further 30-40% of
t|da| marshes and seagrasses and near|y a|| unprotected mangroves cou|d be |ost |n the next
100 years (Pend|eton et al. 2012}.
Figure 1.1 B|ue carbon ecosystems: mangroves (top |eft, Ster||ng Zumbrunn, Ol}, seagrasses (bottom |eft,
M|gue| Ange| Mateo}, and t|da| sa|t marshes (r|ght, Sarah Hoyt, Ol}
17
1
lncreas|ng|y, coasta| ecosystems are be|ng recogn|zed for the|r |mportant ro|e |n carbon
sequestrat|on and, when degraded, the|r potent|a| to become sources of carbon em|ss|ons.
Progress has been made to |nc|ude these systems |n |nternat|ona| and nat|ona| po||cy and
fnance mechan|sms, but fu|| |ntegrat|on of coasta| management act|v|t|es as part of countr|es`
portfo||o of so|ut|ons to m|t|gate c||mate change has not yet been rea||zed. Th|s opportun|ty to
|ncorporate coasta| b|ue carbon |nto po||c|es and management cou|d |ead to add|t|ona| coasta|
ecosystem conservat|on (restorat|on and protect|on} wor|dw|de, wh|ch wou|d preserve and
enhance the mu|t|p|e benefts these ecosystems prov|de to humans.
NEED FOR THE MANUAL
There |s a rap|d|y grow|ng body of sc|ent|fc know|edge on the d|rect and |nd|rect efects of c||mate
change and human deve|opment on coasta| ecosystems. lncreased attent|on |s be|ng pa|d to
mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes, and seagrasses for the|r carbon sequestrat|on capab|||t|es, as
we|| as other |mportant ecosystem serv|ces. lf proper|y p|anned and managed, coasta| b|ue
carbon cou|d funct|on as a potent|a| fund|ng mechan|sm for coasta| ecosystem conservat|on
and restorat|on. To ach|eve th|s goa|, managers need to be ab|e to assess carbon stocks
(tota| amount of carbon stored w|th|n a d|st|nct area} and mon|tor changes |n carbon stocks
and greenhouse gas (GHG} em|ss|ons over t|me. nt|| recent|y, coasta| ecosystem managers
and other stakeho|ders |nterested |n quant|fy|ng b|ue carbon have |acked pract|ca| too|s and
gu|dance to a||ow for proper carbon ana|yses. Th|s |s part|cu|ar|y true |n deve|op|ng countr|es
where there may be |arge data gaps and a |ack of techn|ca| and fnanc|a| resources to carry
out comp|ex ana|yses. New gu|de||nes and methodo|og|es have begun to emerge |n the |ast
few years, a|| of wh|ch refer to the need for |nternat|ona||y accepted measur|ng and mon|tor|ng
procedures for carbon account|ng (Append|x A: Add|t|ona| Gu|dance Documents}. Th|s gu|de
w||| prov|de managers, sc|ent|sts, and fe|d pract|t|oners w|th standard|zed recommendat|ons
and techn|ques for carbon measurement and ana|ys|s |n b|ue carbon systems and d|rect|y
support the assessment and account|ng of b|ue carbon g|oba||y.
OBJECTIVE OF THE MANUAL
The object|ve of th|s manua| |s to prov|de standard|zed methods for fe|d measurements and
ana|ys|s of b|ue carbon stocks and fux |n coasta| ecosystems. The manua| |s des|gned to
prov|de users w|th re|evant background |nformat|on on key concepts, and gu|de them |n a
step-by-step process, po|nt|ng out stages where expert adv|ce or add|t|ona| techn|ca| data
may be requ|red. The goa| |s to ut|||ze these assessments to support |mproved conservat|on
and restorat|on of coasta| ecosystems through var|ous management and po||cy approaches,
regu|atory frameworks, and part|c|pat|on |n vo|untary carbon markets.
WHO IS THE MANUAL FOR?
The manua| has been des|gned to be used by a w|de range of stakeho|ders, |nc|ud|ng natura|
resource managers, sc|ent|sts, commun|ty groups, and |oca| and nat|ona| government
agenc|es |nterested |n assess|ng b|ue carbon stocks. lt can be |mp|emented |n a range of
s|tuat|ons, w|th a focus on deve|op|ng country contexts, and can be ta||ored to the needs
of spec|fc areas accord|ng to resource ava||ab|||ty. The manua| has been des|gned for users
w|th |oca| know|edge about the system be|ng assessed, but w|thout necessar||y a deta||ed
techn|ca| know|edge of how to conduct b|ue carbon measurements.
18
1
MANUAL STRUCTURE
The manua| out||nes the rat|ona|e and project des|gn for measur|ng b|ue carbon |n the fe|d
and approaches for data ana|ys|s and report|ng. Efort was made to ensure cons|stency w|th
|nternat|ona| standards, the lntergovernmenta| Pane| on O||mate Ohange (lPOO} gu|de||nes,
and other re|evant sourcebooks.
The manua| |s structured as fo||ows:
Ohapter 1: lntroduces the ro|e of b|ue carbon |n c||mate change m|t|gat|on and out||nes the
manua|`s purpose and object|ves;
Ohapter 2: Out||nes the ma|n steps to prepare a robust fe|d measurement p|an;
Ohapter 3: Prov|des protoco|s and gu|dance for measur|ng organ|c carbon stocks found |n
the so||s of a|| three ecosystems;
Ohapter 4: Prov|des protoco|s and gu|dance for measur|ng organ|c carbon stocks, found
|n above- and be|owground b|omass, w|th spec|fc protoco|s des|gned for
each ecosystem;
Ohapter 5: H|gh||ghts methods for determ|n|ng the changes |n carbon stocks over t|me and
mon|tor|ng greenhouse gas em|ss|ons;
Ohapter 6: G|ves an overv|ew of remote sens|ng opt|ons and app||cat|ons;
Ohapter 7: Prov|des gu|dance on manag|ng |arge data sets and data shar|ng; and
Append|ces: There are severa| append|ces; they conta|n supp|ementary |nformat|on, worked
through examp|es, ||sts of equat|ons, and more.
WHAT IS BLUE CARBON
B|ue carbon |s the carbon stored |n mangroves, sa|t t|da| marshes, and seagrass meadows
w|th|n the so||, the ||v|ng b|omass aboveground (|eaves, branches, stems}, the ||v|ng b|omass
be|owground (roots}, and the non-||v|ng b|omass (e.g., ||tter and dead wood} (Mc|eod et al.
2011}. S|m||ar to the carbon stored |n terrestr|a| ecosystems, b|ue carbon |s sequestered
|n ||v|ng p|ant b|omass for re|at|ve|y short t|me sca|es (years to decades}. n||ke terrestr|a|
ecosystems, carbon sequestered |n coasta| so||s can be extens|ve and rema|n trapped for
very |ong per|ods of t|me (centur|es to m|||enn|a} resu|t|ng |n very |arge carbon stocks (Duarte
et al. 2005; |o lacono et al. 2008}. The d|ference |n so|| carbon accumu|at|on |n terrestr|a|
versus coasta| systems |s that potent|a| carbon storage |n up|and so||s |s ||m|ted by h|gh
ava||ab|||ty of oxygen, a||ow|ng for aerob|c m|crob|a| carbon ox|dat|on and re|ease back |nto
the atmosphere (Sch|es|nger & ||chter 2001}. ln b|ue carbon systems, however, the so|| |s
saturated w|th water keep|ng |t |n an anaerob|c state (|ow to no oxygen}, and |t cont|nua||y
accretes vert|ca||y at h|gh rates resu|t|ng |n cont|nuous bu||d-up of carbon over t|me (Ohmura
et al. 2003}. Some of the |argest examp|es of carbon stocks |n coasta| sed|ments |nc|ude
the Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows |n Port|||gat Bay, Spa|n, and mangroves |n Be||ze
wh|ch have accreted carbon-r|ch so||s more than 10 meters th|ck and are more than 6,000
years o|d (McKee et al. 2007; |o lacono et al. 2008; Serrano et a|. 2014}. S|m||ar|y, t|da| sa|t
marsh sed|ments |n northern New Eng|and are 3-5 meters th|ck, 3,000-4,000 years o|d, and
are composed of up to 40% organ|c carbon (Johnson et al. 2007}.
19
1
The carbon found |n b|ue carbon ecosystems can be c|ass|fed as e|ther autochthonous or
a||ochthonous and depend|ng on the project, may need to be assessed separate|y (M|dde|burg
et al. 1997; Kennedy et al. 2010}.
+ Autochthonous Carbon: Th|s type of carbon |s produced and depos|ted |n the same |ocat|on.
P|ants remove carbon d|ox|de (OO
2
} from the atmosphere/ocean through photosynthes|s
(pr|mary product|on} and convert |t for use by p|ant t|ssue (such as |eaves, stems, roots/
rh|zomes} to |ncrease p|ant b|omass. A |arge port|on of p|ant b|omass |s a||ocated to the
roots where |t decomposes very s|ow|y |n anaerob|c cond|t|ons, thus stor|ng the carbon
w|th|n the sed|ments (Fig. 1.2) (Middelburg et al. 1997; Kennedy et al. 2010}.
+ Allochthonous Carbon: Th|s type of carbon |s produced |n one |ocat|on and depos|ted |n
another. B|ue carbon ecosystems ex|st |n very hydrodynam|ca||y act|ve sett|ngs; they are
constant|y battered by waves, t|des, and coasta| currents that transport sed|ments and
assoc|ated organ|c carbon from adjacent ecosystems (ofshore or terrestr|a|}. The p|ants
found |n these systems have comp|ex root structures and canop|es that are efc|ent at
trapp|ng sed|ment as |t moves through the system, add|ng to the |oca| carbon stock as a
result (Fig. 1.2}.
The rat|o of carbon or|g|nat|ng w|th|n the ecosystem to that trapped from externa| sources
var|es between b|ue carbon systems. ln seagrass meadows, an est|mated 50% of carbon
stored |n so||s can be of externa| or|g|n (a||ochthonous} (Kennedy et al. 2010}, wh||e most of
the sequestered carbon |n mangrove and t|da| sa|t marsh systems |s d|rect|y produced by
the p|ants w|th|n the system (autochthonous} (M|dd|eton & McKee 2001}. However, |n some
sett|ngs there are s|gn|fcant a||ochthonous contr|but|ons found |n mangroves and marshes,
der|ved from adjacent terrestr|a| or mar|ne ecosystems (M|dde|burg et al. 1997; Bou|||on et al.
2003; Adame et al. 2012}.
Figure 1.2 T|da| sa|t marsh so|| samp|e, Beaufort, NO ( Jenn|fer Howard, Ol}
20
1
WHY MANAGE FOR BLUE CARBON
G|oba||y, numerous po||c|es, coasta| management strateg|es, and too|s des|gned for conserv|ng
and restor|ng coasta| ecosystems have been deve|oped and |mp|emented. Po||c|es and
fnance mechan|sms be|ng deve|oped for c||mate change m|t|gat|on may ofer an add|t|ona|
route for efect|ve coasta| management. B|ue carbon now ofers the poss|b|||ty to mob|||ze
add|t|ona| funds and revenue by comb|n|ng best-pract|ces |n coasta| management w|th c||mate
change m|t|gat|on goa|s and needs.
Mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes, and seagrasses are under h|gh |eve|s of pressure from coasta|
deve|opment and |and-use change (A|ong| 2002; Gedan et al. 2009; Sa|nt||an et al. 2009;
Waycott et al. 2009}. When vegetat|on |s removed and the |and |s e|ther dra|ned or dredged
for econom|c deve|opment, (e.g., mangrove forest c|ear|ng for shr|mp ponds, dra|n|ng of t|da|
marshes for agr|cu|ture, and dredg|ng |n seagrass beds-a|| common act|v|t|es |n the coasta|
zones of the wor|d}, the sed|ments become exposed to the atmosphere or water co|umn
resu|t|ng |n the carbon stored |n the sed|ment bond|ng w|th the oxygen |n the a|r to form OO
2

and other GHG that get re|eased |nto the atmosphere and ocean (Yu & Ohmura 2009; |oom|s
& Oraft 2010; Donato et al. 2011; Kaufman et al. 2011; |ove|ock et al. 2011; Ray et al. 2011;
Oa||away et al. 2012; Fourqurean et al. 2012a} (Fig. 1.3}. Not on|y do these act|v|t|es resu|t |n
CO
2
em|ss|ons but they a|so resu|t |n |osses of b|od|vers|ty and cr|t|ca| ecosystem serv|ces.
Ooasta| b|ue carbon ecosystems ofer coasta| protect|on through wave attenuat|on and
eros|on prevent|on (K|ng & |ester 1995; Gedan et al. 2011}. These serv|ces are a|ready
recogn|zed as a v|ta| funct|on of mangroves (Mazda et al. 1997; Masse| et al. 1999; Mclvor
et al. 2012a; Mclvor et al. 2012b}, but they ga|ned more prom|nence |n the aftermath of the
December 2004 lnd|an Ocean tsunam| (Dan|e|sen et al. 2005; Kath|resan & Rajendran 2005;
A|ong| 2008}, the November 2013 typhoon Ha|yan that h|t the Ph|||pp|nes (Gross 2014}, and
other recent destruct|ve cyc|ones and hurr|canes (T|bbetts 2006; W||||ams et al. 2007; Das &
v|ncent 2009}. These systems a|so regu|ate water qua||ty, serve as cr|t|ca| hab|tats for many
fsh and she||fsh spec|es, prov|de wood and other products to |oca| popu|at|ons, and host
Emissions: Carbon is lost back to the atmosphere
through respiration or through oxidation as a result of
land-use change (e.g., conversion to fish ponds)
Autochthonous Carbon: Most of the sequestered carbon is
stored in the soil, which is frequently, if not always, covered by
tidal waters. This oxygen-poor environment causes plant minerals
to break down very slowly, resulting in significant carbon storage.
Sequestration: Carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and oceans is taken in by
plants during photosynthesis.
Allochthonous Carbon:
Carbon can also enter the
system from far away,
usually via runoff up stream
and/or inundation by
marine waters
CO
2
CO
2
CO
2
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Figure 1.3 Mechan|sms by wh|ch carbon moves |nto and out of t|da| wet|ands
21
1
a d|verse array of rare and endangered spec|es (va||e|a & Tea| 1979; Beck et al. 2001; Duke
et al. 2007; FAO 2007; Barb|er et al. 2011; Ou||en-nsworth & nsworth 2013}. They are a
source of nutr|ents to adjacent ecosystems, prov|de she|tered ||v|ng space for econom|ca||y
|mportant spec|es, and are va|ued for aesthet|cs and ecotour|sm (Barb|er et al. 2011}.
Wh||e th|s manua| |s focused on the eva|uat|on of carbon stocks as a too| for conservat|on
of coasta| vegetated ecosystems, |t |s |mportant to remember that act|ons to conserve the
carbon stocks a|so ensure the preservat|on of these and other cr|t|ca| ecosystem serv|ces.
KNOWLEDGE GAPS
Desp|te the wea|th of research that has been conducted, know|edge gaps st||| ex|st. Oont|nued
work |n the areas out||ned be|ow w||| he|p to further refne current est|mates and eva|uat|ons.
Geographical extent: Wh||e mangroves are fa|r|y we|| mapped, |arge areas conta|n|ng
seagrass meadows rema|n |arge|y unsurveyed, (e.g., Southeast As|a, eastern and western
South Amer|ca and the west coast of Afr|ca}. S|m||ar|y, the g|oba| extent of t|da| sa|t marsh
and rates of marsh and seagrass meadow |oss are current|y undocumented.
Sequestration and storage: ||m|ted data are ava||ab|e |n the sc|ent|fc ||terature on
the carbon sequestrat|on and storage rates of b|ue carbon ecosystems |n Afr|ca, South
Amer|ca, and Southeast As|a.
Emissions and removals: Add|t|ona| mapp|ng of converted, and degraded and revegetated
b|ue carbon ecosystems and the quant|fcat|on of em|ss|ons from exposed organ|c so||s,
and from d|sturbed or degraded seagrass meadows as we|| as quant|fcat|on of remova|s
to restored coasta| ecosystems, |s needed to enab|e |nc|us|on |n re|evant databases
(e.g., the lPOO Em|ss|on Factor Database}.
Human drivers: Em|ss|on rates assoc|ated w|th spec|fc human act|v|t|es over t|me for var|ous
dr|vers of ecosystem degradat|on, or |oss (e.g., dra|nage, burn|ng, harvest|ng, or c|ear|ng of
vegetat|on at d|ferent |ntens|ty |eve|s} are ||m|ted at the moment, espec|a||y for seagrasses.
Remova| rates to restored coasta| ecosystems are a|so current|y |ack|ng.
Coastal Erosion: A s|gn|fcant amount of eroded coasta| carbon |s thought to be d|sso|ved
|n the ocean water where |t enters the ocean-atmosphere system. The rema|n|ng eroded
carbon |s depos|ted |n ofshore sed|ments and sequestered. The fate of carbon eroded
from b|ue carbon ecosystems |s an ongo|ng top|c of sc|ent|fc research.
BLUE CARBON INVENTORIES
To exp||c|t|y address the ro|e of b|ue carbon ecosystems |n c||mate change m|t|gat|on and
human we||be|ng through po||cy, regu|atory, fnance, or other mechan|sms, the carbon stock
|n these ecosystems and the ex|st|ng or potent|a| carbon em|ss|ons resu|t|ng from changes
to those ecosystems must be quant|fed. Th|s process |s referred to as creat|ng a carbon
|nventory. Oarbon |nventor|es can be undertaken at s|te-|eve|, reg|ona|, nat|ona|, and g|oba|
sca|es. Spec|fc examp|es of act|v|t|es that requ|re a b|ue carbon |nventory |nc|ude quant|fy|ng
the tota| GHG em|ss|ons that resu|t from |and use changes, and est|mat|ng the avo|ded
carbon em|ss|ons and the resu|t|ng c||mate change m|t|gat|on potent|a| of a g|ven coasta|
conservat|on project or act|v|ty.
22
1
Oreat|ng a carbon |nventory for a g|ven area requ|res understand|ng 1} the past and present
d|str|but|on of coasta| vegetated ecosystems ||nked to the human uses of the area, 2} the
current carbon stock w|th|n the project area and rate of carbon accrua|, and 3} the potent|a|
carbon em|ss|ons that w||| resu|t from expected or potent|a| changes to the |andscape.
Oarbon em|ss|ons are norma||y expressed |n megagrams (Mg} or metr|c tons
1
of carbon
(O} per hectare (ha}, for a g|ven change |n |and use |n a g|ven t|me frame. Resu|ts can a|so
be reported in tons of CO
2
per ha. To convert Mg O/ha to Mg OO
2
/ha, mu|t|p|y the Mg O/ha
by 3.67 (the mo|ar rat|o of OO
2
to O}. OO
2
equ|va|ents (equ|v} per hectare |s a metr|c used to
express carbon em|ss|ons produced by non-OO
2
em|ss|ons (e.g., methane} and a||ows for
comparab|||ty between GHG.
The lPOO gu|de||nes |dent|fed 'act|v|ty data" and 'em|ss|on factors" as be|ng requ|red to
ca|cu|ate the carbon em|ss|ons or remova|s for a g|ven area. Those two d|st|nct types of data
are descr|bed here:
Activity data: Th|s term refers to geograph|ca| data show|ng the types of |and coverage
and use |n a g|ven area such as pr|st|ne mangrove forest, degraded t|da| marsh, agr|cu|tura|
|and, grass|and, or aquacu|ture ponds. These data a|so |nc|ude the expected rates of
change |n |and uses over t|me-for examp|e the rate of convers|on of mangrove areas to
shr|mp ponds. Remote sens|ng |s common|y used to c|ass|fy |and-use types and to track
changes between d|ferent |and uses over t|me. However, add|t|ona| fe|d assessments and
mapp|ng are often necessary, espec|a||y |n coasta| env|ronments where accurate remote
|mag|ng may be cha||eng|ng (Ohapter 6: Remote sens|ng methods}.
Emission factors: Em|ss|on factors: Th|s term refers to changes (|oss or ga|n of carbon}
the |nvest|gated area that has resu|ted from changes |n |and coverage and use (e.g., |oss of
carbon due to convers|on of mangrove to aquacu|ture, and t|da| marsh to agr|cu|tura| |and
or ga|n of carbon through revegetat|on or restorat|on of coasta| ecosystems. Pos|t|ve va|ues
for em|ss|on factors |nd|cate |oss of carbon from b|omass and so||, to the atmosphere
and negat|ve va|ues |nd|cate remova| of carbon from the atmosphere to the b|omass and
so|| (sequestrat|on}. Accurate quant|fcat|on of em|ss|on factors requ|res ground-based
measurements of ecosystem carbon stocks and the|r change over t|me, (Ohapters 3:
Genera| pr|nc|p|es of fe|d samp||ng so|| carbon poo|s and Ohapter 4: Genera| Pr|nc|p|es of
fe|d samp||ng vegetat|ve carbon poo|s for re|evant methods for measur|ng carbon stocks |n
mangroves, t|da| marshes, and seagrasses meadows} or d|rect measurement of how much
carbon |s em|tted or sequestered over t|me (Ohapter 5}.
TIERS OF DETAIL IN CARBON INVENTORIES
There |s a c|ear need to a||gn methods w|th |nternat|ona| standards such as those descr|bed
by the lPOO`s 2013 Supp|ement to the 2006 lPOO Gu|de||nes for Nat|ona| Greenhouse Gas
lnventor|es: Wet|ands (lPOO 2013} and other re|evant sourcebooks. Accord|ng to the lPOO,
carbon |nventor|es can be ach|eved at var|ous |eve|s of deta|| or certa|nty, often determ|ned by
the purpose of the |nventory and the resources ava||ab|e. The lPOO has |dent|fed three t|ers
of deta|| |n carbon |nventor|es that refect the degrees of certa|nty or accuracy of a carbon
stock |nventory (or assessment} (Table 1.1}.
1 A metr|c ton |s the same as a mega gram (Mg} or 1,000,000 grams.
23
1
The methods descr|bed |n th|s manua| are re|evant to ach|ev|ng the h|ghest |eve| of assessment
of carbon stocks |n ecosystems-T|er 3. The lPOO recommends that countr|es asp|re for T|er
3 for the measurement of key carbon stocks/sources/s|nks. However, T|er 3 assessments
are more cost|y to |mp|ement, requ|re h|gher |eve|s of techn|ca| resources and capac|ty, and
are not a|ways poss|b|e.
Table 1.1 T|ers that may be used to assess carbon em|ss|on factors (GOFO-GO|D 2009}.
TIER REQUIREMENTS COMMENTS
1 lPOO defau|t factors T|er 1 assessments have the |east accuracy and certa|nty
and are based on s|mp||fed assumpt|ons and pub||shed
lPOO defau|t va|ues for act|v|ty data and em|ss|ons factors.
T|er 1 assessments may have a |arge error range of +/- 50%
for aboveground poo|s and +/- 90% for the var|ab|e so||
carbon poo|s.
2 Oountry-spec|fc data for
key factors
T|er 2 assessments |nc|ude some country or s|te-spec|fc
data and hence have |ncreased accuracy and reso|ut|on.
For examp|e, a country may know the mean carbon stock
for d|ferent ecosystem types w|th|n the country.
3 Deta||ed |nventory of
key carbon stocks,
repeated measurements
of key stocks through
t|me or mode|||ng
T|er 3 assessments requ|re h|gh|y spec|fc data of the carbon
stocks |n each component ecosystem or |and use area, and
repeated measurements of key carbon stocks through t|me
to prov|de est|mates of change or fux of carbon |nto or out
of the area. Est|mates of carbon fux can be prov|ded through
d|rect fe|d measurements or by mode|||ng.
GLOBAL BLUE CARBON STOCKS
When T|er 2 or 3 est|mates are not poss|b|e, T|er 1 est|mates can be performed. The g|oba||y
averaged est|mates, shown |n Table 1.2, can be used to g|ve a T|er 1 est|mate of carbon
stocks w|th|n any g|ven area |f s|te-spec|fc data does not ex|st. They are based on g|oba||y
averaged carbon stock est|mates for mangroves, t|da| marshes, and seagrass meadows
accord|ng to current ||terature. However, these est|mates have a h|gh degree of uncerta|nty.
Table 1.2 Mean and range va|ues of so|| organ|c carbon stocks (to 1 m depth} for mangrove, t|da| marsh, and
seagrass ecosystems and OO
2
equ|va|ents. Examp|es of how carbon |s d|str|buted amongst the d|ferent ecosystems
and the var|at|on w|th|n each ecosystem (lPOO 2013}
ECOSYSTEM
CARBON STOCK
Mg/ha
RANGE
Mg/ha CO
2
Mequiv/ha
Mangrove 386 55 - 1376 1415
T|da| sa|t marsh 255 16 - 623 935
Seagrass 108 10 - 829 396
A T|er 1 assessment of a carbon stock w|th|n a project area can be ach|eved by mu|t|p|y|ng
the area of an ecosystem by the mean carbon stock for that ecosystem type.
24
1
FOR EXAMPLE
Ouest|ons be|ng asked:
How much carbon |s stored |n the b|omass and top 1 m of so|| |n 564 hectares of mangrove
forests on your project s|te?
And how does that re|ate to OO
2
em|ss|ons |f a|| the organ|c carbon |n the upper 1 m of
sed|ment |s ox|d|zed to carbon d|ox|de?
Tota| Oarbon (MgO/ha} * Area (ha} = T|er 1 tota| carbon stock for the project s|te (Mg}
Where Tota| Oarbon = the mean carbon stock for a g|ven ecosystem (from Table 1.2)
Area = the area of the ecosystem be|ng |nvest|gated
/|swe| |o ||e /|s| q0es||o|
3c5 /C/|a ` 551 |a = 217,701 / o/ S|0e Ca|oo| || ||e s|0d, a|ea
Total potential CO
2
em|ss|ons per hectare (Mg OO
2
/ha} = Oonvers|on factor for the OO
2
that
can be produced from the carbon present |n the system * carbon |n the system
Oonvers|on factor = 3.67, the rat|o of the mo|ecu|ar we|ghts of OO
2
(44} and carbon (12}
Oarbon |n the system = the mean carbon stock for a g|ven ecosystem
/|swe| |o ||e seco|d q0es||o|
217,701 / o/ S|0e Ca|oo| ` 3.57 = 79c,971 / CO
2
|| ||e s|0d, a|ea
CONCLUSION
Th|s manua| prov|des spec|fc |nstruct|ons for the fe|d co||ect|on and |aboratory ana|ys|s of
carbon poo|s |n mangrove, t|da| sa|t marsh, and seagrass systems and some add|t|ona|
gu|dance for measur|ng GHG em|ss|ons, such as OO
2
and methane, wh|ch may be appropr|ate
for some projects. Depend|ng on the |eve| of deta|| and the accuracy of the measurements
used, th|s manua| shou|d be ab|e to prov|de est|mates that meet the lPOO standards for
T|ers 2 and 3. lt shou|d be noted that the techn|ca| aspects of quant|fy|ng coasta| ecosystem
carbon and remova|s descr|bed |n th|s gu|de are on|y one of severa| e|ements of comp|ete
carbon account|ng. Other |mportant e|ements |nc|ud|ng soc|a|, po||t|ca|, and econom|c
factors-for examp|e, address|ng permanence, |eakage, and governance-are not covered
here. Defn|t|ons and |nformat|on on those top|cs can be found |n the lPOO gu|de||nes (lPOO
2007} and assoc|ated sourcebooks (GOFO-GO|D 2009}.
25
2
JOHN MARTIN, CI
Conceptualizing the Project and
Developing a Field Measurement Plan
26
2
MEASURING CARBON STOCKS VS.
CARBON POOLS
A ca|oo| s|oc| |s the amount of organ|c carbon (O
org
} stored |n a b|ue carbon ecosystem,
typ|ca||y reported as megagrams of organ|c carbon per hectare (Mg O
org
/ha} over a spec|fed
so|| depth. These stocks are determ|ned by add|ng a|| re|evant carbon poo|s w|th|n the
|nvest|gated area. Re|ated|y, ca|oo| ooo|s are reservoirs such as soil, vegetation, the ocean,
and atmosphere that store and re|ease carbon. Re|evant b|ue carbon poo|s |nc|ude:
+ The ||v|ng aboveground b|omass, pr|mar||y herbaceous (for seagrass and t|da| sa|t marsh}
and woody (for mangroves} p|ant mass. Th|s b|omass a|so |nc|udes ep|phyt|c organ|sms
(e.g., a|gae and m|crobes ||v|ng on the ma|n p|ants}.
+ The dead aboveground b|omass, pr|mar||y |eaf detr|tus (|n a|| three ecosystems} or wood
(|n mangroves}, and other organ|c debr|s such as macro-a|gae.
+ The ||v|ng be|owground b|omass dom|nated by roots and rh|zomes.
+ The be|owground carbon compr|sed of dead p|ant t|ssues and so|| organ|c matter
('autochthonous` and 'a||ochthonous` carbon}.
Oarbon poo|s |n b|ue carbon ecosystems are further d|ferent|ated |nto short-term poo|s
(e.g., preva|||ng |ess than 50 years, e.g., ||v|ng b|omass} and |ong-term poo|s (e.g., preva|||ng
for centur|es or m|||enn|a, e.g., so|| organ|c carbon}. For b|ue carbon purposes, |ong-term
carbon poo|s are the most |mportant for determ|n|ng carbon m|t|gat|on potent|a| (lPOO 2007;
Kyoto Protoco| 1998}.
CARBON STOCK ASSESSMENTS
Dur|ng p|ann|ng, a project`s end goa| must be c|ear|y defned as th|s w||| |nfuence both the
des|gn and execut|on of the assessment process. A c|ear end goa| d|ctates geograph|c areas
to |nc|ude, carbon poo|s to measure, the |eve| of spec|fc|ty requ|red, and the need/t|me sca|e
for future reassessment. Moreover, the ava||ab|e resources must be cons|dered to max|m|ze
the project`s cost efect|veness.
The p|ann|ng process has four essent|a| e|ements:
1} Ooncept|on;
2} Oarbon poo| fe|d samp||ng;
3} Samp|e preparat|on and |aboratory ana|ys|s; and
4} Oa|cu|at|ons for sca||ng up carbon stocks to the project area.
Oonceptua||z|ng the project |s d|scussed |n deta|| |n th|s chapter. Deta||ed descr|pt|ons of
the approaches and techn|ques requ|red for fe|d samp||ng of carbon poo|s and the spec|fc
|aboratory techn|ques for ana|yz|ng each poo| are presented |n Ohapter 3 (Genera| Pr|nc|p|es
of F|e|d Samp||ng of So|| Oarbon Poo|s |n Ooasta| Ecosystems} and Ohapter 4 (Genera|
Pr|nc|p|es of F|e|d Samp||ng of vegetat|ve Oarbon Poo|s |n Ooasta| Ecosystems}. Remote
sens|ng opt|ons that may |nform fe|d s|te |ocat|on and sca||ng up of resu|ts are presented |n
Ohapter 6 (Remote Sens|ng and Mapp|ng}.
27
2
The approaches out||ned here represent best pract|ces based on the |atest peer-rev|ewed
research. However, project managers are encouraged to exp|ore the ||terature and choose
the best method for the|r project or they may choose to adapt these methods accord|ng to
the|r |oca| know|edge, tra|n|ng, resource constra|nts or other data co||ect|on needs, or the
evo|v|ng nature of lPOO and re|ated sourcebook gu|de||nes.
CONCEPTUALIZING THE PROJECT
The ma|n steps needed to prepare a robust fe|d measurement p|an are summar|zed |n
Fig. 2.1. Each step shou|d be taken |n a cons|stent, we||-just|fed and we||-documented
manner. Wh||e Pearson et al. (2007} prov|des gu|dance on project des|gn for terrestr|a| forests,
much of the d|scuss|on |s app||cab|e to b|ue carbon ecosystems and, consequent|y, h|gh|y
|nfuenced the recommendat|ons be|ow.
Dene the Project Boundaries
Determ|n|ng the project`s spat|a| boundar|es w||| depend on |ts scope and object|ves. Project
areas may range from a s|ng|e s|te (tens of hectares} to nat|ona|-sca|e assessments (hundreds
of thousands of hectares}. They may conta|n ecosystems that have been degraded or
converted. The project area may be one cont|guous b|ock of |and, or cons|st of many sma||
patches of |and spread over a w|de area. Once the boundar|es have been determ|ned, every
efort shou|d be made not to change them; however, |f changes are unavo|dab|e, they must
be we||-documented, and any est|mates of tota| carbon stock or carbon stock change must
be adjusted to refect the change |n area.
Once the project |ocat|on and sca|e have been dec|ded, the next step |s to map the area. Maps
a||ow fe|d teams to opt|m|ze the|r campa|gn by se|ect|ng |ocat|ons for samp||ng that max|m|ze
geophys|ca| range as we|| as env|ronmenta| and b|ophys|ca| var|ab|es w|th|n the area. Maps
can a|so be used to ver|fy access|b|||ty through roads, t|da| channe|s, and r|vers. Start|ng w|th
thorough and accurate mapp|ng |s va|uab|e not on|y for determ|n|ng where to samp|e, but
a|so for extrapo|at|ng carbon measurements from |nd|v|dua| samp|es to |arge sca|e project
s|tes. lf future reassessments are ant|c|pated, an accurate |n|t|a| map of the area w||| be v|ta|
for determ|n|ng changes to the carbon stock and ecosystem serv|ces. Topograph|c, |and
use, so||, and vegetat|on maps, as we|| as aer|a| photographs may be acqu|red from |oca|
government agenc|es and used to d|scern project boundar|es w|th vary|ng accuracy. Sate|||te
|mages and remote sens|ng techn|ques are very usefu| |n mapp|ng b|ue carbon ecosystems
and for gather|ng |nformat|on about the ecosystem more genera||y. Deta||ed |nformat|on on
remote sens|ng can be found |n Ohapter 6 (Remote Sens|ng and Mapp|ng}.
Figure 2.1 Steps to prepar|ng a measurement p|an
Step 1
Define project
boundaries
Step 2
Stratify project
area
Step 3
Decide which
carbon pools
to measure
Step 4
Determine
type, number,
and location of
measurement
plots
Step 5
Determine
measurement
frequency
28
2
Stratifying the Project Area
Strat|fcat|on |s used to d|v|de |arge heterogeneous s|tes (wh|ch requ|re many samp|es to
account for var|at|on} |nto sma||er more homogeneous areas (where fewer samp|es are
needed} and |s a|so usefu| when fe|d cond|t|ons, |og|st|ca| |ssues, and resource ||m|tat|ons
prevent dense samp||ng reg|mes (Fig. 2.2}. Strat|fcat|on d|v|des the project area |nto sub-
areas or 'strata" that are re|at|ve|y eco|og|ca||y homogenous (e.g., spec|es d|vers|ty and
geomorpho|ogy}. Many too|s ex|st to ass|st |n strat|fcat|on |nc|ud|ng |oca| know|edge, sate|||te
|magery, and geograph|c |nformat|on systems.
Strat|fcat|on shou|d be carr|ed out such that the cr|ter|a used to defne the strata are re|ated to
the var|ab|e be|ng measured. For our purposes, the ma|n var|ab|e be|ng measured |s carbon;
thus, the features that |nfuence the b|ue carbon content are used to determ|ne the strata for
a project area. B|ue carbon stocks are |arge|y |nfuenced by var|at|on |n vegetat|ve spec|es
and vegetat|ve dens|ty. For examp|e, mangroves conta|n ta|| forest, dwarf mangrove, shrub
forests, and nypa pa|m (a|so somet|mes known as N|pa, ^,oa /|0||ca|s}; t|da| sa|t marshes
cons|st of grass, shrub, and reed growth forms; and seagrass spec|es vary accord|ng to
water depths. These var|at|ons can gu|de strata de||neat|on. Other factors that may be used
to defne strata |nc|ude:
1} Ex|st|ng |and use (t|da| sa|t marsh areas be|ng used for agr|cu|tura| purposes};
2} Potent|a| |and use (areas vu|nerab|e to convers|on for aquacu|ture or deve|opment};
3} var|at|ons |n so|| character|st|cs (so|| depth or type, or sed|ment gra|n-s|ze};
4} Geomorpho|og|ca| features (prox|m|ty to geo|og|c features, dra|nage features}; and
5} Prox|m|ty to the ocean (areas t|da||y fooded da||y or areas on|y fooded at the h|ghest
h|gh t|des}.
Strata 1
Seaward fringe
Strata 2
Rhizophora
dominated
Strata 3
Scrub
forest
Strata 4
Tidal Salt
marsh
Freshwater marsh
Terrestrial vegetation
100 m
Figure 2.2 Examp|e of mangrove strat|fcat|on ( Boone Kaufman, OS}
29
2
Wh||e strat|fcat|on |s used to reduce the number of samp|es that are needed and |ncrease
carbon stock est|mate accuracy, |t |s |mportant to note that strat|fy|ng us|ng str|ct cr|ter|a
that create many sma|| strata (that a|| need to be samp|ed} or converse|y us|ng |oose cr|ter|a
that create on|y a coup|e |arge strata (where some var|at|on w||| be m|ssed} negates th|s
advantage. The strata s|ze and number shou|d be a ba|ance between accuracy des|red, t|me
requ|red, and resources ava||ab|e.
Decide Which Carbon Pools to Measure
Each stratum estab||shed |n the project area w||| usua||y conta|n more than one carbon poo|.
The project purpose and object|ve w||| determ|ne wh|ch carbon poo|s w|th|n each stratum
to measure. Not a|| poo|s w||| be s|gn|fcant or requ|re quant|fcat|on for a|| projects. Projects
may choose not to account for one or more carbon poo|s |f they can prove that they w||| not
s|gn|fcant|y change the assessment resu|ts, but |t |s a|ways better to measure a|| carbon
poo|s |n at |east a few representat|ve samp||ng s|tes.
ln genera|, a carbon poo| shou|d be measured:
+ lf |t |s a s|gn|fcant port|on (e.g., > 5%} of the tota| carbon |n the stratum;
+ lf |t |s ||ke|y to or has changed s|gn|fcant|y (e|ther natura||y due to c||mate change and
extreme weather or due to human |mpacts such as |and-use change or dredg|ng}; or
+ lf the carbon poo| |s unknown
Sma|| carbon poo|s or those un||ke|y to be afected by change may be exc|uded or samp|ed
|ess frequent|y depend|ng on the project budget and other constra|nts. ln most b|ue carbon
systems, soil carbon is by far the dominant carbon pool. However, |t |s usua||y necessary
to measure add|t|ona| carbon poo|s |n order to conform to requ|rements for carbon project
cert|fcat|on. For examp|e, both nat|ona| carbon account|ng and carbon market projects
requ|re four bas|c carbon poo| measurements: aboveground ||v|ng b|omass (e.g., trees,
grass, shrubs}, aboveground dead b|omass (e.g., |eaf ||tter, downed wood}, be|owground
||v|ng b|omass (e.g., roots and rh|zomes}, and so|| carbon.
ln a|| three hab|tats, |t |s common to have vegetat|on and sed|ment that has trave|ed from
surround|ng hab|tats to the project s|te. For examp|e, seagrass beds w||| often have a few
mangrove propagu|es and |eaves, and seagrass |eaves are common |n mangroves and t|da|
sa|t marsh sed|ments. Organ|c matter der|ved from terrestr|a| up|ands can a|so be transported
to and |ncorporated w|th|n b|ue carbon ecosystems. ln most cases, th|s a||octhonous organ|c
mater|a| does not make up a s|gn|fcant proport|on of the tota| ecosystem b|omass and can
be |gnored. However, |f the a||octhonous mater|a| present |s s|gn|fcant (> 5%}, |t can be
c|ass|fed as |ts own poo| and quant|fed d|rect|y. ln some cases a||octhonous organ|c carbon
present |n the so|| poo| can be quant|fed us|ng stab|e |sotopes, but th|s may not be pract|ca|
in all areas or needed for all projects (Johnson et al. 2007}.
30
2
MANGROVE CARBON POOLS
S|m||ar to most terrestr|a| forest ecosystems, mangroves can be rough|y d|v|ded |nto four
carbon pools (Fig. 2.3}:
+ Aboveground ||v|ng b|omass (trees, scrub trees, ||anas, pa|ms, pneumatophores};
+ Aboveground dead b|omass (||tter, downed wood, dead trees};
+ Be|owground ||v|ng b|omass (roots and rh|zomes}; and
+ So|| carbon wh|ch |nc|udes the dead be|ow-ground b|omass.
ln mangroves, a|| trees are |nc|uded |n the assessment because they are a |arge carbon poo|
(up to 21% of the carbon stock}, are re|at|ve|y easy to measure (due to we|| documented
a||ometr|c equat|ons that convert p|ant b|omass to carbon content}, and are heav||y afected
by |and use. Dead wood can be an |mportant poo| (2.5-5.0% of the carbon stock}, but may
be espec|a||y |mportant fo||ow|ng d|sturbances such as |and-use act|v|t|es or trop|ca| storms
(Kaufman & Oo|e 2010}. The ||ve root component (5-15% of the tota| be|owground carbon
stock} |s d|fcu|t to measure, but some a||ometr|c equat|ons do ex|st (Ohapter 4}. Non-tree
vegetat|on and |eaf ||tter are usua||y m|nor ecosystem components and often can be exc|uded
from measurements w|thout comprom|s|ng the accuracy.
B|ue carbon |s most|y stored be|owground |n organ|c-r|ch so||s many meters deep where |t
can rema|n for very |ong t|mes (up to m|||enn|a}. The |arge s|ze of these be|owground poo|s
and the|r poor|y understood vu|nerab|||ty to |and-use change makes the|r measurement
extreme|y |mportant.
Figure 2.3 Oarbon poo|s |n mangrove ecosystems
Aboveground
living biomass
Aboveground
dead biomass
Belowground
living biomass
Soil
31
2
TIDAL SALT MARSH CARBON POOLS
Three major carbon poo|s can be cons|dered |n t|da| sa|t marsh ecosystems. (Fig. 2.4}:
+ Aboveground ||v|ng b|omass (shrubs, grasses, herbs, etc.};
+ Be|owground ||v|ng b|omass (roots and rh|zomes}; and
+ So|| carbon.
ln t|da| sa|t marshes, most annua| pr|mary product|on occurs |n the be|owground b|omass
(roots and rh|zomes} (va||e|a et al. 1976} w|th root-to-shoot rat|os (e.g., be|owground
to aboveground b|omass rat|o} rang|ng from 1.4 to 50 |n sa|t marsh p|ants (Sm|th et al.
1979; Darby & Turner 2008a}. Thus, most carbon |n t|da| sa|t marshes |s stored |n the
||v|ng be|owground b|omass and the non-||v|ng so|| carbon poo|. These two poo|s are often
d|fcu|t to separate and therefore treated as a s|ng|e carbon poo| (Ohmura et al. 2003}. Dead
aboveground b|omass |s usua||y carr|ed away w|th the regu|ar t|des and can usua||y be
exc|uded from measurements w|thout comprom|s|ng the accuracy.
Figure 2.4 Oarbon poo|s |n t|da| sa|t marsh ecosystems
Aboveground
living biomass
Belowground
biomass
Soil
32
2
SEAGRASS CARBON POOLS
Three major carbon poo|s can be cons|dered |n seagrass meadows. (Fig. 2.5}:
+ Aboveground ||v|ng b|omass (seagrass |eaves and ep|phytes};
+ Be|owground ||v|ng b|omass (roots and rh|zomes}; and
+ So|| carbon.
The |argest carbon poo| |n seagrass ecosystems |s the so|| carbon. Dead aboveground
b|omass |s usua||y neg||g|b|e s|nce seagrass |eaves are rap|d|y decomposed and/or rap|d|y
exported from seagrass meadows through the movement of t|da| waters. Ep|phytes are noted
as a carbon poo|; however, the|r s|ze var|es by spec|es and |ocat|on.
On a g|oba| sca|e, be|owground ||v|ng seagrass b|omass on|y represents 0.3% of the tota|
organ|c carbon poo| found be|ow the surface. Therefore, |t can usua||y be comb|ned w|th the
so|| carbon poo| est|mate w|thout s|gn|fcant|y over-est|mat|ng the so|| organ|c carbon poo|
(Fourqurean et al. 2012a}.
Determine Plot Type, Number, and Location
Determ|n|ng the m|n|mum number of p|ots needed to ensure accuracy w||| a|d |n keep|ng
|n|t|a| fe|d measurement and |ong-term mon|tor|ng program costs as |ow as poss|b|e. However,
samp||ng dens|ty w||| u|t|mate|y be determ|ned by the project goa| and des|red accuracy.
Figure 2.5 Oarbon poo|s |n seagrass ecosystems
Aboveground
living biomass
Belowground
living biomass
Soil
33
2
A T|er 2 Nat|ona| assessment requ|res data sufc|ent for est|mat|ng nat|ona| or reg|ona| carbon
stocks and may be ach|eved w|th a re|at|ve|y |ow samp||ng dens|ty that covers a re|at|ve|y
|arge area. ln contrast, a carbon market project requ|res a h|gher |eve| of accuracy ach|eved
through |ncreased samp||ng over a sma||er area over t|me.
Based on the carbon poo|s present |n the ecosystem and the project area strat|fcat|on,
there |s a need to determ|ne the opt|ma| shape, s|ze, and samp||ng |ntens|ty necessary to
accurate|y descr|be the ecosystem propert|es w|thout need|ess redundancy. As such, p|ot
des|gn shou|d be done w|th the project object|ves, accuracy, samp||ng efc|ency, and safety
|n m|nd.
PLOT TYPE
For assess|ng b|ue carbon stocks, two samp||ng p|ot types can be used: permanent and
temporary. Permanent p|ots have greater |ong-term va|ue and cred|b|||ty |n determ|n|ng
carbon stock changes through t|me, but temporary p|ots may be more pract|ca|.
Permanent p|ots are pers|stent, we||-demarcated areas that a||ow for d|rect|y comparab|e
measurements to be taken over t|me.
+ Advantages: Strat|fcat|on and p|ot des|gn are on|y done once; they are stat|st|ca||y more
accurate for determ|n|ng carbon stock changes over t|me because the same p|ot and
vegetat|on |s measured at both po|nts |n t|me; they prov|de |ow cost ver|fcat|on as an
|ndependent ver|fcat|on organ|zat|on can measure permanent p|ots and make a d|rect
compar|sons (Pearson et al. 2007}.
+ Disadvantages: S|tes can be man|pu|ated and enhanced (|mproved management,
|ncreased p|ant|ngs, etc.} to make |t appear that more carbon has been sequestered than
|s true for the rest of the strata; p|ots can be |ost due to natura| d|sasters or anthropogen|c
|ntervent|on thereby requ|r|ng enough p|ots to prov|de an accurate measure shou|d some
be destroyed. (Pearson et al. 2007}.
Temporary p|ots are used to generate a s|ng|e b|ue carbon measurement. They can be
used to determ|ne carbon stock change over t|me; however, measurements are not d|rect|y
comparab|e thereby reduc|ng accuracy.
+ Advantages: They are cheaper to set up as they do not requ|re permanent demarcat|ons;
a new |ocat|on can be chosen re|at|ve|y eas||y |f the area where the or|g|na| samp|es were
taken |s |ost.
+ Disadvantages: More p|ots may be needed to ach|eve the requ|red prec|s|on |eve|.
NUMBER OF PLOTS
The opt|mum number of p|ots depends on the accuracy |eve| requ|red, the |nherent b|omass
var|ab|||ty between p|ots w|th|n the same strata, and the cost assoc|ated w|th samp||ng. ldea||y
there wou|d be an ex|st|ng carbon est|mate for the study s|te, and the var|ance assoc|ated
w|th those measurements wou|d be known. nder those c|rcumstances Pearson et al. (2007}
prov|des comprehens|ve methods for determ|n|ng p|ot number based on known |ntra-strata
var|at|on (an on||ne too| for ca|cu|at|ng the number of p|ots |s a|so ava||ab|e at: http://www.
w|nrock.org/resources/w|nrock-samp|e-p|ot-ca|cu|ator}. However, the more ||ke|y scenar|o
34
2
|s that no |nformat|on |s ava||ab|e. ln th|s s|tuat|on, the frst t|me the area |s samp|ed, |t |s
recommended to exam|ne as many p|ots as the resources (budget and staf t|me} a||ow.
Subsequent measurements can then use these |n|t|a| data to determ|ne |f more or fewer p|ots
are needed to ach|eve the des|red accuracy |eve|.
lt |s |mportant to note that some areas may natura||y be h|gh|y var|ab|e; therefore, the m|n|mum
number of p|ots needed may not be known or pract|ca|. H|gh var|ab|||ty areas (|arge|y due
to so|| carbon var|at|ons at var|ous depths} w||| have h|gher uncerta|nt|es (the uncerta|nty
|eve| s|mp|y needs to be reported a|ong w|th any resu|ts}. The project manager w||| need to
determ|ne how much efort |s feas|b|e.
PLOT LOCATION
P|ot |ocat|on shou|d be arranged to m|n|m|ze d|sturbance to the ecosystem, wh||e account|ng
for the var|at|on w|th|n strata. There are severa| methods by wh|ch p|ot p|acement can be
determ|ned. The most common are:
1} Linear: Th|s method can be used when e|ther the strat|fcat|on procedure shows that
strata are most |og|ca||y based on the d|stances from a |ocat|on (r|ver, shore, t|da| channe|}
or when travers|ng the d|stance between random|y p|aced p|ots |s proh|b|t|ve; however,
the actua| var|ab|||ty may not be represented (Fig. 2.6a}.
2) Random: W|th|n each strata, p|ots are p|cked at random to |ncrease the ||ke||hood of
captur|ng the true var|at|on w|th|n and across strata (Fig. 2.6b}.
3) Probability-based grid: Th|s method uses a square or hexagona| ce|| over|ay p|aced
w|th|n the defned strata where one random po|nt |s samp|ed from each ce||. Th|s method
a||ows for samp||ng to be even|y spread throughout the strata wh||e st||| ma|nta|n|ng the
assumpt|ons requ|red for a random samp|e (Fig. 2.6c}.
The method chosen w||| depend on study s|te access|b|||ty, but when poss|b|e random or
probab|||ty-based gr|d p|ot des|gn |s recommended. lf the strata were defned proper|y, no
s|gn|fcant d|ferences w||| ex|st between p|ots. lf s|gn|fcant d|ferences (p > 0.05} do ex|st,
samp||ng add|t|ona| p|ots for robust est|mates may be needed, or s|mp|y report the var|ab|||ty
found w|th|n the stratum. The |atter, however, reduces accuracy.
PLOT SHAPE AND SIZE
There are many acceptab|e p|ot s|zes and shapes that can adequate|y descr|be ecosystem
compos|t|on, b|omass, and carbon content. Samp|e p|ot shape and s|ze |s a trade-of between
accuracy, t|me, and cost for measurement. For examp|e, |arge square p|ots (e.g., 100 m
2
) are
re|at|ve|y s|mp|e to defne, requ|re on|y bas|c equ|pment to mark boundar|es (measur|ng tapes
and stakes}, and samp||ng |n these areas |s re|at|ve|y t|me- and resource-efc|ent. However,
samp||ng a sma|| number of |arger p|ots ||m|ts the tota| area that can be surveyed. As a resu|t,
the ent|re project area may not be represented and, as a consequence, carbon assessments
extrapo|ated from these p|ots w||| not be as accurate. ln contrast, samp||ng many sma||,
c|rcu|ar p|ots (e.g., 10 p|ots, 14 meters d|ameter} w||| be more t|me- and resource-|ntens|ve,
but w||| encompass more var|at|on |n the project area and support more accurate carbon
account|ng. Many sma||er p|ots are, therefore, more su|tab|e where var|at|on w|th|n the project
area |s h|gh and resources are ava||ab|e.
35
2
100 m
A. Linear Design
B. Random Design
C. Probability-based
Grid Design
Figure 2.6 P|ot |ocat|on strateg|es. A} ||near p|ot des|gn |s common |n dense|y vegetated areas where travers|ng
between s|tes |s proh|b|t|ve and when there |s an |nherent grad|ent ( Boone Kaufman, OS}. B} Random p|ot
des|gn p|aces p|ots at random |ocat|on w|th|n each strata, th|s assures that a|| strata are equa||y represented (red,
ye||ow, and wh|te dots represent potent|a| s|tes for p|ot |ocat|ons |n the |ow, h|gh and h|gher marsh, respect|ve|y}
( Bever|y Johnson, Bates Oo||ege}. O} Probab|||ty-based gr|d des|gn ut|||zes software (e.g., Arcv|ew} to create gr|ds
that ft over, and are proport|ona| to each stratum. Software |s used to generate random po|nts |n each gr|d to be
surveyed ( Sarah Manue|, Department of Oonservat|on Serv|ces, Bermuda}.
36
2
P|ot s|ze |s predom|nant|y determ|ned by map reso|ut|on or dom|nant vegetat|on s|ze. P|ot
s|ze based on map reso|ut|on |s usefu| when try|ng to va||date remote sens|ng techn|ques for
creat|ng carbon maps. P|ot s|ze based on vegetat|on s|ze may vary w|th|n a s|ng|e assessment
to accommodate d|ferent poo|s or strata w|th|n a system. For examp|e, |n a mangrove system,
the |argest trees and p|ants are samp|ed |n the |argest p|ots (e.g., 100 m
2
}. The h|gh dens|ty of
sma||er trees, ||anas, and pa|ms make |t pract|ca| to samp|e them |n sma||er p|ots or a ser|es of
p|ots (e.g., 10 m
2
}. ||tter, seed||ngs, and grasses can be adequate|y samp|ed |n even sma||er
p|ots (e.g., 1 m
2
}. S|m||ar|y, p|ots for a |arge seagrass spec|es such as Posidonia spp could be
b|gger (e.g., 1 m
2
} than the p|ots for grass-dom|nated sa|t marshes (e.g., 0.50 m
2
}, or sma||er
seagrass species, such as |a|oo|||a spp or Zostera spp (e.g., 0.25 m
2
}.
SUBPLOTS AND CLUSTERING
lf severa| p|ot s|zes are requ|red for samp||ng, |t |s often most efc|ent to determ|ne the |argest
s|ze needed and nest the sma||er p|ots |nto the |arger one. Nested p|ots are des|gned such
that the |argest vegetat|on components (e.g., trees} are measured over the ent|re p|ot, but
sma||er components (e.g., shrubs, grasses} are measured over a sma||er area w|th|n the |arger
plot (Fig. 2.7a}. O|uster|ng |s when the |argest p|ot area |s d|v|ded |nto sub-p|ots such that
the tota| area be|ng samp|ed rema|ns the same but the c|uster des|gn |s ab|e to capture more
var|at|on found w|th|n a p|ot |ocat|on |ncreas|ng overa|| prec|s|on.
For examp|e, |t m|ght be determ|ned that a mangrove area requ|res a c|rcu|ar p|ot about 1520 m
2

(22 m rad|us} |n area for the |arger components but nested p|ots about 250 m
2
(9 m rad|us} |n
area |s fne for the sma||er components. The tota| area to be measured can be d|v|ded |nto fve
Figure 2.7 P|ot nest|ng and c|uster|ng des|gns. A} Nested p|ot des|gn where sma||er p|ots are centered. B} Examp|e
show|ng the spat|a| coverage us|ng s|ng|e |arge p|ots vs. mu|t|p|e sma|| p|ots, the area samp|ed |s s|m||ar but the tota|
area represented |s |arger w|th mu|t|p|e p|ots. O} Examp|es of rad|a| and ||near c|ustered p|ot des|gns. (SDA 2008;
Kaufman & Oo|e 2010; Donato et al. 2011; Kaufman & Donato 2011}
A
C
B
Debris
Transect A
Debris
Transect B
Debris
Transect D
Debris
Transect C
Trees
Grass
Shrubs
Soil
Sample
Single large plot =
1500 m
2
sampled
Multiple small plots =
1570 m
2
sampled
37
2
subp|ots cons|st|ng of a |arger sub-p|ot that has a 10 m rad|us (~ 314 m
2
* 5 subp|ots = 1570 m
2
)
and nested 4 m rad|us sub-p|ot (~ 50 m
2
* 5 subp|ots = 250 m
2
}. The resu|t|ng tota| area
samp|ed |s rough|y the same, but the c|ustered sub-p|ots reduce between-p|ot var|ance and,
therefore, the tota| number of p|ots necessary to ach|eve a des|red accuracy (SDA 2008;
Kaufman & Donato 2011} (Fig. 2.7b)
lt |s |mportant to make some pract|ca| cons|derat|ons when p|ann|ng samp|e subp|ot des|gn
and |ayout. There are many benefts to ||near subp|ot |ayouts (Fig. 2.7c}. ||near subp|ots ease
maneuver|ng |n dense mangroves or muddy |ntert|da| marshes, m|n|m|ze tramp||ng damage,
and encompass the var|at|on a|ong an |nherent grad|ent. A rad|a| p|ot des|gn may be more
appropr|ate for sma||er s|tes and produce more representat|ve data.
Determine Measurement Frequency
The frequency requ|red to conduct (and repeat} carbon stock assessments depends on the
assessment object|ves and the rate of expected change |n the ecosystem be|ng stud|ed.
Oarbon stocks change |n mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes and seagrass meadows for
numerous reasons and vary |n |mpact and t|me-response. Such changes can |nc|ude natura|
d|sturbances (e.g., typhoons}, var|at|ons |n p|ant product|v|ty and natura| carbon sequestrat|on
rates, changes |n |and cover due to |and-use act|v|t|es (e.g., aquacu|ture or up|and agr|cu|ture},
and a|terat|ons due to c||mate change (e.g., sea |eve| r|se}. Samp||ng frequency a|so |nvo|ves
estab||sh|ng requ|rements for regu|at|on, management or fnanc|ng, and resource ava||ab|||ty.
lt a|so depends on the poo| be|ng measured. For examp|e, the aboveground b|omass poo|
|n seagrass beds w||| change more rap|d|y than the carbon stock |n under|y|ng so||s. A|so,
seasona| growth/d|e of patterns |n aboveground ||v|ng b|omass osc|||ates throughout the year
and w||| most ||ke|y cance| each other out. For stand|ng stock measurements, we recommend
samp||ng be conducted at peak aboveground b|omass (typ|ca||y |ate summer}. repeated
samp||ng shou|d occur at the same t|me of year (Fourqurean et al. 2001}.
G|ven b|ue carbon ecosystem dynam|cs, approx|mate|y fve-year |nterva|s are sufc|ent to
mon|tor aboveground poo|s (Pearson et al. 2005; Pearson et al. 2007}. For carbon poo|s
that respond more s|ow|y (e.g., so||s assoc|ated w|th mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes, and
seagrass meadows}, |onger per|ods can be used-perhaps 10 or even 20 years between
samp||ng events, |f no sudden perturbat|ons afect|ng so|| |ntegr|ty occurred. However, |ong
|nterva|s r|sk that natura| or anthropogen|c d|sturbances w||| be m|ssed (Pearson et al. 2007}.
Therefore, |rregu|ar or unexpected events, such as strong trop|ca| storms, rap|d sea |eve| r|se,
or |and-use change, may just|fy samp||ng at more frequent |nterva|s than or|g|na||y p|anned.
CONCLUSION
A project des|gned w|th the end goa| |n m|nd |s mandatory to obta|n re||ab|e and robust
carbon stock est|mates. Project des|gns w||| vary depend|ng on |oca| requ|rements and the
ecosystem type. Once the project deta||s have been dec|ded, measurements can commence.
F|e|d techn|ques for measur|ng the aboveground and be|owground ||v|ng b|omass |n the
d|ferent ecosystems vary between mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes, and seagrass meadows
and are descr|bed |n the ecosystem spec|fc sect|ons of Ohapter 4. However, the techn|ques
for samp||ng carbon conta|ned |n the sed|ments and so||s are genera||y app||cab|e to a|| three
ecosystems and d|scussed |n Ohapter 3.
38
2
QUICK GUIDE
Step 1. Dene the pro[ect boundaries
+ Depends on the scope and object|ve of the project (s|ng|e area up to nat|ona| sca|e assessments}
+ Ensure that the area to be assessed adequate|y represents the range of spec|es and growth forms
found |n that ecosystem
Step 2. Stratify the pro[ect area
+ lf the project area |s composed of var|ous d|st|nct b|o|og|ca| structures (e.g., ta|| mangrove tree
areas, dwarf mangrove areas, pa|m areas}, |t may be des|rab|e to strat|fy the project area |nto sub
sect|ons of re|at|ve|y homogeneous un|ts/strata
+ Remote sens|ng and sate|||te |mages are usefu| for th|s purpose, but |oca| expert|se |s a|so needed
+ Oare shou|d be taken to not |nc|ude adjacent mar|ne, up|and, or freshwater ecosystems
Step 3: Decide which carbon pools to measure
+ Oommon carbon poo|s to measure are:

Aboveground ||v|ng b|omass (trees, shrubs, grass, etc.}

Aboveground dead b|omass (downed wood, |eaf ||tter, etc.}
May not be re|evant to a|| ecosystems. T|da| marshes and seagrass meadowstend to not
have |arge enough poo|s of downed wood and |eaf ||tter due to the compos|t|on of the |oca|
vegetat|on and remova| of debr|s by t|da| waters and currents.

Be|owground b|omass of ||ve vegetat|on (roots and rh|zomes}
Samp||ng w||| depend on feas|b|||ty

Soil
The most carbon-r|ch poo| |n these ecosystems
+ A poo| shou|d be measured |f

It is large

lt |s ||ke|y to be afected by |and use

Future |and use |s uncerta|n

The pool size is uncertain
+ Determ|ne type, shape and s|ze, number, and |ocat|on of measurement p|ots

Type
Dec|de |f p|ots are go|ng to be temporary (s|ng|e measurement} or permanent
(cont|nued mon|tor|ng}

Shape and size
Re||ab|e data can be obta|ned from c|rcu|ar or rectangu|ar p|ots
P|ot shape and s|ze |s determ|ned by the |eve| of accuracy needed, t|me, r|sk, and cost
A nested p|ot des|gn |s recommended w|th s|zes correspond|ng to the spat|a| sca|e of the
component of |nterest

Number
Shou|d have enough p|ots to reach a h|gh |eve| of stat|st|ca| certa|nty (p < 0.05}
An on||ne too| for ca|cu|at|ng the number of p|ots needed |s ava||ab|e at www.w|nrock.org/
Ecosystems/too|s.asp
lf the project area has been strat|fed p|ot number must be determ|ned for each strata

|ocat|on
+ To avo|d b|as, p|ot se|ect|on shou|d be random (e.g., a|ong a transect} and se|ected w|thout any
pr|or know|edge of compos|t|on or structure w|th|n strata
Step 4: Determine measurement frequency
+ Depends on the rate of expected change (natura| d|sasters, |and use change, c||mate change, etc.},
requ|rements for part|c|pat|on |n carbon markets, and the cost |nvo|ved |n samp||ng and |aboratory
ana|ys|s ||nked to resource ava||ab|||ty
+ Annua||y may y|e|d best est|mates but |s cost|y and often more than |s needed to mon|tor changes
+ 5-year |nterva|s are common and co|nc|de w|th recommendat|ons for part|c|pat|ng |n carbon markets
+ 10-20-year |nterva|s are a|so common but run the r|sk of m|ss|ng natura| or anthropogen|c d|sturbances
39
3
SARAH HOYT, CI
Field Sampling of Soil Carbon Pools
in Coastal Ecosystems
40
3
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Once the deta||s of the project and samp||ng requ|rements have been determ|ned, fe|d samp||ng
of the ecosystem carbon poo|s can beg|n. F|e|d techn|ques for measur|ng the aboveground
and be|owground ||v|ng b|omass |n d|ferent ecosystems vary between mangroves, t|da| sa|t
marshes, and seagrass meadows and are descr|bed |n the ecosystem spec|fc sect|ons of
Ohapter 4. However, the techn|ques for samp||ng carbon conta|ned |n the so||s, d|scussed
|n th|s chapter, are genera||y app||cab|e to a|| three ecosystems. lt |s |mportant to note that
be|owground carbon |s somet|mes referred to as sed|ment carbon or as so|| carbon. For the
purposes of th|s document, we use these terms |nterchangeab|y.
Be|owground carbon poo|s usua||y termed so|| carbon-dom|nated |arge|y by the ||v|ng
and decompos|ng roots, rh|zomes, and |eaf ||tter-are usua||y the |argest poo| |n vegetated
coasta| ecosystems and the|r measurement |s cr|t|ca| for determ|n|ng |ong-term changes
|n carbon stocks assoc|ated w|th d|sturbance, c||mate change, and |and management
changes. Be|owground So|| carbon poo|s usua||y const|tute 50% to over 90% of the tota|
ecosystem carbon stock of mangroves (Donato et al. 2011; Kaufman et al. 2011} (Fig. 3.1}.
The proport|ona| contr|but|on of so|| carbon |s often h|gher (> 98%} for t|da| sa|t marshes
(Johnson et al., |n prep} and seagrasses (Fourqurean et al. 2012a}. Desp|te the |mportance
of be|owground so|| carbon poo|s, they are the |east stud|ed. Th|s |s ||ke|y due to the nove|ty
and recent recogn|t|on of the s|gn|fcance of be|owground so|| carbon |n these systems as an
|mportant source of carbon g|oba||y (Sm|th 1981; Ohmura et al. 2003; |afo|ey & Gr|msd|tch
2009; Donato et al. 2011; Fourqurean et al. 2012a}. lt |s |mportant to note that so|| carbon
takes a |ong t|me to accumu|ate and recent|y estab||shed or restored b|ue carbon ecosystems
may not have a s|gn|fcant so|| carbon poo| for severa| years.
A|| so||s conta|n both organ|c and m|nera| components; the percentage of each |s what
c|ass|fes a so|| type as e|ther an organ|c or m|nera| so||. For the purposes of th|s work, organ|c
so||s are defned as those compr|sed of more than 20% organ|c matter, whereas m|nera| so||s
are those compr|sed of |ess than 20% organ|c matter (SDA 1999}. However, the cr|ter|a
so|| sc|ent|sts use to defne organ|c and m|nera| so||s are much more spec|fc than those
presented here and are not defned cons|stent|y across the g|obe. Organ|c r|ch so||s deve|op
0 300 600 900 1,200 1,500
MgC
Boral Forest
Tropical Forest
Mangroves
Tidal Salt Marsh
Seagrass
Meadows
Soil Organic Carbon
Living Biomass
Figure 3.1 Mean carbon storage |n the above- and be|owground b|omass |n coasta| vegetat|ve ecosystems vs.
terrestr|a| forest (Pan et al. 2011; Fourqurean et al. 2012a; Pend|eton et al. 2012}
41
3
where there are h|gh rates of organ|c matter bur|a| and preservat|on and |ow rates of m|nera|/
so|| depos|t|on. M|nera| r|ch so||s deve|op when there |s a |arge fux of sed|ment der|ved
from terrestr|a| sources (e.g., from r|ver |nput}, estuar|ne sources (e.g., t|da| movement of
sed|ment}, or from ca|c|um carbonate produced by ca|c|fy|ng organ|sms (e.g., she|| mater|a|}.
ln genera|, organ|c so||s appear dark and have a h|gh concentrat|on of decompos|ng p|ant
fragments. M|nera| so||s are sand|er and conta|n more she|| fragments (Fig. 3.2}.
So|| carbon accumu|at|on |n up|and forest usua||y does not exceed 30 cm and corresponds
to the depth of common anthropogen|c act|v|t|es that may afect the so|| poo| (e.g., t||||ng}.
Hence, many carbon assessments of up|and forests have ||m|ted the|r fe|d samp||ng of
so||s to 30 cm depth. Mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes, and seagrass meadows often have
organ|c-r|ch so||s that range from 10 cm to over 3 m |n depth and the d|sturbance of the
organ|c-r|ch so||s due to |and-use and c||mate change |n coasta| ecosystems w||| ||ke|y afect
deeper |ayers through dra|nage, ox|dat|on, co||apse, sea |eve| r|se, etc. (Hoojoer et al. 2006;
Pend|eton et al. 2012}. Therefore, |t |s |mportant to samp|e to greater depths |n coasta|
ecosystems than |n the|r terrestr|a| counterparts (a m|n|mum depth of 1 m |s standard but
depths 3-5 m are common}.
To accurate|y quant|fy the so|| carbon poo|, so|| cores must be co||ected, subsamp|ed, and
ana|yzed for a spec|fc depth (usua||y 1 m}. Three parameters must be quant|fed for each
fe|d p|ot, sub-p|ot, and/or cor|ng s|te to est|mate the so|| carbon poo|:
1} So|| depth;
2} Dry bu|k dens|ty; and
3} So|| organ|c carbon content (%O
org
)
So|| depth |s determ|ned w|th a so|| depth probe or dur|ng the cor|ng and samp||ng process.
The dry bu|k dens|ty and %O
org
of so|| are used to ca|cu|ate carbon dens|ty. Because so|| bu|k
dens|ty and %O
org
vary w|th depth and |ocat|on, there |s not a|ways a cons|stent pattern of
carbon dens|ty w|th depth. Oonsequent|y, |t |s essent|a| that an adequate number of so|| cores
(1 per p|ot, at |east 3 p|ots per stratum} are co||ected and stud|ed for a three-d|mens|ona|
assessment of the carbon stock |n each stratum.
Figure 3.2 Examp|es of organ|c and m|nera| so||. (A} Organ|c so||; Terraba S|erpe Nat|ona| Park, Oosta R|ca
( Sarah Hoyt, Ol}, (B} Sand & c|ay (m|nera|} so||s; Patos |agoon, southern Braz|| (Bruno |a|nett| G|anas|,
Margareth Oopert|no, FRG}
A B
42
3
Table 3.1 Equ|pment typ|ca||y needed for fe|d co||ect|ons of so|| carbon (Fig. 3.3 |mages of equ|pment}.
TOOL PURPOSE
Soil depth probe (optional) For measur|ng so|| depth
Measuring tape For measur|ng th|ckness of so|| samp|ed and depth a|ong
the soil core
Sharp kn|fe or 25 m| syr|nge To subsamp|e core
Soil coring device To samp|e the so|| core; (can a|so be used to determ|ne
soil depth)
GPS To record the coring position
P|ast|c samp|e bags To store samp|es
Waterproof wr|t|ng utens||s and tape To |abe| samp|es
Oamera To arch|ve samp|e appearance and samp|e number
A
B
C
E
D
Figure 3.3 Equ|pment typ|ca||y needed for fe|d co||ect|ons of so|| carbon. (A} Measur|ng tape for measur|ng depth
a|ong the so|| core ( Sarah Hoyt, Ol}, (B} Syr|nge used to subsamp|e core ( Sarah Hoyt, Ol}, (O} Kn|fe used for
subsamp||ng ( Boone Kaufman, OS}, (D} Oore & samp|e bag ( Margareth Oopert|no, FRG}, and (E} GPS to
mark cor|ng pos|t|on ( Boone Kaufman, OS}
43
3
SOIL DEPTH
The ab|||ty to measure the depth of so|| depends on two factors: 1} the nature of the so|| (m|nera|
vs. organ|c so||} and 2} the depth of so|| re|at|ve to the equ|pment be|ng used. Measur|ng
the depth of so|| |s most d|fcu|t |n deep (> 5 m} m|nera| r|ch so||s and the eas|est |n sha||ow
(< 5 m} organ|c r|ch so||s (Fig. 3.4}. ln organ|c so||s, the so|| depth |s usua||y defned as the
depth to parent mater|a|s such as bedrock, or some other hard substrate (cora|/m|nerogen|c
sands}. lt |s somet|mes feas|b|e to accurate|y measure organ|c so|| depth w|th a so|| depth
probe such as a bamboo po|e or ava|anche probe. When poss|b|e, extens|ons for the
po|es shou|d be ava||ab|e to ensure comp|ete penetrat|on. ln many cases 'depth to refusa|"
(e.g., the depth at wh|ch the po|e can no |onger be |nserted} |s cons|dered a reasonab|e
est|mate of organ|c so|| th|ckness. 'Depth to refusa|" assumes that the organ|c so|| |s genera||y
eas|er to penetrate w|th a rod than under|y|ng sands and/or bedrock. Because the 'depth
to refusa|" depends on the d|ameter of the po|e and strength of those who are us|ng |t, as
we|| as changes |n the under|y|ng so||s, |t |s |mportant to va||date that 'depth of refusa|"
represents organ|c so|| th|ckness, at |east |n|t|a||y, by a|so tak|ng so|| cores. lf 'depth to refusa|"
corresponds to the |ower ||m|t of the so|| as seen |n a so|| core, then the po|e method |s sound.
lt |s |mportant to note that the presence of roots and fbers may stop penetrat|on of the so||
depth probe; thus, |t |s mandatory to measure so|| depth |n d|ferent random |ocat|ons.
Top meter of soil
Deeper soil
Difficulty driving the probe
increases with depth
Bedrock
Figure 3.4 Measur|ng so|| depth w|th a so|| depth probe
44
3
ln some |nstances (such as the organ|c-r|ch seagrass so||s} the so|| depth can on|y be accurate|y
determ|ned through the use of soph|st|cated samp||ng equ|pment or geophys|ca| techn|ques,
due to the presence of fbrous mater|a| and the |arge depth over wh|ch the organ|c so|| has
accumu|ated. Samp||ng can be ach|eved us|ng a cor|ng dev|ce, but even th|s may be very
d|fcu|t for very deep so||s as |t requ|res heavy cor|ng equ|pment. ln add|t|on, the depth of so||
may be harder to defne un|ess there |s a c|ear change |n so|| type or there |s an |mpenetrab|e
boundary. A|| of these |ssues are compounded |n m|nera| r|ch so||s as they are often deep and
harder to penetrate. ln cases where the probe cannot be pushed or even hammered to the
depths that the actua| so|| |ayer reaches, the on|y way to accurate|y estab||sh organ|c |ayer
depth |s to take deep cores and use |nspect|ons of core samp|es to |dent|fy organ|c |ayers.
SOIL CORING
Obta|n|ng so|| samp|es for bu|k dens|ty measurements and carbon content ana|ys|s requ|res
so||-samp||ng equ|pment that a||ows for extract|on of a re|at|ve|y und|sturbed so|| samp|e that
has undergone m|n|ma| compact|on (Table 3.2 summary of common so|| cor|ng dev|ces}.
Spec|a||zed gouge augers for organ|c or peat so||s are recommended such as the Russ|an
peat corer, or E|jke|kamp gouge auger. Both are |ong (up to ~ 2m} sem|-cy||ndr|ca| chambers
that are pushed |nto the so||, tw|sted, and then pu||ed out. The samp|es recovered shou|d
have undergone m|n|ma| compact|on and extens|ons can be added so that |ong cores (3-5m}
can be recovered. The Russ|an peat corer has a fn that c|oses pr|or to extract|on thereby
prevent|ng so||s from s|ough|ng back out of the bottom of the corer. The E|jke|kamp auger has
an open bottom, and so||s can be |ost out the bottom |f they are wet or |ack cohes|veness,
such as unconso||dated sands.
ln some mangrove, t|da| sa|t marsh, and seagrass |ocat|ons, s|mp|e p|ston cor|ng dev|ces are
often efect|ve. Such a dev|ce uses the suct|on created by a fxed p|ston at the top of the so||
surface to pu|| the core samp|e |nto the core barre| as the core barre| |s pressed/hammered
|nto the so||.
ln areas of h|gh sand content where p|ston corers and gouge augers cannot eas||y penetrate
the ground, the on|y opt|ons |eft are to e|ther manua||y hammer a tube |nto the ground or use
a v|bracorer. A v|bracorer enta||s attach|ng a heavy v|brat|ng power head to an a|um|num or
p|ast|c p|pe and v|brat|ng |t |nto the under|y|ng so||s.
Because bu|k dens|ty measurements may be a|tered by any cor|ng techn|que (part|cu|ar|y
hammer|ng} |f the so|| |s compress|b|e, exper|mentat|on w|th d|ferent so|| samp||ng equ|pment
|n representat|ve s|tes |s recommended to ensure the samp||ng of re|at|ve|y und|sturbed
cores. The type of cor|ng gear needed w||| vary accord|ng to the vegetat|on and so|| type. For
examp|e gouge augers may be sufc|ent for organ|c r|ch marsh so||s, but v|bracores may be
the best opt|on for mangroves and seagrass rooted |n sandy/muddy so||s.
The presence of coarse p|ant fbers embedded |n the so|| may e|ther prevent core penetrat|on
('core refusa|"} or cause a 'na|| efect" (penetrat|on of the corer w|thout so|| enter|ng the tube}.
To samp|e cores |n fber-r|ch so||s, |t |s des|rab|e to ensure a sharp cutt|ng edge on the bottom
of the core tube. ln pract|ce th|s can be accomp||shed by sharpen|ng and serrat|ng the end of
the core tube or by attach|ng a removab|e cor|ng head. Th|s cor|ng method comb|nes manua|
and mechan|ca| percuss|on w|th rotat|on to cut through the fbers (Serrano et al. 2012}.
45
3
Table 3.2 So|| cor|ng dev|ces.
CORING DEVICES
Russian Peat Corer Ei[ke|kamp Gouge Auger
Sem|cy||ndr|ca| chamber w|th
rotat|ng fn des|gned to f||
chamber from s|de; extens|ons
ava||ab|e up to severa| meters.
Sem|cy||ndr|ca| chamber w|th
an open end; extens|ons
ava||ab|e up to severa| meters.
Advantages Advantages
Extens|ons a||ow cor|ng up
to 5m deep; und|sturbed,
uncompacted, so||s; m|n|ma|
s|ough|ng out the bottom.
Extens|ons a||ow cor|ng up to
severa| meters; und|sturbed,
uncompacted so||s recovered;
s|mp|e construct|on, portab|e.
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Depth recovered depends on
strength of peop|e cor|ng. F|n
may get jammed dur|ng the
cor|ng process.
Depth recovered depends on
strength of peop|e cor|ng. So||s
can s|ough out the bottom |f
they are wet or s|oppy.
Piston Corer Bucket Soil Auger Vibracorer
Sem|cy||ndr|ca| chamber w|th
an open end; extens|ons
ava||ab|e up to severa| meters.
Oy||nder or barre| to ho|d the
so||, wh|ch |s forced |nto the
barre| by cutt|ng ||ps.
|arge p|pe |s v|brated |n the
so|| us|ng a motor to force the
core |nto the bottom.
Advantages Advantages Advantages
Oan be used |n saturated so||s.
No hass|e w|th cas|ngs and
cor|ng tubes.
n|versa| approach to |ook|ng
at so||s |n d|verse sett|ngs.
|ong cores recovered |n one
s|mp|e step.
Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages
Rinse before and after use
to avo|d wear of p|ston,
sma|| d|ameter.
Prov|des a sem|-und|sturbed
so|| samp|e.
Oompact|on poss|b|e.
Tr|pod or ||ft|ng equ|pment
needed to extract cores.
Not part|cu|ar|y portab|e.
Steps for Taking a Soil Core
(Mangroves and Tidal Salt Marshes)
1} At the samp||ng |ocat|on, the organ|c ||tter and ||v|ng |eaves, |f present, shou|d be removed
from the surface before |nsert|ng the corer.
2} Stead||y |nsert the cor|ng dev|ce vert|ca||y |nto the so|| unt|| the top of the corer |s |eve| w|th
the so|| surface. The descent rate of the core has to be kept |ow (e.g., gent|e hammer|ng}
to m|n|m|ze core compact|on. lf the cor|ng dev|ce w||| not penetrate to fu|| depth, do not
force |t, there may be a |arge root or cora| fragment |n the way; |nstead try another |ocat|on
or use a cor|ng system that |s capab|e of cutt|ng fbers (Fig. 3.7}.
3} Once at depth, tw|st the cor|ng dev|ce to cut through any rema|n|ng fne roots, and sea| the
top end (the vacuum w||| prevent the |oss of the samp|e}. Gent|y pu|| the cor|ng dev|ce out
of the so|| wh||e cont|nu|ng to tw|st as |t |s be|ng extracted. Th|s tw|st|ng ass|sts |n retr|ev|ng
a comp|ete so|| samp|e (Fig. 3.7}.
46
3
Steps for Taking a Soil Core (Seagrass Meadows)
Steps for tak|ng so|| samp|es |n
seagrass systems are a b|t un|que
because the soils are saturated
w|th water, do not ho|d the|r shape
as we||, and are more suscept|b|e
to compact|on. Further they can be
underwater, requ|r|ng the operator
to either hold their breath or use
SOBA. For fne-gra|ned so||s,
th|n-wa||ed PvO p|pe can be used
as a core tube, and a piston can be
constructed from a rubber bung,
an eye bo|t, washers and nuts
(Fig. 3.6}. For coarse-gra|ned so||s,
wh|ch are harder to core, a th|ck-
wa||ed PvO p|pe ftted w|th a p|ston
|s recommended.
The PvO p|pe or core tube or barre| can then be dr|ven us|ng a s|edgehammer or a post-
pounder (Fig. 3.7}. After the core barre| |s dr|ven to the des|red depth cap the top w|th a
stopper or duct tape and remove the core. The core barre| may be very d|fcu|t to remove and
the use of a cha|n (or other non-stretch|ng ||ne} a|ong w|th a hand-he|d w|nch |s recommended.
A portab|e tr|pod can be constructed from |ron p|pe (or a |adder} and a cha|n-b|ock |s used to
keep the core barre| stra|ght as |t |s be|ng removed (Fig. 3.8}. Another opt|on |s to excavate
the core barre| out of the surround|ng so||.
Once the corer |s removed, cap the bottom w|th duct tape and keep upr|ght wh||e |t |s be|ng
transferred to the |ab for subsamp||ng. Note that |t |s very |mportant to keep so||s upr|ght
dur|ng transportat|on so that the core |ayers do not m|x w|th|n the tube. lf |t |s |og|st|ca||y
d|fcu|t to transport the ent|re core vert|ca||y to the |ab, subsamp|es shou|d be taken at the s|te
(see be|ow}.
Figure 3.6 Seagrass cor|ng dev|ces. PvO tubes, rubber stopper,
and syr|nge ( Ol/Sarah Hoyt}
Figure 3.5 Samp||ng a so|| core us|ng a so|| auger ( Boone Kaufman, OS}
STEP 2 STEP 1 STEP 3
47
3
Figure 3.7 A demonstrat|on of method used to dr|ve corer |nto so|| |n seagrass meadows. (A} Sha||ow water w|th a
s|edgehammer ( Sarah Hoyt, Ol}, (B} sha||ow water w|th a post-pounder ( Sarah Hoyt, Ol}, (O and D} deep water
w|th a s|edgehammer ( James Fourqurean, Fl}
A
C
B
D
A B
Figure 3.8 Set up for core samp||ng |n seagrass ecosystems. lnstruments for seagrass so|| cor|ng: (A} |adder w|th crank
for remov|ng cor|ng dev|ce from soft so|| |n sha||ow water ( Sarah Hoyt, Ol}, (B} sturdy tr|pod w|th we|ghted pu||ey
system for remov|ng cor|ng dev|ce from soft so|| |n e|ther sha||ow or deep water ( Oscar Serrano, EO}
48
3
Core Compression
Oompress|on of sed|ment |ayers (a|so known as core compact|on or core shorten|ng}
comes from three sources; 1} we|ght from the sed|ments |ayers as they bu||d over t|me,
2} decompos|t|on of organ|c matter w|th ag|ng, and 3} sh|ft|ng of sed|ments dur|ng the
cor|ng process. Sed|ment |ayers sett|e one on top of another w|th the top |ayers creat|ng
pressure on the |ower |ayers. As a resu|t, sed|ment |ayers are t|ght|y pressed together, and
the top organ|c-r|ch and |ow-dens|ty |ayers may become denser w|th ag|ng. These forms of
compact|on occur natura||y and are d|fcu|t to determ|ne, and therefore, are not cons|dered.
However, dr|v|ng the cor|ng tube |nto sed|ments w||| often compress the sed|ment, caus|ng
depth-var|ab|e changes |n the bu|k dens|ty of the samp|e (th|s |s part|cu|ar|y true for seagrass
so||s} and th|s may skew the est|mate of carbon stocks (Fig. 3.9}. Oores that are much
shorter than the depth to wh|ch the core tube was |nserted |n the so|| may a|so resu|t from
the above-descr|bed 'na|| efect," (page 44} |n wh|ch the core tube becomes p|ugged and
consequent|y penetrates the so|| as a so||d rod or na||. ldea||y, compressed samp|es wou|d
not be used |n the so|| carbon ana|ys|s, but |t |s somet|mes unavo|dab|e. Eforts shou|d be
made to ||m|t compress|on as much as poss|b|e and record each samp|e where |t occurs to
a||ow correct|ons.
Non-compacted Core Compacted Core Nail Effect
Figure 3.9 D|agram of so|| core compact|on that can occur wh||e samp||ng. The top of a non-compacted core w||| be
|eve| w|th the surround|ng ground (|eft}. Oores can be compacted due to the force app||ed to the corer as |t |s dr|v|ng
|nto the so|| (m|dd|e}. The na|| efect occurs when someth|ng (roots, rocks, she||s, etc.} gets caught |n the corer and
compacts the so|| underneath |t (r|ght}.
49
3
lf s|gn|fcant compact|on has occurred, take another core nearby. Repeat unt|| there |s m|n|ma|
compact|on. However, even the most efc|ent pract|ces for m|n|m|z|ng core compress|on
(e.g., spec|a||y des|gned augers, cor|ng at a |ow descent rate, and use of rotat|on and cutt|ng
head}, can resu|t |n core shorten|ng of up to 30% (Morton & Wh|te 1997}. ln these cases, a
compress|on correct|on factor shou|d be used to compensate for the 'art|fc|a|" compress|on
|n the core samp|e recovered.
The compact|on correct|on factor |s ca|cu|ated by d|v|d|ng the |ength of samp|e recovery
by the |ength of core penetrat|on. Dur|ng samp|e process|ng the corrected samp|e |ength
|s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the des|red depth |nterva| by the compact|on correct|on factor.
FOR EXAMPLE
+ A samp|e |s recovered that |s 150 cm |ong
+ But the depth reached by the corer was 175 cm
+ Th|s w||| g|ve you so|| compact|on of 25 cm, a compact|on correct|on factor can be found
by d|v|d|ng the |ength of the samp|e by the corer depth (150 cm / 175 cm = 0.86}.
+ lf we then wanted to obta|n a samp|e that represents the top 10 cm of the so|| we wou|d
need to mu|t|p|y the depth |nterva| (10 cm} by the compact|on correct|on factor (10 x 0.86}
g|v|ng a new samp|e recovery measurement of 8.57 cm.
For s|mp||c|ty, a un|form compact|on correct|on factor may be used for the ent|re |ength of
the core. However, th|s techn|que assumes that a|| parts of the core are compacted equa||y,
wh|ch may not be the case s|nce bu|k dens|ty and compact|b|||ty are ||ke|y to vary over the
depth of the core. Thus, a more comp|ex, but more accurate, method |s to determ|ne the
degree of compress|on severa| t|mes at d|ferent |nterva|s dur|ng the cor|ng process.
Dense Soils
lf us|ng an open-faced auger (e.g.,
Russ|an peat auger} the so|| samp|e
w||| be read||y access|b|e and ready
for arch|v|ng and subsamp||ng. lf
us|ng a c|ose-faced auger cor|ng
system (e.g., p|ston auger}, the core
||ner must frst be cut open. To do
th|s, remove the core ||ner and so||
samp|e from the cor|ng apparatus
and cut the p|ast|c or meta| core
line. |engthw|se a|ong oppos|te
s|des w|th a hacksaw, e|ectr|c
rotary too|, kn|fe, or v|brat|ng saw.
lt`s |mportant to contro| the cut
depth to cut through the ||ner wa||
w|thout cutt|ng s|gn|fcant|y |nto the
soil and to avoid getting chips of
p|ast|c/||ner |nto the samp|e. Once
the ||ner wa|| |s cut through a|ong
Figure 3.10 So|| core ||ner that has been cut |engthw|se to expose
the so|| for arch|v|ng and subsamp||ng. Th|s core |s |n the process of
be|ng sp||t. A c|ean face |s exposed |n the |ower part of the |mage.
( Boone Kaufman, OS}
50
3
oppos|te s|des, use a kn|fe to cut the so|| core |engthw|se |nto two ha|f-cy||nders (a|so known
as sp||ts} us|ng vert|ca| cuts |n d|screte steps. Between each vert|ca| cut, c|ean the b|ade
proper|y, and s|ow|y open the core. Take care to remove any p|ast|c/meta| ch|ps resu|t|ng from
cutt|ng the ||ner us|ng a brush and forceps. O|ean up the face of one of the sp||ts w|th a kn|fe
by gent|y scrap|ng of a very th|n |ayer from the surface of the sp||t (upper 1 mm} by dragg|ng
the kn|fe across the core barre| (Fig. 3.10}. Th|s w||| prov|de a fresh exposure of the so|| for
photograph|c arch|v|ng and descr|pt|on.
Loose Soils
For |ooser so||s, there |s a r|sk of m|x|ng the so|| |ayers |f the core |s |a|d on |ts s|de (for transport
or subsamp||ng, Fig. 3.11}. A syr|nge can be used as a m|n|-corer to accurate|y subsamp|e
|oose/saturated so||s (Fig. 3.12}. ln these cases, so|| cores are co||ected us|ng a corer w|th
predr|||ed samp||ng ports. For examp|e, Fourqurean et al. (2012b} use a 5.2 cm d|ameter,
d|ver-operated p|ston corer that |s dr|ven |nto the so||s unt|| refusa| us|ng a s|edgehammer
to when tak|ng cores |n seagrass meadows (Fourqurean et al. 2012b}. The core tube |s pre-
dr|||ed w|th 2.5 cm d|ameter samp||ng ports at 3 cm |nterva|s. Before |nsert|ng the pre-dr|||ed
corer |nto the so||, the samp||ng ports are covered w|th duct tape. After the corer |s extracted
from the so||, |t |s kept upr|ght to ensure no m|x|ng occurs and returned to shore for sub-
samp||ng. The tape |s then s|ow|y pee|ed downward, start|ng from the upper port and fn|sh|ng
at the |owest port, then a p|ston sub-corer made of a 25 m| cut-of po|yethy|ene syr|nge
(2.0 cm d|ameter} |s |nserted |nto each port, start|ng at the top, to extract a so|| samp|e of
known vo|ume. lt |s |mportant to a|ways co||ect the same vo|ume of so|| |n the syr|nge or note
the vo|ume samp|ed each t|me.
Figure 3.11 Examp|es of cores from water saturated/|oose so|| types. (A} Oores shou|d be kept upr|ght to prevent
so|| |ayers from m|x|ng and a||ow for a cons|stent subsamp|e. (B} Soft, unconso||dated so||s when p|aced on the|r s|de
a||ow for m|x|ng of the |ayers, mak|ng the subsamp|e |naccurate.
Homogenous sample consisting
of a single layer of the sediment
Heterogeneous sample consisting
of a several layers of sediment
A
B
51
3
Archiving the Core Prior to Sampling
A photograph|c arch|ve of the appearance of the so|| core |s usefu| for p|ann|ng the subsamp|e
techn|que and |aboratory ana|yses. For examp|e, |f the so||s are dark and have many p|ant
fragments, they w||| be r|ch |n carbon and |ess mater|a| w||| be needed for organ|c carbon
ana|ys|s. lf the so||s are dom|nated by ||ght co|ored sand, then more mater|a| w||| need to be
ana|yzed to determ|ne the organ|c carbon content.
To arch|ve the core, take a GPS record|ng of your cor|ng s|te and ass|gn the s|te a un|que
|abe| then photograph the ent|re core from top to bottom and record changes that occur w|th
depth. For mangroves and many t|da| sa|t marsh samp|es, photos can be taken |n the fe|d
once the core has been recovered and one of the sp||ts has been c|eaned. Extend a tape
measure a|ong the core start|ng at the top end and document the sp||t from top to bottom
(surface to depth} us|ng deta||ed photographs of core sect|ons |n over|app|ng frames so that
the |mages can be ||ned up for a comp|ete core |mage. Be sure to |nc|ude the tape measure |n
these |mages of the core. P|ace a |abe| w|th the core lD so that |s appears |n a|| photographs
and |dent|fes wh|ch d|rect|on |s the top and bottom of the core and use a po|ar|z|ng f|ter to
||m|t the ||ght refected of the wet surface of the core.
Seagrass so||s are more d|fcu|t because they must be kept upr|ght. In this case, record a
genera| descr|pt|on of the core subsamp|es as they change w|th depth observ|ng zones of
d|ferent co|or, texture, presence of p|ant debr|s and she||s, sed|ment type (mud, sand, grave|},
etc. Take photographs to comp|ement the wr|tten descr|pt|ons, aga|n mak|ng sure to have an
lD v|s|b|e |n a|| photographs.
SAMPLING A SOIL CORE
ldea||y, once the core |s removed |t |s transported |n |ts ent|rety to the |aboratory for ana|ys|s.
However, th|s |s often not poss|b|e, and samp|es must be taken from the core |n the fe|d. The
depths at wh|ch samp|es are taken from a so|| core are an |mportant dec|s|on. Preferab|y, |t
|s best to samp|e the ent|re depth of the so|| core, a|though th|s may not a|ways be poss|b|e
or pract|ca|. When so||s are severa| meters deep the standard pract|ce |s to samp|e the top
meter extens|ve|y and fewer samp|es of the deeper mater|a| (Fig. 3.13}.
+ Mangroves: Kaufman et al. (2011} and Donato et al. (2011} use a h|gh|y depth-aggregated
samp||ng techn|que w|th samp|es taken from mangrove so||s at depth ranges of 0-15 cm,
15-30 cm, 30-50 cm, 50-100 cm, and > 100 cm. At depths > 100 cm, so|| samp|es are
recommended to be co||ected at a max|mum of 2 m |nterva|s. These samp||ng |nterva|s are
Figure 3.12 Oores are co||ected us|ng a corer w|th predr|||ed samp||ng ports and sub-cores removed us|ng cut-of
po|yethy|ene syr|nges ( Sarah Hoyt, Ol}.
52
3
deemed adequate for mangroves because carbon content genera||y changes s|ow|y w|th
depth (Donato et al. 2011; Kaufman et al. 2011}.
+ Tidal salt marshes and seagrass meadows: var|at|ons |n carbon content are most
s|gn|fcant |n the upper 20 to 50 cm of so|| (Oho| et al. 2001; Oonnor et al. 2001; Oho| &
Wang 2004; Johnson et al. 2007; Fourqurean et al. 2012b}; therefore, we recommend
tak|ng more deta||ed depth prof|es. For examp|e, 5 cm-th|ck samp|es can be co||ected
cont|nuous|y throughout the so|| (or upper 50 cm}. As organ|c content of these so|| cores
changes more s|ow|y w|th depth be|ow 50 cm, |t may be pract|ca| to take fewer subsamp|es
separated by |arger |nterva|s.
lt |s |mperat|ve that the samp|es be co||ected |n such a way that |ts or|g|na| vo|ume can be
determ|ned. For examp|e, |f who|e core sect|ons are removed, the vo|ume can be ca|cu|ated
us|ng the depth |nterva| of the sect|on and the d|ameter of the core barre|. lf us|ng a syr|nge,
the vo|ume can be determ|ned d|rect|y where 1 cc |s equa| to 1 cm
3
.
SUBSAMPLING A SOIL CORE
The most accurate, and somet|mes most pract|ca|, techn|que for subsamp||ng |s to determ|ne
the bu|k dens|ty for each depth |nterva| and then homogen|ze the subsamp|e and determ|ne
the organ|c carbon content. A|ternat|ve|y, subsamp|es can be taken d|rect|y from each depth
Figure 3.13 A|ternat|ve core samp||ng strateg|es
Highly aggregated sampling scheme Detailed depth profiling sampling scheme
Sample A: 015 cm
Sample B: 1530 cm
Sample C: 3050 cm
Sample D: 50100 cm
Sample E: 100 cm2 m
Sample F: 2 m4 m Sample L: 100 cm2 m
Sample K: 50100 cm
Sample J: 4550 cm
Sample I: 4045 cm
Sample H: 3040 cm
Sample G: 3035 cm
Sample F: 2030 cm
Sample E: 2025 cm
Sample D: 1520 cm
Sample C: 1015 cm
Sample B: 510 cm
Sample A: 05 cm
53
3
|nterva|. To do th|s use a ru|er or
tape measure to determ|ne the
depths from wh|ch the subsamp|es
w||| be co||ected. Subsamp|e s|zes
are usua||y about 5 cm deep and
w||| conta|n between 5 and 50 g of
samp|e, depend|ng on core barre|
s|ze and sed|ment compos|t|on.
lf not samp||ng the ent|re core,
samp|es shou|d be co||ected at
the approx|mate m|d-po|nt of each
des|red depth range. For examp|e,
|f samp||ng the 0-15 cm depth
|nterva|, the samp|e wou|d |dea||y
come from the 5-10 cm depth; for
the 50-75 cm depth the samp|e
wou|d be co||ected at the 60-65
cm depth, and so on (Fig. 3.14}.
For dense so||s, a kn|fe can be used
to remove subsamp|es (Fig. 3.15}.
The b|ade of the kn|fe shou|d be c|eaned between each subsamp|e. pon co||ect|on, samp|es
are each p|aced |n |nd|v|dua|, numbered p|ast|c conta|ners/bags w|th the s|te, p|ot number,
core |dent|fcat|on, so|| depth, date, cor|ng dev|ce used, d|ameter of core barre| for ca|cu|at|ng
vo|ume, and any other re|evant |nformat|on (Fig. 3.16}.
Sub-sample A 015 cm
Sub-sample B 1530 cm
Sub-sample C 3050 cm
Sub-sample D 50100 cm
Sub-sample E 100300 cm
Figure 3.14 Oore sub-samp||ng strategy
A
C
B
D
Figure 3.15 Oo||ect|on of so|| samp|es from open-face auger. (A} Outt|ng so|| away from auger face, (B} Measur|ng
and mark|ng the depth |nterva|s, (O} Outt|ng a samp|e, (D} Remova| of samp|e from auger |n numbered conta|ner
( Boone Kaufman, OS}
54
3
ARCHIVING SAMPLES
The proper |abe|||ng of the cores and samp|es |n the fe|d |s essent|a| to avo|d confus|on and
common m|stakes |n samp|e |dent|fcat|on. Each samp|e/subsamp|e shou|d be |abe||ed w|th a
core lD, samp|e depth, and depth |nterva|. A genera| recommendat|on |s to pr|nt severa| cop|es
of temp|ate |abe|s on waterproof paper to br|ng w|th you |n the fe|d. Wr|te on the |abe| us|ng
a permanent marker, and attach the |abe|s us|ng duct tape or another water-res|stant tape.
To m|n|m|ze decompos|t|on of organ|c matter and m|crob|a| growth, samp|es shou|d be kept
co|d (4 O} and |f poss|b|e, e|ther frozen or dr|ed (see sect|on on samp|e preparat|on} w|th|n
24 hours of co||ect|on. Pr|or to ana|ys|s, frozen samp|es shou|d be thawed and dr|ed. Once
dr|ed, samp|es can be stored for years w|th m|n|ma| decompos|t|on. Ouarant|ne treatment
(e.g., |rrad|at|on} does not afect the organ|c carbon concentrat|on of dr|ed samp|es.
LABORATORY ANALYSIS
To accurate|y determ|ne the so|| carbon dens|ty, two parameters must be quant|fed: so|| dry
bu|k dens|ty and organ|c carbon content (O
org
}. Once dry bu|k dens|ty (mass of dr|ed so||/
or|g|na| vo|ume} |s determ|ned, |t can be used w|th O
org
to determ|ne the carbon dens|ty of the
so|| at spec|fc depth |nterva|s. The procedures for th|s ana|ys|s are as fo||ows.
Determining Soil Dry Bulk Density
Dry bu|k dens|ty (DBD} |s determ|ned from the mass of a fu||y dr|ed samp|e and |ts or|g|na| vo|ume.
+ Dry bu|k dens|ty (g/cm
3
} = Mass of dry so|| (g} / Or|g|na| vo|ume samp|ed (cm
3
)
DETERMINING ORIGINAL VOLUME SAMPLED
To determ|ne the or|g|na| vo|ume you w||| need to know the type and |nterna| d|ameter of
the cor|ng dev|ce used (e.g., c|osed tube cor|ng dev|ce or syr|nge} and the th|ckness of the
samp|e (|f cut from a |arger core} or the |ength of the samp|e (|f taken w|th a syr|nge}. The
vo|ume of the so|| can be ca|cu|ated us|ng the mathemat|ca| formu|a for determ|n|ng the
vo|ume of a cy||nder, as fo||ows:
Figure 3.16 Samp|es are each p|aced |n |nd|v|dua|, numbered conta|ners. The number corresponds w|th samp|e
|dent|fcat|on |nformat|on recorded |n the fe|d notes. ( Boone Kaufman, OS}
55
3
+ lf the samp|e came from an |ntact core, use the fo||ow|ng equat|on:
Or|g|na| pre-dr|ed vo|ume of so|| samp|e = [n * (rad|us of core barre|}
2
| * (depth of the
samp|e, h}
+ lf the samp|e came from a core sp||t, the same equat|on can be used to determ|ne the
vo|ume from an |ntact core, but vo|ume ca|cu|ated must be ha|ved.
+ lf the samp|e was taken us|ng a syr|nge, vo|ume can be measured d|rect|y from the syr|nge
where 1 cc = 1 cm
3
.
DETERMINING THE DRY MASS
D|spense the so|| samp|e onto a pre-we|ghed conta|ner, such as a petr|-d|sh or a beaker and
p|ace |n a 60 O oven to dry. The samp|e can be spread or carefu||y broken up |nto sma||er
p|eces to |mprove the speed at wh|ch the so|| w||| dry (Fig. 3.17}.
The so|| samp|e shou|d be dr|ed unt|| |t reaches a constant we|ght. To determ|ne when your
so|| has reached a constant we|ght, dry |t at 60 O for at |east 24 hours, and then coo| |t to
room temperature |n a des|ccator for at |east 1 hour before we|gh|ng (Fig. 3.18}.
We|gh your samp|e |n the petr| d|sh before return|ng to the oven, dry |t for another 24 hours,
and re-we|gh. Th|s cyc|e |s repeated unt|| success|ve we|ght d|ferences are |ess than 4%
(a|ways use the same ba|ance}. Typ|ca||y, th|s process requ|res at |east 48-72 hours.
A B
C D
Figure 3.17 Remova| of samp|e from syr|nge and prepar|ng |t for oven dry|ng. (A} Samp|e |n syr|nge, (B} Depos|t|ng
samp|e on pre-we|ghed petr| d|sh, (O} Samp|e when frst removed from the syr|nge, and (D} Spread|ng the samp|e
w|th a spatu|a. ( H||ary Kennedy, WB}
56
3
Wh||e we recommend dry|ng the samp|es at
60O, other protoco|s recommend dry|ng at 105
O for bu|k dens|ty determ|nat|on. Th|s h|gher
temperature |s not adv|sed because, some part
of the so|| organ|c matter may beg|n to be |ost
(ox|d|zed} at temperatures greater than 60 O.
Thus, the we|ght |oss recorded at 105 O wou|d
potent|a||y represent both water |oss and |oss of
organ|c matter, resu|t|ng |n an underest|mat|on of
organ|c carbon.
Once the samp|e has reached a stab|e we|ght,
the mass of the samp|e, a|ong w|th the vo|ume
ca|cu|ated above, |s used to determ|ne DBD. Note
that the |norgan|c carbon (e.g., carbonate she||s}
shou|d NOT be removed pr|or to bu|k dens|ty
ana|ys|s. Some representat|ve d|str|but|ons of
bu|k dens|ty at var|ous depths |n b|ue carbon so||s
are shown |n Fig. 3.19.
Determining Organic Carbon Content (% C
org
)
The organ|c carbon content of a so|| samp|e can be measured us|ng a var|ety of methods;
the method chosen w||| depend |arge|y on access|b|||ty to necessary equ|pment. Opt|ons for
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Bulk Density (g/cm
3
) Bulk Density (g/cm
3
) Bulk Density (g/cm
3
)
Sprague Webhannet Moody
Figure 3.19 Bu|k dens|ty of cores from Sprague Marsh, Ph|ppsburg, Ma|ne (N 44 44` 21.64" / W 69 49`48.90"},
Webhannet Marsh, We||s, Ma|ne (N 43 18` 14.82" / W 70 34` 16.61"}, and Moody Marsh, We||s, Ma|ne (N 43 16`
26.19" / W 70 35` 12.21"}. The |owest core depth represents the depth to refusa| at each s|te (Johnson et al. |n prep}.
Figure 3.18 So|| samp|e coo||ng to room
temperature |n des|ccator ( H||ary Kennedy, WB}
57
3
measur|ng the organ|c carbon content |nc|ude: 1} us|ng an automated e|ementa| ana|yzer
(somet|mes ca||ed a OHN ana|yzer s|nce many e|ementa| ana|yzers are confgured to
s|mu|taneous|y measure carbon (O}, hydrogen (H}, and n|trogen (N} content}; 2} us|ng combust|on
and emp|r|ca| re|at|onsh|ps between organ|c carbon and organ|c matter (known as |oss on
lgn|t|on, |Ol}; or 3} us|ng wet chem|stry techn|ques such as the Wa|k|ey-B|ack method, wh|ch
|s s|mp|e and requ|res m|n|ma| equ|pment. The pros and cons of each method are presented
in Table 3.3. The resu|ts obta|ned us|ng the wet method cannot be cons|dered quant|tat|ve,
and the process produces tox|c wastes and so |s on|y appropr|ate for |abs equ|pped for safe
use and d|sposa| of chem|ca| ox|dants and |ow-reso|ut|on stud|es (Ne|son et a|. 1996; So|||ns
et al. 1999}. Because of the ||m|tat|ons of the wet chem|stry techn|que, we on|y descr|be the
e|ementa| ana|yzer and |Ol methods here. The use of any of these techn|ques depends on
ava||ab|||ty as we|| as budgetary and capac|ty constra|nts (Fig. 3.20}.
Table 3.3 Oompar|son of |aboratory techn|ques to determ|ne percent organ|c carbon.
DRY COMBUSTION METHOD
WET COMBUSTION
METHOD
E|ementa| Ana|yzer |Ol H
2
O
2
and D|chromate D|gest|on
(Wa|k|ey-B|ack method}
Pros Pros Pros
Ouant|tat|ve measure of
carbon content.
Sem|-quant|tat|ve measure of
organ|c carbon content; |ow
cost and s|mp|e techno|ogy.
Sem|-quant|tat|ve measure of
organ|c carbon content; |ow
cost and s|mp|e chem|stry.
Cons Cons Cons
Requ|res spec|a|
|nstrumentat|on; can be cost|y.
Percent organ|c carbon
determ|ned from emp|r|ca||y
der|ved re|at|onsh|ps between
carbon and organ|c matter.
H
2
O
2
does not a|ways d|gest
carbon equa||y; produces
hazardous waste.
Decision Tree for %C
org
Determinations
Access to an elemental analyzer?
And is cost not an issue?
Samples Contain Carbonate? Access to Muffle Furnace? (For LOI)
Elemental analysis with
carbonate correction
% C
org
Determine the carbon component
of the lost organic material
Chemical Oxidation
of organic Material using
H
2
O
2
or dichromate
48 hours 450C
LOI
Elemental analysis
% C
org
Y
e
s
N
o
Y
e
s
N
o
Y
e
s
N
o
Figure 3.20 Dec|s|on tree to determ|n|ng wh|ch method |s best for ca|cu|at|ng the organ|c carbon component of so||
58
3
HOMOGENIZATION
Before the carbon content can be determ|ned, each |nd|v|dua| samp|e/subsamp|e shou|d be
homogen|zed. Dr|ed samp|es are assessed, and any |arge |tems, such as stones and tw|gs
are removed, and |arge c|umps are broken up w|th a spatu|a. Homogen|zat|on can be done
by manua||y gr|nd|ng the dr|ed so||s to a powder of cons|stent part|c|e s|ze us|ng a mortar and
pest|e or |t can be done automat|ca||y us|ng a pu|ver|zer or m||| (Fig. 3.21}. Wh|chever method
|s used, |t |s |mportant to c|ean the gr|nd|ng dev|ce (e.g., w|th ethano|} between each so||
samp|e to ensure m|n|ma| cross-contam|nat|on. The homogen|zed samp|es (hereafter ca||ed
raw so|| samp|e} can then be used for determ|n|ng the organ|c and |norgan|c carbon content.
ESTIMATING % ORGANIC CARBON USING AN ELEMENTAL ANALYZER
For th|s method dry combust|on |s used to determ|ne the tota| carbon (organ|c and |norgan|c}
for each samp|e. lt |s the most su|tab|e method for rout|ne ana|ys|s of tota| carbon, and
we recommend use of an e|ementa| ana|yzer |f poss|b|e (So|||ns et al. 1999}. An e|ementa|
ana|yzer |s a |aboratory |nstrument used to determ|ne the e|ementa| compos|t|on of a samp|e.
The ana|yzer uses a h|gh temperature |nduct|on furnace and e|ther |nfrared spectroscopy or
gas chromatograph|c separat|on of gases and therma| conduct|v|ty detect|on to measure the
carbon, hydrogen, and n|trogen (as we|| as other e|ements} content of the samp|e.
When us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer, samp|es are automat|ca||y dropped onto the top of a quartz
tube ma|nta|ned at around 1,000 O, packed w|th ox|dat|on reagents and cata|ysts, and there
|s a constant fow of he||um through the co|umn. When the samp|e drops onto the top of
the co|umn, the he||um stream |s temporar||y enr|ched w|th pure oxygen. F|ash combust|on
takes p|ace, produc|ng carbon d|ox|de, water, and n|trogen. The water |s removed us|ng a
desiccant, and the CO
2
|s separated from N
2
by gas chromatography. The output of th|s
process |s a graph where the amount of carbon |s proport|ona| to the area under the OO
2

peak (Fig. 3.22}, and |s reported |n un|ts of percent carbon (% O}. The |nstrument |s ca||brated
A B
C
Figure 3.21 Gr|nd|ng and homogen|zat|on of a so|| samp|e. (A} Mortar and pest|e, (B} Agate pot |n commerc|a||y
ava||ab|e m|||, (O} Agate pot w|th beads to he|p pu|ver|ze and homogen|ze the so|| samp|e. ( H||ary Kennedy, WB}
59
3
us|ng an organ|c compound as a standard, such as acetan|||de. The prec|s|on of the ana|ys|s
must be determ|ned us|ng |nternat|ona| standards and mon|tored us|ng an |nterna| standard
w|th a compos|t|on c|ose to that of the samp|e.
lf an e|ementa| ana|yzer |s not ava||ab|e, samp|es can be sent to a commerc|a| |aboratory
where costs for e|ementa| ana|ys|s typ|ca||y range between $10 and $20 SD per samp|e.
Prov|ded the proper too|s are ava||ab|e (m|croba|ance and t|n boats}, |t |s poss|b|e to save
money by we|gh|ng out samp|es and sh|pp|ng them to a qua||fed |aboratory. ln th|s case,
add samp|es |nto pre-we|ghed t|n capsu|e us|ng a spatu|a, then c|ose and compress us|ng
forceps. We|gh the t|n capsu|e w|th the samp|e |ns|de, and subtract the we|ght of the empty
t|n capsu|e to determ|ne samp|e we|ght. Oreate a record of where each samp|e |s |n the tray,
|nc|ud|ng we|ghts, and sh|p to the |aboratory. The |aboratory w||| need the we|ght of each
samp|e to ca|cu|ate the % O |n your so||. Wh||e awa|t|ng ana|ys|s, samp|es can be stored |n
a tray |ns|de a des|ccator (Fig. 3.23}. Ask the |aboratory fac|||t|es |n wh|ch you w||| run the
organ|c carbon ana|ys|s for adv|ce before start|ng to encapsu|ate the samp|es (amount of
organ|c carbon needed for robust ana|yses |n the|r fac|||t|es, s|ze of t|n capsu|es needed, etc.}.
A good opt|on |s to run the organ|c carbon ana|ys|s |n a few representat|ve samp|es frst and
make adjustments as needed before runn|ng a|| of your samp|es.
E|ementa| ana|yzers determ|ne the tota| carbon content of a samp|e, |nc|ud|ng the organ|c
and |norgan|c carbon. To correct for th|s, the |norgan|c carbon content must be determ|ned.
Correcting for Inorganic Carbon Content
lnorgan|c carbon |n the form of carbonates (|.e., ca|c|um carbonate, OaOO
3
) can be found
|n coasta| so||s |n the form of she||s and/or p|eces of cora| and |s most often assoc|ated w|th
seagrass beds. Oa|c|um carbonate may a|so be present |n some m|nera|-r|ch so||s found
beneath |ayers of peat. (Oarbon-neutra| sands, s||ts, and c|ays w||| a|so ||ke|y be present |n
the sed|ment |n vary|ng proport|ons, but the|r presence w||| not afect the ana|ys|s of organ|c
carbon.} Oa|c|um carbonate (hereafter referred to as carbonate} conta|ns carbon, but |s not
|nc|uded when determ|n|ng b|ue carbon stocks, but |t w||| be converted to OO
2
|n an e|ementa|
ana|yzer, b|as|ng the resu|ts.
Nitrogen peak
Carbon peak
Time (sec)
P
e
a
k

h
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
v
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Figure 3.22 Ohromatogram resu|ts from an e|ementa| ana|yser, show|ng n|trogen and carbon peaks from combusted
samp|e ( H||ary Kennedy, WB}
60
3
There are two bas|c methods that correct for the carbonate content of so||s.
1} Acidication: Th|s approach |s easy, cheap, and requ|res |ess soph|st|cated |aboratory
equ|pment. lnorgan|c carbon |s vo|at|||zed to OO
2
by treat|ng the so|| subsamp|e w|th a
strong ac|d. lnorgan|c carbon content |s est|mated from the d|ference |n we|ght of the
subsamp|e before and after treatment. There |s a r|sk that some organ|c carbon w||| a|so
be removed us|ng th|s method |ead|ng to a poss|b|e under-est|mat|on of organ|c carbon.
React|ons w|th more d||ute ac|ds over |onger t|mes per|ods m|n|m|zes the |oss of organ|c
carbon due to decompos|t|on.
2) Elemental Analyzer: A so|| subsamp|e |s heated to 500 O. At th|s temperature organ|c
carbon |s removed |eav|ng the |norgan|c carbon |n the ash. The |norgan|c carbon rema|n|ng
|n the ashed subsamp|e |s determ|ned us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer.
ln both techn|ques the |norgan|c carbon content |s subtracted from the tota| carbon (see
prev|ous sect|on}, what rema|ns |t the est|mate of organ|c carbon content.
ACIDIFICATION
Some protoco|s for remova| of carbonate (e.g., deca|c|fcat|on} use a re|at|ve|y concentrated
ac|d for short per|ods of t|me (Mort|ock & Froe||ch 1989}, and others use a more gent|e
method (We||ky et al. 1983; P||ska|n & Paduan 1992}. We recommend the s|ower and gent|er
approach to deca|c|fcat|on descr|bed here. F|rst, test to see |f the samp|e conta|ns s|gn|fcant
quant|t|es of carbonate by tak|ng a subsamp|e (correspond|ng to the samp|es used for tota|
carbon ana|ys|s}, p|ac|ng |t on a g|ass surface, and add|ng a few drops of 1N hydroch|or|c
ac|d (HO|}. lf carbonate |s present, bubb|es of OO
2
w||| be generated and the samp|e w|||
efervesce (Fig. 3.24}.
lf carbonate |s present, we|gh out ~ 1 g of your or|g|na| homogen|zed so|| samp|e |nto a
125 m| beaker or a 50 m| g|ass con|ca| centr|fuge tube (the |atter |s preferred |f samp|es
need to be centr|fuged to separate so|ut|on from so||; see be|ow}. D||ute HO| to 1N and
add enough to the beaker to cover your samp|e and ag|tate for 15 m|nutes by manua||y
Figure 3.23 Prepar|ng a dr|ed samp|e for OHN ana|ys|s. (A} Extract|ng a t|n capsu|e to be we|ghed, (B} After we|gh|ng,
t|n capsu|e can be p|aced |n c|ean receptac|e, (O} The samp|e added us|ng a spatu|a, (D} Forceps are used to c|ose,
(E} Oompress the t|n capsu|e, and (F} P|ace the samp|e |n a 96-we|| p|ate and store pr|or to ana|ys|s. ( H||ary Kennedy, WB}
A B C
D E F
61
3
shak|ng the samp|e or by us|ng an u|trason|c bath or probe. Both techn|ques he|p break up
any c|umps of so|| so that the ac|d can remove a|| the |norgan|c carbon present. The ac|d |s
gent|e enough to |eave the organ|c matter |ntact. A||ow any efervescence to d|e down and |et
samp|es s|t overn|ght (18-24 hours}. Add add|t|ona| HO|, ag|tate or son|cate for 15 m|nutes
and check for further efervescence.
If CO
2
|s no |onger be|ng produced (no new outgass|ng |s observed}, the carbonate has been
removed. Once the so|| has sett|ed to the bottom of the beaker/tube the over|y|ng ac|d can
be decanted. lf there |s a |ot of fne-gra|ned so|| suspended |n so|ut|on, centr|fuge the samp|es
to separate the so|ut|on from the so|| and then decant or remove the ||qu|d w|th a p|pette.
After the ac|d has been removed, add d|st|||ed water to the samp|e, sw|r|, a||ow the mater|a|
to sett|e (or centr|fuge}, and decant of the water. Repeat th|s wash|ng step two more t|mes.
Dry at 60 O overn|ght, and we|gh the samp|e.
The mass d|ference of the samp|e pre and post ac|d|fcat|on |s an est|mate of ca|c|um
carbonate |n the samp|e. However, on|y 12% of the we|ght d|ference can be attr|buted to
carbon (carbon makes up 12% of the mo|ecu|ar we|ght of ca|c|um carbonate (OaOO
3
}}. Thus
|n order to est|mate the amount of |norgan|c carbon present, the mass of ca|c|um carbonate
|s mu|t|p||ed by 0.12. F|na||y, subtract the |norgan|c carbon content from the tota| carbon
content of the subsamp|e (from the e|ementa| ana|ys|s descr|bed |n the prev|ous sect|on} to
get the organ|c carbon content of the samp|e (Table 3.4}.
Table 3.4 Determ|n|ng % lnorgan|c carbon by ac|d|fcat|on method
SAMPLE ID
TOTAL
CARBON
CONTENT
(ELEMENTAL
ANALYZER)
DRY MASS
BEFORE ACID
(mg)
DRY MASS
AFTER ACID
(mg)
MASS OF
CARBONATE
(mg)
INORGANIC
CARBON (mg)
INORGANIC
CONTENT OF
SAMPLE
ORGANIC
CARBON
CONTENT OF
SAMPLE
A B C D = B - O E = O*0.12 F =
(E/B}*100
G = A - F
Examp|e 25% 100 90 10 1.2 1.20% 23.8%
ELEMENTAL ANALYZER
Take a separate subsamp|e (correspond|ng to the samp|es used for organ|c carbon ana|ys|s,
~ 0.5 g} of the dr|ed raw so||, we|gh |t to the nearest m||||gram, and p|ace |t |n a temperature-
proof vesse| (|.e., ceram|c cruc|b|e}. These samp|es are then put |nto a furnace heated to
500 O for a m|n|mum of three hours (unt|| a constant we|ght |s reached} to vo|at|||ze the organ|c
Figure 3.24 Test|ng for carbonate. (A} Subsamp|e |n a watch g|ass pr|or to ac|d|fcat|on, (B} p|pett|ng a few drops of
weak HO|, (O} subsamp|e efervesc|ng. ( H||ary Kennedy, WB}
A B C
62
3
compounds. The we|ght of the ash rema|n|ng |s then determ|ned to the nearest m||||gram. An
e|ementa| ana|yzer |s used, fo||ow|ng the procedures out||ned above, to determ|ne the carbon
content of the ash wh|ch |s assumed to be a|| |norgan|c carbon.
Sca|e the e|ementa| ana|yzer resu|ts by the rat|o of ash we|ght to samp|e dry we|ght to get
the |norgan|c carbon content of the or|g|na| dry samp|e. Then, subtract the |norgan|c carbon
content from the tota| carbon content of the subsamp|e to get the organ|c carbon content of
the samp|e (Table 3.5}.
Table 3.5 Determ|n|ng % lnorgan|c carbon by e|ementa| ana|ys|s
SAMPLE ID
TOTAL
CARBON
CONTENT
(ELEMENTAL
ANALYZER)
DRY MASS
BEFORE
ASHING (mg)
DRY MASS
AFTER
ASHING (mg)
INORGANIC
CARBON
CONTENT
OF ASHED
SAMPLE (mg)
INORGANIC
CONTENT OF
SAMPLE
ORGANIC
CARBON
CONTENT OF
SAMPLE
A B C D E = D*(O/B} F = A - E
Examp|e 25% 500 250 10% 5% 20%
MEASURING % CARBON VIA LOI ANALYZER
lf the cost of us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer |s proh|b|t|ve, we recommend us|ng the percent |oss
on |gn|t|on techn|que (often referred to as % |Ol}. The |n|t|a| cost of the equ|pment needed
for % |Ol ana|ys|s (|nc|ud|ng a mufe furnace and ceram|c cruc|b|es} ranges between $5,000
SD and $10,000 SD. Th|s re|at|ve|y s|mp|e set-up |s very durab|e and can be used for
many years, s|gn|fcant|y decreas|ng cost per samp|e ana|ys|s over the |ong-term.
|Ol |s a measure of the mass of samp|e |ost (e.g., ox|d|sed and |ost as gas, or vo|at|||sed}
when heated to h|gh temperatures. Typ|ca||y the samp|e |s heated to combust|on at 450 O
for 4-8 hours (He|r| et al. 2001}. Th|s temperature |s used to ensure that on|y organ|c (not
|norgan|c} carbon |s ox|d|zed.
The % |Ol |s ca|cu|ated as fo||ows:
+ % |oss on lgn|t|on = [(dry mass before combust|on (mg} - dry mass after combust|on (mg}}
/ dry mass before combust|on (mg}| * 100
Table 3.6 Determ|n|ng % |Ol
SAMPLE ID
INITIAL MASS
BEFORE
COMBUSTION
(mg)
FINAL MASS
AFTER
COMBUSTION
(mg)
DIFFERENCE
PRE- AND
POST-
COMBUSTION
% LOSS ON
IGNITION
Examp|e 50 40 10 (10/50}*100 = 20
lt |s |mportant to note that |Ol represents the |oss of organ|c matter, wh|ch |s composed of
carbon, hydrogen, n|trogen, oxygen, su|fur, etc. and not so|e|y the |oss of organ|c carbon.
Thus, a re|at|onsh|p needs to be determ|ned to re|ate % |Ol to % O
org
.
Relationship between organic matter and organic carbon: An equat|on must be
constructed that re|ates organ|c matter content (% |Ol} to the organ|c carbon content (% O
org
)
of the same samp|e. Th|s can be ach|eved by send|ng a ||m|ted number of samp|es for organ|c
63
3
carbon ana|ys|s us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yser (see above} and compar|ng the organ|c carbon
content resu|t|ng from that techn|que to the % |Ol resu|ts.
lf th|s |s not poss|b|e, use a va|ue from the ||terature for a study |ocat|on/type that most c|ose|y
resemb|es your own. The fo||ow|ng tab|e (Table 3.7} summar|zes examp|es of the re|at|onsh|ps
between % |Ol and % O
org
|n mangrove, t|da| sa|t marsh, and seagrass so||s. Add|t|ona|
|nformat|on on the re|at|onsh|ps between % |Ol and organ|c carbon |n mangrove, t|da| sa|t
marsh, and seagrasses can be found |n Appendix E. However, there |s a |arge range |n the
rat|os of carbon content (% O
org
} to organ|c matter (% |Ol} reported |n the sc|ent|fc ||terature,
mak|ng standard rat|o va|ues poss|b|e sources of error |n est|mat|ng organ|c carbon content.
Therefore, |t |s good pract|ce to determ|ne the rat|o for your part|cu|ar so||s by send|ng a few
samp|es to a |aboratory for e|ementa| ana|ys|s. Send|ng a sma|| number of samp|es shou|d
not be too cost proh|b|t|ve and w||| great|y |ncrease the accuracy of your resu|ts.
Table 3.7 Re|at|onsh|p between % |Ol and % O
org
for the d|ferent ecosystems. var|ab|||ty w|th|n ecosystems may be
due to s||ght d|ferences |n methods used and/or character|st|cs of the so||s.
ECOSYSTEM
RELATIONSHIP
STRENGTH (r
2
)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
% LOI AND % C
org
LOCATION (SOURCE)
Mangroves 0.59 % O
org
= 0.415 * % |Ol + 2.89 Pa|au (Kaufmann et al.
2011}
Tidal Salt
Marshes
0.98 % O
org
= 0.47 * % |Ol + 0.0008 (% |Ol}
2
Maine (Johnson et al.
in prep)
Tidal Salt
Marsh
0.99 % O
org
= 0.40 * % |Ol + 0.0025 (% |Ol}
2
North Carolina (Craft
et al. 1991}
Seagrasses
(% |Ol > 0.2}
0.87 % O
org
= 0.40 * % |Ol - 0.21 G|oba| data set
(Fourqurean et al. 2012a}
Seagrasses
(% |Ol > 0.2}
0.96 % O
org
= 0.43 * % |Ol - 0.33 G|oba| data set
(Fourqurean et al. 2012a}
Wh||e % |Ol can be an adequate |nd|cator of organ|c matter content |n many samp|e types
(often defned operat|ona||y as % organ|c matter}, |t |s |mportant to understand the poss|b|e
||m|tat|ons of th|s techn|que. |Ol has been reported to |ead to overest|mat|on of organ|c
carbon content |n two ways:
1} lf a samp|e conta|n|ng carbonate (e.g., those under|y|ng seagrass meadows w|th shoots
covered by abundant ep|phytes or so||s |n the reg|on of cora| reefs} |s heated above
500 O, |oss of water and OO
2
der|ved from OaOO
3
may a|so be dr|ven of (H|rota & Szyper
1975; |eong & Tanner 1999}.
2} ln so||s conta|n|ng > 11% c|ay m|nera|s, a s|gn|fcant amount of structura| water (that |s
not |ost by heat|ng at 60 O} may be dr|ven of dur|ng heat|ng at th|s h|gher temperature
(Bar|||e-Boyer et al. 2003}.
ln both cases, the organ|c carbon content cou|d be overest|mated due to the fact that the %
|Ol cou|d refect a |oss of organ|c matter, |norgan|c carbon, and structura| water conta|ned
w|th|n the samp|e. A reduct|on |n the error ar|s|ng from % |Ol may be ach|eved by determ|n|ng
and correct|ng for the |norgan|c content (see sect|on be|ow on correct|ng for |norgan|c carbon}.
64
3
CALCULATING TOTAL SOIL CARBON STOCK
The tota| so|| carbon stock w|th|n a project area |s determ|ned by the amount of carbon w|th|n
a defned area and so|| depth. To ca|cu|ate the tota| so|| carbon for your project area you w|||
need the fo||ow|ng |nformat|on:
+ Soil depth,
+ Subsamp|e depth and |nterva|,
+ Dry bu|k dens|ty, and
+ % Organ|c carbon.
The tota| carbon stock |n a project area can be determ|ned as fo||ows:
Step 1: For each |nterva| of the core samp|ed/ana|yzed, ca|cu|ate the so|| organ|c carbon
dens|ty as fo||ows:
So|| carbon dens|ty (g/cm
3
} = dry bu|k dens|ty (g/cm
3
} * (% O
org
/100}.
Step 2: Oa|cu|ate the amount of carbon |n the var|ous sect|ons of core samp|ed by
mu|t|p|y|ng each so|| carbon dens|ty va|ue obta|ned |n step 1 by the th|ckness of
the samp|e |nterva| (cm}:
Amount carbon |n core sect|on (g/cm
3
} = So|| carbon dens|ty (g/cm
3
} * th|ckness
|nterva| (cm}.
Step 3: Sum the amount of carbon |n core sect|ons over the recommended tota| samp||ng
depth (1 m at a m|n|mum}. || |s c||||ca| ||a| ||e |o|a| samo||| deo|| oe ||c|0ded ||
,o0| |eoo||.
Oore =1 summed = Amount carbon |n core sect|on A (g/cm
3
} + Amount carbon
|n core sect|on B (g/cm
3
} + Amount carbon |n core sect|on O (g/cm
3
} + .. a|| the
samp|es from a s|ng|e core.
*The ent|re core needs to be |nc|uded |n th|s ca|cu|at|on. lf subsamp|es were taken
along the core (Fig 3.11}, sum the amount of carbon |n each of the sect|ons and
then sum over the tota| depth samp|ed to get the tota| carbon stock.
Step 4: Oonvert the tota| core carbon from step 3 |nto the un|ts common|y used |n carbon
stock assessment (MgO/hectare-cm} us|ng the fo||ow|ng un|t convers|on factors
(There are 1,000,000 g per Mg (megagram}, and 100,000,000 cm
2
per hectare}:
Tota| core carbon (MgO/hectare-cm} = Summed core carbon (g/cm
3
} *
(1 Mg/1,000,000 g} * (100,000,000 cm
2
/1 hectare}.
The un|t here |s Mg O/hectare (for the top 1 m so||}, and |s a typ|ca| un|t used |n
carbon stock assessment.
REPEAT FOR EACH CORE
Step 5: Determ|ne the average amount of carbon |n a stratum for g|ven depth and ca|cu|ate
the assoc|ated standard dev|at|on to determ|ne var|ab|||ty/error.
Average carbon |n a core = Oarbon content for core =1 (determ|ned |n step 4} +
Oarbon content for core =2 + Oarbon content for core =3+.. n} / n.
65
3
Standard Dev|at|on (o} determ|nes how c|ose|y the data are c|ustered about the
mean, and |s ca|cu|ated as fo||ows:
Core Standard Deviation
(o} =

[
(X
1
X)
2
+ (
2
X)
2
+ . (
n
X)
2
]

1/2
(N1}
+ X = average carbon |n a core
+ X
1
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for core =1, |n MgO/hectare;
2
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for core
=2, |n MgO/hectare, etc.,
+ N = tota| number of resu|ts.
Step 6: To obta|n the tota| amount of carbon |n the ecosystem, mu|t|p|y the average carbon
va|ue (MgO/hectare} for each core obta|ned |n step 5 above by the area of each
stratum (|n hectares} to determ|ne MgO for each stratum, and then sum the MgO
va|ues for each stratum to determ|ne the tota| so|| carbon stock.
Aga|n, |t |s cr|t|ca| to note the tota| depth of the so|| cores. Thus, the fna| un|t for
so|| carbon stock |n each project strata w||| be MgO over a spec|fc depth |nterva|
(usua||y, but not a|ways 1m}.
Tota| organ|c carbon |n a project area (MgO} = (average core carbon from Statum A
(MgO/hectare} * area Statum A (hectares}} + (average core carbon from Statum B
(MgO/hectare} * area Statum B (hectares} + .
Step 7: To report a va|ue for the var|ab|||ty/error assoc|ated w|th these measurements,
ca|cu|ate the tota| uncerta|nty |n the data. F|rst, ca|cu|ate the standard dev|at|on of
the average Mg O for each stratum. [Mu|t|p|y the standard dev|at|on carbon va|ue
(MgO/hectare} for each core determ|ned |n step 5 (above} by the area of each
stratum (|n hectares}.| Then propagate the uncerta|nty through the ca|cu|at|ons by
comb|n|ng the standard dev|at|ons of the average MgO for each stratum as fo||ows:
o
T
= oA2+ oB2+...oN2
+ Where o
T
= the tota| var|ab|||ty assoc|ated w|th the measurements,
+ o
A
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum A * area of stratum,
+ o
B
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum B * area of
stratum, and
+ o
N
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for rema|n|ng stratum * area of
each |nd|v|dua| stratum.
Th|s approach can be used when add|ng average va|ues, as |s done when
comb|n|ng the data from the |nd|v|dua| strata.
Step 8: The fna| so|| carbon stock w||| be presented |n an average va|ue the tota|
uncerta|nty. A|ternat|ve|y, a m|n|mum and max|mum carbon stock can be presented
by mu|t|p|y|ng by the project area by the m|n|mum and max|mum carbon dens|t|es.
Tota| organ|c carbon |n a project area (ca|cu|ated |n Step 6} the standard dev|at|on
(calculated in Step 7)
Equat|ons and examp|es are prov|ded |n Append|ces B and O.
66
3
QUICK GUIDE
Step 1: Determine Soil Depth
Measure depth to parent mater|a|s, bedrock, or cora| sands.
Step 2: Soil Coring
Ohoose so|| cor|ng dev|ce based on type of so|| and degree to wh|ch the so|| |s saturated w|th water.
Stead||y |nsert the cor|ng dev|ce unt|| the top of the samp|er |s |eve| w|th the so|| surface.
Once at depth, tw|st the cor|ng dev|ce to cut through any rema|n|ng fne roots, measure the |ength
of p|pe outs|de the sed|ments and the |ength of empty p|pe, and sea| the top end (the vacuum w|||
prevent the |oss of the samp|e}.
Gent|y pu|| the cor|ng dev|ce out of the so|| wh||e cont|nu|ng to tw|st as |t |s be|ng extracted. Th|s
tw|st|ng ass|sts |n retr|ev|ng a comp|ete so|| samp|e.
ln the case of seagrasses, the cor|ng dev|ce must often be removed from the so|| us|ng a w|nch.
lt |s |mperat|ve to note the tota| depth and any compress|on.
Step 3a: Sampling an Entire Soil Core (if this is not feasible subsampling can be done,
next section)
lt |s best to samp|e the ent|re depth of the so|| core; however, th|s may not a|ways be poss|b|e
or pract|ca|.
lt |s |mperat|ve to record subsamp|e depth, depth |nterva| and vo|ume.
Step 3b: Subsampling a Soil Core
Samp|es shou|d be co||ected from homogen|zed samp|e |nterva|s or from the approx|mate
m|d-po|nt of each des|red depth range.
Step 4: Archiving samples
The proper |abe|||ng of the cores and samp|es |n the fe|d |s essent|a| to avo|d confus|on and
common m|stakes |n samp|e |dent|fcat|on.
Each samp|e/subsamp|e shou|d be |abe||ed w|th at |east a core lD, samp|e depth, and depth |nterva|.
Step 5: Storing samples
To m|n|m|ze decompos|t|on of organ|c matter, samp|es shou|d be kept co|d (at 4 O} and, |f poss|b|e,
frozen w|th|n 24 hours of co||ect|on.
Step 6: Determining Dry Bulk Density (g/cm
3
)
Oa|cu|ate the vo|ume of so|| samp|ed us|ng the equat|on (cm
3
)
Determ|ne the dry we|ght.
Oa|cu|ate dry bu|k dens|ty by d|v|d|ng the mass of dr|ed so|| by the vo|ume of so|| samp|ed (g/cm
3
}.
Step 7: Determine Organic Carbon Content
Dec|de wh|ch techn|ques to use based on des|red resu|t, capac|ty, and budgetary constra|nts.
Determ|ne |norgan|c carbon content.
Determ|ne organ|c carbon content.
Step 8: Calculate Total Soil Carbon Stock
lf you subsamp|ed the core, you w||| need to determ|ne the amount of carbon per cm
3
of the core
and then mu|t|p|y that by the |ength of the samp|e |nterva|, then add a|| the |nterva|s together to
determ|ne the tota| carbon /area represented |n the core.
You must |nc|ude the var|ab|||ty assoc|ated w|th the measurements and the tota| so|| depth assessed
when report|ng resu|ts.
67
4
MIGUEL ANGEL MATEO
Field Sampling of Vegetative Carbon
Pools in Coastal Ecosystems
68
4
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The vegetat|ve b|ue carbon poo| cons|sts of three d|ferent components:
+ The ||v|ng, aboveground b|omass dom|nated by herbaceous (for seagrass and t|da| sa|t
marsh} and woody (for mangroves} p|ant mass. Th|s can a|so |nc|ude ep|phyt|c organ|sms
(e.g., a|gae and m|crobes ||v|ng on the ma|n p|ants} and area| roots (pneumatophores}.
+ The ||v|ng, be|owground b|omass dom|nated by underground roots and rh|zomes.
+ The non-||v|ng, aboveground b|omass, |nc|ud|ng detr|tus cons|st|ng ma|n|y of |eaf ||tter
(found |n a|| three ecosystems}, a|gae, or |n mangroves dead and downed wood.
The protoco|s used to determ|ne the amount of carbon |n each poo|-|n each ecosystem-
w||| vary depend|ng on vegetat|on type and dens|ty. A||ometr|c equat|ons are used to descr|be
the re|at|onsh|p between 'measurab|e parameters" (he|ght, w|dth, c|rcumference, etc.} and
tota| b|omass. These equat|ons are common|y used to determ|ne the b|omass of mater|a|s
where |t |s |mpract|ca|, over|y destruct|ve, or unw|se to take an ent|re samp|e back to the
|aboratory (e.g., trees and |arge shrubs}. Many we||-estab||shed a||ometr|c equat|ons ex|st |n
sc|ent|fc ||terature (many are used |n th|s chapter}, and |t |s recommended to use equat|ons
that have been estab||shed for s|m||ar vegetat|ve spec|es and |ocat|ons as those found |n the
study s|te be|ng |nvest|gated.
ln a|| cases, the carbon poo| for each vegetat|on type |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass
of each type of p|ant mater|a| (e.g., wood, |eaf ||tter, roots, etc.} by the correspond|ng carbon
convers|on factor. The carbon convers|on factor represents the fract|on of vegetat|on that |s
carbon. For examp|e, |f the ||v|ng aboveground wood has been determ|ned to be 45% carbon,
then the carbon convers|on factor |s 0.45. The carbon convers|on factor |s then mu|t|p||ed by
the tota| b|omass of the above ground wood poo| for that p|ot to determ|ne the amount of
carbon found |n the aboveground wood poo| for a certa|n area.
The goa| of Ohapter 4 |s to ut|||ze ecosystem-spec|fc techn|ques to determ|ne the b|omass and
the organ|c carbon content (% O
org
} for each of the re|evant b|ue carbon poo|s. Once the carbon
content for a|| carbon poo|s has been estab||shed, they are then added together to determ|ne
the carbon content of the b|omass per un|t area for a spec|fc system (MgO/hectare}. Th|s va|ue
|s then added to the so|| carbon poo| spec|fed for a certa|n so|| carbon depth (Ohapter 3} to
determ|ne the tota| carbon stock (MgO/hectare-depth} for a b|ue carbon ecosystem.
MANGROVES
Mangrove ecosystems are popu|ated by ha|ophyt|c trees, shrubs, and other p|ants that grow
|n brack|sh to sa||ne t|da| waters of trop|ca| and subtrop|ca| coast||nes (M|tsch & Gosse||nk
2007}. ln genera|, mangroves are restr|cted to the |ntert|da| zone from approx|mate|y mean
sea |eve| to the h|ghest h|gh t|de water |eve|.
Mangroves are c|ass|fed |nto four major assoc|at|ons based on d|fer|ng vegetat|ve structures
that correspond to phys|ca|, c||mat|c, and hydro|og|c features of the env|ronment |n wh|ch they
ex|st: (1} ocean|c fr|ng|ng mangroves, (2} r|ver|ne or estuar|ne mangroves, (3} bas|n mangroves,
and (4} dwarf or scrub (or chaparro} mangroves (O|ntron et al. 1978; M|tsch & Gosse||nk 2007}
(Fig. 4.1}. These c|ass|fcat|ons correspond to aboveground b|omass rang|ng from more than
69
4
500 MgO/ha |n r|ver|ne and fr|nge mangroves (such as |n As|a-Pac|fc reg|ons} to about 8 MgO/ha
for dwarf mangroves (Kaufman & Oo|e 2010; Kaufman et al. 2011}.
F|ood|ng reg|mes throughout the mangrove hab|tat cause sa||ne or brack|sh coasta| wet|and
env|ronments that often cons|st of anox|c (|ow oxygen |eve|s} sed|ments. As such, mangroves
possess a number of adaptat|ons to fac|||tate surv|va| |n these un|que env|ronments. Most notab|y,
th|s |nc|udes aboveground roots (e.g., the|r character|st|c st||t roots and pneumatophores}, wh|ch
a||ow gas exchange for be|owground root t|ssues. The vegetat|on a|so var|es great|y |n structure
(tree he|ght, dens|ty, and spec|es compos|t|on} and funct|on, due to d|ferences |n temperature,
ra|nfa||, hydro|ogy, and substrate (Saenger & Snedaker 1993}. Mature mangroves may range
from shrub-||ke stands |ess than 1 m |n he|ght to |arge trees w|th trunk d|ameters > 1 m.
A B
C D
A B
Figure 4.1 O|ass|fcat|on of mangroves. (A} Ocean|c fr|ng|ng mangroves ( Enr|co Marone, Ol}, (B} R|ver|ne or
estuar|ne mangroves ( G|nny Farmer, Ol}, (O} Bas|n mangroves ( Oo||n Foster, Ol}, and (D} Dwarf or scrub
mangroves ( Oather|ne |ove|ock, O }
Figure 4.2 He|ght d|ferences among mangrove vegetat|on. (A} Sma|| dwarf mangroves < 2 meter |n he|ght
( O.l. Fe||er, SERO}, (B} |arger mangroves severa| meters ta|| ( Andreas Hutahaean, KKP}
70
4
Desp|te severa| s|m||ar|t|es, mangroves are qu|te d|ferent from up|and forests |n both
compos|t|on and structure. Mangroves have st||t roots and pneumatophores, and they
usua||y do not have s|gn|fcant understory vegetat|on or a we||-deve|oped foor ||tter |ayer as
crabs are usua||y extreme|y efc|ent consumers of fa||en |eaves and ||tter |s transported away
by t|des. Because of these and other d|ferences between the structure and env|ronment
of mangroves and up|and forests, approaches to quant|fy|ng the|r compos|t|on, structure,
carbon stocks, and status d|fer. However, some approaches to up|and forest samp||ng may
prov|de gu|dance |n project |mp|ementat|on and des|gn. Notab|e examp|es can be found |n
the sc|ent|fc ||terature (Pearson et al. 2005; Pearson et al. 2007; GOFO-GO|D 2009}.
Field Sampling Considerations
Mangroves ecosystems are often extreme|y d|fcu|t env|ronments to conduct fe|d assessments
and samp||ng. The trees often have extreme|y h|gh stem dens|t|es w|th abundant st||t roots
and/or pneumatophores. Project areas are frequent|y d|ssected by t|da| channe|s wh|ch are
d|fcu|t to cross. The ent|re ecosystem may be fooded, espec|a||y dur|ng h|gh t|des. These
and a number of other hazards ||m|t mob|||ty and create safety concerns. Most mangroves
are a|so subject to sem|-d|urna| t|da| cyc|es and can on|y be samp|ed dur|ng |ow t|des, ||m|t|ng
both the t|m|ng and durat|on of the samp||ng, espec|a||y for components on the forest foor.
ln the |owest e|evat|on mangroves, samp||ng may be ||m|ted to |ow t|da| per|ods of as ||tt|e as
3 to 4 hours. Th|s narrow t|me w|ndow necess|tates an efc|ent samp||ng p|an.
ln Ohapter 2, we descr|be approaches to determ|n|ng the number and |ocat|on of samp||ng
p|ots w|th|n a project area or strata. S|nce the var|ous carbon poo|s w|th|n mangroves have
d|st|nct|y d|ferent sca|es and |eve|s of efort requ|red for samp||ng, |t |s usua||y necessary to
assess d|ferent components w|th d|ferent s|ze samp||ng areas. The b|omass of trees, shrubs,
herbs, ||anas, and pa|ms a|ong w|th non-||v|ng vegetat|on ||ke |eaf ||tter and downed wood must
be determ|ned separate|y and samp|ed at appropr|ate sca|es (Fig. 4.3}. For examp|e, to get a
representat|ve samp||ng of trees, the samp|e area may need to be |arge (e.g., 50 m x 50 m},
but |f you then want to samp|e the |eaf ||tter, |t |s not pract|ca| or necessary to co||ect a|| the
|eaf ||tter |n an area that b|g. Thus a sma||er subp|ot s|ze (e.g., 2 m x 2 m} |s more appropr|ate.
Once s|ze and |ocat|on have been determ|ned, |t |s necessary to dec|de |f the samp||ng
p|ots w||| be permanent or temporary. Permanent p|ots are used |f the same |ocat|on w|||
be assessed |n the future to determ|ne change. Temporary p|ots are used when samp||ng
w||| on|y be done once or when permanent p|ots are not feas|b|e. We g|ve some gu|dance
on estab||sh|ng permanent samp||ng p|ots vs. temporary p|ots |n Ohapter 2. For further
|nformat|on on the estab||shment of permanent p|ots and samp||ng methods, we recommend
the Amazon Forest lnventory Network (www.ra|nfor.org/} and the Oenter for Trop|ca| Forest
Sc|ence (www.ctfs.s|.edu/group/Resources/Methods} webs|tes.
W|th p|ot s|ze, sca|e, and type determ|ned, the next step |s to assess the carbon content of
each re|evant carbon poo|.
71
4
Biomass Estimates
Th|s sect|on prov|des gu|dance on how to measure aboveground b|omass across a range of
vegetat|on types ||ke|y to be encountered |n the fe|d. Some d|ferences |n samp||ng procedures
are requ|red to accommodate d|ferences |n growth forms.
LIVE TREES
Trees dom|nate the aboveground carbon poo| |n mangroves, and both the|r presence
and cond|t|on are |nd|cators of |and-use change and eco|og|ca| cond|t|on. lt |s essent|a| to
measure trees thorough|y and accurate|y. Bas|c data that must be recorded for a|| |nd|v|dua|
mangrove trees |n a p|ot |nc|ude:
+ Spec|es (there are typ|ca||y few spec|es present |n mangroves, spec|es can usua||y be
|dent|fed w|th on-s|te tra|n|ng};
+ Ma|n stem d|ameter at breast he|ght (dbh};
+ Tree he|ght |f feas|b|e; and
+ |ocat|on and lD.
lt |s recommended that a|| ||ve trees be samp|ed and recorded over the ent|re p|ot area,
part|cu|ar|y for permanent p|ots where trends |n carbon are be|ng mon|tored. However, th|s
|s d|ferent from surveys of up|and forests, where on|y trees greater than 10 cm dbh are
measured to standard|ze methods (GOFO-GO|D 2009}. Sma||er trees are |eft out of the
carbon ca|cu|at|ons because they often const|tute a re|at|ve|y |ns|gn|fcant proport|on of the
tota| up|and forest carbon stock (Oumm|ngs et al. 2002}. For many mangroves, however,
Figure 4.3 P|ot sca|e depends on the component be|ng assessed. |arge trees requ|re a |arge enough area to a||ow
for a representat|ve samp||ng, sma||er trees need |ess area to get a representat|ve samp|e, |eaf ||tter, ||anas, dead
wood, and pneumatophores components are so sma|| and numerous that a re|at|ve|y sma|| area |s adequate for
samp||ng (Kaufman & Donato 2011}.
Leaf litter
Downed wood
Shrubs
Mangrove trees
SIZE OF SAMPLING AREA
S
I
Z
E

O
F

I
T
E
M

B
E
I
N
G

S
A
M
P
L
E
D
72
4
sma||er trees can dom|nate the stand compos|t|on and thus must be |nc|uded (|ove|ock et
al. 2005; Kaufman & Oo|e 2010}. A tree |s |nc|uded |n the survey |f at |east 50% of the ma|n
stem |s rooted |ns|de the p|ot per|meter.
ln the |nterest of efc|ency, trees that are sma||er |n d|ameter may be measured |n subp|ots
to reduce the number of measurements necessary. For examp|e, Kaufman and Oo|e (2010}
measured a|| trees > 5 cm dbh over the ent|re p|ot area, wh||e trees < 5 cm dbh were measured
|n sma||er subareas of known s|ze. The tota| number of sma|| trees cou|d then be est|mated
by assum|ng a constant dens|ty over the fu|| p|ot area.
lf numerous seed||ngs are present, the seed||ngs can be recorded as a s|mp|e count of
|nd|v|dua|s |n a subarea. For our purposes, a seed||ng |s defned as a woody p|ant w|th a
he|ght of 10-30 cm (Esqu|ve| et al. 2008}. To determ|ne the carbon content assoc|ated w|th
seed||ngs, a random samp|e shou|d be co||ected from outs|de the p|ot area for ana|ys|s (on|y
necessary to co||ect from outs|de the p|ot |f us|ng permanent p|ots, the |dea |s to |nc|ude
seed||ngs |n the ana|ys|s but |eave them |n the p|ot so they can be mon|tored over t|me}.
Oarbon content can be determ|ned by dry|ng the seed||ngs to determ|ne b|omass fo||owed by
|aboratory ana|ys|s us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3}, but |n many cases |t |s poss|b|e
to fnd a pub||shed carbon convers|on factor for spec|fc tree spec|es. The average carbon
content |s then mu|t|p||ed by the dens|ty (seed||ngs per un|t area} to determ|ne the|r contr|but|on
to the p|ot and strata b|omass.
To determ|ne the b|omass of mangrove trees, ex|st|ng a||ometr|c equat|ons are app||ed
(Chave et al. 2005}. A||ometr|c equat|ons g|ve estab||shed re|at|onsh|ps between the b|omass
of who|e trees (or the|r components} and read||y measured parameters. Accurate spec|es
|dent|fcat|on |s |mportant as |t a||ows the se|ect|on of the most appropr|ate a||ometr|c equat|on
for each measured |nd|v|dua| mangrove tree. Oommon parameters |nc|ude tree d|ameter,
wood dens|ty (Table 4.2} and tree he|ght.
Diameter at Breast Height (dbh): The d|ameter of the tree |s typ|ca||y used to ca|cu|ate the
tree vo|ume. The d|ameter of the tree`s ma|n stem |s typ|ca||y measured at 1.3 m above the
ground, wh|ch |s a|so ca||ed the dbh. These measurements are usua||y made w|th a d|ameter
tape (|f mu|t|p|e measurements are needed} or tree ca|||pers (for a s|ng|e measurement for
rap|d assessment}. Th|s |s not a|ways a stra|ghtforward process due to anoma||es |n stem
structure. Fig. 4.4 g|ves an overv|ew of the |ocat|on for measurement for a var|ety of d|ferent
tree confgurat|ons.
+ lf the tree |s fa|r|y stra|ght w|th a ta|| trunk the dbh can be measured from the ground
para||e| to the trunk (Fig 4.4A)
+ lf the tree |s on a s|ope, a|ways measure on the uph||| s|de (Fig 4.4B)
+ lf the tree |s |ean|ng, dbh |s taken accord|ng to the trees natura| he|ght para||e| to the trunk
(Fig 4.4C)
+ lf the tree |s forked at or be|ow 1.3 m then measure just be|ow the fork (Fig 4.4D)
+ lf the fork |s very c|ose to the ground measure as two trees (Fig 4.4E)
+ For trees w|th ta|| buttresses exceed|ng 1.3 m above ground |eve|, stem d|ameter |s usua||y
measured d|rect|y above the buttress (Fig 4.4F}.
73
4
+ For st||t rooted spec|es (e.g., |||zoo|o|a spp.}, stem d|ameter |s often measured start|ng
above the highest stilt (Fig 4.4G}. For some |nd|v|dua| trees w|th prop roots extend|ng we|| |nto
the canopy |t |s not necessary, pract|ca|, or accurate to measure above the h|ghest prop root
and, typ|ca||y, tree d|ameter |s measured above the st||t roots where a true ma|n stem ex|sts.
ln permanent p|ots, |t |s qu|te |mportant to mark the po|nt of measurement when |t |s not at
1.3 m above ground |eve| so that repeated measurements can be taken at the same |ocat|on.
Th|s |s accomp||shed by p|ac|ng tree tags and/or by pa|nt|ng a r|ng at the exact po|nt of
measurement. ln some stud|es, po|nt of measurement |s marked w|th a sta|n|ess stee| na||.
However, when na||s are used trees tend to deve|op wound wood (bu|ges} where the wood
|s damaged by the na||. Th|s can cause overest|mates of tree growth and therefore |s not
recommended.
Wood Density: Wood dens|ty descr|bes the re|at|onsh|p between the wood`s dry we|ght (g}
and the wood`s vo|ume (cm
3
}. The part of the p|ant (branches, ma|n stem, bark, etc.} harvested
for wood dens|ty depends on the pract|ca||ty of obta|n|ng samp|es and the |eve| of accuracy
des|red. Wood dens|ty requ|res measur|ng both the vo|ume of fresh samp|es and the oven-dry
mass of severa| samp|es of wood (|dea||y n > 25 per samp|e type}. Samp|es are common|y
taken by remov|ng sma|| port|ons of the bark, cutt|ng segments of branches (~2.5 cm}, and
us|ng an |ncrement borer on the ma|n stem (taken from a cons|stent he|ght}. As a rough
gu|de||ne, each p|ece co||ected for ana|ys|s shou|d have a mass of between ~0.5 and 50 g.
vo|ume |s obta|ned by determ|n|ng each fresh samp|e`s submerged mass. On a d|g|ta|
ba|ance, p|ace a conta|ner of a s|ze sufc|ent to submerge each samp|e. Add water to the
conta|ner, not to the top, but to a he|ght that w||| a||ow the d|sp|acement of water w|thout |t
sp||||ng over the s|des of the conta|ner. Each samp|e |s attached to a need|e attached to a
r|ng stand above the sca|e. The samp|e |s then submerged (w|thout touch|ng the bottom and
s|des of the conta|ner} and the change |n mass |s recorded. The change |n mass (g} d|v|ded by
Figure 4.4 Est|mat|ng d|ameter at breast he|ght for |rregu|ar mangrove trees (mod|fed from Pearson, et al. 2005}
1.3 m
1.3 m
1.3 m
1.3 m
1.3 m
1.3 m
1.3 m
Just
below
fork
Just
above
buttress
A B C D
E F G
74
4
the dens|ty of water (g/cm
3
} g|ves the vo|ume of the samp|e. The dens|ty of water |s 1 g/cm
3
,
thus the resu|t|ng |ncrease |n mass shown on the sca|e |s equ|va|ent to the vo|ume d|sp|aced
by the samp|e.
Dry we|ght |s obta|ned by dry|ng the wood samp|es |n a we||-vent||ated oven at 100 O unt||
constant mass |s obta|ned (typ|ca||y 24-72 hours, but the t|me w||| depend on the s|ze of
the samp|e}. We recommend dry|ng at 100 O because water w|th|n the ce|| wa|| can on|y
be comp|ete|y dr|ed of at these temperatures. For each samp|e, ca|cu|ate the wood dens|ty
us|ng the fo||ow|ng equat|on and determ|ne the mean for each samp|e type.
+ Wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
} = Dry we|ght (g} / vo|ume of fresh wood (cm
3
)
Wood dens|t|es for ||ve trees (wh|ch may be d|ferent from dens|t|es of downed woody
debr|s} are requ|red for certa|n a||ometr|c b|omass equat|ons, |nc|ud|ng the genera| mangrove
equat|ons (see next sect|on}. Wood dens|t|es of |nd|v|dua|s of the same spec|es have been
shown to vary great|y between s|tes. As such, |t |s des|rab|e to use s|te-spec|fc wood dens|t|es
est|mated by |aboratory ana|ys|s of samp|es taken from the fe|d. lf that |s not poss|b|e |oca|
forest agenc|es m|ght know wood dens|t|es of spec|fc spec|es. Other genera| sources for
wood dens|ty |nc|ude the Wor|d Agroforestry Database (Wor|d Agroforestry Oenter 2001} and
sources books produced by the .S. Department of Agr|cu|ture (H|dayat & S|mpson 1994}.
Examp|es of wood dens|ty for common mangrove spec|es are g|ven |n Table 4.1.
Allometric equations for mangrove tree biomass: A number of references report a||ometr|c
equat|ons for mangrove b|omass (Saenger 2002; Ohave et al. 2005; Sm|th lll & Whe|an 2006;
Kom|yama et al. 2008; Kaufman & Oo|e 2010; Kaufman & Donato 2011} and examp|es
comp||ed by Kaufman and Donato (2011} are found |n Table 4.2 (for equat|ons w|th parameters
of dbh and wood dens|ty} and Table 4.3 (for equat|ons w|th parameters of dbh, wood dens|ty,
and tree he|ght}. Before dec|d|ng wh|ch a||ometr|c equat|on to use, cons|der the geograph|c
or|g|n and spec|es that composed the data set from wh|ch the equat|on was der|ved. ldea||y,
|t |s best to use a spec|es-spec|fc equat|on deve|oped |n the reg|on where the samp||ng |s to
occur. G|ven the d|ferences |n structure and wood dens|ty among spec|es, spec|es-spec|fc
equat|ons are ||ke|y to y|e|d greater accuracy than genera| equat|ons. lt |s a|so cr|t|ca| to note
the max|mum d|ameter from wh|ch the equat|on was der|ved. App|y|ng the equat|on to trees
that exceed the max|mum d|ameter (D
max
} can |ead to a stat|st|ca||y s|gn|fcant overest|mat|on
of the b|omass. ln very data poor s|tuat|ons, genera| a||ometr|c equat|ons for mangrove trees
can be used but the uncerta|nty |s re|at|ve|y h|gh.
75
4
Table 4.1 Wood dens|ty of mangrove spec|es (1 ton/m
3
= 1 g/cm
3
} (Saenger 2002; Kom|yama et al. 2005; Donato et
al. 2012; Wor|d Agroforestry Oenter 2001}
SPECIES n
AVERAGE
WOOD
DENSITY
(TONNES/m
3
)
STANDARD
ERROR
Avicennia germinans 5 0.72 0.04
Avicennia marina 6 0.62 0.06
/.|ce|||a o/c||a||s 3 0.63 0.02
S|00e||a ,m|o||||za 8 0.81 0.07
Ce||oos deca|d|a 2 0.87 0.10
Ce||oos |aa| 7 0.85 0.04
Excoecaria agallocha 7 0.41 0.02
Heritiera fomes 3 0.86 0.14
Heritiera littoralis 6 0.84 0.05
|a0|c0|a||a |acemosa 3 0.60 0.01
|||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a 4 0.87 0.06
|||zoo|o|a ma||e 7 0.87 0.02
|||zoo|o|a m0c|o|a|a 9 0.83 0.05
5o||e|a||a a|oa 6 0.47 0.12
5o||e|a||a aoe|a|a 2 0.50 0.01
`,|oca|o0s |a|a|0m 7 0.61 0.04
Average 0.71 0.02
76
4
Table 4.2 A||ometr|c equat|ons for comput|ng b|omass of mangrove trees where on|y parameters of d|ameter (dbh}
and wood dens|ty are used. The genera| equat|ons |nc|ude a|| aboveground b|omass. lnd|v|dua| spec|es equat|ons
have been broken down by component. B = B|omass (kg}, D = D|ameter at breast he|ght (cm}, p = Wood dens|ty
(g/cm
3
), D
max
= max|mum d|ameter of samp|ed trees (cm} (Mod|fed from Kaufman and Donato, 2011}.
SPECIES GROUP N D
max
LOCATION BIOMASS EQUATION R
2
Genera| Equat|on 84 42 Amer|cas B = 0.168*p*(D}
2.471
0.99
Genera| Equat|on 104 49 Asia B = 0.251*p*(D}
2.46
0.98
Avicennia germinans 25 42 French
Gu|nea
B = 0.14*D
2.4
0.97
Avicennia germinans 8 21.5 F|or|da, SA B = 0.403*D
1.934
0.95
S|00|e|a ,m|o||||za
(leaf)
17 24 Australia B = 0.0679*D1.4914 0.85
S|00|e|a ,m|o||||za
(wood}
326 132 Micronesia B = 0.0754*p*D
2.505
0.91
|a0|c0|a||a |acemosa 70 10 French
Gu|nea
B = 103.3*D
2.5
0.97
|a0|c0|a||a |acemosa 10 18 F|or|da, SA B = 0.362*D
1.930
0.98
|||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a 20 30 Ma|ays|a B = 0.1709*D
2.516
0.98
|||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a
(wood}
191 60 Micronesia B = 0.0695*p*D
2.644
0.89
|||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a
s|,|osa (leaf)
23 23 Australia B = 0.0139*D
2.1072
0.86
|||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a
s|,|osa (stilt roots)
23 23 Australia B = 0.0068*D
3.1353
0.97
|||zoo|o|a ma||e 14 20 F|or|da, SA B = 0.722*D
1.731
0.94
|||zoo|o|a soo
(racemosa and mangle)
9 32 French
Gu|nea
B = 0.1282*D
2.6
0.92
5o||e|a||a a|oa (wood} 346 323 Micronesia B = 0.3841*p*D
2.101
0.92
77
4
Table 4.3 A||ometr|c equat|ons for comput|ng b|omass of mangrove trees where parameters of d|ameter (dbh} and he|ght
are used for spec|es spec|fc equat|ons, and d|ameter and wood dens|ty are used for genera| equat|on. The genera|
equat|ons |nc|ude a|| aboveground b|omass. lnd|v|dua| spec|es equat|ons represent wood mass and do not |nc|ude |eaves
or roots. B = B|omass (kg}, H = He|ght (m}, D = D|ameter at breast he|ght (cm}, p = Wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
), D
max
= max|mum
d|ameter of samp|ed trees (cm}, H
max
= max|mum he|ght of samp|ed trees (Mod|fed from Kaufman and Donato, 2011}.
SPECIES GROUP N D
max
H
max
BIOMASS EQUATION R
2
Genera| Equat|on 84 42 B = 0.0509*p*(D}
2
*H
S|00|e|a ,m|o||||za 325 132 34 B = 0.0464*(D
2
H)
0.94275
*p 0.96
|0m|||ze|a ||||o|ea 20 70.6 19 B = 0.0214*(D
2
H)
1.05655
*p 0.93
|||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a 193 60 35 B = 0.0444*(D
2
H)
0.96842
*p 0.96
|||zoo|o|a m0c|o|a|a 73 39.5 21 B = 0.0311*(D
2
H)
1.00741
*p 0.95
|||zoo|o|a spp. 265 60 35 B = 0.0375*(D
2
H)
0.98626
*p 0.95
5o||e|a||a a|oa 345 323 42 B = 0.0825*(D
2
H)
0.89966
*p 0.95
`,|oca|o0s |a|a|0m 115 128.5 31 B = 0.0830*(D
2
H)
0.89806
*p 0.95
Variance from Allometric equations: There |s a great dea| of var|at|on |n wood dens|ty,
morpho|ogy, and he|ght-d|ameter re|at|onsh|ps between s|tes, wh|ch can afect the accuracy
and ut|||ty of any g|ven a||ometr|c equat|on. D|ferent equat|ons can y|e|d very |arge d|ferences
|n b|omass pred|ct|ons. ln Fig. 4.5, pred|ct|ons generated from d|ferent a||ometr|c equat|ons
us|ng the same dataset from a mangrove stand |n Yap, FSM, are shown (Kaufman et al. 2011}.
The b|omass pred|ct|on of the |argest S|00|e|a tree |n th|s mangrove forest (69 cm dbh}
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
80
10K
6K
0
8K
4K
2K
10K
6K
0
8K
4K
2K
Diameter at breast height (cm) Diameter at breast height (cm)
A
b
o
v
e
g
r
o
u
n
d

b
i
o
m
a
s
s

(
k
g
)

A
b
o
v
e
g
r
o
u
n
d

b
i
o
m
a
s
s

(
k
g
)

Kauffman & Cole (2010) BRGY equ
(max 132 cm)
Komiyama et al. (2008) general eqn
(max 49 cm)
Chave/Komiyama et al. (2008) general eqn
Chave et al. (2005) general eqn (max 42 cm)
Komiyama et al. (2008) BRGY eqn (max 25 cm)
Kauffman & Cole (2010) SOAL equ
(max 323 cm)
Komiyama et al. (2008) general eqn
(max 49 cm)
Chave/Komiyama et al. (2008) general eqn
(max 50 cm)
Chave et al. (2005) general eqn (max 42 cm)
A. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza B. Sonneratia alba
Figure 4.5 Oompar|son of tree b|omass est|mates for (A} S0|0|e|a ,m|o||||za and (B} 5o||e|a||a a|oa. The
numbers |n parentheses are the max|mum tree d|ameters used to deve|op the equat|ons (Ohave et al. 2005;
Kom|yama et al. 2008; Kaufman & Oo|e 2010}.
78
4
was 2,588 kg us|ng the Kaufman and Oo|e (2010} equat|on and 7,014 kg us|ng the genera|
equat|on of Kom|yama et al. (2008}. S|m||ar|y, the b|omass est|mate for a 45 cm dbh Sonneratia
a|oa tree was 873 kg us|ng the Kaufman and Oo|e (2010} formu|a but > 1,500 kg us|ng the
other equat|ons. For the |argest trees |n th|s stand the d|ferences were even more dramat|c.
The b|omass est|mate for an 80 cm dbh tree was 3,034 kg us|ng the Kaufman and Oo|e
(2010} equat|on but over threefo|d h|gher (9,434 kg} us|ng the Kom|yama et al. (2008} genera|
mangrove equat|on. lt |s |mportant to note that on|y the equat|ons deve|oped by Kaufman
and Oo|e (2010} encompassed the ent|re range of d|ameters encountered at the Yap s|te,
and the a||ometr|c equat|ons used on|y depended on d|ameter (dbh} and wood dens|ty for
comput|ng b|omass of mangrove trees. These |arge d|ferences underscore the |mportance of
us|ng the same equat|ons for a|| trees |n a project area, when compar|ng d|ferent mangroves,
and espec|a||y for permanent mangrove p|ots through t|me.
Determining the Carbon within the Live Tree Component (kg C/m
2
): The live tree carbon
component |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg} of each tree-as determ|ned by
an a||ometr|c equat|on or |aboratory ana|ys|s-by the carbon convers|on factor for mangrove
spec|es spec|fc to that reg|on. Th|s |s done for every tree samp|ed. Next, a|| the va|ues for
|nd|v|dua| tree carbon content are added together to determ|ne the tota| carbon content from
the trees (kg O} for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}. Oarbon convers|on factors are based on the percent
of the b|omass that |s made of organ|c carbon. Th|s can be determ|ned through |aboratory
ana|ys|s us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3}, but |n many cases |t |s poss|b|e to fnd a
pub||shed carbon convers|on factor for spec|fc tree spec|es. Kaufman et al. (2011} reported
the carbon content of S|00|e|a ,m|o||||za as 46.3%, |||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a as 45.9%,
and 5o||e|a||a a|oa as 47.1%. Thus, |f |oca| or spec|es-spec|fc va|ues are not ava||ab|e the
b|omass of these and other trees can be mu|t|p||ed by 0.46 to 0.5 to obta|n carbon content.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon content of each tree (kg O} = tree b|omass (kg} * carbon convers|on factor (0.46-0.5}
+ Oarbon |n ||ve tree component (kg O/m
2
} = (carbon content of tree =1 + carbon content of
tree =2 + ... Tree =n} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
SCRUB MANGROVES
A great percentage of the wor|d`s mangroves have an aboveground structure of sma|| trees |ess
than a few meters |n he|ght, often referred to as dwarf mangrove, scrub mangrove, or 'mang|ar
chaparro." Ourrent|y there are few a||ometr|c equat|ons to determ|ne aboveground b|omass for
these k|nds of mangroves; thus, |t |s an |mportant research need. The few ex|st|ng equat|ons that
are most often used are from measurements of dwarf mangroves |n south F|or|da, SA (Ross
et al. 2001; Ooronado-Mo||na et al. 2004}. The equat|ons |n Ross et al. (2001} ut|||ze the ma|n
stem d|ameter at 30 cm above the ground surface and crown vo|ume to pred|ct aboveground
b|omass of |nd|v|dua| mangroves. Ooronado-Mo||na et al. (2004} deve|oped a||ometr|c equat|ons
ut|||z|ng crown area and the number of prop roots. The most accurate method, however, |s to
deve|op a||ometr|c equat|ons spec|fca||y for the p|ants |n your area of |nterest.
To deve|op an a||ometr|c equat|on for a new s|te, at |east 15 to 25 trees of each spec|es
|n quest|on, encompass|ng the range |n s|ze from the sma||est seed||ngs to the |argest
|nd|v|dua|s, shou|d be measured (typ|ca||y crown d|ameter, crown vo|ume, crown area, tree
he|ght, and/or ma|n stem d|ameter at 30 cm aboveground, Fig. 4.6} and harvested. ln the
79
4
|aboratory, |nd|v|dua| trees are dr|ed and we|ghed to obta|n b|omass. A re|at|onsh|p between
the tree b|omass and the b|ometr|c measurements (crown d|ameter, area and vo|ume, ma|n
stem d|ameter at 30 cm} can then be deve|oped by regress|on ana|ys|s.
Once a||ometr|c equat|ons have been estab||shed, they can be app||ed to every scrub
mangrove tree w|th|n a samp|e p|ot. The p|ot s|ze |s typ|ca||y sma||; however, s|nce scrub
mangroves grow |n very dense commun|t|es, fe|d measurements can be t|me consum|ng
(Fig. 4.2A}. For examp|e, a typ|ca| p|ot s|ze and shape wou|d be a 2 m rad|us ha|f c|rc|e p|ot
(tota| area 6.3 m
2
}.
Determining the Carbon within the Scrub Mangrove Component (kgC/m
2
): The scrub
mangrove carbon component |s determ|ned for each tree by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg}, as
determ|ned by an a||ometr|c equat|on, by a carbon convers|on factor for scrub mangroves
spec|fc to that reg|on. Th|s |s done for every scrub tree |n the p|ot. Next, a|| the va|ues for
|nd|v|dua| tree carbon content are added together to determ|ne the tota| carbon content from
the scrub trees (kg O} for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}.
The carbon convers|on factor for scrub mangroves |s not we|| documented |n the sc|ent|fc
||terature; therefore, |t can be determ|ned e|ther through |aboratory ana|ys|s us|ng an e|ementa|
ana|yzer (Ohapter 3}, or |t |s just|fab|e to use the convers|on factor reported for ta|| mangrove
trees (0.46 to 0.5, see sect|on on mangrove trees above}.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon content of each tree (kg O} = tree b|omass (kg} * carbon convers|on factor
(0.46-0.5}
+ Oarbon |n ||ve tree component (kg O/m
2
} = (carbon content of tree =1 + carbon content of
tree =2 + ... Tree =n} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
W1
Crown
Depth
Height
D
30
Z
W1
W2
Elliptical crown area = (W1 * W2/2)
2

Where W1 is the widest length of the plant

canopy through its center, and W2 is the
canopy width perpendicular to W1.
Crown volume = elliptical crown area * crown depth
Height is measured from the sediment surface
to the highest point of the canopy.
D
30
is the mainstem diameter at 30 cm.
Figure 4.6 F|e|d measurement techn|ques to ca|cu|ate the e|||pt|ca| crown area, crown depth, he|ght, and d|ameter
at 30 cm he|ght (D
30
} of dwarf mangroves. Aboveground b|omass of these sma|| trees |s best pred|cted through
a||ometr|c equat|ons where aboveground b|omass |s the dependent var|ab|e and crown area, and he|ght and/or
crown vo|ume are |ndependent var|ab|es (Ross et al. 2001}.
80
4
STANDING DEAD TREES
W|th|n each samp||ng p|ot, a|| trees that are dead and stand|ng shou|d be recorded as such
and ana|yzed as a separate poo|. The degree to wh|ch the tree has decayed w||| determ|ne
how |ts b|omass |s ca|cu|ated. Decay status |s broken down as fo||ows (Fig. 4.7}:
+ Decay status 1: Sma|| branches and tw|gs are reta|ned; resemb|es a ||ve tree except for
absence of |eaves.
+ Decay status 2: No tw|gs/sma|| branches; may have |ost a port|on of |arge branches.
+ Decay status 3: Few or no branches, stand|ng stem on|y; ma|n stem may be broken-topped.
The b|omass of stand|ng dead trees |s then determ|ned accord|ng to the decay status of
the tree.
Decay status 1: B|omass can be est|mated us|ng ||ve tree equat|ons. The on|y d|ference
|s that |eaves shou|d be subtracted from the b|omass est|mate. Th|s can be accomp||shed
e|ther us|ng a |eaf b|omass equat|on to determ|ne the quant|ty of |eaves to be subtracted
(O|ough & Scott 1989; Kom|yama et al. 2005; Sm|th lll & Whe|an 2006}, or by subtract|ng
a constant of 2.5% of the ||ve tree b|omass est|mate.
Decay status 2: B|omass can be ca|cu|ated by subtract|ng away a port|on of the b|omass
from the ||ve tree equat|ons. Because they have |ost some branches |n add|t|on to |eaves,
both |eaf b|omass and an est|mate of branch |oss must be factored |n. Oommon|y, a tota|
of 10-20% of b|omass (account|ng for both |eaves and some branches} |s subtracted. Th|s
amount can be adjusted and ta||ored to spec|fc cond|t|ons us|ng fe|d observat|ons.
Decay Status 3: Trees have often |ost a s|gn|fcant port|on of the|r vo|ume due to advanced
breakage; consequent|y, |t |s d|fcu|t to est|mate b|omass from the ||ve-tree b|omass
est|mates. lnstead, the rema|n|ng tree`s vo|ume may be ca|cu|ated us|ng an equat|on for
1 2 3
Figure 4.7 Examp|es of dead tree decay status. 1} Recent|y dead trees that ma|nta|n many sma||er branches and
tw|gs, 2} Trees have |ost sma|| branches and tw|gs, and a port|on of |arge branches, 3} Most branches have been |ost
and on|y the ma|n stem rema|ns, and |s often broken (So|och|n 2009}.
81
4
a frustum (truncated cone}. To do th|s, record the d|ameter at the base of the tree and the
tota| tree he|ght us|ng a |aser too| or c||nometer (a too| used to measure mangrove tree
he|ght}. The top d|ameter must be est|mated us|ng a taper equat|on.
Taper equat|on for est|mat|ng the top-d|ameter of a broken-topped dead tree:
+ Est|mat|ng the top-d|ameter of a broken-topped dead tree (cm} = the measured basa|
d|ameter (cm} - [100 * tree he|ght (m} * ((the measured basa| d|ameter (cm} - d|ameter at
breast he|ght (cm} / 130}|
d
top
= d
base
- [100 * ht * ((d
base
- dbh} / 130 }|
lf taper equat|on resu|ts |n negat|ve number, use 0 for the next equat|on.
Then the vo|ume of the dead tree |s determ|ned by assum|ng the tree |s a truncated cone:
+ Dead tree vo|ume (cm
3
} = [n * (100 x tree he|ght (m}} / 12 | * [base d|ameter (cm}
2
+ top
d|ameter (cm}
2
+ (base d|ameter (cm} x top d|ameter (cm}}|
vo|ume (cm
3
} = (n * (100*ht} / 12 }* (d2
base
+ d2
top
+ (d
base
* d
top
}}.
Dead tree b|omass (kg} |s then determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng |ts vo|ume (cm
3
} by |ts wood dens|ty
(g/cm
3
}.
+ Decay Status 3 dead tree b|omass (kg} = vo|ume of the dead tree (cm
3
} * wood dens|ty
(g/cm
3
}} * (1 kg / 1000 g}.
ldea||y wood dens|ty of stand|ng dead trees wou|d be determ|ned |n the |aboratory; however,
if that is not practical, a list of standard densities based on size (Table 4.4) can be used for
th|s ca|cu|at|on. lt |s |mportant to note that the dens|ty |nformat|on |n Table 4.4 was der|ved
from downed wood measured fo||ow|ng a typhoon w|th ||tt|e or no decay. Stud|es have shown
that there |s a broad range of dens|t|es for var|ous components (tw|gs 0.628-0.350, branches
0.60-0.284, prop roots 0.276-0.511, and trunks 0.340-0.234}, emphas|z|ng the need for
s|te spec|fc est|mat|ons of wood dens|ty when poss|b|e (Robertson & Dan|e| 1989}.
Table 4.4 The wood dens|ty and mean d|ameter of the standard wood debr|s s|ze c|asses of downed mangrove
wood (Rh|zophora ap|cu|ata, Sonnerat|a a|ba, and Brugu|era gymnorrh|za} (Kaufman & Oo|e 2010}.
SIZE CLASS
(cm DIAMETER) DENSITY SE (g/cm
3
) SAMPLE SIZE (n)
< 0.64 0.48 0.01 117
0.65 - 2.4 0.64 0.02 31
2.54 - 7.6 0.71 0.01 69
> 7.6 0.69 0.02 61
Determining the Carbon within the Standing Dead Tree Component (kg C/m
2
): The
stand|ng dead tree carbon poo| |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg}, determ|ned by
decay status, of each |nd|v|dua| stand|ng dead tree by a carbon convers|on factor. Next a||
the va|ues for |nd|v|dua| tree carbon content are added together to determ|ne the tota| carbon
content from the trees (kg O} for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}.
82
4
The carbon convers|on factor for stand|ng dead trees can be determ|ned through |aboratory
ana|ys|s us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3}. lf th|s |s not pract|ca|, the carbon concentrat|on
of dead wood |s usua||y around 50% (Kaufman et al. 1995}. Thus, the b|omass of these trees
|s typ|ca||y mu|t|p||ed by 0.5 to obta|n carbon stock va|ue.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon content of each tree (kg O} = tree b|omass (kg} * carbon convers|on factor
(0.46-0.5}
+ Oarbon |n stand|ng dead tree component (kg O/m
2
} = (carbon content of tree =1 + carbon
content of tree =2 + ... Tree =n} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
LIANAS
||anas are |ong-stemmed, woody v|nes that are rooted |n the so|| of the forest foor and c||mb
up |nto the forest canopy on trees (Fig 4.8}. They range from sma||, |nd|screte v|nes that w|nd
around tree trunks to g|ant ||anas severa| cm |n d|ameter that seem|ng|y hang |n the m|dd|e
of the forest |ndependent of trees. |arge ||anas rare|y ex|st |n mangroves, but |f present they
can be measured just ||ke trees.
Every ||ana |n a samp|e area shou|d be measured |f they are be|ng |nc|uded |n ca|cu|at|ons.
There are a number of equat|ons to determ|ne ||ana b|omass (Schn|tzer et al. 2006}, but for
our purposes ||ana b|omass can be est|mated us|ng the genera| a||ometr|c equat|on:
+ B|omass for ||anas (kg} = (D|ameter 130 cm from the so|| surface (cm}}
2.657
* e
0.968
x
|n (D|ameter 130 cm from the so|| surface (cm}}
B = D
2.657
* e
-0.968
*|n(D}
Figure 4.8 ||anas. (A} O|ose up v|ew of a typ|ca| ||ana found |n mangrove forests ( llTA}, (B} |mage of the extent to
wh|ch ||anas can contr|bute to the vegetat|ve b|omass ( Mark Marathon, W|k|med|a Oommons}
A B
83
4
Determining the Carbon within the Liana Component (kg C/m
2
): When ||anas are present |n
mangrove forests, the|r carbon poo| |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg} of each |nd|v|dua|
v|ne by a carbon convers|on factor. Next, a|| the va|ues for |nd|v|dua| ||ana carbon content are added
together to determ|ne the tota| carbon content from the v|nes (kg O} for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}.
The carbon convers|on factor for ||anas can be determ|ned through |aboratory ana|ys|s us|ng
an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3}. lf th|s |s not pract|ca|, the carbon concentrat|on (based on
dry we|ght} of ||anas |n the forest of Mex|co have been reported to be ~46% (Jaram|||o et al.
2003}; therefore, a defau|t va|ue for the carbon convers|on factor of ||anas |s 0.46.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon content of each ||ana (kg O} = ||ana b|omass (kg} * carbon convers|on factor (0.46}
+ Oarbon |n the ||ana component (kg O/m
2
} = (carbon content of ||ana =1 + carbon content
of ||ana =2 + ... ||ana =n} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
PALMS AND OTHER NON-TREE VEGETATION
nderstory vegetat|on (e.g., non-mangrove tree seed||ngs and herbs} |s genera||y neg||g|b|e
|n mangroves, and |ts measurement for ecosystem carbon poo|s |s usua||y unnecessary
(Snedaker & |ahmann 1988}.
The most notab|e except|on |s the nypa pa|m (^,oa /|0||ca|s, Fig. 4.9} of the As|a-Pac|fc
reg|on where |t may be the dom|nant spec|es |n some |ocat|ons. Approaches to samp||ng these
vegetat|on components w||| depend on the|r dens|ty, structure, and d|str|but|on (Snedaker &
|ahmann 1988}. The b|omass of nypa pa|ms and herbaceous vegetat|on may be determ|ned
e|ther through non-destruct|ve samp||ng or destruct|ve harvests (wh|ch |s most common for
herbaceous vegetat|on, such as ferns, seagrass, grasses, sedges, rushes, and broad-|eaved
herbs}. Non-destruct|ve approaches are necessary for p|ots that w||| be rev|s|ted over t|me,
espec|a||y for perenn|a| spec|es.
To determ|ne b|omass (kg}, at |east 15 to 25 pa|m fronds from d|ferent |nd|v|dua| p|ants
shou|d be co||ected from outs|de any permanent samp|e p|ots. The samp|es shou|d cover the
observed s|ze d|str|but|on of the |nd|v|dua| |eaves and each samp|ed frond |s cut at ground
|eve|. Obta|n the dry mass of each frond |n the |aboratory and ca|cu|ate the average. Oount
the tota| number of nypa |eaves w|th|n a samp|e (or subsamp|e} p|ot and then mu|t|p|y|ng that
number by the average dry mass.
Figure 4.9 Examp|es of pa|m p|ants found |n mangroves. (A} 5ma|| ^,oa /|0||ca|s ( Andreas Hutahahean, KKP},
(B} ta|| woody stemmed pa|m p|ants ( Enr|co Marone, Ol}
A B
84
4
Pa|ms w|th woody trunks can be measured |n the same manner as broad-|eaved trees.
Parameters of the pa|m that need to be measured (dbh, he|ght, etc.} depend on the a||ometr|c
equat|on used to determ|ne pa|m b|omass. The most frequent|y used var|ab|e to determ|ne
pa|m b|omass |s the he|ght of the ma|n stem from the ground to the base of |eaves.
Determining the Carbon within the Palm Component (kg C/m
2
): The pa|m carbon
component |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg}, e|ther the average ca|cu|ated
from the co||ected fronds or from a||ometr|c equat|ons for |arger woody pa|ms, by a carbon
convers|on factor for pa|m spec|es spec|fc to that reg|on.
lf the b|omass used was determ|ned for the ent|re p|ot us|ng the average b|omass of the
fronds co||ected mu|t|p||ed by a|| the fronds |n the p|ot, then s|mp|y mu|t|p|y that number by
the carbon convers|on factor to determ|ne the tota| pa|m carbon component for your p|ot.
lf the b|omass used was determ|ned for |arger woody pa|ms, a|| the va|ues for |nd|v|dua| pa|m
carbon content must be added together to determ|ne the tota| carbon content from the trees
(kg O} for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}.
The carbon convers|on factor for pa|ms can be determ|ned e|ther through |aboratory ana|ys|s
us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3} or a convers|on factor of 0.47 can be used (Kaufman
et al. 1998}.
EXAMPLE FOR SMALL PALMS
+ Oarbon |n the sma|| pa|m component (kg O/m
2
} = (Est|mated b|omass of the pa|m fronds
* carbon convers|on factor (0.47}} / area of the p|ot (m
2
}.
EXAMPLE FOR LARGE WOODY PALMS
+ Oarbon content of each |arge pa|m (kg O} = pa|m b|omass (kg} * carbon convers|on factor
(0.47};
+ Oarbon |n |arge pa|m component (kg O/m
2
} = (carbon content of tree =1 + carbon content
of tree =2 + ... Tree =n} / area of the p|ot (m
2
}.
PNEUMATOPHORES
Pneumatophores of mangrove spec|es of the genera Avicennia, S|00e||a, and Sonneratia
can be of s|gn|fcant structure and b|omass, and un||ke the st||t roots on |||zoo|o|a, these
tree parts are not |nc|uded |n the a||ometr|c equat|ons of b|omass for ||ve trees (Fig. 4.10}.
Pneumatophore dens|ty can be determ|ned by count|ng the|r numbers |n m|crop|ots w|th|n or
|mmed|ate|y adjacent to, the ma|n samp||ng p|ot.
A common-s|zed m|crop|ot |s 50 x 50 cm
2
but can range from 30 x 30 cm
2
to 1 x 1 m
2
. To
determ|ne b|omass (kg}, pneumatophores shou|d be co||ected from outs|de any permanent
samp|e p|ots. A|| pnematophores w|th|n the p|ot shou|d be counted and 50-100 samp|es
shou|d be co||ected. The samp|es shou|d cover the observed s|ze d|str|but|on and be cut at
ground |eve|. Obta|n the dry mass of each pneumatophore |n the |aboratory and ca|cu|ate
the average.
85
4
+ B|omass for pneumatophores (kg} = Average dry mass of samp|ed pneumatophores *
number of pneumatophores |n the m|crop|ot.
An a||ometr|c equat|on us|ng pneumatophore he|ght to pred|ct b|omass cou|d be deve|oped
and wou|d be of va|ue |n permanent p|ots. lf such an equat|on were deve|oped, each
pneumatophore |n a m|crop|ot wou|d need to be measured for he|ght. Th|s wou|d be most
re|evant for those spec|es conta|n|ng |arge pneumatophores such as 5o||e|a||a a|oa.
Determining the Carbon within the Pneumatophore Component (kg C/m
2
): The
pneumatophore carbon component |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the average b|omass (kg}-
ca|cu|ated from the co||ected pneumatophores-by a carbon convers|on factor for spec|es
spec|fc to that reg|on.
S|nce the b|omass used was determ|ned for the ent|re m|crop|ot us|ng the average b|omass
of the pneumatophores co||ected mu|t|p||ed by a|| the pneumatophores |n the p|ot, you
s|mp|y need to mu|t|p|y that number by the carbon convers|on factor to determ|ne the tota|
pneumatophore carbon component for a m|crop|ot.
The carbon convers|on factor for pneumatophores can e|ther be determ|ned through
|aboratory ana|ys|s us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3}, or a convers|on factor for roots
can be used-typ|ca||y 0.39 (Kaufman & Donato 2011}.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon |n the pneumatophore component (kg O/m
2
} = (Est|mated b|omass of the
pneumatophores * carbon convers|on factor (0.39}} / area of the p|ot (m
2
}.
Figure 4.10 Pneumatophores. (A} Measur|ng pneumatophore he|ght, (B} Pneumatophores can be measured
|n or next to m|crop|ots. These m|crop|ots can be the same p|ots used to samp|e ||tter (descr|bed be|ow}.
( Boone Kaufman, OS}
A B
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4
LITTER
The ||tter |ayer |s defned as the
recent|y fa||en non-woody dead
organ|c mater|a| on the so|| surface.
Typ|ca||y, |t cons|sts of dead |eaves,
fowers, fru|ts, seeds, and bark
fragments. ln most mangrove
sett|ngs, the amount of th|s mater|a|
(and therefore carbon stock} on|y
represents a very sma|| component
of the carbon pool due to the high
efc|ency of detr|tus-consum|ng
crabs as we|| as export through
t|des and seasona| r|ver food|ng.
lf |t |s measured, ||tter |n most
b|omass stud|es |s destruct|ve|y
samp|ed through co||ect|on from
sma|| m|crop|ots, often 0.5 x 0.5
m |n s|ze. A|| organ|c surface
mater|a|, exc|ud|ng woody part|c|es,
|s co||ected |nto a sturdy bag or
conta|ner. The bags are |abe||ed w|th
the |ocat|on, date, p|ot, and samp|e number (Fig. 4.11}. G|ven the wet nature of mangroves,
pre-|abe||ed p|ast|c bags w|th permanent markers may be most efc|ent for ||tter samp|es.
Determining the Carbon within the Leaf Litter Component (kg C/m
2
): The samp|es shou|d
be transported to the |aboratory, p|aced |n a dry|ng oven, and dr|ed to constant mass. Due
to constra|nts of carry|ng bu|ky samp|es from the fe|d and the ||m|ted ava||ab|||ty of oven
dry|ng space, espec|a||y |n rura| fe|d sett|ngs, we suggest determ|n|ng the wet we|ght of the
ent|re samp|e and then extract a we||-m|xed representat|ve subsamp|e for transportat|on to a
|aboratory to be dr|ed to a constant we|ght. F|na||y, determ|ne the rat|o between wet and dry
mass of the subsamp|e by record|ng the wet mass of the samp|e and re|at|ng |t to the dry
(constant} mass (Oumm|ngs et al. 2002}.
+ B|omass of ||tter (kg} = (dry mass of subsamp|e (g} / wet mass of the subsamp|e (g}} * wet
mass of a|| the ||tter |n the samp|e p|ot (kg}
The ||tter b|omass (kg} can then be est|mated for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}. Mean carbon
concentrat|ons of trop|ca| forest |eaf ||tter dry mass have been reported to range from 38-49%
(Kaufman et al. 1993; Kaufman et al. 1995}. Therefore, a carbon convers|on factor of about
0.45 |s recommended.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon |n the |eaf ||tter component (kg O/m
2
} = (Average b|omass of the ||tter * carbon
convers|on factor (0.45}} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
Figure 4.11 Pre-|abe||ed p|ast|c bags conta|n|ng ||tter ( Boone
Kaufman, OS}
87
4
DEAD AND DOWNED WOOD
There are severa| gu|des that descr|be methods for determ|n|ng downed wood vo|ume and
mass (Harmon & Sexton 1996; Wadde|| 2002}. Dead and downed wood mater|a| can be a
s|gn|fcant component of aboveground b|omass, part|cu|ar|y fo||ow|ng natura| d|sturbances,
such as trop|ca| cyc|ones (Fig. 4.12}. |and-use and/or |and-cover change may a|so |ncrease
the quant|ty of downed wood on the mangrove forest foor. To accurate|y assess ecosystem
carbon poo|s and |nfuences of natura| and human d|sturbances, dead and downed wood
|s an |mportant var|ab|e to measure. Downed wood |s usua||y samp|ed e|ther by p|ot-based
samp||ng or by the ||ne-|ntersect method (Wadde|| 2002; Baker & Ohao 2009}. The non-
destruct|ve ||ne-|ntersect techn|que |s recommended.
Line (or planar) intersect technique for sampling downed wood: The line (or planar)
|ntersect techn|que |nvo|ves count|ng |ntersect|ons of woody p|eces a|ong a vert|ca| samp||ng
p|ane (transect}. ln each samp||ng p|ot, a ser|es of transects shou|d be estab||shed to measure
th|s carbon poo|. A transect |s a stra|ght ||ne across the ent|re |ength of the p|ot. For examp|e,
four transects m|ght be estab||shed |n each of s|x subp|ots for a tota| of 24 transects per p|ot.
lmportant ru|es |n measur|ng downed wood |nc|ude:
+ Dead trees that are stand|ng are not measured |n the ||ne |ntersect techn|que;
+ Downed wood must be broken from the tree where |t or|g|nated; thus, dead branches and
stems st||| attached to stand|ng trees or shrubs do not count;
+ The transect tape must |ntersect the centra| ax|s of a wood p|ece for |t to be counted. Th|s
means that |f the tape on|y |ntersects a corner at the end of a |og, |t does not count; and
+ Any p|ece can be recorded mu|t|p|e t|mes |f the tape |ntersects |t more than once
(e.g., a curved p|ece, or at both the branch and the stem of a fa||en tree}.
A|| downed, dead, woody mater|a| (fa||en/detached trunks, branches, prop roots, or stems of
trees and shrubs} that has fa||en and ||es on or over the transect ||ne (w|th|n 2 m of the ground
surface} |s counted and c|ass|fed us|ng th|s techn|que. Woody debr|s can be categor|zed
|nto four s|zes: fne, sma||, med|um, and |arge wood part|c|es (Table 4.5}. These s|ze c|asses
are regu|ar|y used |n forest |nventor|es, and conven|ent measurement too|s ex|st to stream||ne
fe|d samp||ng based on these ||m|ts (Fig. 4.13}.
Figure 4.12 Downed wood. (A} Downed wood after a storm |n Bang|adesh, (B} prooted |||zoo|o|a and Sonneratia
fo||ow|ng Typhoon Suda|, Yap, FSM ( Boone Kaufman, OS}
A B
88
4
Table 4.5 Oommon|y used s|ze c|asses of wood.
DESCRIPTION DIAMETER
F|ne 0 - 0.6 cm
Sma|| 0.6 - 2.5 cm
Med|um 2.5 - 7.6 cm
|arge , 7.6 cm
The number of fne, sma||, and med|um p|eces that cross the transect ||ne are counted and
ta|||ed separate|y for each s|ze c|ass. Sma||er p|eces can be very abundant, and to save t|me,
are on|y samp|ed a|ong subsect|ons of each transect (Fig. 4.14}.
To convert the count for the sma||er c|ass s|zes |nto b|omass, an average d|ameter of wood
p|eces |n each of these c|asses must be est|mated. The average d|ameter of wood p|eces
can be der|ved from measurements of about 50-100 random|y se|ected p|eces of each
Figure 4.13 Examp|es of woody debr|s transcect
strategy. (A} Schemat|c of a transects w|th|n a subp|ot
(trasect 1 = 2 samp|es; transect 2 = 3 samp|es;
transect 3 = 3 samp|es; and transect 4 = 2 samp|es},
(B} Examp|e of a transect |n the fe|d, (O} s|ng a down-
wood gauge to c|ass|fy p|eces by s|ze (sma|| c|ass},
(D} s|ng a down-wood gauge to c|ass|fy p|eces by s|ze
(fne c|ass} ( Dan|e| Donato, W}
Transect
1 2 3 4
B C
D
A
Plot Center
Wood
size
Wood size
no
measurement
Counted, measured (diameter), recorded sound or rotten
2 m Nested subplot boundary 7 m 0 m 10 m 12 m
2.5 7.5
cm
0.6 2.5
cm
< 0.6
cm

cm
Figure 4.14 Examp|e of a wood debr|s transect for samp||ng downed wood |n mangroves us|ng the ||ne |ntersect
techn|que. The d|ameter of each |arge wood p|ece encountered a|ong the ent|re transect |s measured. Sma||er
d|ameter p|eces are counted but not measured a|ong the des|gnated |engths of the transect.
89
4
s|ze c|ass (fne, sma||, and med|um}. A d|g|ta| ca|||per |s recommended for measur|ng the
d|ameter of each p|ece. We recommend us|ng a quadrat|c mean equat|on to d|ameter the
average d|ameter of the wood p|eces rather than the mean d|ameter of wood c|asses (Brown
& Roussopou|os 1974}. The quadrat|c mean d|ameter (OMD} |s ca|cu|ated as:
+ Ouadrat|c mean d|ameter (cm} = (d|ameter of each p|ece of wood
2
} / number of p|eces
samp|ed
OMD = (D|
2
} / n
Examp|es of quadrat|c mean d|ameter of down wood from mangrove forests are shown |n
Table 4.6.
ln contrast to the sma||er wood p|eces, the d|ameter of each |arge wood p|ece encountered
along the entire transect is recorded (Fig. 4.14}. For each |arge p|ece cross|ng the transect
||ne, record |ts d|ameter at the po|nt where the transect ||ne crosses the m|dpo|nt of the
wood part|c|e. A|so, record whether the decay status |s sound (machete bounces of or
on|y s|nks s||ght|y when struck} or rotten (machete s|nks deep|y and wood |s crumb|y w|th
s|gn|fcant |oss}.
ln a pract|ca| sense, usua||y on|y the med|um and |arge wood fract|on (> 2.5 cm d|ameter} |s
a s|gn|fcant carbon poo| (Kaufman & Oo|e 2010; Kaufman et al. 2011}. lf samp||ng the ||tter
component, |t may be s|mp|er to |nc|ude the sma||er wood p|eces (< 2.5 cm d|ameter} |n the
||tter samp|e and on|y measure the med|um and |arge wood p|eces a|ong the transect ||ne.
Wood density: The dens|ty of wood debr|s |s determ|ned from the dry we|ght of the wood dr|ed
at 100 O d|v|ded by the vo|ume of undr|ed wood. Dens|ty must be determ|ned for each wood
category samp|ed (fne, sma||, med|um, |arge-sound, |arge-rotten} |n order to determ|ne b|omass.
We recommend co||ect|ng at |east 20-25 p|eces of wood for each spec|es and s|ze c|ass,
captur|ng a representat|ve range of s|zes w|th|n each c|ass and the fu|| range of spec|es present
|n the samp|e. As a rough gu|de||ne, each p|ece co||ected for wood dens|ty determ|nat|on shou|d
have a mass of between ~ 0.5 and 50 g. Random|y co||ect p|eces to determ|ne wood dens|ty
w|th|n the project area; to avo|d undue d|sturbance, do not co||ect p|eces from permanent samp|e
p|ots. See beg|nn|ng of th|s chapter for a d|scuss|on on wood dens|ty ca|cu|at|ons. Examp|es of
wood dens|ty for downed wood from mangrove forests are shown |n the tab|e be|ow.
Table 4.6 The wood dens|ty and mean d|ameter of the standard wood s|ze c|asses of downed mangrove forests
dom|nated by |||zoo|o|a ao|c0|a|a, 5o||e|a||a a|oa, and S|00|e|a ,m|o||||za. Data are from downed wood
fo||ow|ng a typhoon w|th no decay. na = not app||cab|e (Mod|fed from Kaufman and Oo|e, 2010}.
SIZE CLASS
(cm diam.)
DENSITY SE
(g/cm
3
) SAMPLE SIZE
DIAMETER
(cm)
QUADRATIC
MEAN
DIAMETER (cm)
SAMPLE
SIZE
< 0.64 0.48 0.01 117 0.43 0.15 0.43 50
0.65 - 2.4 0.64 0.02 31 1.33 0.78 1.47 48
2.54 - 7.6 0.71 0.01 69 4.30 0.18 4.52 52
> 7.6 0.69 0.02 61 na na na
90
4
Downed wood vo|ume |s then ca|cu|ated from ||ne |ntercept data us|ng sca||ng equat|ons.
+ Wood vo|ume for fne, sma||, and med|um c|asses per un|t of ground area (m
3
/ha} =
(n
2
x [number of samp|es x quadrat|c mean d|ameter for the s|ze c|ass (cm}}
2
/ (8 x transect
|ength (m}}|
vo|ume (m
3
/ha} = n
2
* (N| * OMD|
2
/ (8 * |}}
+ Wood vo|ume of |arge (> 7.6 cm d|ameter} down wood per un|t of ground area (m
3
/ha} =
n
2
* [d|ameter of each p|ece of wood
2
/ (8 x transect |ength (m}}|
vo|ume (m
3
/ha} = n
2
* ( d1
2
+ d2
2
+ d3
2
+..dn
2
/ (8 * | }}
Each p|ece |s |nd|v|dua||y measured
Downed wood b|omass (kg/ha} |s then ca|cu|ated as the vo|ume mu|t|p||ed by |ts average
wood dens|ty.
+ Downed wood b|omass (kg/ha} = vo|ume (m
3
/ha} * average wood dens|ty (kg/m
3
)
Determining the Carbon within the Downed Wood Component (kg C/ha): F|na||y, convert
downed wood b|omass to carbon mass. An acceptab|e defau|t va|ue based upon carbon
content of dead wood |n trop|ca| forests |s 50%, correspond|ng to a carbon convers|on factor
of 0.50.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon content of downed dead wood per p|ot (kgO/ha} = dead wood b|omass (kg/ha} *
carbon convers|on factor (0.5}
BELOWGROUND TREE BIOMASS
Be|owground b|omass (e.g., roots and the base of stems} |s an |mportant component |n
mangroves. The aboveground-to-be|owground b|omass rat|o for mangroves |s genera||y
found to be between 2.0 and 3.0, whereas |n up|and forests the rat|o |s h|gher-between
3.96 and 4.52. Thus, |n mangrove forests, a |arge amount of b|omass tends to be a||ocated
be|ow ground (Kom|yama et al. 2008}. G|ven the extreme d|fcu|ty of co||ect|ng and measur|ng
root systems, |t |s beyond the capac|ty of most mangrove projects to destruct|ve|y harvest
and measure be|owground b|omass or deve|op a||ometr|c equat|ons. very few a||ometr|c
equat|ons ex|st for be|owground b|omass of forests, and mangroves are among the |east
stud|ed forests |n th|s respect. Add|t|ona| stud|es wou|d be a va|uab|e contr|but|on to sc|ence.
sefu| be|owground equat|ons ava||ab|e for mangroves have been rev|ewed |n Kom|yama et
al. (2008}. The genera| equat|on reported by Kom|yama et al. (2008} |s:
+ Be|owground tree b|omass (kgO} = 0.199 * ((wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
0.899
} * (tree d|ameter at
breast he|ght (cm}}
2.22
Oarbon content of roots are typ|ca||y |ower than that of aboveground tree components.
Jaram|||o et al. (2003} reported that carbon content of roots of trop|ca| forests range from
36-42%. A defens|b|e defau|t va|ue for root carbon content wou|d be 39% (med|an}; mak|ng
the carbon convers|on factor 0.39.
91
4
EXAMPLE
+ Be|owground carbon content of each tree (kg O} = Be|owground tree b|omass (kg O} *
carbon convers|on factor (0.39}
+ Oarbon content of be|owground carbon per p|ot (kg O/m
2
} = (be|owground carbon content
of tree =1 + carbon content of tree =2 + ... Tree =n} / p|ot area (m
2
)
TIDAL SALT MARSHES
For the purposes of th|s manua|, t|da| sa|t marshes are defned as coasta| ecosystems |n
the upper coasta| |ntert|da| zone between |and and open sa|t water that |s regu|ar|y fooded
and covered w|th vegetat|on (exc|ud|ng trees}. T|da| sa|t marshes exc|ude mangroves, a|ong
w|th t|da| freshwater/brack|sh forests (e.g., Swamp oak, Paperbark, Oyprus swamps, and
w|||ows}, and un-vegetated sa|t fats. The ha|ophyt|c p|ants that |nhab|t coasta| t|da| sa|t marsh
are not exc|us|ve|y |ntert|da| or mar|ne-a character|st|c that sets them apart from mangrove
and seagrass vegetat|on-and are dom|nated by herbaceous p|ants |nc|ud|ng t|da| grasses.
sedges, and rushes. T|da| sa|tbushes and shrubs may a|so be present. The var|ety of growth
forms |s |mportant when ca|cu|at|ng carbon stocks because each has a d|ferent b|omass.
T|da| sa|t marshes estab||sh on soft substrate shores w|th|n the t|da| reaches of estuar|es and
embayments and on some open |ow-wave energy coasts (Fig 4.15}. At a g|oba| sca|e, t|da|
sa|t marshes estab||sh on shore||nes unsu|tab|e for mangrove forests or where deve|opment
|s ||m|ted (Kangas & |ugo 1990}. For th|s reason, these systems are most common |n
temperate, subarct|c and arct|c zones (|ong & Mason 1983; M|tsch & Gosse||nk 2007}. ln
trop|ca| reg|ons, t|da| sa|t marshes may be rep|aced |n the |ntert|da| env|ronment, e|ther by
mangroves |n hum|d c||mates or sa|tpans |n ar|d c||mates.
The d|str|but|on of t|da| sa|t marsh p|ants var|es across the marsh and w|th marsh e|evat|on,
due to d|ferences |n to|erance to so|| sa||n|ty, oxygen |eve|s, su|ph|de |eve|s, hydroper|od, etc.
(Partr|dge & W||son 1987}. A|ong the At|ant|c coast of North Amer|ca, t|da| sa|t marshes are
Low or none
High
TNC: Conservation Maps and GIS Data
Figure 4.15 T|da| sa|t marsh abundance by mar|ne ecoreg|on (Hoekstra et al. 2010}
92
4
often d|v|ded |nto d|ferent zones, based on var|at|ons |n p|ant spec|es. and re|at|ve e|evat|on
of the ground surface w|th respect to the t|de (N|er|ng & Warren 1980} (Fig. 4.16}. The |ow
marsh area |s |ocated at the |owest e|evat|on and |s more frequent|y |nundated by t|des. The
m|dd|e/h|gh marsh |s fooded |ess frequent|y and the h|gher h|gh marsh |s even |ess frequent|y
|nundated by the t|de. Brack|sh marshes are typ|ca||y |ocated a|ong the |n|and edges of the
marsh area where freshwater |nput creates a brack|sh env|ronment.
The d|ferent zones of the marsh may have for|st|c and other structura| d|ferences that
|nfuence above- and be|ow-ground b|omass of ||v|ng p|ants. Add|t|ona||y, geochem|ca|
propert|es, |nc|ud|ng nutr|ent ava||ab|||ty and redox cond|t|ons may |nfuence carbon retent|on
|n the so||.
T|da| sa|t marshes prov|de a host of ecosystem serv|ces, |nc|ud|ng organ|c matter product|on
and export, nutr|ent cyc||ng, bufer|ng aga|nst storm act|v|ty, and carbon sequestrat|on
(N|xon 1980; Dame et al. 1991; M|tsch & Gosse||nk 2000; Ohmura et al. 2003}. G|oba||y,
t|da| sa|t marshes have sufered from a |ong h|story of convers|on |nto non-t|da| |and (termed
'rec|amat|on"}, usua||y through the |mpos|t|on of embankments or d|kes, wh|ch prevent
food|ng of the ecosystems by t|des. Other d|rect, human-|nduced causes of degradat|on
of coasta| t|da| sa|t marshes |nc|ude the|r convers|on to sa|t evaporat|on ponds, aquacu|ture
ponds (|.e., shr|mp ponds} (Barg et al. 1997}, and the a|terat|on of t|da| sa|t marsh dra|nage for
|nsect contro| (Da|ber 1982}. Dra|nage contro| has a|so been |mp|emented to protect |ow-|y|ng
|and, |ead|ng to changes |n the p|ant compos|t|on of the marsh ecosystem.
A|though no g|oba| assessment of t|da| sa|t marsh dec||ne has been conducted, reg|ona|
case stud|es suggest that t|da| sa|t marsh extent has dec||ned s|gn|fcant|y over the past
century. Wet|and |oss on the .S. M|ss|ss|pp| De|ta has been est|mated to be |n the v|c|n|ty
of 100 km
2
/yr (v||es & Spencer 1995} due to the d|vers|on of water and sed|ment |n the
M|ss|ss|pp| catchment and de|ta (Gosse||nk & Ma|tby 1990}. Overa|| |oss of North Amer|can
t|da| sa|t marshes |s est|mated to be 50% s|nce European sett|ement (Gedan et al. 2009}. ln
southeast Austra||a, t|da| sa|t marsh area has dec||ned by 30-40% s|nce 1950, pr|mar||y due
to the rep|acement of t|da| sa|t marshes by mangroves (Sa|nt||an & W||||ams 1999}, and 50%
of Oh|na`s t|da| sa|t marshes were |ost due to rec|amat|on s|nce the 1950`s (An et al. 2007}.
BRACKISH
MARSH
HIGHER HIGH
MARSH
HIGH MARSH LOW MARSH
hydroperiod
elevation
Figure 4.16 Zonat|on of t|da| sa|t marsh vegetat|on |n herb dom|nated systems, NE North Amer|ca (mod|fed from
N|er|ng & Warren 1980}
93
4
These |osses have |mportant |mp||cat|ons for carbon retent|on |n the system (De|aune &
Wh|te 2012}.
T|da| sa|t marshes sequester and store carbon efc|ent|y |n the p|ant b|omass and so||s.
Be|owground carbon poo|s usua||y const|tute between 65 and 95% of the tota| ecosystem
carbon stock of t|da| sa|t marshes (E|sey-Ou|rk et al. 2011}, dom|nat|ng the carbon
sequestrat|on, part|cu|ar|y |n |ow and m|dd|e marsh areas. Aboveground b|omass becomes a
more s|gn|fcant component of the tota| carbon poo| |n the h|gh marsh. Thus, |t |s |mportant
to be ab|e to d|ferent|ate h|gh, m|dd|e, and |ow marsh when creat|ng a samp||ng strategy.
Field Sampling Considerations
T|da| sa|t marsh vegetat|on w||| vary depend|ng on the season as we|| as so|| mo|sture,
nutr|ent, and sa||n|ty cond|t|ons that correspond to var|at|ons |n t|da| food|ng. Proper samp||ng
techn|ques take these factors |nto account by subd|v|d|ng areas of |nterest |nto strata of
(re|at|ve|y} homogeneous eco|og|ca| character|st|cs, and samp||ng takes p|ace when the
b|omass |s at |ts peak growth (usua||y |ate summer}. Samp||ng may a|so be ||m|ted to |ow t|da|
per|ods of as ||tt|e as 3 to 4 hours. Th|s narrow w|ndow necess|tates an efc|ent samp||ng p|an.
The strata of (re|at|ve|y} homogeneous eco|og|ca| character|st|cs w|th|n t|da| sa|t marshes
usua||y occur para||e| to the shore||ne or the t|da| channe|. Due to the |nnate structure of t|da|
sa|t marshes, strata w||| usua||y form perpend|cu|ar to the dom|nant t|da| channe|/shore||ne.
Sufc|ent samp||ng p|ots shou|d be p|aced |n each stratum to character|ze b|omass w|th|n
that stratum. P|ots w|th|n each stratum shou|d be approx|mate|y 20 m x 50 m. W|th|n these
p|ots, a m|n|mum of 5-6 sma||er subp|ots (0.25 m x 0.25 m} are random|y |ocated (Fig. 4.17
and Ohapter 2 on project p|ann|ng and samp||ng des|gn for more deta||s}.
Vegetation Sampling
A
B
C
2
0

m
50 m
1
3
5
2
4
6
Figure 4.17 Recommended P|acement of
samp||ng p|ots |n t|da| sa|t marshes. (A} Transects
shou|d occur perpend|cu|ar to the dom|nant
channe|s |n the marsh and that cross across
vegetation or other structural gradients,
(B} P|ots a|ong the transects shou|d be
conta|ned w|th|n strata, and (O} enough
quadrats (m|n|mum fve} shou|d be samp|ed
|n each p|ot to character|ze the b|omass.
94
4
T|da| sa|t marsh aboveground b|omass can vary substant|a||y between seasons, part|cu|ar|y
|n coo|, temperate, and subarct|c c||mates where the ent|re aboveground b|omass of the
t|da| sa|t marsh m|ght be |ost dur|ng the w|nter (Darby & Turner 2008a}. Other factors |nc|ude
e|evated nutr|ent |eve|s that can decrease the proport|on of b|omass a||ocated to the roots
(Darby & Turner 2008b}, sa||n|ty |eve| that can |ncrease root:stem rat|o (Parrondo et al. 1978},
graz|ng pressure (G|roux & Bedard 1987}, and water tab|e pos|t|on (Saunders et al. 2006}.We
recommend that aboveground and be|owground est|mates of t|da| sa|t marsh b|omass be
taken when b|omass |s ||ke|y to be at |ts greatest-usua||y m|d-|ate summer. For permanent
p|ots and/or repeated measurements, |t |s |mportant samp|e dur|ng the same season each
t|me so that resu|ts w||| be comparab|e.
Biomass Estimates
Th|s sect|on prov|des gu|dance on how to measure aboveground b|omass across a range
of t|da| sa|t marsh types ||ke|y to be encountered |n the fe|d. Some d|ferences |n samp||ng
procedures are requ|red to accommodate d|ferences |n growth forms.
GRASSES, SEDGES AND OTHER HERBACEOUS PLANTS
Reeds, sedges and rushes are dense|y grow|ng p|ants, w|th ta||, stra|ght stems and are the
pr|mary vegetat|on type |n t|da| sa|t marshes. The method common|y used to est|mate the|r
aboveground b|omass uses a quadrat to defne samp||ng areas w|th|n p|ots. Ouadrats for th|s
ecosystem are typ|ca||y 30 cm x 30 cm, though a |arger quadrat shou|d be used |f |ess than
10 |nd|v|dua|s are ||ke|y to be counted |n the 30 cm x 30 cm area. W|th|n each quadrat, count
the number of stems per spec|es (t|da| sa|t marshes genera||y conta|n |arge stands of a s|ng|e
dom|nant spec|es but not a|ways} and measure the tota| he|ght for each spec|es present
w|th|n the quadrat. lf a stem shows s|gns of senescence (dead mater|a|} at the t|p, measure
the green height (Fig 4.18}.
Total height
Living height
Single Stem Single Stem Stem Cluster
Separate clusters
into stems
Figure 4.18 Measur|ng stem he|ght and w|dth
95
4
Deve|op|ng a||ometr|c equat|ons spec|fc to the spec|es and |ocat|on be|ng |nvest|gated |s
the most accurate way to est|mate the grass carbon component. To do th|s, cut at |east
50 |nd|v|dua| stems over the range of observab|e he|ghts for each spec|es. Measure each
|nd|v|dua| stem for he|ght of the green port|on.
ln the |aboratory, determ|ne p|ant b|omass by oven-dry|ng the stems to a constant we|ght
(approx|mate|y 72 h at 60 O, but the t|me w||| vary depend|ng on the s|ze of the stem}. For
each spec|es, p|ot the resu|ts on a scatter p|ot represent|ng p|ant b|omass (y-ax|s} aga|nst
stem green he|ght (x-ax|s} (Fig. 4.19}. Deve|op an a||ometr|c equat|on (us|ng regress|on
ana|ys|s} represent|ng the re|at|onsh|p between p|ant b|omass and stem he|ght. App|y th|s
equat|on to the average he|ght of the p|ants samp|ed |n the quadrat for an est|mate of tota|
mass per spec|es w|th|n the 30 x 30 cm area.
Determining the carbon pool in tidal salt marsh grasses (kg C/m
2
): The grass carbon
component |s determ|ned for each |nd|v|dua| spec|es by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg}-as
determ|ned by an a||ometr|c equat|on-by a carbon convers|on factor for the spec|fc grass
spec|es. Th|s |s done for every stem |n the quadrat. Next, a|| the va|ues for |nd|v|dua| stem
carbon content are added together to determ|ne the tota| carbon content from the grass
(kg O} for the g|ven quadrat s|ze (m
2
}.
The carbon convers|on factor for grasses can e|ther be determ|ned through |aboratory ana|ys|s
us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3} or a convers|on factor of 0.45 (Fang et al. 1996}.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon |n the grass component (kg O/m
2
} = (Est|mated b|omass of the grass (kg} * carbon
convers|on factor (0.45}} / area of the quadrat (m
2
)
S
t
e
m

B
i
o
m
a
s
s

(
g
)
Stem Height (cm)
Figure 4.19 A||ometr|c equat|ons between stem b|omass and he|ght (Oraft 2013}
96
4
SHRUBS
The presence of shrubs typ|ca||y var|es depend|ng on the |ocat|on of the t|da| sa|t marsh. ln the
northern hem|sphere, shrubs make up a m|nor component of the marshes and are usua||y of the
genus /|||o|ex, Borricha, and Iva (Penn|ngs & Moore 2001}, wh||e |n the southern hem|sphere-
part|cu|ar|y |n h|gher |at|tudes-shrubs of the genus Tecticornia may be the dom|nant growth
form (Sa|nt||an et al. 2009}. The suggested approach to est|mat|ng aboveground b|omass for
t|da| sa|t marsh shrubs |s s|m||ar to the protoco| for scrub mangroves (see sect|on on scrub
mangroves above}. Ourrent|y, very few a||ometr|c equat|ons ex|st for t|da| sa|t marsh shrubs;
therefore, equat|ons shou|d be deve|oped on the bas|s of pred|ctors |nc|ud|ng stem d|ameter
at 30 cm above-the-ground surface, and crown vo|ume/area or projected cover.
Orown d|ameter, w|dth, vo|ume. and area, as we|| as ma|n stem d|ameter at 30 cm
aboveground shou|d be measured for each shrub |n the p|ot area. To proper|y measure
carbon content, at |east 15-25 shrubs of each spec|es, encompass|ng the range of s|zes
encountered and |ocated outs|de any permanent p|ots that m|ght be estab||shed, shou|d
be samp|ed |n the|r ent|rety. ln the |aboratory, |nd|v|dua| bushes are dr|ed and we|ghed
to obta|n b|omass. B|ometr|c measurements (crown d|ameter, area and vo|ume, and
ma|n stem d|ameter at 30 cm} can then be app||ed as |ndependent var|ab|es pred|ct|ng
aboveground p|ant mass by regress|on ana|ys|s (Fig. 4.20}. Once a||ometr|c equat|ons have
been estab||shed, they can be app||ed to every shrub w|th|n a samp|e p|ot.
Determining the carbon pool in shrubby tidal salt marsh (kg C/m
2
): The shrub carbon
component |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg}, as determ|ned by an a||ometr|c
equat|on, by a carbon convers|on factor for shrubs spec|fc to that reg|on. Th|s |s done for
every shrub samp|ed. Next, a|| the va|ues for |nd|v|dua| shrub carbon content are added
together to determ|ne the tota| carbon content from the shrubs (kg O} for the g|ven p|ot
s|ze (m
2
}.
Figure 4.20 F|e|d measurement techn|ques to ca|cu|ate the e|||pt|ca| crown area, crown depth, he|ght, and d|ameter
at 30 cm he|ght (D
30
} of shrubs (adapted from Kaufman and Donato 2012}. Aboveground b|omass |s best pred|cted
through a||ometr|c equat|ons where aboveground b|omass |s the dependent var|ab|e and crown area, and he|ght
and/or crown vo|ume are |ndependent var|ab|es (Ross et al. 2001}.
W1
Crown
Depth
Height
D
30
Z
W1
W2
Elliptical crown area = (W1 * W2/2)
2

Where W1 is the widest length of the plant

canopy through its center, and W2 is the
canopy width perpendicular to W1.
Crown volume = elliptical crown area * crown depth
Height is measured from the sediment surface
to the highest point of the canopy.
D
30
is the mainstem diameter at 30 cm.
97
4
The carbon convers|on factor for shrubs can e|ther be determ|ned through |aboratory ana|ys|s
us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3}, or |t |s just|fab|e to use the convers|on factor reported
for scrub mangrove trees (0.46 to 0.5}.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon content of each shrub (kg O} = shrub b|omass (kg} * carbon convers|on factor
(0.46-0.5};
+ Oarbon |n shrub component (kg O/m
2
} = (carbon content of shrub =1 + carbon content of
shrub =2 + ... shrub =n} / area of the p|ot (m
2
}.
BELOWGROUND BIOMASS
Be|owground root and rh|zome b|omass can conta|n 50-95% of the overa|| vegetat|ve
b|omass |n t|da| sa|t marshes (va||e|a et al. 1976; E|sey-Ou|rk et al. 2011}. Be|owground
b|omass can be est|mated us|ng a||ometr|c equat|ons that re|ate be|owground b|omass
to known aboveground b|omass, or |t can be determ|ned on a s|te-by-s|te bas|s by d|rect
measurements.
Few a||ometr|c equat|ons ex|st that est|mate be|owground b|omass on the bas|s of
aboveground b|omass, and those that do are based on stud|es conducted |n North Amer|ca
(va||e|a et al. 1976; G|roux & Bedard 1988; Darby & Turner 2008a}. We recommend us|ng the
equat|ons found |n Table 4.7 to est|mate the tota| be|owground b|omass for a g|ven p|ot s|ze.
These equat|ons met w|th vary|ng success |n pred|ct|ng 5. a||e|||/o|a b|omass at mu|t|p|e
s|tes, and further work |s needed to der|ve a||ometr|c equat|ons of be|owground b|omass for
add|t|ona| spec|es and vary|ng c||mat|c and geomorph|c sett|ngs.
Table 4.7 Equat|ons to pred|ct be|owground root and rh|zome b|omass on the bas|s of aboveground b|omass of
5oa||||a a||e|||/o|a (Gross et al. 1991}
EQUATION
ABOVE-GROUND COMPONENTS
INCLUDED (FOR AN ENTIRE PLOT) r
2
|n (||ve be|owground b|omass, g} = 0.718 x |n
(||ve Aboveground b|omass, g} + 2.646
||v|ng |eaves and stems 0.86
|n (||ve Be|owground b|omass, g} = 0.700 x |n
(||ve Aboveground b|omass, g} + 3.051
||v|ng |eaves on|y 0.85
|n (||ve Be|owground b|omass, g} = 0.713 x |n
(Tota| Aboveground b|omass, g} + 2.235
All live and dead aboveground 0.86
D|rect samp||ng w||| be the most accurate method for determ|n|ng be|owground b|omass. To
do th|s, samp|es are co||ected by extract|ng a core (see Ohapter 3 for deta||s}. Most stud|es
have taken re|at|ve|y sha||ow cores for the est|mat|on of be|owground root b|omass. However,
we recommend samp||ng at 1 m depth because th|s measure corre|ates w|th estab||shed
so|| samp||ng techn|ques |n Ohapter 3, and there |s ev|dence that sa|t marsh spec|es can
tap fresh water to th|s depth (Arp et al. 1993}. Oommon protoco|s recommend us|ng cores
of 10 cm d|ameter and samp||ng segments 2.5 cm w|de at 2.5, 5, 7.5, 12.5, 15, 22.5, and
25cm depth, and then samp||ng 5 cm w|de segments cut at depths 35, 45, 55, and 65 cm
(Saunders et al. 2006}. we suggest add|ng 75 and 95 cm. Segments are washed over a
1 mm screen and v|sua||y separated |nto root, rh|zome, and dead ||tter components. ||v|ng and
98
4
dead mater|a| are separated on the bas|s of co|or and texture (Saunders et al. 2006}. ||v|ng
root and rh|zome mater|a|s are then oven-dr|ed at 60 O to constant dry we|ght. Be|owground
b|omass |s determ|ned as fo||ows:
+ Be|owground b|omass for each samp|e segment (g} = dry mass of samp|e (g} / wet mass
of samp|e (g};
+ Be|owground b|omass for each samp|e area (ent|re core, g/cm
2
} = (B|omass of segment
=1 + b|omass of segment =2 + .... b|omass of segment =n} / area samp|ed (based on
cor|ng d|ameter, cm
2
};
+ Average be|owground b|omass (g/cm
2
} = (B|omass of samp|e =1 + b|omass of samp|e =2
+ .... b|omass of samp|e =n} / n.
Determining the carbon within the belowground biomass (kg/m
2
): The be|owground carbon
component |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng the b|omass (kg}-e|ther ca|cu|ated from cores or from
a||ometr|c equat|ons-by a carbon convers|on factor for grass spec|es spec|fc to that reg|on.
lf the b|omass used was determ|ned for the ent|re p|ot us|ng a||ometr|c equat|ons, s|mp|y
mu|t|p|y that number by the carbon convers|on factor to determ|ne the tota| be|owground
carbon component for your p|ot.
lf the b|omass used was determ|ned through core samp||ng, the average be|owground
b|omass for the samp|e area |s mu|t|p||ed by the carbon convers|on factor and then sca|ed
up to the p|ot s|ze.
The carbon convers|on factor for be|owground b|omass of t|da| sa|t marsh grasses can be
determ|ned e|ther through |aboratory ana|ys|s us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (Ohapter 3} or by a
convers|on factor of 0.34 for be|owground b|omass of seagrasses (Duarte 1990}.
EXAMPLE (BIOMASS DETERMINED BY ALLOMETRIC EQUATIONS)
+ Oarbon |n the be|owground component (kg O/m
2
} = (Est|mated b|omass of the be|owground
component (kg} * carbon convers|on factor (0.34}} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
EXAMPLE (BIOMASS DETERMINED BY SAMPLING)
+ Be|owground carbon component = Average be|ow ground b|omass (g/cm
2
} * carbon
convers|on factor (0.34}
+ Because the numbers here represent the be|ow ground carbon component found |n the
samp|e area, you can s|mp|y sca|e th|s up to your p|ot s|ze
LITTER
|eaf ||tter |s defned as recent|y fa||en, non-wood, dead organ|c mater|a| on the so|| surface.
lt may |nc|ude t|da| sa|t marsh vegetat|on, seagrass, or mar|ne a|ga| wrack. ln most t|da| sa|t
marshes, the b|omass of th|s component |s re|at|ve|y sma|| due to rap|d decompos|t|on and
remova| by herb|vores or the t|de.
||tter |n most stud|es |s destruct|ve|y samp|ed (see the sect|on on mangrove ||tter above for more
deta||s}. A|| ||tter eas||y removed from the surface |s co||ected from a quadrat (e.g., 50 x 50 cm},
99
4
taken back to the |aboratory |n a sturdy bag or conta|ner, where the samp|e, or a representat|ve
samp|e thereof, |s dr|ed to a constant we|ght to determ|ne b|omass (kg} and converted to
carbon us|ng an est|mated carbon convers|on factor of 0.45.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon |n the |eaf ||tter component (kg O/m
2
} = (Average b|omass of the ||tter * carbon
convers|on factor (0.45}} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
DEAD AND DOWNED WOOD
Dead and downed wood |s rare|y a s|gn|fcant component of t|da| sa|t marsh aboveground
b|omass, but |t may be |ncorporated |nto a t|da| sa|t marsh carbon stock as a||ochthonous
mater|a|. Where th|s occurs |n a p|ot, the dead wood shou|d be samp|ed us|ng the ||ne |ntersect
techn|que. Dead and downed wood b|omass (kg/ha} |s ca|cu|ated as the vo|ume mu|t|p||ed by
|ts mean wood dens|ty. F|na||y, convert downed wood b|omass to carbon mass. Acceptab|e
defau|t va|ues based upon carbon content (wt %} of dead wood |n trop|ca| forests are 50%,
correspond|ng to a carbon convers|on factor of 0.50. See the sect|on above for methods of
measur|ng dead/downed wood |n mangroves.
SEAGRASS MEADOWS
Seagrass meadows are coasta| mar|ne ecosystems that are dom|nated by fower|ng p|ants
and are comp|ete|y submerged or |n |ntert|da| food areas. There are about 60 seagrass spec|es
|n four fam|||es (Fig. 4.22}, and they are genera||y restr|cted to p|aces w|th unconso||dated
sed|ments and h|gh ||ght ava||ab|||ty. n||ke mangroves, wh|ch are genera||y restr|cted to the
trop|cs/subtrop|cs, and t|da| sa|t marshes, wh|ch are much more common |n temperate
c||mates, seagrass meadows are d|str|buted g|oba||y, occurr|ng on every cont|nent w|th the
Figure 4.21 T|da| sa|t marsh |eaf ||tter. ( Ne|| Sa|nt||an, OEH NSW}
100
4
except|on of Antarct|ca (Green & Short 2003}. Seagrass meadows are va|ued as hab|tats
for numerous econom|ca||y and eco|og|ca||y |mportant spec|es as we|| as for the|r h|gh rates
of pr|mary product|on, enhancement of fsher|es, nutr|ent cyc||ng, sed|ment stab|||zat|on,
attenuat|on of storm waves (Orth et al. 2006}, and |mportance |n the carbon cyc|e (Duarte et
al. 2005; Duarte et al. 2010; Kennedy et al. 2010; Fourqurean et al. 2012a}.
By reduc|ng the stresses exerted by waves and currents on the so||s, seagrasses reduce
the amount of sed|ment re-suspens|on and enhance the trapp|ng of suspended part|c|es
(Hendr|ks et al. 2008}. They not on|y trap and store organ|c carbon generated by p|ants
and other sources w|th|n the seagrass meadow, but a|so trap and bury carbon or|g|nat|ng
e|sewhere (a||ochthonous carbon}. Typ|ca||y, 50% of the sed|ment carbon |n seagrass
meadows |s a||ochthonous (Kennedy et al. 2010}. Not a|| of the net product|on w|th|n
the seagrass meadows |s reta|ned; part of seagrass ecosystem-der|ved carbon |s a|so
exported to other coasta| and mar|ne ecosystems where |t may be consumed or bur|ed
(Heck Jr et al. 2008}.
Saegrass meadows are a|so among the wor|d`s most threatened ecosystems. Rates of |oss
of known seagrass hab|tat are acce|erat|ng from a med|an of 0.9% per year before 1940
to 7% per year s|nce 1990 (Waycott et al. 2009}. G|oba||y, the ma|n reasons for seagrass |oss
are water qua||ty degradat|on (e.g., eutroph|cat|on} and dredg|ng and f|||ng operat|ons.
The so||s that under||e seagrass meadows conta|n more organ|c carbon than terrestr|a|
forest ecosystems (Fourqurean et al. 2012a}. Thus the potent|a| |mpact of |oss of seagrass
ecosystems to g|oba| OO
2
budgets |s s|gn|fcant. ln fact, the amount of organ|c carbon
stored |n seagrass meadows |s rough|y equa| to the tota| amount of organ|c carbon stored
|n the wor|d`s mar|ne t|da| sa|t marshes and mangrove forests comb|ned (Ohmura et al.
2003; Donato et al. 2011}. These est|mates make seagrass meadows g|oba| hotspots for
carbon storage.
Sufc|ent data are not ava||ab|e to defn|t|ve|y comment on reg|ona| patterns |n carbon
storage |n seagrass ecosystems, but the data current|y ava||ab|e are summar|zed by reg|on
in Table 4.8.
Zostera
marina
Cymodocea
rotundata
Posidonia
oceanica
Thalassia
hemprichii
Figure 4.22 Examp|es of common seagrass spec|es ( Peter Macread|e, TS and w|k|commons}
101
4
Table 4.8 Oarbon stocks for a range of seagrass beds (Fourqurean et al. 2012b} .
REGION
LIVING SEAGRASS BIOMASS
(MgC/ha)
SOIL ORGANIC CARBON
(MgC/ha)
n Mean 95% CI n Mean 95% CI
Northeast Pac|fc 5 0.97 1.02 1 64.4
Southeast Pac|fc 0 ND 0 ND
North Atlantic 50 0.85 0.19 24 48.7 14.5
Trop|ca| Western At|ant|c 44 0.84 0.17 13 150.9 26.3
Mediterranean 57 7.29 1.52 29 372.4 56.8
South Atlantic 5 1.06 0.51 5 137.0 56.8
lndopac|fc 47 0.61 0.26 8 23.6 8.3
Western Pac|fc 0 ND 0 ND
South Australia 40 2.32 0.63 9 268.3 101.7
*ND = no data
Field Sampling Considerations
Seagrass b|omass var|es seasona||y, part|cu|ar|y |n temperate and borea| c||mates. ln
some |ocat|ons seagrass aboveground vegetat|on may be |ost dur|ng w|nter. Therefore,
we recommended measur|ng b|omass when stand|ng stocks are greatest and repeated
samp||ng |n subsequent years occurs at the same t|me of year. Seagrass can be submerged
or |ntert|da|. Samp||ng of |ntert|da| seagrass can be done at |ow t|de (as ||tt|e as 3 to 4 hours},
but samp||ng of sub-t|da| seagrass meadows must be done us|ng snorke||ng or SOBA
equ|pment. Seagrass p|ants are herbaceous and re|at|ve|y sma||; thus, sma|| p|ots (0.25-1 m
2
)
are appropr|ate to obta|n est|mates of carbon stocks. Seagrass beds vary |n structure a|ong
a depth grad|ent due to hydrodynam|c energy, reduced |rrad|ance, and other env|ronmenta|
grad|ents such as sa||n|ty, wh|ch may afect the spec|es compos|t|on and the|r ab|||ty to
capture carbon (Serrano et a|., 2014}. Thus, strat|fcat|on of the study area typ|ca||y a||gns
w|th depth. For examp|e, strata can be based on |nterva|s of known depth to obta|n a re||ab|e
representat|on of b|omass var|at|on w|th water depth. At each depth |nterva|, determ|ne the
b|omass by assess|ng |t at random pos|t|ons (Ohapter 2} (Short & Oo|es 2001}.
Biomass Estimates and Carbon Content
Th|s sect|on prov|des gu|dance on how to measure aboveground b|omass across a range of
vegetat|on types ||ke|y to be encountered |n the fe|d. Some d|ferences |n samp||ng procedures
are requ|red to accommodate d|ferences |n growth forms.
LIVING BIOMASS
ln most seagrass systems, the ||v|ng aboveground and be|owground component of b|omass
can be co||ected by |nsert|ng a |arge-d|ameter core tube (10-25 cm d|ameter} |nto the
102
4
sed|ment through the aboveground p|ant mater|a|, w|th care not to cut the |eaves, and |nto
the upper root dom|nated so||s (a|so ca||ed the rh|zosphere, typ|ca||y 40 cm |n depth}. The
tube |s then capped and removed (Fig. 4.23}. These cores are transferred to screens or mesh
bags, washed free of sed|ment, and separated |nto ||v|ng aboveground and be|owground
components (Fig. 4.24}.
Separat|on of ||v|ng root and rh|zome mater|a| from dead structures |s often amb|guous. Some
of the ||v|ng be|owground t|ssues are obv|ous as they are typ|ca||y ||ght |n co|or and turg|d, but
|t can be d|fcu|t to te|| |f some of the o|der, darker-co|ored structures are ||v|ng or dead. |oca|
know|edge and exper|ence are often requ|red to ensure cons|stent separat|on of the ||v|ng
mater|a| from the dead. For most seagrass spec|es, the aboveground port|on of the p|ants
are a|| green |eaves and are easy to separate from non-green, be|owground t|ssues. Note
that |n many |ocat|ons, these green |eaves support a cons|derab|e ep|phyte |oad that must be
removed and ana|yzed separate|y (see next sect|on}.
Figure 4.23 B|omass samp||ng/cor|ng |n seagrass meadows |n Oeara, Braz|| ( Or|st|na Rocha Barre|ra, FO}
Figure 4.24 Above and be|owground b|omass for |0oo|a ma||||me ( Margareth Oopert|no, FRG}
Belowground Biomass Aboveground Biomass
103
4
Determining the Carbon within the Living Vegetation Component (kg C/m
2
): In the
|aboratory, determ|ne p|ant b|omass by oven-dry|ng the ||v|ng b|omass to a constant we|ght
(approx|mate|y 72 h at 60 O}. The ||v|ng vegetat|ve component |s determ|ned by mu|t|p|y|ng
the b|omass (kg} of a samp|e of p|ant mater|a| for a g|ven area (m
2
} by a carbon convers|on
factor. Oarbon contents are then sca|ed up to determ|ne the carbon poo| for the g|ven p|ot
s|ze. To determ|ne the carbon content, samp|es can be ana|yzed |nd|rect|y by determ|nat|on
of organ|c matter by |oss on |gn|t|on (|Ol} and use of a||ometr|c equat|on to est|mate organ|c
carbon or d|rect|y us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer (w|th |norgan|c carbon hav|ng been prev|ous|y
removed or accounted for by methods |n Ohapter 3. lf th|s |s not pract|ca|, a va|ue of 0.34
can be used (Duarte 1990}.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon |n the ||v|ng b|omass component (kg O/m
2
} = (Est|mated b|omass of the p|ant *
carbon convers|on factor (0.34}} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
EPIPHYTE BIOMASS
Seagrass ep|phytes are organ|sms
that grow on the b|ades of seagrasses,
|nc|ud|ng a|gae, d|atoms, and other
encrust|ng organ|sms (Fig. 4.25}.
Even though ep|phytes are genera||y
a m|nor component of the organ|c
carbon |n a seagrass ecosystem, |t
|s common pract|ce to remove the
ep|phytes from the seagrass b|ades
and ana|yze them as a separate
carbon poo|. Oarefu| records must
be kept regard|ng whether ep|phytes
were separated from |eaf mater|a|
or not to make compar|son across
s|tes poss|b|e.
There are two ma|n techn|ques used
for remov|ng ep|phytes from seagrass
|eaves: manua| scrap|ng and ac|d-
wash|ng (Fig. 4.26}. Ne|ther method
|s perfect. Scrap|ng we||-adhered
ep|phyte mater|a| can e|ther resu|t |n
|ncomp|ete remova| of the ep|phytes
or it can abrade the surface of the
|eaves and contam|nate the ep|phyte
component w|th seagrass mater|a|.
Ac|d-wash|ng seagrasses efc|ent|y
removes carbonate ep|phytes, but feshy ep|phytes may st||| requ|re scrap|ng and the ac|d
can |each so|ub|e organ|c compounds from both the seagrass t|ssue and the ep|phytes. lf the
a|m |s to quant|fy the ep|phyte poo|, then the scrap|ng method |s recommended.
Figure 4.25 Ep|phytes. (A} examp|e of cora|||ne a|gae, (B} Examp|e of
f|amentous a|gae ( Just|n Oampbe||, Sm|thson|an lnst|tute}
104
4
Determining the Carbon within the Epiphyte Component (kg C/m
2
): Ep|phyte remova| |s
conducted at the |aboratory. Therefore, |f us|ng a permanent p|ot system the samp|es must
be taken from an area of known s|ze outs|de of the p|ot. Some types of ep|phytes w||| conta|n
h|gh |eve|s of ca|c|um carbonate; thus, determ|n|ng the |norgan|c carbon |n the ep|phyte
component |s needed. Procedures are s|m||ar as those descr|bed for so||s w|th h|gh |eve|s of
carbonate descr|bed |n deta|| |n Ohapter 3 and br|efy be|ow.
1} Ep|phytes are removed from both s|des of the |eaf by scrapp|ng w|th stra|ght edge b|ade
(Fig. 4.26}.
2} Ep|phytes dr|ed at 60 O to a constant we|ght.
3} When dry, homogen|se the samp|e and determ|ne the we|ght of samp|e.
4} lnorgan|c carbon |s determ|ned |n one of two methods:
a. Ac|d|fcat|on:
Soak|ng the samp|e |n 1N HO| for approx|mate|y 18 hours, fo||owed by wash|ng the
samp|e three t|mes |n d|st|||ed water; dry to constant we|ght, and ana|yze carbon
content us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer or |Ol Test.
Note that ac|d|fcat|on can |each organ|c matter.
b. E|ementa| Ana|yzer:
Determ|ne the tota| carbon content of a dry subsamp|e v|a an e|ementa| ana|yzer; ash
a second subsamp|e at 500 O; we|gh the rema|n|ng ash; determ|ne the |norgan|c
carbon content us|ng an e|ementa| ana|yzer; and subtract the |norgan|c content
from the tota| carbon content.
A|ways keep track of samp|e masses at a|| stages of the procedure so you can ca|cu|ate the
% |norgan|c and organ|c carbon. The carbon content |s corrected for the |oss of |norgan|c
carbon to produce a carbon convers|on factor. The ep|phyte samp|e b|omass |s mu|t|p||ed by
the corrected carbon convers|on factor and then averaged across a|| samp|es to determ|ne
the carbon poo| for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}.
Figure 4.26 Ep|phyte remova| and process|ng. (A} Remova| of ep|phytes from both s|des of the seagrass |eaf
us|ng a b|ade, (B} Ep|phytes (a|gae} and a c|ean seagrass samp|e, and (O} Dr|ed ep|phytes undergo|ng an ac|d wash
( Oscar Serrano, ECU)
A C
B
105
4
LITTER
The ||tter |n seagrass meadows typ|ca||y cons|sts of dead |eaves, rh|zomes, fru|ts, and a|gae. ln
most seagrass sett|ngs, the amount of ||tter (and therefore the carbon stock} on|y const|tutes
a very sma|| component of the carbon poo| due to the h|gh rem|nera||zat|on efc|ency of
|eaves as we|| as export through hydrodynam|c energy.
lf |t |s measured, ||tter |s destruct|ve|y samp|ed through co||ect|on from m|crop|ots (e.g., 0.5 x
0.5 m |n s|ze}. A|| organ|c surface mater|a| |s co||ected |nto a bag or conta|ner. The bags are
|abe||ed w|th the |ocat|on, date, p|ot, and samp|e number.
The samp|es need to be transported to the |aboratory and dr|ed to constant mass (72 h at 60 O}.
Due to constra|nts of carry|ng bu|ky samp|es and the often-||m|ted oven dry|ng space-espec|a||y
|n rura| fe|d sett|ngs-we recommend measur|ng the wet we|ght of the ent|re samp|e and then
extract|ng a we||-m|xed representat|ve subsamp|e for transportat|on to a |aboratory, and determ|n|ng
the rat|o between wet and dry mass of the subsamp|e for sca||ng-up the b|omass of the bu|k samp|e.
EXAMPLE
+ B|omass of ||tter (kg} = (dry mass of subsamp|e (g} / wet mass of the subsamp|e (g}} * wet
mass of a|| the ||tter |n the samp|e p|ot (kg}
The carbon content |n the ||tter b|omass (kg} can then be est|mated for the g|ven p|ot s|ze (m
2
}.
The convers|on factor for ||v|ng b|omass (0.34} can a|so be used to est|mate the mean carbon
content of seagrass ||tter dry mass.
EXAMPLE
+ Oarbon |n the ||tter component (kg O/m
2
} = (Average b|omass of the ||tter * carbon
convers|on factor (0.34}} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
TOTAL CARBON STOCK
The tota| vegetat|ve carbon stock w|th|n a project area |s determ|ned by add|ng the carbon
content of each vegetat|ve component (tree, ||tter, grass, shrub, etc.} w|th|n a defned area.
The tota| carbon stock |n a project area can be determ|ned as fo||ows:
Step 1: Determ|ne the carbon content of each component for your p|ot s|ze (see above}.
Step 2: Oonvert the carbon content of each component for your p|ot s|ze |nto the un|ts
common|y used |n carbon stock assessment (Mg O/ha} us|ng the fo||ow|ng un|t
convers|on factors (There are 1,000 kg per Mg and 10,000 m
2
per ha}}:
vegetat|ve component carbon poo| (Mg O/ha} = Oarbon content (kg O/m
2
} *
(Mg/1,000 kg} * (10,000 m
2
/ha}.
REPEAT FOR EACH VEGETATIVE TYPE MEASURED
Step 3: Sum a|| the vegetat|ve components present w|th|n a s|ng|e p|ot.
Tota| vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot (Mg O/ha} = component =1 (Mg O/ha} +
component =2 (Mg O/ha} + component =3 (Mg O/ha} + .
106
4
REPEAT FOR ALL PLOTS
Step 4: Determ|ne the average amount of vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot and ca|cu|ate the
assoc|ated standard dev|at|on to determ|ne var|ab|||ty/error.
Average vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot = Tota| vegetat|ve carbon for p|ot =1 (Mg O/ha}
+ Tota| vegetat|ve carbon for p|ot =2 (Mg O/ha} + Tota| vegetat|ve carbon for p|ot
=3 (Mg O/ha} +.. n} / n
Standard Dev|at|on (o} determ|nes how c|ose|y the data are c|ustered about the
mean, and |s ca|cu|ated as fo||ows:
Standard Deviation
(o} =

[
(X
1
X)
2
+ (
2
X)
2
+ . (
n
X)
2
]

1/2
(N1}
+ X = average vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot
+ X
1
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for p|ot =1, |n MgO/hectare;
2
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for p|ot =2,
|n MgO/hectare, etc.,
+ N = number of p|ots.
Step 5: Obta|n the tota| amount of carbon |n the ecosystem.
Est|mate of vegetat|ve carbon |n a stratum (Mg O} = Average vegetat|ve carbon |n
a p|ot (Mg O/ha} * area of stratum (ha}
Sum the MgO va|ues for each stratum to determ|ne the tota| so|| carbon stock.
Tota| carbon |n a project area (MgO} = Est|mate of vegetat|ve carbon |n stratum
=1 (Mg O} + Est|mate of vegetat|ve carbon |n stratum =2 (Mg O} + Est|mate of
vegetat|ve carbon |n stratum =3 (Mg O} + .
Step 6: To report a va|ue for the var|ab|||ty/error assoc|ated w|th these measurements,
ca|cu|ate the tota| uncerta|nty |n the data. F|rst, ca|cu|ate the standard dev|at|on
of the average Mg O for each stratum. [Mu|t|p|y the standard dev|at|on carbon
va|ue (MgO/hectare} for each core determ|ned |n step 5 above by the area of each
stratum (|n hectares}.| Then propagate the uncerta|nty through the ca|cu|at|ons by
comb|n|ng the standard dev|at|ons of the average MgO for each stratum as fo||ows:
(o
T
) = (o
A
}2 + (o
B
}2 + . (o
N
)2
+ Where o
T
= the tota| var|ab|||ty assoc|ated w|th the measurements
+ o
A
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum A * area of stratum
+ o
B
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum B * area of stratum
+ o
N
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for rema|n|ng stratum * area of
each |nd|v|dua| stratum.
Th|s approach can be used when add|ng average va|ues, as |s done when
comb|n|ng the data from the |nd|v|dua| strata.
Step 7: The fna| vegetat|ve carbon stock w||| be presented |n an average va|ue the tota|
uncerta|nty. A|ternat|ve|y, a m|n|mum and max|mum carbon stock can be used by
mu|t|p|y|ng by the project area by the m|n|mum and max|mum carbon dens|t|es.
Tota| organ|c carbon |n a project area (ca|cu|ated |n Step 5} the standard dev|at|on
(calculated in Step 6)
107
4
QUICK GUIDE
Step 1: Plot design
+ Access|b|||ty and safety are the number one pr|or|t|es when choos|ng p|ot areas.

Remember each s|te may on|y be access|b|e for a few hours.
+ Strat|fy the study s|te.
+ Dec|de |f the samp||ng p|ots w||| be permanent or temporary.

Permanent p|ots are used |f the same |ocat|on w||| be assessed |n the future to determ|ne
change.

Temporary p|ots are used when samp||ng w||| on|y be done once or when permanent p|ots are
not feas|b|e.
Step 2: Measure vegetative components (above- and belowground as well as living and
dead components)
+ Determ|ne the re|evant components for the study s|te and the sca|e of the samp||ng area
needed for each.

Mangrove forests
||ve trees
Scrub mangrove trees
Standing dead trees
||anas
Pa|ms
Pneumatophores
|eaf ||tter
Dead and downed wood
Be|owground tree b|omass (|f an a||ometr|c equat|on |s ava||ab|e}

Tidal Marshes
Shrubs
Grasses and reeds
|eaf ||tter
Dead and downed wood

Seagrass meadows
||v|ng p|ants
Ep|phytes
|eaf ||tter
+ Determ|ne b|omass e|ther by |aboratory ana|ys|s or by a||ometr|c equat|ons.
+ Determ|ne the carbon content for a known p|ot s|ze.
Step 3: Calculate Total Vegetative Carbon Stock
+ Sum the re|evant component carbon poo|s for each p|ot.
+ Determ|ne the average and standard dev|at|on for p|ots w|th|n a stratum and mu|t|p|y by the
stratum area. Repeat for each stratum.
+ Determ|ne tota| vegetat|ve carbon stock for the project area by summ|ng carbon stocks w|th|n
each stratum and ca|cu|at|ng the error.
+ You must |nc|ude the var|ab|||ty assoc|ated w|th the measurements and the tota| so|| depth
assessed when report|ng resu|ts.
109
5
STEVE CROOKS, ESA
How to Estimate Carbon Dioxide
Emissions
110
5
INTRODUCTION
nderstand|ng how b|ue carbon ecosystems contr|bute to c||mate change m|t|gat|on
requ|res an understand|ng of ecosystem extent (Ohapter 2}, the amount of carbon present
|n each poo| (Ohapters 3 and 4}, and the how much carbon |s em|tted or sequestered over
t|me (presented here}. The amount of carbon em|tted to the atmosphere or sequestered
can be determ|ned d|rect|y us|ng methods that detect gas exchange, or more common|y
us|ng carbon stock change as a proxy for gas exchange. However, other greenhouse gases
(GHGs} such as methane (OH
4
} and n|trous ox|de (N
2
O} can be measured on|y by us|ng gas
exchange methods. Assess|ng changes |n b|ue carbon stocks and GHG em|ss|ons can be
used to estab||sh base||nes for track|ng sequestrat|on rates and em|ss|on trends, |dent|fy|ng
act|v|t|es that |ncrease em|ss|ons, assess|ng progress of restorat|on eforts, commun|cat|ng
w|th stakeho|ders, and more. Together, th|s |nformat|on enhances countr|es` and |nst|tut|ons`
ab|||ty to meet current and future report|ng needs, part|c|pate |n carbon-based markets, and
|nform m|t|gat|on po||cy and management pract|ces at |oca| to nat|ona| sca|es.
APPROACHES TO MEASURING EMISSIONS
To determ|n|ng changes |n carbon stocks (as a proxy for OO
2
em|ss|ons}, two approaches
can be used:
1} Stock-d|ference method: Th|s method est|mates the d|ference |n carbon stocks measured
at two po|nts |n t|me and resu|ts |n lPOO T|er 3 est|mates (Kaufman et al. 2014}.
2} Ga|n-|oss method: Th|s method est|mates the d|ference |n carbon stocks based on
em|ss|ons factors for spec|fc act|v|t|es (e.g., p|ant|ngs, dra|nage, rewett|ng, deforestat|on}
der|ved from the sc|ent|fc ||terature and country act|v|ty data and resu|ts |n T|er 1 and 2
est|mates (GOFO-GO|D 2009; lPOO 2013}.
ln add|t|on, a th|rd method ex|sts, for the d|rect measurement of GHG em|ss|ons:
3} F|ux method: Th|s method est|mates the GHG fux between the so|| and vegetat|on and
the atmosphere/water co|umn through d|rect measurements or by mode||ng resu|ts |n T|er
2 and 3 est|mates.
Often, a m|x of methods |s used, but u|t|mate|y the method se|ected w||| be based on the
needs of the project, the resources ava||ab|e, and the |eve| of accuracy requ|red.
Stock-difference Method
The stock-d|ference method requ|res carbon measurements for each s|gn|fcant carbon poo|
at |east two po|nts |n t|me (T1 = |n|t|a| assessment and T2 = subsequent assessment}. Resu|ts
from each |nventory are then compared and ana|yzed for changes. Th|s approach not on|y
tracks changes to carbon stocks as a who|e, but a|so changes |n the |nd|v|dua| carbon poo|s.
For examp|e, |f the ||v|ng b|omass poo| decreases but the dead b|omass poo| |ncreases, |t can
be assumed that the ecosystem was degraded between the two t|me po|nts. However, th|s
techn|que a|one cannot determ|ne the cause of the degradat|on (natura| or human caused}.
111
5
INITIAL ASSESSMENT (T1)
The most accurate method |s to estab||sh permanent p|ots at the t|me of the frst |nventory
so that subsequent assessments are done at the exact same |ocat|on, for the same s|ze
p|ot, w|th the same protoco|s. However, |f estab||sh|ng permanent p|ots |s not feas|b|e, future
measurements can be made from a s|m||ar |ocat|on w|th h|gher uncerta|nty. lf not us|ng
permanent p|ots, |t |s |mportant to ensure that the area of |and be|ng assessed at T1 and T2
are |dent|ca| to avo|d confound|ng stock change est|mates w|th area changes (lPOO 2013}.
Oarbon poo|s are measured accord|ng to the methods |a|d out |n Ohapters 2-4. The |n|t|a|
assessment w||| be used as a reference po|nt (datum} for future change. Th|s |s part|cu|ar|y
|mportant for so||s |n b|ue carbon ecosystems because much of the stock change occurs
when the so|| accretes (ga|ns vo|ume, such as through e|evat|on ga|n} or erodes. Examp|es of
poss|b|e reference po|nts for a change |n so|| vo|ume |nc|ude depth to the organ|c so|| base
or depth to an under|y|ng substrate (|.e., bedrock} (Fig. 5.1}. A constant so|| vo|ume reference
datum, such as the under|y|ng substrate, |s usefu| because any change cou|d on|y have
come from so|| accret|on or eros|on s|nce the substrate |s constant (base||ne scenar|o}. Other
reference po|nts, such as carbon poo| measurements, w||| be based on the resu|ts of the |n|t|a|
assessment (project scenar|o}. A separate datum must be estab||shed for each parameter
be|ng tracked.
TIME BETWEEN ASSESSMENTS
The t|me recommended between measurements depends on the project s|te, |ntens|ty of
act|v|t|es, and the t|me needed to see a measurab|e change. lf the s|te |s pr|st|ne, and no
|and use change has been observed, the t|m|ng between measurements shou|d re|ate to the
t|me requ|red to see natura| changes |n the carbon stocks. For examp|e, seasona| changes
Depth to underlying substrate
Reference datum
Depth of organic soil
Individual carbon pools at T1:
Aboveground |iving biomass

Trees

Shrubs

Grass
Aboveground dead biomass

Dead wood
Figure 5.1 Estab||sh|ng a so|| vo|ume reference datum
112
5
|n aboveground b|omass assoc|ated w|th |oss of |eaves |n the coo|er months |s ba|anced
out by regrowth |n the spr|ng, so the s|ze of that b|omass carbon poo| |s re|at|ve|y stab|e.
Thus, annua| measurements are usua||y not needed; |nstead, measurements every 5-10
years m|ght be more va|uab|e. S|m||ar|y, so||s accrete very s|ow|y (rate of m||||meters per year},
and the carbon found |n the deeper sed|ments (beneath the top meter} |s re|at|ve|y stab|e
and not ||ke|y to change |f the ecosystem |s not a|tered. Therefore, adequate so|| carbon
measurements may a|so be taken at 5-10 years or |onger (10- 20 years}. However, |f the
project area has undergone a |and use change, or |f |and-use changes nearby are |mpact|ng
the s|te, measurements shou|d be taken more regu|ar|y to record any s|gn|fcant |mpacts.
SUBSEQUENT ASSESSMENTS (T2)
Return to the same |ocat|on ana|yzed at T1, or an a|ternat|ve |ocat|on that |s representat|ve
of the s|ze and current spec|es dens|ty of the or|g|na| |ocat|on, and repeat the b|ue carbon
|nventory. vegetat|ve carbon poo|s can be measured accord|ng to the steps out||ned |n
Ohapter 4. The carbon |nventory from T1 can be used as a reference to determ|ne changes
|n the vegetat|ve carbon poo|s.
Measur|ng the so|| carbon poo| |s more cha||eng|ng due to so|| accret|on/eros|on that |mpact
so|| vo|ume or carbon dens|ty. For examp|e, |f s|gn|fcant so|| accret|on/eros|on has occurred
at the study s|te, a core taken from 0-100 cm be|ow the so|| surface at T1 w||| not cover
the same abso|ute depth range as a core taken at 0-100 cm from the so|| surface at T2
(Fig 5.2}. ln order to correct for th|s, the the change |n so|| vo|ume between T1 and T2 must
be determ|ned by estab||sh|ng a reference datum as descr|bed above. The concept |s that
a reference datum |s a hor|zonta| ||ne be|ow the |nfuence of p|ant act|v|ty (|.e., a|| carbon
added by root growth or surface depos|t|on occurs above the reference}. One approach
for estab||sh|ng a reference datum |s to |ocate a feature |n the so|| prof|e that can be c|ear|y
|dent|fed over t|me, such as bedrock or a sharp trans|t|on from organ|c-r|ch to organ|c-poor
soil (Fig 5.1}. For examp|e, Kaufman et al. 2014 used the boundary between organ|c so||s
and mar|ne sands as the reference datum |n Honduras. Some common|y used methods for
estab||sh|ng a reference datum do not capture the fu|| so|| prof|e, |eav|ng open the poss|b|||ty
that so|| vo|ume be|ow the feature changed. For examp|e, the pos|t|on of the so|| surface |n
1963 can be estab||shed by |ocat|ng a peak |n ces|um-137. So|| E|evat|on Tab|es (SETs} are
an expens|ve but accurate method for assess|ng change so|| vo|ume change across the fu||
so|| prof|e |n cases where there |s no c|ear boundary.
To obta|n h|gh-reso|ut|on measures of wet|and so|| e|evat|on, a portab|e, mechan|ca| dev|ce
called a Surface Elevation Table (SET) can be used (Fig 5.3}. The SET dev|ce has an accuracy
of 1.5 mm and can be used to determ|ne e|evat|on trends |n any wet|and sett|ng (Oahoon
et al. 2002}. lt |s more accurate to measure so|| e|evat|on seasona||y every year between
T1 and T2 to estab||sh trends and determ|ne an average ga|n/|oss per year. However, |f |t |s
not poss|b|e to rout|ne|y make measurements, so|| e|evat|on can be determ|ned from a
d|ferent but s|m||ar |ocat|on where rout|ne samp||ng |s eas|er, but the uncerta|nty w||| |ncrease.
Rates of so|| e|evat|on ga|ns/|osses over t|me may a|so be ava||ab|e from government agenc|es
or researchers.
A deta||ed exp|anat|on of the SET marker hor|zon (MH} methodo|ogy, a ||st of the sc|ent|sts
us|ng |t, and the |ocat|ons where |t |s be|ng used can be found on the S Geo|og|ca| Survey
(SGS} web s|te: www.pwrc.usgs.gov/set. Br|efy, the SET-MH methodo|ogy compr|ses a
113
5
p|atform that attaches to a benchmark (po|e dr|ven permanent|y |nto the ground that does
not move and rema|ns from T1 to T2}. The p|atform |s suspended above the ground, and rods
of known |ength are fed through open|ngs |n the p|atform and rested on the surface of the
soil (Fig 5.3}. The he|ght from the top of the p|atform to the top of the rod |s measured. The
Surface Elevation Table
Measure
Height
Rods
Platform
Benchmark
Vertical
Accretion
Marker
Horizon
Elevation
Change
Deep
Subsidence
Reference datum
Zone of Shallow
Subsidence
Figure 5.3 D|agram of a Surface E|evat|on Tab|e (SET} marker hor|zon (MH} method used to detect changes |n
so|| surface e|evat|on. lnset |mage: SFWS b|o|og|st B||| Br|dge|and tak|ng measurements on a SET ( Roy |owe,
.S. F|sh and W||d||fe Serv|ce}.
T2
Soil Accretion
T2
Soil Erosion
T1
Corg
T2
T1
Core depth
1 meter
Additional carbon
Corg Corg
CO2 CO2 CO2
Carbon lost as CO2
T1
T2
T1
Reference datum
Figure 5.2 Efect of accret|on and eros|on on so|| samp|es. A reference datum |s usua||y g|ven the des|gnat|on '0," and
future measurements shou|d refer to |t. For examp|e, so|| accret|on of 3 cm at T2 wou|d be reported as '+3 cm re|at|ve
to the datum" where the |n|t|a| datum wou|d a|so be reported. Note that the '0" reference datum |s th|s examp|e |s
estab||shed by measur|ng the d|stance to a second, pr|mary reference datum be|ow the so|| surface. The pr|mary
reference may be bedrock or a d|st|nct so|| |ayer such as c|ay (Fig. 5.1}, or the bottom of an SET benchmark (Fig. 5.3}.
114
5
height of the rod changes as the soil surface changes, representing change in soil surface
e|evat|on, wh|ch corresponds to a change |n so|| vo|ume. Ohange |n so|| vo|ume |s the on|y
parameter requ|red for ca|cu|at|ng stock change. However, the assoc|ated marker hor|zon
can g|ve add|t|ona| |ns|ghts that are |nterest|ng for research purposes, name|y a ca|cu|at|on of
sha||ow subs|dence (e.g., due to root decompos|t|on} (Oahoon et al. 2002}.
EXAMPLE
+ Rod he|ght at T1 = 100.46 cm
+ Rod he|ght at T2 = 100.98 cm
E|evat|on change = 100.98 cm - 100.46 cm = 0.52 cm = 5.2 mm (common un|t used
for describing elevation changes in soil and sea level)
+ Depth of the marker hor|zon at T1 = 0
The marker hor|zon |s estab||shed dur|ng the frst assessment
+ Depth of the marker hor|zon at T2 = 8.6 mm
vert|ca| accret|on = 8.6 mm - 0 mm = 8.6 mm
+ Sha||ow subs|dence = vert|ca| accret|on - e|evat|on change
8.6 mm - 5.2 mm = 3.4 mm
ln the case of so|| accret|on, the top sub-samp|e |s used to determ|ne the change |n the so||
carbon due to change |n the so|| vo|ume (|ove|ock et al. 2014}.
EXAMPLE
+ T2 so|| core top 10 cm = 0.195 g/cm
3
+ So|| e|evat|on rate (determ|ned by SET-MH measurements} = 0.52 cm per year
+ T|me between T1 and T2 = 10 years
+ Tota| so|| accret|on occurr|ng |n that t|me = 5.2 cm
+ 5.2 cm * 0.195 g/cm
3
= 1.014 g/cm
2
additional soil carbon due to accretion
(in a single core)
Th|s number can then be extrapo|ated to the hectare sca|e:
+ Tota| carbon content |n the core due to accret|on = 1.014 g/cm
2
+ 1 Mg = 1,000,000 g
+ 1 hectare = 100,000,000 cm
2
+ 1.014 g/cm2 * (Mg/1,000,000 g}*(100,000,000 cm
2
/ha} = 101.4 Mg O/ha
+ 101.4 Mg C/ha was added to the system
lf the area has undergone eros|on, a one meter so|| core at T2 w||| go deeper than the samp|e
taken at T1, and the new surface that was once bur|ed |s now exposed to the a|r/water. ln
th|s case, a change |n the so|| carbon at T2 |s determ|ned by do|ng an assessment of carbon
content for the overlapping depth (Fig. 5.4}.
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5
EXAMPLE
+ So|| e|evat|on rate (determ|ned by SET measurements} = -0.86 cm per year
+ T|me between T1 and T2 = 10 years
+ Tota| so|| eros|on occurr|ng |n that t|m. = -8.6 cm
So the one-meter core at T2 went 8.6 cm deeper than a one-meter core at T1, and,
thus, the bottom 8.6 cm cannot be used to determ|ne change
+ The carbon content of the rema|n|ng top 91.4 cm (as determ|ned by methods |n out||ned
|n Ohapter 3} = 69.2 g/cm
2
Th|s number can then be extrapo|ated to the hectare sca|e:
+ Tota| carbon content |n the top 91.4 cm of the core = 69.2 g/cm
2
+ 1 Mg = 1,000,000 g
+ 1 hectare = 100,000,000 cm
2
+ 69.2 g/cm
2
* (Mg/1,000,000 g}*(100,000,000 cm
2
/ha} = 6,920 Mg O/ha
+ T1 so|| carbon poo| = 7,205 Mg O/ha
+ T2 so|| carbon poo| - T1 so|| carbon poo| = change |n so|| carbon
6,920 Mg O/ha - 7,205 Mg O/ha = -285 Mg O/ha
+ 285 Mg C/ha was lost from the system
New exposed surface
with increased
gas exchange
Lost carbon
Core depth
1 meter
Overlapping
section
T1 and T2
Carbon not
accounted
for at T1
T1 T2 Soil Erosion
Core depth
1 meter
Figure 5.4 D|agram of how carbon |osses may be accounted for where the so|| surface has subs|ded or been eroded.
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5
DETERMINING CHANGES IN CARBON STOCKS/POOLS
The change |n carbon stocks for a g|ven b|ue carbon ecosystem over a spec|fc area can be
determ|ned as fo||ows:
+ Ohange |n carbon stock (Mg O} = tota| carbon stock at T2 (sum of a|| carbon poo|s} - tota|
carbon stock at |n|t|a| measurement T1 (sum of a|| carbon poo|s}
+ For examp|e |n a degraded sa|t marsh:
Measurements taken from a sa|t marsh s|te |n 2002 (T1} est|mated the tota| carbon
stock (sum of a|| re|evant poo|s} to be 34,667 Mg O.
Measurements taken for the same sa|t marsh s|te us|ng the same methods |n 2012 (T2}
est|mated the tota| carbon stock (sum of a|| re|evant poo|s} to be 25,167 Mg O.
25,133 Mg O - 34,667 Mg O = -9,534 Mg O (carbon |ost from the ecosystem}
lf we assume a|| carbon |ost |s em|tted to the atmosphere/water co|umn (see Add|t|ona|
Oons|derat|ons for Oarbon Account|ng be|ow} then the tota| change |n carbon can be used
to est|mate the annua| rate of change and potent|a| OO
2
em|ss|ons.
+ Annua| change |n carbon stock (Mg O/year} = (tota| carbon stock at T2 - tota| carbon
stock at |n|t|a| measurement T1} / (T2 - T1}
+ s|ng the examp|e above
(25,133 Mg O - 34,667 Mg O} / (2012 - 2002} = -953 Mg O/year.
Associated CO
2
em|ss|ons = 953 Mg O * 3.67 (convers|on factor} = 3,498 Mg OO
2
The stock-change approach |s used to make T|er 3 est|mates of carbon stock/poo| change.
lt |s app||cab|e |n countr|es that have nat|ona| |nventory systems, or ongo|ng mon|tor|ng
programs, where the stocks of d|ferent b|omass poo|s are measured at per|od|c |nterva|s
(lPOO 2013}. However, the stock-change approach requ|res measurements of each carbon
poo| and s|gn|fcant resources, mak|ng th|s approach not feas|b|e |n a|| s|tuat|ons.
Gain-loss Method
Th|s method |s used fo||ow|ng an |n|t|a| b|ue carbon |nventory when subsequent |nventor|es
from d|rect measurements are not feas|b|e. lnstead, the ga|n-|oss method uses act|v|ty data
to account for the change |n carbon stock between T1 and T2. There are numerous act|v|t|es
that resu|t |n carbon stock ga|ns (transfer between poo|s, restorat|on act|v|t|es, annua| p|ant
growth, so|| accret|on, etc.} and |osses (transfer between poo|s, |and-use changes, extract|ve
act|v|t|es, natura| d|sturbances such as storms, etc.} |n coasta| mar|ne ecosystems, the |mpacts
of var|ous act|v|t|es are comp|ex and as yet not we|| character|zed. Thus, th|s method y|e|ds
T|er 1 and 2 resu|ts. T|er 1 resu|ts are ca|cu|ated based on the genera| convers|on factors
obta|ned from g|oba||y comp||ed databases (|.e., 2013 lPOO Wet|ands Supp|ement}, T|er 2
resu|ts are based on country-spec|fc convers|on factors. Both T|er 1 and T|er 2 est|mates
requ|re country-spec|fc or project-spec|fc act|v|ty data.
lf we assume a|| carbon |ost |s em|tted to the atmosphere/water co|umn (see Add|t|ona|
Oons|derat|ons for Oarbon Account|ng be|ow}, us|ng the Ga|n-|oss method change |n carbon
stocks for a g|ven b|ue carbon ecosystem over a spec|fc area can be determ|ned as fo||ows:
+ Ohange |n carbon stock (Mg O} = Oarbon stock at T1 - (carbon |osses (|and use change,
natura| d|sasters, eros|on, etc.} + carbon ga|ns (so|| accret|on, growth, restorat|on, etc.}}
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5
FOR EXAMPLE
+ Measurements taken from a 1,000 ha sa|t marsh s|te |n 2002 (T1} est|mated the tota|
carbon stock to be 34,667 Mg O.
+ ln 2007: 200 ha were dra|ned resu|t|ng |n an em|ss|ons rate = 7.9 Mg O/ha/yr (lPOO 2013,
Table 4.13, p. 31}
+ ln 2010: 50 ha were rewetted resu|t|ng |n an em|ss|ons rate = -0.91 Mg O/ha/yr (lPOO
2013, Table 4.12, p. 29}
+ Second assessment conducted |n 2012 (T2}
+ Assum|ng a|| e|se rema|ned the same carbon stock change can be est|mated as fo||ows:
(200 ha * 7.9 Mg O/ha/yr} * (2010-2007} = 4,740 Mg O
(150 ha * 7.9 Mg O/ha/yr} * (2012-2010} = 2,370 Mg O
(50 ha * -0.91 Mg O/ha/yr} * (2012-2010} = -91 Mg O
+ Tota| carbon d|ference = 4,740 Mg O + 2,370 Mg O + -91 Mg O = 7,019 Mg O |ost
+ Associated CO
2
em|ss|ons = 7,019 Mg O * 3.67 (convers|on factor} = 25,739 Mg OO
2
Additional Considerations for Carbon Accounting
When ca|cu|at|ng carbon em|ss|ons, |t |s |mportant to cons|der where any add|t|ona| ecosystem
carbon or|g|nated from and where any |oss of carbon ends up. The ca|cu|at|ons above app|y
when the d|ference |n carbon between T2 and T1 |s re|eased to the atmosphere/water
co|umn as OO
2
, prov|d|ng an upper est|mate of carbon em|ss|ons. However, |n some cases
carbon |s not em|tted but redepos|ted to adjacent hab|tats or the deep ocean. Oorrect|ons
must be made to |nc|ude carbon that |s |ost but not em|tted. However the sc|ence to support
choos|ng the correct|on factor descr|b|ng the proport|on of carbon em|tted to the atmosphere
|s st||| deve|op|ng.
Autochthonous organ|c carbon (carbon or|g|nat|ng or form|ng |n the p|ace where |t |s
accumu|ated} can be |nc|uded |n carbon account|ng. A||ochthonous organ|c carbon (carbon
or|g|nat|ng outs|de the project boundary and be|ng depos|ted |n the project area} can be
cha||eng|ng to account for at the project |eve| because the carbon was |ost from an adjacent
|ocat|on but not em|tted. For examp|e, |n t|da| wet|ands eros|on may reduce carbon stocks at
one |ocat|on, but some of th|s carbon may be depos|ted and trapped |n a ne|ghbor|ng system.
lndeed, up to 50% of seagrass so|| carbon |s a||ochthonous (Kennedy et al. 2010}. ln th|s case,
|t |s |ncorrect to presume that the carbon |ost at the frst s|te resu|ted |n carbon em|ss|ons.
ln the case of ||ve vegetat|on, any carbon add|t|ons are due to |ncreased p|ant b|omass from
growth (autochthonous} and any |oss |s from degradat|on (e.g., deforestat|on or weather
event}; therefore, th|s carbon |s transferred to the non-||v|ng vegetat|ve carbon poo|. Oarbon
|n the non-||v|ng vegetat|on poo| e|ther gets re|eased to the atmosphere/water co|umn, bur|ed
|n the so|| as the p|ant mater|a| decomposes, or |s removed to a ne|ghbor|ng ecosystem by
w|nd/currents. Oarbon |ost to the atmosphere/water co|umn can be counted as em|ss|ons,
carbon bur|ed |n the so|| w||| be accounted for dur|ng the so|| ana|ys|s, and carbon that |s
moved to a new |ocat|on can e|ther be |gnored (|f < 5%} or est|mated based on conservat|ve
convers|on factors or mode||ng. S|m||ar|y, depos|ted a||ochthonous vegetat|ve carbon (|.e., |eaf
||tter, branches} can e|ther be |gnored (|f < 5%}, est|mated based on conservat|ve convers|on
118
5
factors or mode||ng, or-|f |t |s obv|ous (|.e., tree branches |n |ow marsh area}-can be
ca|cu|ated as a separate carbon poo|.
ln the case of so||, organ|c carbon add|t|ons resu|t from e|ther |ncreased be|owground
b|omass or sed|mentat|on. Where so|| organ|c carbon accumu|ates on the project s|te due to
sed|mentat|on, a compensat|on factor must be app||ed. Th|s factor |s based on a percentage
of the carbon stock that |s der|ved from a||ochthonous so|| organ|c carbon and may be der|ved
from pub||shed va|ues, fe|d-co||ected data (e.g., stab|e |sotopes of carbon can be used |n
seagrass beds to estab||sh the or|g|n of accreted carbon (Kennedy et al. 2010}, proposed
conservat|ve defau|t factors (e.g., 50% a||ochthonous carbon} or mode||ng. When so|| carbon |s
|ost due to eros|on, the fate of the |ost carbon (e.g., redepos|ted or ox|d|zed to OO
2
} determ|nes
if this loss can be accounted as CO
2
em|ss|on. Therefore, a compensat|on factor |s needed
here, too. The sc|ence on th|s subject |s not sufc|ent|y deve|oped to propose a defau|t factor,
and, therefore, must be based on e|ther fe|d data or mode||ng. Stud|es to date have used a
range e.g., 25-100% of organ|c carbon |n the top meter of the so|| as be|ng em|tted to the
atmosphere (Fourqurean et a|. 2012a; Pend|eton et al. 2012; S||kamk| et al. 2012}.
Gas Flux Techniques for Directly Assessing Carbon Flux
To understand how coasta| wet|ands |nfuence c||mate, there |s a need to understand how much
GHG actua||y |eaves coasta| ecosystems and enter the atmosphere. Wh||e the methods descr|bed
above can be used as a proxy to est|mate the carbon em|ss|ons from coasta| ecosystems, fux
measurements are the on|y way to measure the em|ss|on of methane (OH
4
} and n|trous ox|de
(N
2
O}, wh|ch do not accumu|ate |n the system. F|ux measurements can a|so be used to measure
OO2 em|ss|ons d|rect|y, as an a|ternat|ve to the stock change methods descr|bed above.
ln genera|, management act|v|t|es resu|t|ng |n extract|on of so||s, such as construct|on of
aquacu|ture ponds, can resu|t |n |arge OO
2
em|ss|ons |n mangroves and t|da| sa|t marshes
(lPOO 2013}, N
2
O em|ss|ons or|g|nate most|y from aquacu|ture act|v|t|es and up|and agr|cu|tura|
pract|ces, and rewett|ng areas |ncreases OH
4
from dra|ned freshwater t|da| systems. The
mass of OH
4
and N
2
O exchanged between wet|ands and the atmosphere |s sma||er than the
exchange of OO
2
by orders of magn|tude; however, they are far more efect|ve greenhouse
gases than CO
2
, w|th g|oba| warm|ng potent|a|s 25 and 298 t|mes h|gher than OO
2
over
a 100-year t|me hor|zon. For th|s reason, re|at|ve|y |ow em|ss|ons of these gases have the
potent|a| to s|gn|fcant|y change ca|cu|at|ons on the c||mate benefts of conserv|ng, creat|ng,
or restor|ng wet|ands.
N
2
O em|ss|ons are genera||y neg||g|b|e un|ess the ecosystem has a source of n|trate |oad|ng,
such as from fert|||zer runof. OH
4
product|on |s d|rect|y re|ated to sa||n|ty (Purvaja & Ramesh
2001; Pofenbarger et al. 2011}. Systems w|th sa||n|ty |eve|s greater than 18 ppt can assume
a zero value for CH
4
em|ss|ons. For the purposes of mon|tor|ng em|ss|ons from b|ue carbon
ecosystems, N
2
O em|ss|ons w||| most ||ke|y be m|n|ma| to nonex|stent |n pr|st|ne areas but
may be s|gn|fcant |n degraded areas. Methods be|ow use OH
4
as the examp|e, but the
pr|nc|p|es of measurement are the same for a|| three gases.
Static Chamber Method
The most common techn|que for measur|ng OH
4
(or any GHG} fux |s to trap the gases
|ns|de a c|osed chamber that |s open on|y to the so|| and p|ants rooted there|n, then measure
119
5
the rate at wh|ch gas concentrat|ons change over t|me (Megon|ga| & Sch|es|nger 2002;
|ove|ock et al. 2011; S|d|k & |ove|ock 2013}. F|ux measurements requ|re the construct|on
or purchase of stat|c chambers and boardwa|ks to avo|d d|sturb|ng the s|te where fuxes w|||
be measured. Stat|c chambers are re|at|ve|y |nexpens|ve to construct, can be des|gned to
funct|on w|th a w|de range of p|ant types and s|te cond|t|ons, and can be dep|oyed |n groups
to save fe|d t|me (Fig. 5.5}. However, stat|c chambers may a|so change the temperature and
||ght env|ronments of p|ants, they do not capture OH
4
escap|ng from the so|| as bubb|es (as
opposed to d|fus|on}, and assumpt|ons are needed |n order to sca|e short-term em|ss|ons
data to annua| fuxes.
The bas|c des|gn of the chamber requ|res a base that extends |nto the so|| or the foodwater
and a chamber that can be p|aced over the p|ants and sea|ed to the base. Once the chamber
|s |n p|ace, the headspace concentrat|on of gases be|ng em|tted or consumed by the p|ant-
so|| system w||| beg|n to change. These changes can be quant|fed by tak|ng samp|es
from the headspace. The sens|t|v|ty of the method |s determ|ned |arge|y by the rat|o of the
chamber headspace to the area of so|| from wh|ch OH
4
|s em|tted. OH
4
em|ss|ons are often
qu|te |ow from t|da| wet|ands (compared to OO
2
}, so |t may be necessary to enc|ose fa|r|y
|arge areas (m|n|mum 0.25 m
2
}. The measurement per|od can be |engthened to |ncrease
sens|t|v|ty, but |onger t|me per|ods |ncrease the r|sk of the chamber heat|ng up |n the sun and
|mpact|ng the resu|ts.
Figure 5.5 Ohamber vo|ume must be adjusted to enc|ose p|ants of d|ferent stature (B & O}. (B, Rache| Hagar,
SERO; O, Er|c Haze|ton, SERO}
Syringe is used
to take samples
Clear film
Aluminum
plate
Closed-cell foam
Clamp
Aluminum frame
Valve (stopcock)
attached to tubing
B C
A
120
5
The chambers must be constructed of gas-|mpermeab|e mater|a|. The s|de of the chambers
can be transparent or opaque depend|ng on the vegetat|on. Transparent chambers
are used when enc|os|ng the fo||age of p|ants w|th pressur|zed gas transport systems
(e.g., Phragmites}, but are not necessary for p|ants that have d|fus|on transport (e.g., 5oa||||a}.
Opaque chambers are eas|er to use because they do not requ|re temperature regu|at|on and
can be made eas||y from common |tems ||ke p|ast|c trashcans. lf |ong |ncubat|on t|mes are
needed because of |ow OH
4
fux rates, |t may be necessary to coo| the a|r |ns|de transparent
chambers |n order to ma|nta|n temperature w|th|n about 2 O of amb|ent.
Add|t|ona| |ssues to cons|der |nc|ude the t|me of day measurements are taken and
approach|ng the chamber proper|y. lf OH
4
em|ss|ons are afected by ||ght, then both ||ght and
dark em|ss|ons shou|d be measured |n order to est|mate a 24-hour rate. lt may be eas|er to
measure em|ss|ons when the s|te |s not fooded; a few stud|es report that food|ng does not
afect OH
4
em|ss|ons, but there |s at |east one except|on (van der Nat & M|dde|burg 2000}.
Oare must be taken not to step or stand on the so|| surface w|th|n 1-2 m of the chamber;
the pressure may cause OH
4
bubb|es trapped |n the so|| to escape and art|fc|a||y |ncrease
em|ss|on rates. For th|s reason |t |s usefu| to bu||d a s|mp|e boardwa|k e|evated 5-10 cm
of the so|| surface for approach|ng the chamber, and to |nsta|| the chamber base severa|
days before tak|ng the frst samp|es. The headspace OH
4
concentrat|on |s typ|ca||y quant|fed
by draw|ng a headspace samp|e |nto a gas-t|ght syr|nge, |nject|ng |t |nto a |eaf-free v|a| for
storage (e.g., Exeta|ner v|a|}, and ana|yz|ng aga|nst standards us|ng gas chromatography.
Water mot|on afects seagrass photosynthes|s, gas exchange, sed|ment transport, and ep|phyte
|oad. Therefore, est|mates of fux that constra|n or a|ter water mot|on w||| confound the est|mate of
fux. Benth|c chambers used |n seagrass ecosystems re|y on the tempora| measurement of water
propert|es, but do not rep||cate the phys|ca| cond|t|ons of the aquat|c env|ronment (fow|ng water}.
CALCULATIONS
The rate of gas fux |s determ|ned by measur|ng changes |n headspace concentrat|on over
t|me as determ|ned by the s|ope of a best-ft ||ne through the data (Fig. 5.6}. To do th|s,
samp|es are taken at severa| consecut|ve po|nts |n t|me (e.g., 2 m|n, 15 m|n, 35 m|n, 45 m|n,
Slope = 0.0737 = CH
4
ppm/min
100.0 50.0
Time (minutes)
0.0
C
H
4

p
p
m
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Figure 5.6 Proport|on of OH
4
gas |n the chamber |s determ|ned by p|ott|ng gas concentrat|on per samp|es aga|nst the
t|me between c|os|ng the chamber and co||ect|ng the samp|e. The s|ope |s determ|ned by ca|cu|at|ng a best-ft ||ne.
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5
60 m|n, and 80 m|n} and the amount of OH
4
|s determ|ned for each samp|e. The s|ope |s
converted from concentrat|on to a mass-based fux of OH
4
by account|ng for the tota| mass
of a|| gases |n the chamber headspace. Mass fux can then be d|v|ded by the area of so||
|ns|de the chamber |n order to express em|ss|ons on an area bas|s.
Measurements needed to determ|ne OH
4
fux (Table 5.1}:
+ Atmospher|c Pressure (assume th|s va|ue = 1 atmosphere}
+ vo|ume of the chamber (||ters}
+ n|versa| gas constant = 0.0820 (|*atmos/K*mo|}
+ Temperature |n Ke|v|ns at the t|me of each measurement (K = 273 + temp |n O}
Table 5.1 Examp|e of how to determ|ne mo|es of gas mo|ecu|es w|th|n a fux chamber
PRESSURE
(atmos)
VOLUME OF
CHAMBER
(L)
GAS
CONSTANT
(L*atmos/
K*mol)
TEMPERATURE
(Kelvins)
GAS
MOLECULES IN
THE CHAMBER
(moles)
P v R T n = Pv/RT
1 515 0.0820 288 21.8072
Run each samp|e through a gas chromatograph or s|m||ar |nstrument to determ|ne the
proport|on of the tota| gas |n the chamber that |s OH
4
; use the resu|ts of each samp|e to
calculate the slope of the data (Fig. 5.6}.
CALCULATE FLUX
+ n (tota| amount of gas |n the chamber} |s |n mo|es, but the OH
4
|s measured |s |n parts per
m||||on (ppm} so these need to be converted to s|m||ar un|ts
Amount of gas mo|ecu|es |n the chamber = 21.8072 mo|es
Amount of OH
4
= 0.0737 ppm/m|nute
1 ppm = 1 mo|e OH
4
per mo|e of gas
0.0737 ppm = 0.0737 mo|e/mo|e/m|nute
So for every mo|e of gas, 0.0737 mo|e |s OH
4
Thus, the tota| amount of OH
4
be|ng em|tted |n the chamber |s:
(0.0737 mo|e/mo|e/m|nute} * 21.8072 mo|es = 1.6072 mo|e/m|nute
+ To determ|ne the amount of OH
4
em|tted per m|nute per un|t area, d|v|de by the area of the
chamber (assumed to be 0.5 m
2
|n th|s examp|e}
(1.6072 mo|e/m|nute}/0.5 m
2
= 3.2 mo|e/m
2
/m|n
+ Extrapo|ate to Mg/ha/day
1,440 m|n = 1 day
1 ha = 10,000 m
2
1 mo|e = 1,000,000 mo|e
1 mo|e of methane = 16.042 g (accord|ng to mo|ecu|ar we|ght of methane}
1 Mg = 1,000,000 g
3.2 mo|e/m
2
/m|n * 10,000 m
2
/ha * 1mo|e/1,000,000mo|e *16.042 g/mo|e *
1Mg/1,000,000g = 51*10
-8
Mg CH
4
/ha/m|n
51*10
-8
Mg CH
4
/ha/m|n * 1,440 m|n/day = 7.4*10-4 Mg/ha/day
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5
+ lf the project area was 1,500 ha then the tota| OH
4
em|ss|ons for the project area |s
1,500 ha * (7.4*10
-4
Mg/ha/day} = 1.11 Mg CH
4
/ha/day
When extrapo|at|ng these measurements to an annua| sca|e (Mg/ha/year}, assumpt|ons must
be made about the |eve| of var|at|on of em|ss|ons over t|me, or var|at|on over t|me must
be measured and em|ss|ons sca|ed up us|ng mode|||ng techn|ques. Oonfdence decreases
when sca||ng up to |onger t|me sca|es as em|ss|ons may vary over seasons and w|th short-
and |ong-term var|at|on |n temperature, sa||n|ty, and other factors (Pofenbarger et a|. 2011},
among other factors.
Eddy Covariance Method
The eddy covar|ance (EO} method |s an a|ternat|ve, more soph|st|cated, method for d|rect|y
measur|ng the exchange of OO
2
between ecosystems and the atmosphere. lt |s non-|ntrus|ve,
|| s||0, and measures fuxes of the ent|re ecosystem. However, EO |s expens|ve because
|t requ|res buy|ng fux towers and pay|ng personne| to perform comp|ex data process|ng.
For more |nformat|on on how to set up an EO system, p|ease see Aub|net et al. (2012} and
Burba (2013}.
Mangroves and t|da| sa|t marshes can use standard terrestr|a| EO towers (Barr et al. 2010}.
However, these systems were or|g|na||y des|gned for terrestr|a| forests, and the c|ose
prox|m|ty of |arge water bod|es w||| |mpact the read|ngs and requ|re an add|t|ona| |ayer of data
process|ng to correct. nderwater EO systems used for seagrasses current|y on|y measure
O
2
because CO
2
sensors are not fast enough to measure OO
2
|n turbu|ent water (Oh|pman
et al. 2012}.
When conduct|ng fux measurements |t |s |mportant to cons|der the form of carbon be|ng
|ost. Oarbon may be |ost from coasta| wet|ands |n the form of d|sso|ved |norgan|c carbon,
organ|c carbon, or part|cu|ate organ|c compounds that move |nto adjacent ecosystems
(mangrove-seagrass-coasta| ocean}. Typ|ca||y, the |oss of d|sso|ved organ|c compounds |s
on|y a sma|| fract|on of the of the carbon budget (Wetze| & Penha|e 1979}, but |osses of DlO
from mangroves may be |arge (Bou|||on et al. 2008}. Hor|zonta| fuxes of carbon are genera||y
m|ssed by atmospher|c measurements of fux, wh|ch supports why carbon fux between the
atmosphere and the so|| surface may not be equ|va|ent to changes |n the coasta| wet|and
storage of carbon. Assessment of the magn|tude of d|ferent pathways of carbon fuxes from
mangroves, sa|t marsh and seagrass ecosystems |s an act|ve area of research that w||| reduce
uncerta|nty around the carbon budgets of these ecosystems.
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6
RODERIC B. MAST, CI
Remote Sensing and Mapping
124
6
INTRODUCTION
Access to coasta| ecosystems such as mangroves, sa|t marshes, and seagrasses for fe|d
surveys can be very expens|ve, d|fcu|t, and/or hazardous. ln add|t|on, they do not |end
themse|ves we|| to convent|ona| manua| samp||ng reg|mes, are so |arge they may not be
ab|e to be stud|ed w|th|n project t|me constra|nts, or are |n need of a change ana|ys|s w|th
no prev|ous on-s|te samp||ng hav|ng been conducted. G|ven these |mped|ments, remote
sens|ng can prov|de un|que and va|uab|e |nformat|on on coasta| vegetat|on structure and
area| coverage that cou|d not eas||y be obta|ned otherw|se.
For the purposes of measur|ng b|ue carbon, remote sens|ng |s v|ta| for determ|n|ng
ecosystem extent, strat|fcat|on and p|ot des|gn, b|omass measurements, and ana|yz|ng |and
use and carbon stock change over t|me for nat|ona| carbon account|ng. Remote|y sensed
measurements can be made at d|ferent spat|a| reso|ut|ons and, depend|ng on the sensor,
can |dent|fy var|ous b|ophys|ca| and structura| character|st|cs of the coasta| vegetat|on
commun|t|es. A|so, once |n serv|ce, sate|||tes are usua||y a cont|nuous source of |nformat|on
for many years, prov|d|ng decade |ong and |arge sca|e mon|tor|ng of natura| and man-made
changes |n ecosystems.
Here we prov|ded gu|de||nes on the poss|b|||t|es and ||m|tat|ons of d|ferent remote sens|ng
approaches. Th|s chapter |s not |ntended to descr|be how to carry out remote sens|ng. We
recommend that experts be brought |nto the project to a|d w|th the actua| data co||ect|on
and ana|ys|s. lnstead, the goa| of th|s chapter |s to prov|de |nformat|on so that the reader |s
fam|||ar enough w|th the procedures and opt|ons to commun|cate the|r needs more efect|ve|y
to remote sens|ng experts.
BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING
Here we br|efy descr|be the bas|c concepts of remote sens|ng; there are numerous books
and rev|ews devoted to th|s top|c that prov|de more deta||ed background |nformat|on and
poss|b|e app||cat|ons (Green et al. 2000; K|emas 2010; Kuenzer et al. 2011; G|r| 2012; Rees
& Rees 2012}.
Passive vs. Active Techniques
Remote sens|ng systems can be categor|zed as e|ther pass|ve or act|ve, depend|ng on the
source of the energy be|ng detected. Pass|ve sensors record refected sun||ght (opt|ca|}
and em|tted temperature (therma|} from the Earth`s surface. Opt|ca| and therma| |magery
are current|y the most common|y ava||ab|e datasets for mon|tor|ng coasta| ecosystems.
Opt|ca| |magery |s easy to use and |nterpret but |mages can be h|ndered due to pers|stent
c|oud cover, common |n trop|ca| reg|ons where many of these ecosystems are |ocated. By
contrast, act|ve systems transm|t the|r own energy pu|ses and measure the t|me of trave|
and |ntens|ty of the pu|se that gets refected from the surface back to the sensor. Act|ve
remote sens|ng can be more expens|ve but |t can penetrate c|ouds and th|ck canop|es thus
prov|d|ng more |nformat|on.
Each sensor works |n spec|fc bands of the ||ght spectrum (e.g., co|ors} to create |mages.
Bands are a set of s|m||ar wave|engths or frequenc|es. For examp|e, v|s|b|e ||ght |s composed
of b|ue, green, and red bands of the e|ectromagnet|c spectrum; other bands |nc|ude rad|o,
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6
m|crowaves (radar}, and |nfrared waves. v|s|b|e (b|ue, green, and red}, near-|nfrared (NlR}, and
m|crowaves are pr|mar||y used |n coasta| vegetat|on stud|es.
Both act|ve and pass|ve techn|ques ofer un|que advantages and d|sadvantages (Table 6.1}.
Oomb|n|ng data from both techn|ques |s a v|ab|e opt|on and can often ofer un|que |nformat|on
that |s not detectab|e through one method a|one.
Table 6.1 Advantages and d|sadvantages of remote sens|ng techn|ques.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Passive Data |s usua||y eas|er to |nterpret as |t
produces |mages s|m||ar to a camera; the
refect|on from d|ferent spectra| bands
can be used to c|ass|fy |and cover types
and vegetat|ve spec|es; vegetat|ve hea|th
can be |nferred us|ng near-|nfrared and
|nfrared refect|ons.
Requ|res sun||ght for |mag|ng; changes
in season need to be considered (polar
reg|ons w|th |arge var|at|on |n |ength of
day ||ght by season, for examp|e}; c|oud
cover can ||m|t |mag|ng capab|||t|es
because clouds scatter and absorb
||ght (equator|a| reg|ons that often have
pers|stent c|oud cover year round}.
Active Transm|t the|r own energy pu|ses that are
often weather- and day||ght |ndependent;
poss|b|e to d|rect|y compare |mages
done us|ng the same parameters
(mode, |nc|dence ang|e, po|ar|zat|on and
process|ng |eve|}.
Oan be more expens|ve; |mage ana|ys|s
|s more d|fcu|t and can d|fer dramat|ca||y
depend|ng on the parameters used.
Resolution
ln remote sens|ng, the fundamenta| un|t of data co||ect|on |s known as a p|xe| and |s defned
|n terms of ground d|mens|ons. lt |s usua||y presented as a s|ng|e va|ue that represents the
|ength of one s|de of a square. For examp|e, a spat|a| reso|ut|on of 30 meters means that
one p|xe| represents an area 30 meters by 30 meters on the ground. The reso|ut|on of an
|mage |s an |nd|cat|on of |ts potent|a| deta||, where the sma||er the p|xe| the fner the deta||
(Fig. 6.1}. ln other words, 30 meters reso|ut|on data cou|d |dent|fy any earth|y feature that
|s 30 meters by 30 meters (usefu| for mapp|ng ecosystem extent}. Anyth|ng sma||er than
30 meters by 30 meters requ|res a coarser reso|ut|on (10-meter reso|ut|on can be used to
mon|tor encroachment by agr|cu|ture}. We recommend start|ng w|th h|gher-reso|ut|on sate|||te
A
C
B
D
Figure 6.1 Efect of p|xe| s|ze on the v|sua|
appearance of an area. (A} 10 m p|xe| s|ze,
(B} 20 m p|xe| s|ze, (O} 40 m p|xe| s|ze,
(D} 80 m p|xe| s|ze ( Oentre for Remote
lmag|ng, Sens|ng & Process|ng}
126
6
|mag|ng to obta|n a genera| v|ew of the ecosystem extent and overa|| hea|th. Then fo||ow w|th
h|gher-reso|ut|on |mag|ng just for areas of part|cu|ar |nterest. ln most cases, free|y ava||ab|e
30 meter reso|ut|on |mag|ng w||| be sufc|ent for b|ue carbon ecosystem mapp|ng.
AVAILABLE DATA SETS
Sate|||tes equ|pped w|th |nstruments for mon|tor|ng the earth`s surface have been |aunched
|nto orb|t by a host of Nat|ons s|nce the 1970s creat|ng a huge arch|ve of data. However,
th|s wea|th of data can be overwhe|m|ng and not a|| data are free|y ava||ab|e to the pub||c. ln
add|t|on to the sate|||te data, aer|a| photography has a|so been used for coasta| mon|tor|ng,
espec|a||y after natura| or anthropogen|c d|sasters (such as hurr|canes or o|| sp|||s}, but those
data sets are very ||m|ted, research or|ented, and not read||y ava||ab|e. Ourrent|y |andsat,
MODlS, SRTM, PA|SAR and lOESat/G|AS datasets are appropr|ate and free|y ava||ab|e for
the operat|ona| purpose of coasta| ecosystem stud|es at g|oba| sca|es. A|| are descr|bed |n
deta|| be|ow.
Landsat
Description: |andsat |s the most
popular and longest running series
of c|v|||an Earth-observ|ng sate|||tes.
The frst |andsat was |aunched
|n 1972, and the |atest sate|||te |n
the ser|es, |andsat-8, |aunched
|n 2013. |andsat data |s by far
the most w|de|y used dataset to
map and mon|tor t|da| wet|ands.
A|| m|ss|ons carr|ed mu|t|spectra|
sensors operat|ng from the v|s|b|e
to the near infrared (NIR) portion
of e|ectromagnet|c spectrum.
|andsat 8 was augmented w|th a
new band (true-b|ue} to fac|||tate
measurements |n coasta| waters. lt
|s a pass|ve sensor and prov|des both opt|ca| (30 m p|xe| s|ze} and therma| (60 m p|xe| s|ze}
|magery. Opt|ca| bands of th|s sate|||te record b|ue, green, red, near-|nfrared, and m|d-|nfrared
reg|ons of the refected sun||ght. D|ferent comb|nat|ons of these bands are used to detect
vegetat|on hea|th, seasona| var|ab|||ty, |eaf area |ndex, |and cover change, deforestat|on,
and aforestat|on. Deta||ed |nformat|on on |andsat |s ava||ab|e on the fo||ow|ng web s|te:
http://|andsat.usgs.gov/.
Where to nd the data. |andsat data can be v|ewed and down|oaded from mu|t|p|e p|aces, but
the most re||ab|e p|ace |s the S Geo|og|ca| Survey (SGS} web porta|. The |andsat |ook v|ewer
s|te (http://|andsat|ook.usgs.gov/} |s for v|ew|ng data ava||ab|||ty and down|oad|ng a pseudo-
co|or jpeg |mage. The G|ov|s s|te (http://g|ov|s.usgs.gov/} |s for brows|ng and down|oad|ng
|nd|v|dua| |mages. For search|ng and down|oad|ng mu|t|p|e |mages of an area cover|ng a||
ava||ab|e |magery, the EarthExp|orer s|te (http://earthexp|orer.usgs.gov/} |s appropr|ate. A|| of
these s|tes are |ntu|t|ve, se|f-exp|anatory, and they make brows|ng and down|oad|ng data easy.
Figure 6.2 Examp|e |mage from |ANDSAT-8 data ( NASA}
127
6
The EarthExp|orer s|te a||ows a user to f|ter data based on d|ferent cr|ter|a, such as range of
dates, percentage of c|oud cover |n an |mage, d|ferent |andsat sate|||tes, etc.
Potential applications: For b|ue carbon purposes, |andsat |mages can be used to produce
vegetat|on |ndex (vl} products, wh|ch |nd|cate the presence/absence and abundance of
vegetat|on. A deta||ed rev|ew of d|ferent vls and the|r usage |s g|ven |n Bannar| et al., (1995}.
Norma||zed D|ference vegetat|on lndex (NDvl} and Enhanced vegetat|on lndex (Evl} are the
two most robust and w|de|y used v|s; however, each has |ts own ||m|tat|ons. NDvl va|ues
eas||y saturate at moderate to h|gh vegetat|on dens|ty |ead|ng to underest|mates |n very dense
ecosystems. Evl does not saturate, but the b|ue band refectance can add s|gn|fcant no|se
due to the atmospher|c scatter|ng of b|ue ||ght. Recent stud|es have shown that for coasta|
ecosystems, a mod|fed Evl, ca||ed Evl2, |s better su|ted to prov|de accurate est|mates of
vegetat|on |ntens|ty. n||ke NDvl, Evl2 does not saturate, and due to the |ack of the b|ue
band, |t does not add s|gn|fcant no|se.
The vl data ca|cu|ated from |andsat |magery can est|mate |ntens|ty of vegetat|on cover |n
coasta| mangrove, t|da| sa|t marsh, and |n some seagrass ecosystems. H|gher vl va|ues
|nd|cate denser vegetat|on w|th h|gher |eaf area |ndex. Oorre|at|ng the vl va|ues to fe|d-
observed vegetat|on dens|ty produces spat|a||y exp||c|t maps of b|omass at 30 meter p|xe|
s|ze for the ent|re area of study.
MODIS
Descr|pt|on: NASA`s Moderate Reso|ut|on lmag|ng Spectrorad|ometer (MODlS} |s a sensor
aboard NASA`s Terra and Aqua sate|||tes. Terra was |aunched |n 1999 and orb|ts around the
Earth from north to south cross|ng the equator |n the morn|ng. Aqua was |aunched |n 2002;
|t passes south to north over the equator |n the afternoon. Terra MODlS and Aqua MODlS
v|ew Earth`s ent|re surface every 1 to 2 days, acqu|r|ng data |n 36 spectra| bands, at a spat|a|
reso|ut|on of 250 m, 500 m, and 1 km. Deta||ed descr|pt|ons about MODlS can be found |n
NASA`s http://mod|s.gsfc.nasa.gov/ webs|te.
Where to nd the data. MODlS data of d|ferent process|ng and product |eve|s can be
down|oaded from NASA`s MODlS webs|tes (such as |and Processes D|str|buted Act|ve
Arch|ve Oenter |PDAAO s|te: https://|pdaac.usgs.gov/products/mod|s_products_tab|e}.
However, each MODlS data granu|e covers a vast area, wh|ch may cover too |arge an area
compared to what |s needed for b|ue carbon projects. A more su|tab|e p|ace to down|oad
area| subsets of MODlS data |s NASA`s D|str|buted Act|ve Arch|ve Oenter (DAAO} at Oak R|dge
Nat|ona| |aboratory (ORN|} (http://daac.orn|.gov/MODlS/}. Th|s s|te |s |ntu|t|ve and |t prov|des
step-by-step |nstruct|ons for down|oad|ng data. Another advantage of us|ng th|s s|te |s that the
data can be down|oaded as geo-t|f f|es |n the |at|tude-|ong|tude format, wh|ch can be eas||y
opened by any |mage process|ng or geograph|c |nformat|on system (GlS} software program.
Potential applications: S|m||ar to the |andsat data, vl |mages from MODlS data can be
used to |dent|fy vegetat|on dens|ty of coasta| ecosystems, and when corre|ated w|th b|omass
of fe|d p|ots, these data can be used to map |arge areas of b|omass. Another |mportant use
of MODlS data |s the change detect|on of coasta| areas. MODlS sensors have co||ected data
from g|oba| |and and ocean surfaces s|nce 2000, mak|ng da||y t|me ser|es data ava||ab|e for
study|ng changes |n the vegetat|on cover of coasta| areas. S|nce the h|ghest spat|a| reso|ut|on
of MODlS |s 250 m, Evl2 |ndex |mages produced from these datasets are appropr|ate too|s
128
6
for study|ng tempora| changes of coasta| mangroves and sa|t marshes. A deta||ed method
for us|ng MODlS data to quant|fy mangrove destruct|on of a |arge area |s g|ven |n Rahman
et al. (2013}.
SRTM
Description: The Shutt|e Radar Topography M|ss|on (SRTM} was fown aboard the space
shutt|e Endeavour February 11-22, 2000. S|ng|e-pass radar |nterferometry was used for
these datasets, wh|ch acqu|red two s|gna|s at the same t|me by us|ng two d|ferent radar
antennas. An antenna |ocated on board the space shutt|e co||ected one dataset; the other
was co||ected by an antenna |ocated at the end of a 60 meter mast that extended from the
shutt|e. D|ferences between the two s|gna|s a||owed for the ca|cu|at|on of surface e|evat|on.
The processed data are ava||ab|e |n 1-arc-second (approx|mate|y 30 meter} reso|ut|on
e|evat|on on|y for the n|ted States and 3-arc-second (approx|mate|y 90 meter} reso|ut|on
e|evat|on for g|oba| coverage.
Where to nd the data. SGS EarthExp|orer (http://earthexp|orer.usgs.gov/} s|tes prov|de
the SRTM data for the .S. G|oba| coverage of SRTM data can be down|oaded from the
Oonsu|tat|ve Group on lnternat|ona| Agr|cu|tura| Research (OGlAR} Oonsort|um for Spat|a|
lnformat|on (http://srtm.cs|.cg|ar.org/} webs|te. NASA has re|eased vers|on 3 of the SRTM
data, wh|ch exh|b|ts we||-defned water bod|es and coast||nes. The vers|on 2 d|rectory a|so
conta|ns the vector coast||ne mask der|ved by Nat|ona| Geospat|a| lnte|||gence Agency,
ca||ed the SRTM Water Body Data (SWBD}, |n ESRl Shapef|e format. The data may be
obta|ned through the http://dds.cr.usgs.gov/srtm/ webs|te. A|| vers|ons are d|str|buted w|th
Figure 6.3 Examp|e |mage from MODlS data ( NASA}
129
6
the appropr|ate metadata documentat|on.
Potential applications: The app||cat|on of SRTM data for b|ue carbon est|mat|on |s ma|n|y
to map watersheds and mangrove env|ronments. S|nce mangroves grow at sea |eve|, the
SRTM data can potent|a||y prov|de vegetat|on he|ghts of mangrove stands. A|though the data
are from 2000, mangroves grow very s|ow|y and these data can st||| be ut|||zed to assess
the vegetat|on he|ght of mangrove stands that have rema|ned und|sturbed. s|ng a||ometr|c
equat|ons that corre|ate aboveground b|omass w|th canopy he|ght and d|ameter-at-breast
he|ght (dbh} measurements, SRTM data can prov|de b|omass of mangrove stands. Data from
the areas that have been d|sturbed or deforested s|nce 2000 can be used to est|mate the |oss
of above ground b|omass (S|mard et al. 2006; S|mard et al. 2008}.
Figure 6.4 Examp|e of a fa|se|y co|ored |mage from SRTM e|evat|on data ( Pawe|S W|k|med|a Oommons}
130
6
PALSAR
Description: The Japan Aerospace Exp|orat|on Agency`s (JAA} Phased Array |-band
Synthet|c Aperture Radar (PA|SAR} produced data from 2006-2011, and a new sensor was
|aunched |n 2014. PA|SAR |s an act|ve m|crowave sensor used to ach|eve c|oud-free and
day-and-n|ght |and observat|on. lt |s a fu||y po|ar|metr|c |nstrument, mean|ng |t measures the
po|ar|zat|on of transverse e|ectromagnet|c waves. PA|SAR can em|t and rece|ve hor|zonta|
(H} or vert|ca| (v} transverse waves |n var|ous comb|nat|ons, fne-beam mode w|th s|ng|e
po|ar|zat|on of HH (hor|zonta| transm|tt|ng, hor|zonta| rece|v|ng} or vv (vert|ca| transm|tt|ng,
vert|ca| rece|v|ng}, dua| po|ar|zat|on (HH+Hv or vv+vH}, or fu|| po|ar|metry (HH+Hv+vH+vv}.
The scatter|ng patterns measured from the d|ferent po|ar|zat|ons prov|de |nformat|on to
the structure of the vegetat|on. lt a|so features w|de-swath ScanSAR mode, w|th s|ng|e
po|ar|zat|on (HH or vv}. Spat|a| reso|ut|on of the fne-beam mode HH or vv po|ar|zat|on |s
approx|mate|y 12 m, and that of the ScanSAR mode |s 100 m.
Where to nd the data. PA|SAR
data can be down|oaded from
the A|aska Sate|||te Fac|||ty (ASF}
https://ursa.asfdaac.a|aska.edu/
cg|-b|n/|og|n/guest/ webs|te. Data
can be |mported us|ng ASF
MapReady software to produce
geo-t|f format |mages. Background
no|se that may |ower the qua||ty of
the |mage can be removed us|ng
|ee f|ter, and the |mages can be
mosa|cked for each po|ar|zat|on
(HH w|th HH, Hv w|th Hv}.
Potential applications: F|ne-
beam PA|SAR data can be used
to make d|g|ta| e|evat|on maps
(DEM}, extract topography data,
or est|mate b|omass of coasta| ecosystems. ln order to extract the coasta| vegetat|on
|nformat|on, we suggest a Pr|nc|pa| Oomponent Ana|ys|s (POA} be performed. The frst step
|s to create a Radar Forest Degradat|on lndex (RFDl} from the HH and vv |mages. The RFDl
|s ab|e to assess the strength of doub|e-bounce scatter|ng, wh|ch |s the scatter|ng of radar
waves of a hor|zonta| (ground} and a vert|ca| (grass, tree trunks, etc.} surface. Th|s doub|e-
bounce scatter|ng has the potent|a| to d|ferent|ate between d|st|nct types of vegetat|on. Next,
the RFDl, Hv, and HH |ayers are stacked to create a three-band |mage. Stud|es have shown
that POA-1 can c|ear|y d|st|ngu|sh between water and vegetat|on, thus a||ow|ng mapp|ng
of coasta| deforestat|on (ma|n|y of mangroves}. POA-2 can potent|a||y be used to est|mate
vegetat|on he|ght at ~12 m reso|ut|on. Th|s can be comb|ned w|th fe|d data to est|mate
b|omass of coasta| ecosystems.
A document exp|a|n|ng A|OS Pa|sar data from JAA |s ava||ab|e at www.eorc.jaxa.jp/A|OS/
en/doc/fdata/A|OS_HB_RevO_EN.pdf. Sect|on 7 of that document has deta||ed descr|pt|on
of PA|SAR data, |nc|ud|ng the steps requ|red to process data at d|ferent |eve|s accord|ng to
the user requ|rement. JAA has a|so re|eased g|oba| mosa|cs of A|OS/PA|SAR data that can
Figure 6.5 Examp|e lmage from PA|SAR data ( JAA}
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6
be found at www.eorc.jaxa.jp/A|OS/en/pa|sar_fnf/fnf_|ndex.htm and can be used to mon|tor
|and use changes as we|| as b|omass.
ICESat/GLAS
Description: |aunched on 12 January 2003, after seven years |n orb|t and 18 |aser-operat|ons
campa|gns, the lce, O|oud, and |and E|evat|on Sate|||te (lOESat}`s sc|ence m|ss|on ended
due to the fa||ure of |ts pr|mary |nstrument. The ma|n object|ve of the Geosc|ence |aser
A|t|meter System (G|AS} |nstrument was to measure |ce sheet e|evat|ons and changes |n
e|evat|on through t|me. Secondary object|ves |nc|uded measurement of c|oud and aeroso|
he|ght prof|es, |and e|evat|on and vegetat|on cover, and sea |ce th|ckness. ||dar datasets
from lOEsat/G|AS (Geosc|ence a|t|meter system} conta|n g|oba| data po|nts co||ected over a
per|od of seven years (from 2003 to 2009}.
Where to nd the data. The Nat|ona| Snow and lce Data Oenter (NSlDO} d|str|butes 15 |eve|-1
and |eve|-2 data products from the G|AS |nstrument that was aboard the lOESat sate|||te. For
|nformat|on p|ease consu|t the NSlDO webs|te http://ns|dc.org/data/|cesat/data.htm|.
Potential application: G|AS data a||ows est|mate of canopy he|ght w|th accurac|es of a
few meters (S|mard et al., 2011; S|mard et al., 2008; Fatoy|nbo & S|mard 2012}. The new
lOESat-2 |s set to |aunch |n 2016, g|ven favorab|e cond|t|ons the data produced may prov|de
more dense spat|a| coverage.
lt |s |mportant to note that there are many other data sets that are not h|gh||ghted here. Data
from European sate|||tes, such as SPOT, have a|so been used for coasta| ecosystem stud|es,
but these data are of ||m|ted access. lmage data from commerc|a||y ava||ab|e sate|||tes, such
as lKONOS, GeoEye, and Ou|ckB|rd have a|so been app||ed to study the coasta| ecosystems,
but these data are of ||m|ted spat|a| and tempora| scopes, and not free|y ava||ab|e. Sonar data
are ma|n|y usefu| |n the mapp|ng of seagrass meadows regard|ess of water c|ar|ty, but are
very rare|y ava||ab|e. The app||cat|ons, ||m|tat|ons, and potent|a|s of sonar data for b|ue carbon
est|mat|on are st||| |n the act|ve research phase and not yet operat|ona| on a g|oba| sca|e.
Deve|op|ng c|ear goa|s and work|ng w|th a trusted remote sens|ng expert to determ|ne wh|ch
sensor and method of data ana|ys|s |s most appropr|ate and pract|ca| for your project w|||
ensure that the end product meets the project goa|s (Ohapter 2: Oonceptua||z|ng the Project
and Deve|op|ng a F|e|d Measurement P|an}.
DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING
Once the data type, reso|ut|on, and sca|e needed for your project have been determ|ned,
the resu|t|ng |mages w||| need to be processed (Fig. 6.6}. Th|s shou|d be done by a remote
sens|ng spec|a||st, but the extent of process|ng that has been done to an |mage shou|d be
documented |n the |mage`s metadata (Ohapter 7: Data Management}.
Remote sens|ng data sets are extens|ve, span decades, and most requ|re expert|se and
profess|ona| software to down|oad and ana|yze; therefore, |t can take 10 to 32 weeks
(rea||st|ca||y} to |mp|ement a project. Th|s t|me frame |arge|y depends on an organ|zat|on`s
exper|ence, |f any add|t|ona| |mages had to be requested beyond the free|y ava||ab|e arch|ves,
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6
and/or the number of steps that have been prov|ded by others (e.g., data prov|ders, software
programs}. The appea| of raw data, wh|ch may be faster to obta|n, |s the ab|||ty to app|y one`s
own ca||brat|on/nav|gat|on formu|ae to |t, |n contrast to us|ng standard a|gor|thms from some
data prov|der. The d|sadvantage of th|s approach |s that the user must possess the hardware,
software, and personne| resources to perform these steps before the data |s usab|e.
Pre-process|ng of remote|y sensed data |nvo|ves correct|on of d|stort|on, degradat|on, and
no|se |ntroduced dur|ng the |mag|ng process and produces a corrected |mage remov|ng
these anomo||es. Typ|ca||y, |mages w||| need to be processed to correct rad|ometr|c (haze
and atmospher|c scatter|ng} and geometr|c (Earth`s rotat|on and sate||te |ocat|on} |ssues.
Pers|stant c|oud cover |s a major |ssue |n most of the trop|ca| reg|ons where b|ue carbon
ecosystems ex|st. When Radar data |s not ava||ab|e or |s too expens|ve, c|oud free p|ctures
can be assemb|ed us|ng |nd|v|dua| |mages co||ected over t|me. The t|me frame used depends
on the rate of change. For examp|e, |f the ecosystem be|ng mapped |s re|at|ve|y stab|e, then
|t m|ght be poss|b|e to p|ece together |mages spann|ng serva| years w|thout |oos|ng any
|nfomrat|on. However, |f the ecosystem |s be|ng d|stroyed at a rate of 10% every 5 years you
m|ght want to ||m|t your search to |mages produced |n the |ast year to create a current map
Project design and objectives
(type, resolution, scale)
Results Dissemination
Results Validation
Image Classification
(visual/digital/supervised/
unsupervised)
Pre-processing
(radiometric, geometric, and
atmospheric correction,
cloud removal, image normalization)
Remote sensing data acquisition
(satelite, aerial photographs,
ground observations)
Indices
(NDVI, MSAVI, EVI, EVI2)
Field inventory data
(extent, species density)
Secondary data
(DEM, previous mangrove data,
soil tide)
Classification system
(definition, legend)
Figure 6.6 Steps for process|ng remot|y sensed |mages
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6
that |s as accurate as poss|b|e. lmage norma||zat|on |s needed to ana|yzse mu|t|-tempora|
data or data cover|ng |arge areas.
Once the |mages are acqu|red and pre-processed to create a usab|e |mage, the |mage w|||
need futher process|ng to extract the project re|evant data. Process|ng |nvo|ves c|ass|fcat|on
of the |mage components (|.e., trees, shrubs, water, mud fats, etc.} and may a|so |nc|ude
data on vegetat|ve spec|es compos|t|on, dens|ty, and b|omass. Any add|t|ona| |nformat|on,
such as known vegetat|on cover, dens|ty, spec|es compos|t|on, management h|story, and
past d|sturbances w||| be usefu| dur|ng |mage c|ass|fcat|on. Secondary data such as t|de
|nformat|on, e|evat|on maps, pub||shed and unpub||shed ecosystem maps and reports
are a|so h|gh|y benefc|a|. The n|ted Nat|on`s |and Oover O|ass|fca|ton System (|OOS}
|s the recommended standard for defn|ng mapp|ng c|asses (D| Gregor|o & Jansen 2000;
D| Gregor|o 2005}. va||dat|on shou|d be performed us|ng h|gher reso|ut|on remote sens|ng
data or ground truthed data.
POTENTIAL USES OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA
Mapping
Hab|tat mapp|ng and c|ass|fcat|on by means of remote sens|ng are performed by corre|at|ng
a c|uster of numer|ca| p|xe| va|ues w|th ver|fed features, such as vegetat|ve cover, open water,
t|da| fats, |n|and marshes, forested wet|ands, or bare so|| type. Remote sens|ng techn|ques
coup|ed w|th on the ground va||dat|on and mode||ng has |ed to the deve|opment of spectra|
s|gnatures that can be used to map ecosystem extent, type, and |n some cases prov|de
|nformat|on at the spec|es |eve| (see Append|x E for a genera| protoco| for mapp|ng mangroves
and sa|t marshes}. However, cha||enges such as d|st|ngu|sh|ng coasta| wet|and vegetat|on
from the ne|ghbor|ng |n|and vegetat|on, account|ng for areas where the vegetat|on |s sparse,
and rout|ne detect|on of |nd|v|dua| spec|es rema|n d|fcu|t to overcome (Heumann 2011}.
There are many techn|ques for creat|ng coasta| ecosystem maps. For examp|e, mangroves
and marshes are found w|th|n the |ntert|da| range (up to two meters above sea |eve|};
thus |t |s poss|b|e to use ground e|evat|on and t|da| range data to determ|ne the potent|a|
|ocat|on of these systems. However, accurate DEM data at |arge sca|es are rare, so your
area of |nterest may requ|re add|t|ona| |oca| know|edge to des|gn the proper ||m|ts. Another
techn|que that can be emp|oyed |s to map t|da| extent us|ng a t|me-ser|es of |mages that
co|nc|de w|th h|gh and |ow t|de (Murray et al. 2012}. Synthet|c aperture radar (SAR} data
have been |ncreas|ng|y used for mapp|ng, and mon|tor|ng at |oca| and reg|ona| sca|es. SAR
|s part|cu|ar|y usefu| as |t can penetrate the forest canopy and |nteract w|th |arger vegetat|ve
components (branches, trunks and above ground roots} (|ucas et al. 2007a; Souza-F||ho
et al. 2011; Nasc|mento Jr et al. 2013}. SAR data has a|so been used to |dent|fy mangrove
forest structura| parameters such tree dens|ty, basa| area, he|ght, b|omass, age d|str|but|on,
and forest structure (Aschbacher et al. 1995; Moug|n et al. 1999; He|d et al. 2003}. Most
recent|y, NEP-WOMO updated the 'Wor|d At|as of Mangroves" |n 2010 (Spa|d|ng et al.
2010}, and G|r| et al. (2011} generated an updated g|oba| mangrove base||ne map pr|mar||y
us|ng |andsat data (Fig. 6.7}. NEP-WOMO has a|so accumu|ated g|oba| observat|ons of
sa|t marsh d|str|but|on and extent; that map shou|d be ava||ab|e fa|| of 2014.
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6
Seagrasses |s part|cu|ar|y d|fcu|t to map us|ng remote sens|ng. The water turb|d|ty and co|or,
sun g||nt, and the ep|phytes that cover the b|ades of grass may d||ute the spectra| refectance
s|gna| of sea grasses and h|nder the |nstruments ab|||ty to 'see" through the water. They
are a|so found to grow |n a w|de range of dens|t|es wh|ch can afect the return s|gna| to the
sensors. nder c|ear water cond|t|ons, remote sens|ng |mages have been ab|e to detect
a w|de var|ety of seagrass dens|t|es rang|ng from < 25% to 100% cover (Roe|fsema et al.
2009; Pu et al. 2012} and, when comb|ned w|th |oca| know|edge, aer|a| photography, and
observat|ons |n the fe|d, rough out||nes of seagrass extent can be successfu||y mapped.
Canopy Height and Biomass
Bes|des mapp|ng ecosystem extent, remote sens|ng can be used to map b|omass that can
|ater be used to est|mate the amount of carbon |n the aboveground vegetat|ve poo|. B|omass
|s mapped based on the spec|es compos|t|on and he|ght, and severa| datasets are ava||ab|e
and serve th|s purpose. G|AS data a||ows est|mate of canopy he|ght w|th accurac|es of a
few meters (S|mard et al. 2008; S|mard et al. 2011; Fatoy|nbo & S|mard 2013}. The new
spaceborne |nterferometr|c system |aunched by the German Space Agency: TanDEM- cou|d
potent|a||y be used to measure he|ght and b|omass w|th|n sa|t marshes and canopy he|ght |n
mangrove forests. ln February 2000, STS-109 successfu||y fu|f||ed |ts SRTM m|ss|on (Shutt|e
Radar Topography M|ss|on} and gathered topograph|c data over 80% of the |and surfaces of
the Earth as we|| as radar backscatter (HH, vv po|ar|zat|on} and |nterferometr|c coherence.
SRTM e|evat|on measurements can be used to est|mate canopy he|ght w|th an accuracy of
2-4 meters but unfortunate|y th|s makes |t |nsufc|ent for mapp|ng the he|ght of sa|t marshes
(S|mard et al. 2012}. Space Shutt|e Endeavour was equ|pped w|th two radar antennas used
|nterference patterns between the two radar s|gna|s to der|ve terra|n he|ght.
Base||ne maps of mangrove he|ght and b|omass have been generated for severa| reg|ons,
|nc|ud|ng Afr|ca (Fatoy|nbo et al. 2008; Fatoy|nbo & S|mard 2013}, F|or|da (S|mard et al. 2006}
and Oo|omb|a (S|mard et al., 2009}. A g|oba| map shou|d be pub||shed |n 2015. When used
|n comb|nat|on w|th SAR data, the he|ght maps not on|y |mprove the accuracy of b|omass
est|mates, but a|so can be used to map mangrove spec|es (He|d et al. 2003; |ucas et al.
2007b}. For examp|e, He|d and T|cehurst (2003} and |ucas et al. (2007} noted that where
extens|ve root systems occurred (e.g., |n mangroves dom|nated by |||zoo|o|a species),
a subsequent decrease |n the backscatter occurs |n proport|on to |ncreases |n b|omass.
Such decreases typ|ca||y occur once mangroves have atta|ned a he|ght thresho|d, w|th |ucas
et al., (2007} suggest|ng 10 meters as an appropr|ate thresho|d. By exp|o|t|ng these observed
character|st|cs of mangroves, new mangrove mapp|ng techn|ques have been deve|oped that
can d|ferent|ate between mangrove type (w|th/w|thout aboveground roots} and spec|es.
Figure 6.7 G|oba| d|str|but|on of mangroves prepared us|ng |andsat sate|||te data at 30 m spat|a| reso|ut|on of year
2000 (G|r| et al. 2011}
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Monitoring Ecosystem Change
Mon|tor|ng |mpacts from b|ue carbon ecosystem restorat|on/conservat|on eforts and rates
of degradat|on/deforestat|on from |and use change |s va|uab|e for nat|ona| carbon account|ng
programs and for mon|tor|ng c||mate m|t|gat|on and adaptat|on strateg|es. However, desp|te
the|r |mportance, no systemat|c maps of coasta| ecosystem change at reg|ona| to g|oba|
sca|es current|y ex|st.
For reg|ona| assessments, the use of moderate (< 30 meters} spat|a| reso|ut|on opt|ca|
(e.g., |andsat} data has been successfu||y demonstrated and |s genera||y recommended
(Spalding et al. 1997; G|r| et al. 2011}. However, rout|ne detect|on of change has proved
d|fcu|t, part|y because pers|stent c|oud cover |n the trop|cs prevents regu|ar observat|on.
ln some cases, th|s has been overcome us|ng SAR (e.g., Souza-F||ho & Parade||a 2003;
Nasc|mento Jr et al. 2013}. SAR can be used to detect change w|th|n and away from ex|st|ng
base||nes (when base||ne maps are ava||ab|e}, and that data can further be comp||mented
w|th correspond|ng b|omass data. Exp|o|t|ng the dense t|me-ser|es of |andsat sensor data,
|nc|ud|ng data prov|ded by the recent|y |aunched |andsat-8, can a|so |ncrease the |eve| of
change detected.
Carbon Estimations
Oomb|n|ng maps of ecosystem extent, spec|es, and b|omass w|th average carbon stock
va|ues der|ved from fe|d data enab|es nat|ona|, reg|ona|, and g|oba| est|mates of carbon
stocks (DeFr|es et al. 2007}. S|m||ar|y, th|s data can then be used to mon|tor changes to the
carbon stock and est|mate carbon em|ss|ons (em|tted or removed} based on degradat|on,
conservat|on, and restorat|on of b|ue carbon ecosystems. H|stor|c remote sens|ng data can
be used to construct a h|story of carbon stocks and em|ss|ons that can be used for reference
scenar|os (G|bbs et al. 2007}. Th|s techn|que has been done w|th mangroves, but research
|nto expand|ng the techn|que to |nc|ude sa|t marshes and seagrasses |s a h|gh pr|or|ty.
Numerous books and rev|ews devoted to creat|ng carbon stock maps and measur|ng carbon
em|ss|ons us|ng remote sens|ng are ava||ab|e and can prov|de more deta||ed background
|nformat|on and methods.
VALIDATING WITH FIELD DATA
To make use of remote sens|ng data for |nventor|es, and |n part|cu|ar to re|ate |and cover to
|and use, |t |s good pract|ce to comp|ement the remote|y sensed data w|th ground reference
data (often ca||ed ground truth data}. |and uses that are rap|d|y chang|ng or that are eas||y
m|sc|ass|fed shou|d be more |ntens|ve|y ground-truthed than other areas, preferab|y from
actua| ground surveys co||ected |ndependent|y. H|gh-reso|ut|on aer|a| photographs or sate|||te
|magery may a|so be usefu|.
Parameters that can current|y be measured remote|y are presence and absence of the
ecosystem, spec|es, |eaf area and canopy cover, canopy he|ght, and vegetat|ve b|omass.
Therefore, s|m||ar parameters shou|d be measured for ground truth|ng. ldea||y, each fe|d
p|ot shou|d encompass a s|m||ar area to that of a s|ng|e p|xe| and span the ent|re range
of the ecosystems macro-structura| attr|butes. ln wet|and eco|ogy, typ|ca| p|ots are |n the
orders of meters and may not be appropr|ate for remote sens|ng app||cat|ons. lnstead, p|ots
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of 1 hectare wou|d enab|e accurate character|zat|on of canopy heterogene|ty and prov|de
exce||ent ca||brat|on for remote sens|ng measurements. lf that |s not feas|b|e, p|ot s|zes of a
few tens of meters can be used |f they are representat|ve of the |oca| (hectare sca|e} structure.
The opportun|ty ex|sts to |nvo|ve |oca| commun|t|es |n the co||ect|on of ground truthed data.
Wh||e s|gn|fcant progress has been made toward bu||d|ng capac|ty and commun|cat|ng the
|mportance of b|ue carbon ecosystems to |oca|, nat|ona|, and |nternat|ona| dec|s|on makers,
these eforts are st||| |n the|r |nfancy and cont|nued work |s needed to ensure the ongo|ng success
and |mp|ementat|on of these and other re|ated projects. Opportun|t|es for fe|d work |ncrease
re|at|onsh|ps w|th|n the commun|ty and create a sense of ownersh|p that st|mu|ates cont|nued
support for conservat|on and restorat|on eforts |ong after the study has been comp|eted.
CONCLUSION
When remote sens|ng systems are used w|se|y, |nc|ud|ng comp|ementary comb|nat|ons of
d|ferent sate|||te and a|rborne sensors, they can prov|de data that enhances the research and
management of coasta| ecosystems. Each type of sensor has |ts own un|que measurement |n
wh|ch to record subt|e and obv|ous changes to coasta| env|ronments. Therefore, comb|n|ng
data from var|ous sensors have and w||| cont|nue to prov|de pert|nent |nformat|on regard|ng the
b|ophys|ca| and structura| components of the coasta| |andscapes. One of the key advantages
of remote sensors |s that they can mon|tor and assess |ong-term trends and short-term
changes of vegetat|on and hydro|ogy faster, more comp|ete|y and at |ower cost per un|t area
than fe|d or sh|p surveys a|one (K|emas 2013}.
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ENRIC BALLESTEROS
Data Management
138
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INTRODUCTION
Efect|ve|y record|ng, manag|ng, and arch|v|ng the data co||ected us|ng the methods descr|bed
|n Ohapters 2-5 |s essent|a| for accurate and re||ab|e ana|ys|s and use. Th|s not on|y |nc|udes
sc|ent|fc ana|ys|s of carbon |n coasta| ecosystems, but a|so us|ng carbon va|ues |n the des|gn
and |mp|ementat|on of coasta| conservat|on and management pract|ces or the |nc|us|on of
coasta| ecosystems |n greenhouse gas account|ng. Further, mak|ng ecosystem data w|de|y
access|b|e w||| support broader app||cat|on.
nfortunate|y coasta| ecosystem carbon data sets are often not w|de|y access|b|e, and/or the
spec|fc data |n them |s |ncomp|ete or of |nsufc|ent reso|ut|on to support broader use. The
data that |s ava||ab|e |s often co||ected us|ng d|ferent parameters, un|ts of measurement, t|me
sca|es, and more, mak|ng compar|sons across stud|es exceed|ng|y d|fcu|t or |mposs|b|e. To
a||ev|ate th|s s|tuat|on, a un|form structure and format of data co||ect|on and management |s
recommended here to a||ow data |nter-compat|b|||ty.
REASONS TO MANAGE AND PUBLISH
YOUR DATA
Management of coasta| carbon data shou|d be a pr|or|ty for any project no matter the sca|e
or scope. Efect|ve data management |s benefc|a| for (MlT||brar|es}:
+ Documentation: Efect|ve|y document|ng data ensures that proper descr|pt|ons of your
data are ma|nta|ned to support future use. Do|ng so a|so ensures that other users can
proper|y acknow|edge the data source and authors.
+ Meet reporting requirements: Oert|fcat|on and/or fund|ng for carbon projects-|nc|ud|ng
sc|ent|fc research, conservat|on, and po||cy act|ons-now requ|re some form of data
management p|an to be |n p|ace to ensure project |ntegr|ty.
ln add|t|on to the d|rect benefts of proper data record|ng and management, |t |s strong|y
recommended that data |s pub||ca||y ava||ab|e for use by others. Th|s can mean pub||sh|ng
data |n sc|ent|fc papers, g|v|ng sem|nars, act|ng as adv|sors to other projects or programs,
and subm|tt|ng your data to open access data repos|tor|es, such as the G|oba| Oosta| Oarbon
Data Arch|ve descr|bed be|ow. Benefts of data d|ssem|nat|on |nc|ude:
+ Faci|itation and support for other pro[ects or research. Enabling other users, including
researchers, to use your data prevents dup||cat|on of efort, supports projects that m|ght
not have the capac|ty or resources to co||ect data, and a||ows for broader and synthet|c
ana|ys|s and compar|son.
+ Dissemination: Enab||ng a data repos|tory to house and d|ssem|nate your data a||ev|ates
the work requ|red to respond to requests for your data and t|me spent creat|ng a system
(||ke a persona||zed webs|te} to house your data yourse|f.
+ Increased visibility: Mak|ng your data useab|e and ava||ab|e to other users (such as
po||cy-makers, project deve|opers, or sc|ent|fc researchers} through broad|y access|b|e
repos|tor|es |ncreases the v|s|b|||ty and re|evance of your program.
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7
Access to qua||ty contro||ed data, based on transparent and standard|zed protoco|s for
|nteroperab|||ty, w||| resu|t |n profound dec|s|ons across sectors w|th regard to b|ue carbon
hab|tats. For examp|e:
+ Blue Carbon: lmproved assessments of b|ue carbon to support |nc|us|on of coasta|
ecosystems |n nat|ona| c||mate m|t|gat|on and adaptat|on strateg|es;
+ Ecosystem Services: More comp|ete assessments of the ecosystem benefts prov|ded
to coasta| commun|t|es and other benefc|ar|es;
+ Finance: Support for v|ab|e market-based |nstruments for conserv|ng coasta| ecosystems;
+ Vulnerability Assessment: Stronger representat|on of coasta| ecosystems |n env|ronmenta|
|mpact assessments and r|sk assessments for deve|opment act|v|t|es; and
+ Increased Capacity: Strengthened capac|ty to efect|ve|y |ncorporate appropr|ate coasta|
management measures |nto nat|ona| management and protect|on strateg|es.
DATA COLLECTION
The data generated through assessments of carbon |n coasta| ecosystems |s co||ected
as measurements |n the fe|d and the |aboratory. A|| data shou|d come w|th metadata that
descr|bes the cond|t|ons, |ocat|on, and other deta||s of how the measurements were made.
See Table 7.1 for examp|es.
Table 7.1 Examp|es of the types of data co||ected |n a typ|ca| coasta| b|ue carbon project
EXAMPLES REMOTE SENSING FIELD WORK LABORATORY
Data Hectares of mangrove
habitat
Tree d|ameter at breast
height
Carbon content of a
so|| samp|e
Associated
Metadata
Sate|||te |nformat|on
(organ|zat|on, type, lD},
sensor used, dataset
used, parameters,
prox|es, etc.
Date of measurement,
species of the tree,
location of the tree
(latitude and longitude),
too| used to measure
d|ameter, descr|pt|on
of where on the tree
the measurement was
taken, etc.
Date, type of too| used
(make and mode| of the
e|ementa| ana|yzer, or
furnace for |Ol}, samp|e
ID and description,
controls used, protocol
used, etc.
Written Descriptive Data
To ensure that a|| needed data and assoc|ated metadata are recorded, |t |s essent|a| to record
the data dur|ng, or soon after, co||ect|on. There are severa| methods for record|ng data (wr|tten
notes, aud|o tap|ng, v|deotap|ng, etc.}. However, wr|tten notes are the most cost efect|ve
method of data co||ect|on. Estab||sh|ng a data co||ect|on p|an pr|or to conduct|ng fe|d work
shou|d be a top pr|or|ty. Ensure that the p|an takes |nto account the exact var|ab|es and the
extent of data co||ected dur|ng any fe|d study or |aboratory ana|ys|s. The comp||at|on of fe|d
and |ab notes may appear to be stra|ght forward; however, predeterm|n|ng what to wr|te
down, how to wr|te |t down, and when to wr|te |t down w||| ensure a|| needed data |s co||ected.
What to write down: lt |s often he|pfu| to have premade worksheets that are used by a||
personne| |n the fe|d or |aboratory. Th|s w||| not on|y keep the data organ|zed |n a s|m||ar
140
7
fash|on but a|so w||| ensure that a|| re|evant fe|d and |aboratory data and assoc|ated metadata
|s cons|stent|y co||ected. The type of |nformat|on co||ected depends on what |s be|ng samp|ed
and the w|der project goa|s (Appendices FH}.
How to write it down: lt |s usefu| to predeterm|ne the |eve| of deta|| requ|red for data and
metadata descr|pt|ons, un|ts of measure to use, and types of data to be recorded. lf codes/
shorthand |s to be used, be sure to have a predeterm|ned reference ||st that defnes codes or
abbrev|at|ons. ln the fe|d, |t |s product|ve to have a s|ng|e person |n each team tasked w|th
record|ng measurements and tak|ng notes so that the recorded data are cons|stent. Th|s a|so
a||ows the team members tak|ng measurements to be more efc|ent |n mov|ng on to the next
task rather than stopp|ng to take notes. ln the |ab, each researcher shou|d have a persona|
|ab notebook and be respons|b|e for h|s or her own note tak|ng.
When to write it down: ln pr|nc|p|e, one shou|d a|m to make notes as soon as poss|b|e after
a measurement |s taken (e.g., record core |ength at the t|me that the core |s removed} and
re|y on memory as ||tt|e as poss|b|e. The |mportance of met|cu|ous note tak|ng cannot be
overemphas|zed; thus, |t |s |mperat|ve that the amount of t|me needed to accurate|y record
data be |ntegrated |nto the schedu|e.
Photographic Data
ln add|t|on to wr|tten descr|pt|ve data, |t |s va|uab|e to estab||sh a photograph|c record,
espec|a||y |n the fe|d. Photos of the fe|d s|te, so|| cores, vegetat|on, peop|e |nvo|ved |n the
study, samp||ng processes as they happen, etc. are a|| usefu| for estab||sh|ng a record and
document|ng data.
Protoco|s are usua||y estab||shed so that photograph|c data |s cons|stent for a|| samp|ed p|ots.
+ For examp|e, |n mangroves, |t |s common pract|ce to take four photos-one |n each
card|na| d|rect|on (N, S, E, W}-from the p|ot center (Ha|| 2001a, b} (Fig. 7.1A}.
+ For seagrasses and t|da| sa|t marshes, |t |s sufc|ent to take photos |ook|ng down on the
p|ot. The number of photos needed per p|ot depends on how many |t requ|res to get a
representative idea of the health of the entire plot (Fig. 7.1B}.
Metadata such as the name and af||at|on of the photographer, |ocat|on (GPS coord|nates
|f ava||ab|e}, and date of each photograph shou|d be recorded |n the wr|tten notes as the
photos are taken to ass|st |n easy photo |dent|fcat|on |ater. A|| photos shou|d be stored
e|ectron|ca||y w|th other project data. lt |s |mportant to back up photos as we|| as record the
metadata assoc|ated w|th each.
Photography can be a usefu| and s|mp|e mechan|sm for mon|tor|ng changes |n an ecosystem.
A photo po|nt mon|tor|ng system can be estab||shed by tak|ng photographs at the same
|ocat|on w|th the same fe|d-of-v|ew at d|ferent po|nts |n t|me. Such photo po|nt mon|tor|ng |s
an easy and |nexpens|ve, yet efect|ve, method of track|ng vegetat|on and ecosystem change.
W|th appropr|ate s|te mark|ng and documentat|on, photos can be prec|se|y rep||cated by
d|ferent peop|e many years apart (Ha|| 2001a, b}.
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7
DATA QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL
At the end of every day of fe|d research, a|| data records shou|d be co||ected by a data
rev|ewer. The data rev|ewer shou|d |mmed|ate|y rev|ew a|| the data for comp|eteness, |eg|b|||ty,
and accuracy |n the presence of the person who recorded the data |n case there are any
|ncons|stenc|es or quest|ons. Once sat|sfed by the qua||ty of data recorded, the rev|ewer
shou|d wr|te h|s or her name and the date of the rev|ew, a|ong w|th any notes on |ssues that
were not|ced dur|ng the rev|ew so that they can be prevented |n the future (Fig. 7.2}.
|aboratory data shou|d be recorded |n notebooks wh|ch shou|d stay |n the |ab at a|| t|mes
to prevent them from be|ng |ost or damaged. pon comp|et|on of a study, photocop|es of
the re|evant pages shou|d be made and stored |n the |ab for future reference. Regu|ar |ab
meet|ngs can serve as venues to d|scuss resu|ts and address any |ssues.
Once the fe|d and |aboratory data have been vetted by the data rev|ewer, |t needs to be
entered |nto a computer to a|d |n ana|ys|s and for up|oad|ng to a database (see next sect|on}.
Once the person enter|ng data has checked the computer entry aga|nst the data sheet and
corrected any errors, he or she shou|d wr|te h|s or her name at the bottom of the data sheet
and the date of data entry (Fig 7.2}. Any |ssues shou|d be noted so that they can be corrected
|n the future. ln add|t|on, a subsamp|e of data sheets (~ 10%} shou|d be compared to the
computer entry by someone other than the person who entered the data. The data entry
rev|ewer shou|d a|so wr|te h|s or her name and the date of the data rev|ew a|ong w|th any notes
on |ssues that were apparent or correct|ons that were made (Fig. 7.2}. lt |s |mportant that the
fe|d superv|sor be made aware of a|| |ssues noted on the data sheets so that preventat|ve
measures can be taken.
A B
Figure 7.1 Photo po|nt mon|tor|ng. (A} For mangrove p|ots, the person tak|ng the photos stands |n the center of
the p|ot and takes a photo |n each d|rect|on. (B} For seagrasses and sa|t marshes, photos are taken |ook|ng stra|ght
down and |n var|ous |ocat|ons to get a genera| |dea of the appearance of the s|te.
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7
The procedure for data qua||ty assurance and qua||ty contro| |s as fo||ows:
+ Oo||ect fe|d data us|ng a predeterm|ned worksheet (Appendices FH)
Each day subm|t worksheets to data rev|ewer
Data rev|ewer checks and s|gns of on each worksheet
+ Oo||ect |aboratory data and record |t |n a |ab notebook
Rev|ew data each week at a |ab meet|ng
+ Enter data |nto a computer
Data rev|ewer enters a|| data |nto a predeterm|ned program (e.g., Exce| spreadsheet}
A d|ferent person rev|ews what has been entered to ensure that the data |s accurate
and understandable
REPORTING
Report|ng may be as s|mp|e as present|ng the tota| carbon stock for an ecosystem of a
certa|n area w|th a|| of the components comb|ned |nto a s|ng|e measurement. Report|ng
can be more spec|fc by break|ng down the port|on of the tota| carbon stock that can
be contr|buted to each spec|fc poo| (so||, trees, shrubs, grasses, ||tter, etc.}. Part|t|on|ng
ecosystem poo|s a||ows for c|earer |nterpretat|on and more accurate determ|nat|on of sh|fts |n
carbon stocks through t|me that may occur due to changes |n |and management, |and use, or
c||mate change. lt a|so fac|||tates report|ng of stat|st|ca| ana|yses, wh|ch can test for changes
|n the poo| s|ze of |nd|v|dua| components as we|| as changes |n tota| ecosystem stocks
through t|me.
Graph|ca| d|sp|ays are usefu| too|s for |||ustrat|ng the d|ferent carbon poo|s (e.g., bar or p|e
charts}. Photos accompany|ng carbon stock resu|ts may ass|st |n |nterpret|ng how p|ant
compos|t|on and structure re|ates to ecosystem carbon poo|s. Graph|ca| data are va|uab|e
for rap|d |nterpretat|on of the s|ze of |nd|v|dua| carbon poo|s and how they compare to other
structura| components of the ecosystem. They are a|so va|uab|e for compar|ng structura|
Data Reviewer
Name:____________________
Date: _____________________
Notes:____________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Data Worksheet
Data Entry
Name:____________________
Date: _____________________
Notes:____________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Data Entry Reviewer
Name:____________________
Date: _____________________
Notes:____________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Figure 7.2 Examp|e of a data sheet w|th a method for record|ng who was respons|b|e, qua||ty contro|, and qua||ty
assurance for each step |n data record|ng.
143
7
d|ferences between ||ke ecosystems (|.e., t|da| marshes |n d|ferent |ocat|ons} or between
d|ferent ecosystems (|.e., mangroves and other forest types}.
DATA SHARING AND ACCESSIBILITY
(DATABASES)
Open access to h|gh qua||ty data |s v|ewed by many as a pub||c good. Shar|ng data encourages
sc|ent|fc |nqu|ry and debate, promotes |nnovat|on, |eads to new co||aborat|ons between data
users and data creators, reduces the cost of duplicating data collection, provides credit to the
researcher that co||ected the data, and prov|des resources for project deve|opment, po||cy,
educat|on, and tra|n|ng. One of the most efc|ent ways to share data |s through an open
access database.
Uploading Data
Recogn|z|ng that the va|ue of data often depends on |ts t|me||ness, |f you choose to up|oad
your data to a database or repos|tory, |t |s best to do |t as soon as poss|b|e after the study |s
comp|ete and the resu|ts have been pub||shed or used for the|r project purpose. Hence, data
from sma|| stud|es can be ana|yzed and subm|tted re|at|ve|y qu|ck|y. However, data from |arge
stud|es that are co||ected over severa| t|me per|ods cou|d be re|eased as |t becomes ava||ab|e
or as spec|fc ana|yses and resu|ts are fna||zed and pub||shed.
Criteria for Selecting a Database
ln genera| a database |s cons|dered usefu| and reputab|e |f |t meets the fo||ow|ng cr|ter|a:
+ Prov|des common data and metadata standards and formats;
+ A||ows for data subm|ss|on by any group |n the wor|d |n gener|c format;
+ ls we|| recogn|zed and referenced by the sc|ent|fc commun|ty; and
+ Addresses data ownersh|p |ssues by ass|gn|ng a d|g|ta| object |dent|fer (DOl} number to
each subm|ss|on |n order for |t to become |nstant|y c|tab|e;
Ourrent|y, there |s no coord|nated data |nfrastructure to support b|ue carbon research and
mon|tor|ng eforts g|oba||y. |oca| datasets do ex|st, but many are d|fcu|t to access, subject to
||cense restr|ct|ons, and/or be|ng deve|oped us|ng |ncompat|b|e approaches. The lnternat|ona|
B|ue Oarbon Sc|ent|fc Work|ng Group has |dent|fed management of coasta| carbon data as a
pr|or|ty act|v|ty necessary for support|ng the conservat|on, efect|ve management, and creat|on
of |ncent|ves for b|ue carbon coasta| ecosystems through research, po||cy deve|opment, and
fe|d |mp|ementat|on. As a un|fy|ng commun|ty |n|t|at|ve, they have dec|ded to estab||sh a
G|oba| Oosta| Oarbon Data Arch|ve (hereafter referred to as Data Arch|ve, see next sect|on} to
support better data management pract|ces and standard|zat|on, and to br|ng a|| the ava||ab|e
carbon data for coasta| ecosystems together |n a common format.
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7
International Blue Carbon Initiatives Global Costal Carbon
Data Archive
B|ue carbon has cons|derab|e and grow|ng support w|th|n mu|t|p|e sectors throughout the
|nternat|ona| commun|ty. However, the degree to wh|ch our genera| understand|ng of b|ue
carbon ecosystem spat|a| d|str|but|ons and carbon stock |eve|s has ||m|ted our ab|||ty to
|ncorporate b|ue carbon |ssues |nto |oca| and nat|ona| po||cy. Oarbon stock and fux data
for coasta| ecosystems are extreme|y patchy g|oba||y, and those that are ava||ab|e have not
yet been |ntegrated. ln add|t|on, cons|derab|e fe|d work |s be|ng done around the wor|d to
co||ect these data, but there are ||m|ted pathways for shar|ng |t. The lnternat|ona| B|ue Oarbon
ln|t|at|ve hopes to |mprove on these |ssues by creat|ng a b|ue carbon data arch|ve. The arch|ve
w||| a|so |ncrease the accuracy of and confdence |n g|oba| est|mates of carbon storage and
em|ss|ons of b|ue carbon ecosystems. Th|s data arch|ve w||| serve as a centra| foundat|on
upon wh|ch the coasta| b|ue carbon sc|ence commun|ty can cont|nue to grow. The arch|ve
w||| be sub-d|v|ded |nto three categor|es, one for each of the b|ue carbon coasta| ecosystems
(mangroves, t|da| sa|t marshes and seagrasses}, and each w||| be ta||ored to accommodate
ecosystem-spec|fc needs. The ent|re co||ect|on as we|| as pre-determ|ned sub-co||ect|ons
of the fu|| dataset and ||nks to metadata w||| be permanent|y stored at the data arch|ve and
w||| be free|y ava||ab|e to the pub||c. A DOl number w||| be ass|gned to each data set upon
subm|ss|on mak|ng each |nd|v|dua| data set c|tab|e, thus reso|v|ng data ownersh|p |ssues.
The data arch|ve a|ms to:
+ lncrease cost-efc|ency of projects by des|gn|ng them based on known spat|a|, tempora|
and process-re|ated data coverage;
+ Oreate a p|atform for mode||ng stud|es based on max|m|zed |nput qua||ty and quant|ty;
+ A||ow for the poss|b|||ty of web-based v|sua||zat|on of data (|.e., mapp|ng}; and
+ Prov|de a strong base for more accurate pred|ct|ons, wh|ch |n turn w||| strengthen po||cy
recommendat|ons at the commun|ty to nat|ona| |eve|.
Deve|opment p|ans for the data arch|ve are a|ready underway. The ln|t|at|ve hopes to have the
database fu||y funct|ona| by 2015.
145
A
STEVE CROOKS
Appendices
146
A
APPENDIX A
Additional Guidance Documents
Th|s tab|e prov|des a ||st of gu|dance documents for measur|ng b|ue carbon and for obta|n|ng carbon cred|ts.
The documents ||sted e|ther refer to the need, or attempts to prov|de, |nternat|ona||y accepted measurement
and mon|tor|ng procedures for greenhouse gas account|ng. Th|s manua| |s meant to comp||ment the
current|y ava||ab|e methodo|og|es and resu|t |n data that meet the cr|ter|a for re|evant standards.
TITLE
ORGANI-
ZATION
2
DATE
RELEASED
CATEGORY GOAL OF THE DOCUMENT
G|ee||o0se
Gas O/se|
/e||odo|o,
Criteria for
Tidal Wetland
Conservation
Restore Amer|ca`s
Estuaries
2015
(expected}
Carbon
accreditation
Out||nes the ver|fed Oarbon Standard
(vOS}-approved procedures to est|mate
net GHG em|ss|on reduct|ons and
remova|s resu|t|ng from conservat|on of
t|da| wet|ands. The conservat|on act|v|t|es
|ntend to protect env|ronmenta| benefts,
|nc|ud|ng em|ss|on reduct|ons and the net
sequestrat|on of GHGs.
/e||odo|o, /o|
Tidal Wetlands
and Seagrass
Restoration
Restore Amer|ca`s
Estuaries
2014
(expected}
Carbon
accreditation
Out||nes the vOS-approved procedures
to est|mate net GHG em|ss|on reduct|ons
and remova|s resu|t|ng from restorat|on
of t|da| wet|ands and seagrass beds
a|ong the ent|re sa||n|ty range. The
restoration activities intend to protect
and re-estab||sh env|ronmenta| benefts,
|nc|ud|ng em|ss|on reduct|ons and the
net sequestrat|on of GHGs.
2013 50oo|eme||
to the 2006
||CC G0|de|||es
for National
G|ee||o0se
Gas Inventories:
Wetlands
lntergovernmenta|
Pane| on O||mate
Ohange (lPOO}
2014 Carbon
accreditation
pdates defau|t data for est|mat|on of
carbon stock changes |n mangroves, ||v|ng
b|omass and dead wood poo|s for coasta|
wet|ands, OO
2
em|ss|ons and remova|s
from organ|c and m|nera| so||s (for
extract|on, dra|nage and rewett|ng, and
revegetation activities), and default data
for the est|mat|on of anthropogen|c OO
2

em|ss|ons and remova|s from wet|and
so||. lt addresses N
2
O em|ss|ons from
aquacu|ture and OH
4
em|ss|ons from
rewett|ng and revegetat|on of mangroves
and t|da| sa|t marshes.
/e||odo|o,
for Coastal
Wetland Creation
(VM0024)
|ou|s|ana Ooasta|
Protect|on and
Restoration
Author|ty
2014 Carbon
accreditation
Th|s methodo|ogy quant|fes the
greenhouse gas benefts of wet|and creat|on
act|v|t|es. The scope of th|s methodo|ogy
|nc|udes two pr|mary project act|v|t|es-
substrate estab||shment and vegetat|on
estab||shment-typ|ca||y |mp|emented
|n comb|nat|on |n order to create new
wet|ands (e.g., to restore wet|ands that have
degraded to open water}. The methodo|ogy
a|so a||ows for |mp|ementat|on of e|ther
project act|v|ty |nd|v|dua||y.
2 On|y the |ead organ|zat|on |s ||sted
147
A
TITLE
ORGANI-
ZATION
2
DATE
RELEASED
CATEGORY GOAL OF THE DOCUMENT
Restoration of
Degraded Deltaic
Wetlands of the
/|ss|ss|oo| De||a
Tierra Resources
||O
2013 Carbon
accreditation
Deta||s procedures for GHG em|ss|on
reduct|on account|ng from wet|and
restorat|on act|v|t|es |mp|emented on
degraded wet|ands of the M|ss|ss|pp| De|ta.
The modu|ar format prov|des fex|b|||ty for
numerous types of wet|and restorat|on
projects (|nc|ud|ng those that requ|re
hydro|og|c management}, and a||ows the
user to dec|de whether wet|and |oss w|||
be |nc|uded |n the base||ne.
//o|es|a||o| a|d
Reforestation
of Degraded
Mangrove
|ao||a|s
(AR-AM0014
Clean
Deve|opment
Mechan|sm (ODM}
2013 Carbon
accreditation
Out||nes ODM-approved procedures to
est|mate net GHG em|ss|on reduct|ons and
remova|s resu|t|ng from aforestat|on or
reforestat|on of mangroves. Project act|v|t|es
app|y|ng th|s methodo|ogy may choose
to exc|ude or |nc|ude account|ng of any of
the carbon poo|s of dead wood and so||
organic carbon, but cannot include the litter
carbon poo|.
5|mo||/ed
Baseline and
Monitoring
/e||odo|o, /o|
Small Scale CDM
//o|es|a||o| a|d
Reforestation
Project Activities
|mo|eme||ed
on Wetlands
(AR-AMS000)
CDM 2013 Carbon
accreditation
Out||nes ODM-approved procedures to
est|mate net GHG em|ss|on reduct|ons
and remova|s resu|t|ng from aforestat|on
or reforestat|on of wet|ands fo||ow|ng the
s|mp||fed moda||t|es for sma||-sca|e projects
under the ODM.
REDD+
/e||odo|o,
/od0|es
(VM0007)
Avoided
Deforestation
Partners
2010-2015 Carbon
accreditation
Intends to cover the entire range of
project act|v|t|es e||g|b|e under three vOS
project categor|es (reduc|ng em|ss|ons
from deforestat|on and forest degradat|on
(REDD), reforestation and revegetation
act|v|t|es (ARR}, wet|ands restorat|on or
conservat|on (WRO}}, or comb|nat|ons
of these, prov|d|ng max|mum fex|b|||ty
in the use of accounting procedures in
comp|ex sett|ngs where conservat|on
and rehab|||tat|on are comb|ned, as we||
as |n s|ng|e category |ntervent|ons. nder
the WRO banner, peat|and conservat|on
and rewett|ng procedures are |nc|uded |n
2014, wh||e coasta| wet|ands w||| be added
|n 2015.
148
A
TITLE
ORGANI-
ZATION
2
DATE
RELEASED
CATEGORY GOAL OF THE DOCUMENT
G0|d|| ||||c|o|es
for Delivering
Coastal Wetland
Ca|oo| ||o|ec|s
(wo|||| ||||e
United Nations
Env|ronment
Programme
(NEP}, Oenter
for International
Forestry Research
(OlFOR}
Expected
2014
Gu|dance on
blue carbon
measurement and
project design
Draws together exper|ence |n carbon
project and coasta| wet|and project
deve|opment to demonstrate best pract|ce
principles in enacting blue carbon
|ntervent|ons. These |ntervent|ons may
range from po||cy act|v|t|es |ead|ng to
|mproved management of coasta| resources
recogn|z|ng c||mate change m|t|gat|on
a|ong w|th other ecosystem serv|ce,
through to projects supported by carbon
fnance. The gu|dance |s based upon
exper|ence deve|oped by the project
team supp|emented by fe|d m|ss|ons
and |nterv|ews.
S|0e Ca|oo|
||ac||ce /a|0a|
(wo|||| ||||e
RAE, S||vestrum Expected
2014
Gu|dance on
blue carbon
measurement and
project design
Prov|des deta||ed gu|dance on how to app|y
RAE`s Methodo|ogy for t|da| wet|ands and
seagrass restoration and develop a blue
carbon project under the vOS standard.
S0||d|| S|0e
Ca|oo| ||o|ec|s.
/| ||||od0c|o|,
G0|de
Abu Dhab| G|oba|
Env|ronmenta|
Data Initiative
(AGEDl}
2014 Gu|dance on
blue carbon
measurement and
project design
A|ms to st|mu|ate d|scuss|on regard|ng
projects that support the conservation and
restorat|on of coasta| ecosystems based
on a B|ue Oarbon approach. lt serves
as a snapshot of potent|a| common b|ue
carbon project e|ements based on ex|st|ng
projects and an |ntroduct|on of key |ssues
for cons|derat|on. The gu|de |s |ntended to
comp|ement ex|st|ng b|ue carbon reports
and |n|t|at|ves and potent|a||y st|mu|ate
support for further project deve|opment.
Protocols for the
meas0|eme||,
monitoring
a|d |eoo||||
o/ s||0c|0|e,
o|omass a|d
ca|oo| s|oc|s ||
mangrove forests
OlFOR 2012 Gu|dance on
blue carbon
measurement and
project design
Descr|bes the approaches necessary for
the measurement, mon|tor|ng and report|ng
of structure, b|omass and carbon stocks |n
mangrove forests. Because of the|r va|ue as
carbon stocks and s|nks and the|r numerous
other benefts, mangroves cou|d be exce||ent
cand|dates for carbon m|t|gat|on programs
|nc|ud|ng REDD+ and Enhanc|ng Forest
Oarbon Stocks |n Deve|op|ng Oountr|es.
149
B
APPENDIX B
Equations
Chapter 1
Tota| Oarbon (MgO/ha} * Area (ha} = T|er 1 tota| carbon stock for the project s|te (Mg}
+ Where Tota| Oarbon = the mean carbon stock for a g|ven ecosystem (from Table 1.2)
+ Area = the area of the ecosystem be|ng |nvest|gated
Total potential CO
2
em|ss|ons per hectare (Mg OO
2
/ha} = Oonvers|on factor for the OO
2
that can be
produced from the carbon present |n the system * carbon |n the system
+ Oonvers|on factor = 3.67, the rat|o of the mo|ecu|ar we|ghts of OO
2
(44} and carbon (12}
+ Oarbon |n the system = the mean carbon stock for a g|ven ecosystem
Chapter 3
Oompact|on correct|on factor = |ength of the samp|e recovered (cm} / |ength of core penetrat|on (cm}
Oorrected samp||ng of a compressed core = depth |nterva| * compact|on correct|on factor
Dry bu|k dens|ty (g/cm
3
} = Mass of dry so|| (g} / Or|g|na| vo|ume samp|ed (cm
3
)
Pre-dr|ed vo|ume of so|| samp|e = [n * (rad|us of core barre|}
2
| * (he|ght of the samp|e, h}
% |oss on lgn|t|on (% |Ol} = [(dry mass before combust|on (mg} - dry mass after combust|on (mg}} /
dry mass before combust|on (mg}| * 100
% lnorgan|c Oarbon (% lOO} = [((dry mass before ac|d treatment (g} - dry mass after ac|d treatment (g}} *
0.12} / dry mass before ac|d treatment (g}| * 100
+ Where 0.12 |s der|ved from the contr|but|on of carbon to carbonate`s mo|ecu|ar we|ght (12%}
Organ|c carbon content of a samp|e = Tota| carbon content (e|ementa| ana|yzer or |Ol %} - (lnorgan|c
carbon content of ashed subsamp|e * (We|ght of subsamp|e after ash|ng/Dry we|ght before ash|ng}
So|| carbon dens|ty (g/cm
3
} = dry bu|k dens|ty (g/cm
3
} * (% O
org
/100}
Amount carbon |n core sect|on (g/cm
2
} = So|| carbon dens|ty (g/cm
3
} * th|ckness |nterva| (cm}
Oore =1 carbon content = Amount carbon |n core sect|on A (g/cm
2
} + Amount carbon |n core sect|on B
(g/cm
2
} + Amount carbon |n core sect|on O (g/cm
2
} + .. a|| the samp|es from a s|ng|e core
Tota| core carbon (MgO/hectare} = Summed core carbon (g/cm
2
} * (1 Mg/1,000,000 g} *
(100,000,000 cm
2
/1 hectare}
150
B
Average carbon |n a core = Oarbon content for core =1 (determ|ned |n step 4} + Oarbon content for core
=2 + Oarbon content for core =3+.. n} / n
Standard Dev|at|on between Oores
(o} =

[
(X
1
X)
2
+ (
2
X)
2
+ . (
n
X)
2
]

1/2
(N1}
+ X = average carbon |n a core
+ X
1
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for core =1, |n MgO/hectare;
2
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for core =2,
|n MgO/hectare, etc.,
+ N = tota| number of resu|ts
Tota| organ|c carbon |n a project area (MgO} = (average core carbon from Statum A (MgO/hectare} * area
Statum A (hectares}} + (average core carbon from Statum B (MgO/hectare} * area Statum B (hectares} + .
Standard Dev|at|on between Strata (o
T
) = (o
A
}2 + (o
B
}2 + . (o
N
)2
+ Where o
T
= the tota| var|ab|||ty assoc|ated w|th the measurements,
+ o
A
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum A * area of stratum,
+ o
B
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum B * area of stratum, and
+ o
N
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for rema|n|ng stratum * area of each
|nd|v|dua| stratum
Chapter 4
Genera| B|omass equat|on for mangroves (Amer|cas} = 0.168*p*(D}
2.471
+ p = wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
+ D = d|ameter at breast he|ght
Genera| B|omass equat|on for mangroves (As|a} = 0.251*p*(D}
2.46
+ p = wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
+ D = d|ameter at breast he|ght
Genera| B|omass equat|on for mangroves = 0.0509*p*(D}
2
*H
+ p = wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
+ D = d|ameter at breast he|ght
+ H = he|ght
B|omass for ||anas (kg} = (D|ameter 130 cm from the so|| surface (cm}}
2.657
* e
0.968
x |n (D|ameter 130 cm
from the so|| surface (cm}}
B|omass for pneumatophores (kg} = Average dry mass of samp|ed pneumatophores * number of
pneumatophores |n the m|crop|ot
151
B
B|omass of ||tter (kg} = (dry mass of subsamp|e (g} / wet mass of the subsamp|e (g}} * wet mass of
a|| the ||tter |n the samp|e p|ot (kg}
Downed wood b|omass (kg/ha} = vo|ume (m
3
/ha} * average wood dens|ty (kg/m
3
)
Be|owground tree b|omass (kgO} = 0.199 * ((wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
0.899
} * (tree d|ameter at breast
he|ght (cm}}
2.22
Oarbon content of vegetat|on (kg O} = b|omass (kg} * carbon convers|on factor
+ Oonvers|on factor mangrove trees = 0.46-0.5
+ Oonvers|on factor scrub mangrove trees = 0.46-0.5
+ Oonvers|on factor dead stand|ng mangrove trees = 0.5
+ Oonvers|on factor ||anas = 0.46
+ Oonvers|on factor pa|m fronds = 0.47
+ Oonvers|on factor pa|m trees = 0.47
+ Oonvers|on factor pneumatophores = 0.39
+ Oonvers|on factor ||tter (mangroves/marshes} = 0.45
+ Oonvers|on factor ||tter (seagrass} = 0.34
+ Oonvers|on factor downed wood = 0.5
+ Oonvers|on factor be|owground tree components = 0.39
+ Oonvers|on factor marsh grass = 0.45
+ Oonvers|on factor marsh shrubs = 0.46-0.5
+ Oonvers|on factor seagrass = 0.34
Oarbon |n tota| vegetat|on component (kg O/m
2
} = (carbon content of p|ant =1 + carbon content of p|ant
=2 + ... P|ant =n} / area of the p|ot (m
2
)
E|||pt|ca| crown area = (W1 * W2/2}
2
*n
+ W1 = W|dest |ength of canopy
+ W2 = Oanopy w|dth perpend|cu|ar to W1
Orown vo|ume = E|||pt|ca| crown area * crown depth
Est|mat|ng the top-d|ameter of a broken-topped dead tree (cm} = the measured basa| d|ameter (cm} -
[100 * tree he|ght (m} * ((the measured basa| d|ameter (cm} - d|ameter at breast he|ght (cm} / 130}|
Dead tree vo|ume (cm
3
} = [n * (100 x tree he|ght (m}} / 12 | * [base d|ameter (cm}
2
+ top d|ameter (cm}
2
+
(base d|ameter (cm} x top d|ameter (cm}}|
Decay Status 3 dead tree b|omass (kg} = vo|ume of the dead tree (cm
3
} * wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
152
B
Wood dens|ty (g/cm
3
} = Dry we|ght (g} / vo|ume of fresh wood (cm
3
)
Ouadrat|c mean d|ameter (cm} = (d|ameter of each p|ece of wood
2
} / number of p|eces samp|ed
Wood vo|ume for fne, sma||, and med|um c|asses per un|t of ground area (m
3
/ha} =
(n
2
x [number of samp|es x quadrat|c mean d|ameter for the s|ze c|ass (cm}}
2
/ (8 x transect |ength (m}}|
Wood vo|ume of |arge (> 7.6 cm d|ameter} down wood per un|t of ground area (m
3
/ha} =
n
2
* [d|ameter of each p|ece of wood
2
/ (8 x transect |ength (m}}|
vegetat|ve component carbon poo| (Mg O/ha} = Oarbon dens|ty (kg O/m
2
} * (Mg/1,000 kg} *
(10,000 m
2
/ha}
Tota| vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot (Mg O/ha} = component =1 (Mg O/ha} + component =2 (Mg O/ha} +
component =3 (Mg O/ha} + .
Average vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot = Tota| vegetat|ve carbon for p|ot =1 (Mg O/ha} + Tota| vegetat|ve
carbon for p|ot =2 (Mg O/ha} + Tota| vegetat|ve carbon for p|ot =3 (Mg O/ha} +.. n} / n
Standard Dev|at|on between p|ots
(o} =

[
(X
1
X)
2
+ (
2
X)
2
+ . (
n
X)
2
]

1/2
(N1}
+ X = average vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot
+ X
1
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for p|ot =1, |n MgO/hectare;
2
= |nd|v|dua| resu|t for p|ot =2, |n MgO/hectare, etc.,
+ N = number of p|ots
Est|mate of vegetat|ve carbon |n a stratum (Mg O} = Average vegetat|ve carbon |n a p|ot (Mg O/ha} *
area of stratum (ha}
Tota| carbon |n a project area (MgO} = Est|mate of vegetat|ve carbon |n stratum =1 (Mg O} + Est|mate of
vegetat|ve carbon |n stratum =2 (Mg O} + Est|mate of vegetat|ve carbon |n stratum =3 (Mg O} + .
Standard Dev|at|on between strata (o
T
) = (o
A
}2 + (o
B
}2 + . (o
N
)2
+ Where o
T
= the tota| var|ab|||ty assoc|ated w|th the measurements
+ o
A
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum A * area of stratum
+ o
B
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for stratum B * area of stratum
+ o
N
= standard dev|at|on of the core average MgO for rema|n|ng stratum * area of each |nd|v|dua| stratum
153
B
Chapter 5
Stock-d|ference method = tota| carbon stock at T2 (sum of a|| carbon poo|s} - tota| carbon stock at |n|t|a|
measurement T1 (sum of a|| carbon poo|s}
+ T1 = |n|t|a| assessment
+ T2 = subsequent assessments
Ga|n-|oss method = Oarbon stock at T1 - (carbon |osses at T2 (|and use change, natura| d|sasters,
eros|on, etc.} + carbon ga|ns at T2 (so|| accret|on, growth, restorat|on, etc.}}
So|| e|evat|on changes = vert|ca| accret|on based on the marker hor|zon - e|evat|on changes based on
SET measurements
Annua| change |n carbon stock (Mg O/year} = (tota| carbon stock at T2 - tota| carbon stock at |n|t|a|
measurement T1} / (T2 - T1}
Gas mo|ecu|es |n the stat|c chamber (mo|es} = (Pressure (atmos} * vo|ume of the chamber (|}} /
(Gas Oonstant (|*atmos/K*mo|} * Temperature (Ke|v|ns}}
+ Pressure = 1 atmos
+ Gas constant = 0.0820 |*atmos/K*mo|
+ Temperature = 273 + temp |n O
Gas fux of a spec|fc GHG (mo|e/m|nute} = mo|e/mo|e/m|nute of GHG * mo|es of gas mo|ecu|es tota|
|n the chamber
Amount of spec|fc GHG em|tted per m|nute per un|t area (mo|e/m
2
/m|n} = Gas fux of a spec|fc GHG
(mo|e/m|nute} / Ohamber area
Spec|fc GHG em|tted over t|me (Mg/ha/day} = Amount of spec|fc GHG em|tted per m|nute per un|t area
(mo|e/m
2
/m|n} * (10,000 m
2
/1 ha} * (1 mo|e/1,000,000 mo|e} * (mo|ecu|ar we|ght of GHG (g}/1 mo|e} *
(1 Mg/1,00,00 g} * (1,440 m|n/1 day}
154
C
APPENDIX C
Example
l have a project area |ocated |n a sa|t marsh and |t |s compr|sed of 3 strata (76, 186, and 253 hectares
respect|ve|y}. l want to know the tota| amount of b|ue carbon found |n the top one meter of so|| and
vegetat|on and the potent|a| em|ss|ons that cou|d be re|eased |f l convert th|s area to waterfront hote|s.
ln each stratum l took so|| core samp|es from 3 p|ots, 3 cores per p|ot; each core was a tota| of 1 meter |n
|ength, us|ng a h|gh|y aggregated samp||ng scheme, ent|re core sect|ons were homogen|zed and subsamp|es
were removed for a tota| of 5 subsamp|es. l am send|ng the samp|es to an outs|de |ab for e|ementa| ana|ys|s
and w||| determ|ne |norgan|c carbon content us|ng the ac|d|fcat|on techn|que.
FOR STRATUM #1, PLOT #1, CORE #1, SAMPLE A
Dry bu|k dens|ty
+ vo|ume of the samp|e = 125 cm
3
+ Dry mass of the samp|e = 100 g
+ 100 g /125 cm
3
= 0.8 g/cm
3
Organ|c carbon content (us|ng a subsamp|e of samp|e A}
+ Dry mass of subsamp|e = 150 mg
+ E|ementa| ana|yzer resu|ts = 25% O
org
+ Organic carbon content
150 mg * 0.25 = 37.5 mg
lnorgan|c carbon content (us|ng a subsamp|e of samp|e A and ac|d techn|que}
+ Dry mass of subsamp|e = 150 mg
+ Dry mass of subsamp|e after ac|d treatment = 116 mg
+ Mass of carbonate (|norgan|c carbon |s |n the form of carbonates such as ca|c|um carbonate, OaOO
3
)
150 mg - 116 mg = 34 mg
+ Mass of |norgan|c carbon component of carbonate (carbon makes up 12% of the mo|ecu|ar we|ght of
ca|c|um carbonate (OaOO
3
)
34 mg * 0.12 = 4.08 mg
+ Percent |norgan|c carbon
(4.08 mg /150 mg}*100 = 2.72%
155
C
Organ|c carbon content, correct|ng for |norgan|c carbon component
+ E|ementa| ana|yzer determ|ned organ|c carbon content = 37.5 mg
+ Percent carbon that or|g|nated from carbonate = 2.72%
+ Amount of the carbon content est|mated by the e|ementa| ana|yzer was carbon from carbonate
37.5 mg * 0.0272 = 1.02 mg
+ Actual organic carbon content
37.5 mg - 1.02 mg = 36.48 mg
(36.48 mg /150 mg} * 100 = 24.32%
So|| carbon dens|ty
+ Dry bu|k dens|ty = 0.8 g/cm
3
+ Organ|c carbon content = 24.32%
+ 0.8 g/cm
3
* (0.2432} = 0.195 g/cm
3
Oarbon content per samp|e
+ So|| carbon dens|ty = 0.195 g/cm
3
+ Samp|e th|ckness = 5 cm
+ 0.195 g/cm
3
* 5 cm = 0.975 g/cm
2
REPEAT FOR ALL SUBSAMPLES FROM CORE #1
Est|mated carbon per core
+ Samp|e A = 0.975 g/cm
2
; Samp|e B = 0.865 g/cm
2
; Samp|e O = 0.659 g/cm
2
;
Samp|e D = 0.510 g/cm
2
; Samp|e E = 0.452 g/cm
2
+ Tota| |ength of the core = 100 cm
+ (0.975 g/cm
2
+ 0.865 g/cm
2
+ 0.659 g/cm
2
+ 0.510 g/cm
2
+ 0.453 g/cm
2
} / 5 = 0.692 g/cm
2
+ 0.692 g/cm
2
* 100 cm = 69.2 g/cm
2
Oonvert So|| carbon dens|ty to MgO/ha
+ Tota| carbon content |n the core = 69.2 g/cm
2
+ 1 Mg = 1,000,000 g
+ 1 hectare = 100,000,000 cm
2
69.2 g/cm
2
* (Mg/1,000,000 g}*(100,000,000 cm
2
/ha} = 6,920 Mg/ha (for the top meter of soil)
REPEAT FOR ALL CORES
156
C
Average carbon stock per stratum
+ Oore =1 = 6,920 Mg/ha
+ Oore =2 = 5,018 Mg/ha
+ Oore =3 = 6,111 Mg/ha
+ (6,920 Mg/ha + 5,018 Mg/ha + 6,111 Mg/ha}/3 = 6,016 Mg/ha
Standard dev|at|on |n carbon stock measurements
+ Average carbon content per core = 6,016 Mg/ha
+ Number of cores taken per stratum = 3
+ [((6,920 Mg/ha - 6,016 Mg/ha}
2
+ (5,018 Mg/ha - 6,016 Mg/ha}
2
+ (6,111 Mg/ha - 6,016 Mg/ha}
2
} /
(3-1}|
1/2
= 954 Mg/ha
REPEAT FOR ALL STRATA
Total organic carbon in the project area
+ Stratum =1 = 6,016 Mg/ha; area = 76 ha
+ Stratum =2 = 5,342 Mg/ha; area = 186 ha
+ Stratum =3 = 5,826 Mg/ha; area = 253 ha
+ (6,016 Mg/ha * 76 ha} + (5,342 Mg/ha * 186 ha} + (5,826 Mg/ha * 253 ha} = 2,924,806 Mg C
Standard dev|at|on |n carbon stock measurements
+ Stratum =1 = 6,016 954 Mg/ha O
+ Stratum =2 = 5,342 1,265 Mg/ha O
+ Stratum =3 = 5,826 1,227 Mg/ha O
+ 9542+ 1,2652+1,2272 = 2,004
THE SOIL CARBON POOL FOR MY PROJECT AREA IS:
2,924,806 2,004 MgC
157
C
The vegetat|on |n a|| three strata cons|sts of grasses, roots and rh|zomes, and |eaf ||tter. l spent a|| my
fund|ng send|ng so|| samp|es to a |ab for ana|ys|s by e|ementa| ana|yzer. So the carbon content w||| be
based on carbon convers|on factors found |n the ||terature. The most accurate numbers l cou|d fnd are
based on a study done about 600 km south w|th s|m||ar spec|es.
Three p|ots of 20 m x 20 m were set up per strata, and each p|ot had s|x m|crop|ots of 30 cm x 30 cm.
FOR STRATUM #1, PLOT #1, MICROPLOT #1
Grass Oomponent:
Deve|op an a||ometr|c equat|on
+ 110 grass stems were co||ected
+ The he|ght of each stem (||v|ng port|on} was measured and the b|omass after heat|ng was determ|ned
STEM ID HEIGHT (cm) BIOMASS (g)
1 15 0.36
2 23 0.51
3 46 1.17
. n
+ Resu|ts were p|otted w|th he|ght on the x-ax|s and b|omass on the y-ax|s
+ Regress|on ana|ys|s was done to determ|ne a re|at|onsh|p between he|ght and b|omass us|ng the
M|crosoft Exce| program
Y= -0.006 (he|ght} + 0.0002 (he|ght}
2
R
2
= 0.91
Y = b|omass
+ The b|omass for a|| other stems |n a|| the other m|crop|ots can now be found based on he|ght a|one
Carbon content of the grass
+ Sum the b|omass of each stem (as determ|ned by a||ometr|c equat|on}
Stem =1 B|omass (g} + Stem =2 B|omass (g} Stem =3 B|omass (g} + .. Stem =n B|omass (g} =
B|omass of the grass |n the m|crop|ot
0.36 g + 0.51 g + 1.17 g + ... n = 74.8 g
+ Oarbon |n the grass component (g/cm
2
} = (Tota| est|mated b|omass * carbon convers|on factor (0.45}} /
area of the m|crop|ot (cm
2
)
(74.8 g * 0.45} / (30 cm * 30 cm} = 0.0374 g/cm
2
Root and Rh|zome component:
+ vegetat|ve mater|a| was co||ected from a 1 meter so|| core washed over a 1 mm screen, we|ghed and
was found to be 27.8 g, dr|ed to a constant we|ght and we|ghed aga|n and was found to be 14.3 g
+ B|omass (g} = dry mass (g} / wet mass (g}
14.3 g / 27.8 g = 0.51 g
158
C
+ B|omass of roots and rh|zomes per core (g/cm
2
} = b|omass (g} / area samp|ed (based on core d|ameter}
B|omass = 0.51
Oore d|ameter = 10 cm
Area = nr
2
3.14 * 52 = 78.5 cm
2
0.51 g / 78.5 cm
2
= 0.006 g/cm
2
Oarbon content |n the roots and rh|zome component
+ Oarbon |n the root and rh|zome component (g/cm
2
} = B|omass per core (g/cm
2
} * carbon convers|on
factor (0.34}
0.006 g/cm
2
* 0.34 = 0.002 g/cm
2
|eaf ||tter component:
+ B|omass of |eaf ||tter (g} = (dry mass of subsamp|e (g} / wet mass of subsamp|e (g}} * wet mass of a||
the ||tter |n the m|crop|ot
Subsamp|e wet we|ght = 13 g
Subsamp|e dry we|ght = 9.8 g
A|| |eaf ||tter |n the m|crop|ot wet we|ght = 40.3 g
(9.8 g / 13 g} * 40.3 g = 30.4 g
Carbon content in the leaf litter
+ Oarbon |n the |eaf ||tter (g/cm
2
} = (|eaf ||tter b|omass * carbon convers|on factor (0.45}} / area of the
m|crop|ot (cm
2
)
(30.4 g * 0.45} / (30 cm * 30 cm} = 0.015 g/cm
2
Total vegetative carbon
+ Tota| carbon = grass carbon component (g/cm
2
} + root and rh|zome carbon component (g/cm
2
} +
|eaf ||tter carbon component (g/cm
2
)
0.0374 g/cm
2
+ 0.002 g/cm
2
+ 0.015 g/cm
2
= 0.054 g/cm
2
REPEAT FOR A|| MlOROP|OTS
Average carbon per p|ot (6 m|crop|ots per p|ot}
+ M|crop|ot =1 = 0.054 g/cm
2
+ M|crop|ot =2 = 0.124 g/cm
2
+ M|crop|ot =3 = 0.982 g/cm
2
+ M|crop|ot =4 = 1.222 g/cm
2
+ M|crop|ot =5 = 1.450 g/cm
2
+ M|crop|ot =6 = 0.073 g/cm
2
+ (0.054 g/cm
2
+ 0.124 g/cm
2
+0.982 g/cm
2
+ 1.222 g/cm
2
+ 1.450 g/cm
2
+ 0.073 g/cm
2
} / 6 =
0.651 g/cm
2
159
C
Oonvert vegetat|ve carbon to Mg/ha
+ Tota| vegetat|ve carbon = 0.651 g/cm
2
+ 1 Mg = 1,000,000 g
+ 1 hectare = 100,000,000 cm
2
+ 0.651g/cm
2
* (Mg/1,000,000 g}*(100,000,000 cm
2
/ha} = 65.1 Mg/ha
REPEAT FOR A|| P|OTS
Average vegetat|ve carbon per stratum
+ P|ot =1 = 65.1 Mg/ha
+ P|ot =2 = 76.9 Mg/ha
+ P|ot =3 = 79.3 Mg/ha
+ (65.1 Mg/ha + 76.9 Mg/ha + 79.3 Mg/ha} / 3 = 73.7 Mg/ha
Standard dev|at|on between p|ots |n stratum =1
+ Average vegetat|ve carbon per p|ot = 73.7 Mg/ha
+ Number of p|ots per stratum = 3
+ [((65.1 Mg/ha - 73.7 Mg/ha}
2
+ (76.9 Mg/ha - 73.7 Mg/ha}2 + (79.3 Mg/ha - 73.7 Mg/ha}2} / (3-1}|1/2
= 7.6 Mg/ha
REPEAT FOR A|| STRATA
Total organic carbon in the project area
+ Stratum =1 = 73.7 Mg/ha; area = 76 ha
+ Stratum =2 = 85.9 Mg/ha; area = 186 ha
+ Stratum =3 = 103.6 Mg/ha; area = 253 ha
+ (73.7 Mg/ha * 76 ha} + (85.9 Mg/ha * 186 ha} + (103.6 Mg/ha * 253 ha} = 47,789 Mg C
Standard dev|at|on |n carbon stock measurements
+ Stratum =1 = 73.7 7.6 Mg/ha O
+ Stratum =2 = 85.9 10.4 Mg/ha O
+ Stratum =3 = 103.6 18.3 Mg/ha O
+ 7.62+ 10.42+18.32 = 22.4
THE VEGETATIVE CARBON POOL FOR MY PROJECT AREA IS:
47,789 22.4 MgC
160
C
Tota| Oarbon |n the Ecosystem
+ Tota| carbon = So|| carbon + vegetat|ve carbon
Oonservat|ve est|mate = (So|| carbon - standard dev|at|on} + (vegetat|ve carbon -
standard deviation)
(2,924,806 MgO - 2,004 MgO} + (47,789 - 22.4 MgO} = 2,970,569 MgO
H|gh est|mate = (So|| carbon + standard dev|at|on} + (vegetat|ve carbon + standard dev|at|on}
(2,924,806 MgO + 2,004 MgO} + (47,789 + 22.4 MgO} = 2,974,621 MgO
The tota| carbon stock for my project area |s 2,972,595 2,026 MgO
Potent|a| OO
2
em|ss|ons
+ Potent|a| OO
2
em|ss|ons = tota| carbon stock * 3.67 (convers|on factor}
+ 2,972,595 MgO * 3.67 = 10,909,420 7,435 Mg OO
2
THE TOTAL CARBON STOCK / CO
2
EMISSIONS FOR MY PROJECT AREA IS:
2,972,595 2,026 MgC
10,909,420 7,435 Mg CO
2
161
D
APPENDIX D
% LOI in Mangroves, Tidal Salt Marshes, and Seagrasses
% LOI IN MANGROVES
A pos|t|ve, yet not part|cu|ar|y strong re|at|onsh|p (r
2
= 0.59} between the organ|c matter determ|ned v|a
% |Ol and the carbon content (% O
org
} has been found for mangrove so||s (Kaufman et al. 2011}, show|ng
that rough|y 40% of the organ|c matter (% |Ol} was organ|c carbon (% O
org
) (Fig. D1}. ln other |ocat|ons a
s||ght|y d|ferent re|at|onsh|p may ex|st.
Figure D1 The re|at|onsh|p of organ|c matter ca|cu|ated v|a |oss on |gn|t|on to carbon concentrat|on (percent} ca|cu|ated v|a dry
combust|on for mangrove so|| samp|es from the repub||c of Pa|au (Kaufman et al. 2011}.
Organic Matter from Loss on Ignition (%)
10 0 50 20 30 40 60
y = 0.415x + 2.8857
R
2
= 0.5916
C
a
r
b
o
n

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
%
)

30
25
20
15
0
5
10
162
D
% LOI IN TIDAL SALT MARSHES
ln t|da| marshes |n Ma|ne, Oraft et a|. (1991} determ|ned that |n both m|nera| and organ|c r|ch marsh so||s,
pretreated for carbonate remova|, and conta|n|ng |ess than 11% c|ay, % |Ol, as determ|ned by heat|ng
samp|es for e|ght hours at 450 O, cou|d successfu||y pred|ct the organ|c carbon content (% O
org
) in the soil
(Craft et al. 1991}. However, more recent stud|es conducted |n s|m||ar t|da| sa|t marshes |n Ma|ne revea|
that there |s some var|ab|||ty |n the re|at|onsh|p between % Oorg and % |Ol. Th|s new ev|dence shows that
rough|y 46% of the organ|c matter |n marsh so||s |s organ|c carbon (Fig. D2}. Because of the var|ab|||ty
measured |n var|ous stud|es, we recommend whenever poss|b|e creat|ng your own curve |n the reg|on
of |nterest.
Figure D2 The re|at|onsh|p of organ|c matter (% |Ol} w|th organ|c carbon (% OO} for t|da| sa|t marsh samp|es |n Ma|ne
(Johnson et al. |n prep}.
Organic Matter from Loss on Ignition (%)
10 0 50 20 30 40 60
y = 0.0008x
2
+
0.4673x
R
2
= 0.98537
C
a
r
b
o
n

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
%
)

35
30
25
20
0
5
10
15
70
163
D
% LOI IN SEAGRASSES
ln seagrass meadows, Fourqurean et a|. reported that % |Ol, as determ|ned by heat|ng samp|es for at
|east 3 hours at 550 O, was a good pred|ctor of the % OO content |n the so|| (Fourqurean et al. 2012b}. To
|mprove the pred|ct|ve capac|ty of the % |Ol measurements two d|ferent ||near equat|ons were deve|oped
for samp|es w|th % |Ol h|gher or |ower than 0.2 % (Fig. D3}.
For seagrass so||s w|th % |Ol < 0.20 % OO = -0.21 + 0.40 (% |Ol};
For seagrass so||s w|th % |Ol > 0.20 % OO = -0.33 + 0.43 (% |Ol}.
Note that each of these equat|ons has |ntercepts s|gn|fcant|y d|ferent from zero (e.g., there |s some |osson
|gn|t|on even |n so||s w|th no O
org
content}. lt |s ||ke|y that th|s |oss represents the |oss of water from m|nera|
phases or ox|dat|on of non-organ|c compounds. For the ent|re range of the data, the s|ope of the re|at|onsh|p
between |Ol and organ|c carbon was 0.43 and the |ntercept was -0.33 0.02; |nd|cat|ng that samp|es
w|th no organ|c carbon content wou|d have a ca|cu|ated |Ol of 0.77% dry we|ght. ln add|t|on, Fourqurean
et a|. (2012a} observed that |Ol |s a |ess accurate proxy for organ|c carbon for so||s w|th very |ow organ|c
carbon contents.
Figure D3 The re|at|onsh|p of organ|c matter (% |Ol} w|th organ|c carbon (% OO} for seagrasses (Fourqurean et al. 2012b}.
Organic Matter from Loss on Ignition (%)
20 0 100 40 80 60
y = -0.33 + 0.43x
R
2
= 0.96
C
a
r
b
o
n

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
%
)

50
40
30
20
0
10
20 6 15 10
10
8
6
4
0
2
0
y = -0.21 + 0.40x
R
2
= 0.87
164
E
APPENDIX E
General Steps for Mapping Mangroves and Tidal Salt Marshes
Be|ow |s a stream||ned methodo|ogy to map extent, he|ght, and b|omass of mangrove forests (S|mard
et al. 2006; S|mard et al. 2008; Fatoy|nbo & S|mard 2013}. However, the proposed method can be ||m|ted by
current ab|||t|es to d|st|ngu|sh between t|da| and adjacent |n|and ecosystems such as fresh water marshes
and trop|ca| forests.
STEP 1: IDENTIFY REGION POTENTIALLY INFLUENCED BY TIDAL INTRUSION.
A |and cover map can be produced us|ng opt|ca| |nstruments ||ke |andsat and/or any other data |n hand to
|dent|fy the extent and geomorpho|ogy of the t|da| wet|ands. F|rst, a mask of e|evat|on shou|d be produced
to |dent|fy reg|ons w|th|n the t|da| range. s|ng SRTM e|evat|on data w|th a thresho|d of about 40 meters
(or expected max|mum mangrove canopy he|ght} or |ess than 2-5 meters for t|da| sa|t marshes |s sufc|ent.
No t|da| marshes ex|st above the t|da| range.
STEP 2: MAP ECOSYSTEM EXTENT
s|ng |andsat |magery w|th|n the potent|a| t|da| range (Step-1}, perform an |sodata c|ass|fcat|on us|ng any
commerc|a| or open-source software, or s|mp|y hand draw contours through v|sua| |nterpretat|on.
STEP 3: MAP CANOPY HEIGHT
Produce a mask of mangrove or sa|t t|da| marsh from the |and cover map and crop the SRTM or TanDEM-
e|evat|on map. Genera||y, both SRTM and TanDEM- are referenced to sea |eve|. To ver|fy, |dent|fy any sa|t fat or
bare ground areas w|th|n or adjacent to the mangrove or t|da| fat so that e|evat|on |s w|th|n t|da| range. Otherw|se
va||date w|th fe|d data as descr|bed |ater. Oanopy he|ght can be obta|ned from |nterferometr|c radar (|nSAR} or ||dar
data assum|ng ground e|evat|on can be obta|ned from other datasets or assum|ng he|ght |s re|at|ve to mean sea
|eve|. For mangrove forest, Step-3 a|ready prov|des a means of est|mat|ng canopy he|ght. ln the case of t|da| sa|t
marshes, one shou|d use TanDEM- re|at|ve to mean sea |eve| and us|ng ne|ghborhood e|evat|on measurement
over sa|t fats and bare ground. A|rborne ||dar may a|so be used to est|mate ground e|evat|on accurate|y.
STEP 4: MAP BIOMASS
There are severa| ways of est|mat|ng b|omass through a||ometry re|at|ng b|omass w|th a} radar backscatter,
b} canopy cover from opt|ca| |magery, or c} ||dar or |nSAR-der|ved canopy he|ght.
a} Radar backscatter (|ntens|ty of refected m|crowave} can be used to est|mate b|omass w|th|n the wet|ands.
Assum|ng backscatter |ncreases w|th b|omass, |t |s poss|b|e to |dent|fy reg|ons of |ow and h|gh b|omasses.
However, radar backscatter tends to saturate at h|gh b|omass. The b|omass |eve| at wh|ch saturat|on
occurs depends on the wave|ength. At -band, saturat|on can occur at very |ow b|omass ~ 25t/ha, at
O-band around 50t/ha, and |-band around 100t/ha. Other mechan|sms re|ated to food |eve| |mpact the
backscatter. At m|crowave frequenc|es water acts are a m|rror, enhanc|ng refect|on through the so-ca||ed
doub|e-bounce scatter|ng mechan|sm. ln other words, the radar pu|se refects both on the water and
vert|ca| component of the vegetat|on. Th|s |s just ||ke throw|ng a ba|| to the foot of a wa|| to bounce on
the foor (water} and then a wa|| (trunk}. Th|s phenomenon changes w|th water |eve| and may comp||cate
t|me-ser|es ana|ys|s. However, g|ven a s|ng|e snapshot |n t|me, a pre||m|nary but spat|a||y exp||c|t map of
b|omass can be obta|ned us|ng radar backscatter |f current fe|d est|mates of b|omass are ava||ab|e. lt |s
recommended to use radar data obta|ned dur|ng |ow t|de to max|m|ze |nteract|on w|th p|ants.
b} vegetat|on cover |s the fract|on of |and covered w|th p|ants. lt can be der|ved from opt|ca| remote sens|ng
g|ven the spectra| s|gnature of vegetat|on and so|| d|fer.
c} To obta|n b|omass est|mates from remote sens|ng der|ved-he|ght, a||ometry re|at|ng he|ght and b|omass
must be ava||ab|e from fe|d measurements.
165
F
APPENDIX F
Data Recording Worksheet for General Ecosystem Status
Person/lnst|tut|on
(and contact |nformat|on}
Date
Hour and t|de |nformat|on
Minimum Optimal Ideal
Area In hectares % cover per area Detailed distribution
maps
Genera|
Condition
lmpacted/good/
pristine
Type of |mpact |eve|, |ocat|on, and
descr|pt|on of |mpacts
Substrate Muddy, sandy,
ca|careous, etc.
Gra|n s|ze per s||ce
Water and
sed|ment
nutrient
conditions
O||gotroph|c/
eutroph|c/cu|tura|
euthrofcated
Mean va|ue [N|
Mean va|ue [P|
Mean va|ue [N| and
mean va|ue [P| w|th
methods, t|me of the
measurement
Bathymetry Pos|t|on |n the
|ntert|da| zone-
|ow high
Pos|t|on re|at|ve to
|AT or mean sea |eve|
(some fxed po|nt}-
method (un|t}
|oca| bathymetry-
digital elevation
mode| w|th ecosystem
mapped onto the
bathymetry.
Temperature Average air
temperature at a
meteoro|og|ca| stat|on
close to the site of
measurement
Water/a|r temperature
at the site
Sa||n|ty Estuar|ne/mar|ne S|ng|e measurement
of sa||n|ty at s|te
Mu|t|p|e measurments
of sa||n|ty at s|te
over t|me
NOTES/COMMENTS
F
I
E
L
D
166
G
APPENDIX G
Data Recording Worksheet for Soil Samples
Person/lnst|tut|on
(and contact |nformat|on}
Date
Hour and t|de |nformat|on
Core ID
Genera| |ocat|on (area, country}
GPS pos|t|on
Depth of water co|umn (|f app||cab|e}
Oor|ng dev|ce mater|a|
lnterna| d|ameter of the core
Tota| |ength of the corer (cm}
Oor|ng system
Oorer-end (cutt|ng head/hypoderm|c}
Oor|ng vert|ca||y (Y/N}?
Tota| |ength of corer outs|de sed|ment after
core |nsert|on (cm}
Tota| |ength of so|| core (cm}
S||ced |n cm-s||ces (who|e core or
hem|-core?}
Tota| number of samp|es
NOTES/COMMENTS
E.., Co||| |ss0es? 5ea||| co||ec|? 5|0d, s||e. ||a|| de|s||,/co.e|? /dd|||o|a| o|c|0|es o/ samo|||
s||e? ||ese|ce o/ s|e||s, |a.e|, m0d, o|a|| deo||s, e|c.
v|sua| descr|pt|on of the core (h|gh-reso|ut|on d|g|ta| p|cture}
F
I
E
L
D
167
G
CREATE A SHEET FOR EACH SAMPLE
Person/lnst|tut|on
Date
Core ID
Samp|e lD
S||ce depth (cm}
S||ce th|ckness (cm}
Dry bu|k dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
Oarbonate present (Y/N}?
Method used to determ|ne |norgan|c
carbon content
lnorgan|c carbon content (%}
Organic carbon content (corrected
for inorganic portion, g)
NOTES/COMMENTS
E.., /|, de.|a||o|s /|om s|a|da|d ooe|a||| o|o|oco|s? /|, mac|||e|, ma|/0|c||o|s?
CREATE A SHEET FOR EACH CORE
Person/lnst|tut|on
Date
Core ID
Oorrespond|ng samp|e lDs
Total carbon in core (MgC)
L
A
B
L
A
B
168
G
FINAL CARBON ANALYSIS
Person/lnst|tut|on
Date
|ocat|on
Number of cores taken
Average carbon content of the cores (MgC)
Total area of strata (ha)
Tota| so|| carbon (per top meters} of the strata
(MgO/ha, |n top meters of so||}
169
H
APPENDIX H
Data Recording Worksheet for Vegetation
Person/lnst|tut|on
(and contact |nformat|on}
Date
Hour and t|de |nformat|on
Genera| |ocat|on (area, country}
GPS pos|t|on
Ecosystem (mangrove, marsh, seagrass}
Depth of water co|umn (|f app||cab|e}
vegetat|on
Mono or m|xed
Dom|nant spec|es
Ranked ||st of a|| spec|es
Number of trees samp|ed
Number of shrubs samp|ed
Descr|pt|on of other components samp|ed
||anas
Grasses
Pneumatophores
||tter
Deadwood
Other
Tota| number of samp|es
NOTES/COMMENTS
E.., Co||| |ss0es? 5ea||| co||ec|? 5|0d, s||e. ||a|| de|s||,/co.e|? /dd|||o|a| o|c|0|es o/ samo|||
s||e? ||ese|ce o/ s|e||s, |a.e|, m0d, o|a|| deo||s, e|c.
v|sua| descr|pt|on of the core (h|gh-reso|ut|on d|g|ta| p|cture}
F
I
E
L
D
170
H
CREATE A SHEET FOR EACH SAMPLE
Person/lnst|tut|on
Date
Samp|e lD
Samp|e type (wood, shrub, |eaf ||tter, etc.}:
A||ometr|c equat|on used
Dry bu|k dens|ty (g/cm
3
)
Samp|e parameters (|f app||cab|e}
He|ght (m}
D|ameter at breast he|ght (cm}
W|dth (cm}
vo|ume (cm
3
)
Decay status
B|omass (kg}
Organic carbon content (g)
NOTES/COMMENTS
E.., /|, de.|a||o|s /|om s|a|da|d ooe|a||| o|o|oco|s? /|, mac|||e|, ma|/0|c||o|s?
CREATE A SHEET FOR EACH PLOT
Person/lnst|tut|on
Date
P|ot lD
Oorrespond|ng samp|e lDs
Total carbon in plot
L
A
B
L
A
B
171
H
FINAL CARBON ANALYSIS
Person/lnst|tut|on
Date
|ocat|on
Oomponents be|ng |nc|uded
Average vegetative carbon in plot (MgC)
Total area of strata (ha)
Tota| so|| carbon |n the strata (MgO/ha}
173
R
MIGUEL FORTES, UP
References
174
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lf you have any comments, quest|ons, or correct|ons p|ease ema|| us at:
thebluecarboninitiative@conservation.org
For more |nformat|on p|ease v|s|t:
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Th|s document was produced w|th the generous fnanc|a| support of the Wa|ton Fam||y
Foundat|on, the Water|oo Foundat|on, and the Korea lnst|tute of Ocean Sc|ence and Techno|ogy.
We acknow|edge the members of the lnternat|ona| B|ue Oarbon ln|t|at|ve`s Sc|ent|fc Work|ng
Group for the cons|derab|e amount of thoughtfu| work and ded|cat|on that went |nto deve|op|ng
and rev|ew|ng th|s manua|. Thank you to the OSlRO F|agsh|p Mar|ne & Ooasta| Oarbon
B|ogeochem|ca| O|uster for support|ng Oather|ne |ove|ock, Dan|e| A|ong|, Oar|os Duarte,
Peter Ra|ph and Oscar Serrano. Thank you to the M|n|stry of Oceans and F|sher|es of Korea,
the Bates Mounta|n Oonservat|on Area, and Bates Oo||ege for the|r fnanc|a| support. Thank
you to Margaret P|ckof, Oameron Russ, Kather|ne Duva||, Ph|||p Dost|e, Benjam|n Gound|e,
and |aura Sewa|| for the|r contr|but|on to the text. The authors are espec|a||y gratefu| to
Oather|ne vacovsky for copyed|t|ng and M|ya Su Rowe at Rowe Des|gn House for the |ayout.
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