Other worlds

Scientists are always searching for

knowledge about other worlds. They
send spacecraft and robots to other
planets to explore and collect data.
Explosive chemical reactions are used
in rockets to launch them into space.
To travel into space, the spacecraft
must be made of substances that will
withstand the vacuum and coldness
of space, while also enduring the
extreme temperatures caused by
friction as they hurtle through
the Earths atmosphere, or the
atmosphere of the target planet. The
robots that explore the surface of
other planets must also be made of
substances that will not react with
the atmosphere or surface of the
target planet.
Theres also another world inside
the human body to be explored with
robots tiny robots. But how will
the robots be carried into the body?
What substances will be used to
make the robots indestructible? How
will chemical reactions between the
robots and body fluids be prevented?
What materials would you build
a spacecraft from to ensure a
successful mission to a planet like
hot, acid-clouded Venus, or cold,
distant Neptune?
What properties would the surface
of a miniature craft carrying a
robot through the human heart
need to have?
What tests would have to be done
on a miniature craft and robot
before it is released into a human
body?
1
2
3
Why titanium is used instead of aluminium to
make racing-bike frames
Why you are more likely to trip over a gold nugget
than a lump of iron
What makes you burp when you have indigestion

Science Alive for VELS Level 6

88
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
:[iYh_X_d] h[WYj_edi
hemical reactions are chemical changes in which new substances are formed.
C There is usually evidence to suggest a chemical reaction has taken place. For
example, the evidence could lie in small bubbles, a smelly gas, a change in colour
or even in an explosion. All chemical reactions can be described with simple word
equations. But what actually happens to the chemicals that react together?
Word equations
You are probably already familiar with using word
equations to describe chemical reactions. For example,
the chemical reaction between the metal magnesium
and hydrochloric acid (which is the compound
hydrogen chloride) can be described by the chemical
word equation:
magnesium
hydrochloric
acid
magnesium
chloride
hydrogen.
Word equations are read from left to right. The
chemicals that react (the reactants) are on the left of
the arrow ( ) and the new chemicals formed by the
reaction (the products) are on the right of the arrow.
If something is needed to start the reaction, or speed
it up, it is written above the arrow. For example:
hydrogen + oxygen
heat
water.
This is the chemical reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen in the air. But the reaction will not take
place unless heat is provided by a match or a spark.
Heat is not a chemical. It is a form of energy, so it
must not be written as a reactant.
The chemical word equation for the respiration
that takes place in the cells of living things is:
glucose oxygen
enzymes
carbon dioxide water.
The enzymes speed up the chemical reaction,
but they do not actually take part in the reaction.
That is, they are not reactants. The scientic name
for a chemical that speeds up a chemical reaction is
catalyst. One product of the respiration reaction is
energy. But energy is not a chemical, so it should
not be included as a product in a chemical word
equation.
In 1937, a hydrogen-filled airship called the
Hindenburg exploded violently while docking at a
refuelling tower. Until recently, it was believed that
hydrogen was the cause of the disaster hydrogen
and oxygen react explosively when ignited by a spark.
However, scientists now claim that it was, in fact, the
flammable aluminium-coated skin of the airship and a
stray spark that were to blame.
89
5. Chemical reactions
Chemistry laws
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants is always equal to
the total mass of the products. This is the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Another law, the Law of Constant Proportions, tells us that a compound,
no matter how it forms, always contains the same relative amounts of
each element. For example, the carbon dioxide you breathe out is exactly
the same as the carbon dioxide produced when wood is burnt. In carbon
dioxide, each carbon atom will always bond with exactly two oxygen
atoms to form a molecule.
REMEMBER
What is the name for
chemicals that:
(a) react in a reaction?
(b) are formed in a chemical
reaction?
What happens to the atoms in
the substances that take part
in chemical reactions?
What is the Law of
Conservation of Mass?
What is the Law of Constant
Proportions?
THINK
A piece of paper is weighed
on an accurate balance, and
then burnt, leaving a pile
of ashes. The ashes are
collected and weighed on
the same balance. Would you
expect the mass of the ashes
to be the same as the mass
of the paper before it was
burnt? Explain your answer
in terms of the products
produced.
Explain how, when a piece
of steel wool burns, the mass
of the blackened material is
greater than the original mass
of the steel wool.
SKILLBUILDER
A chemical reaction is
described by the following
word equation:
sodium
sulfate

barium
chloride
barium
sulfate

sodium
.
Complete the name of the
second product.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Inside chemical reactions
In any chemical reaction, the chemical bonds between the
atoms of the reactants are broken. These atoms are rearranged
and new bonds are formed to make the products. In chemical
reactions, atoms are not created or destroyed. The number and type
of atoms in the reactants is equal to the number and type of atoms
in the products.
For example, the chemical reaction between lead nitrate and
potassium iodide, shown below, is described by the word equation:
lead nitrate potassium iodide
water
potassium nitrate lead iodide.
The lead nitrate and potassium
iodide react with each other only
when they are dissolved in water.
They are colourless when dissolved;
the yellow colour is one of the
products, lead iodide. Lead iodide
does not dissolve in water, so it falls
to the bottom of the test tube. It is
an example of a precipitate. To
precipitate means to fall.
The table below shows how
the atoms of the elements
involved in the reaction are
rearranged.
The lead, nitrogen, oxygen,
potassium and iodine atoms
originally present in the
reactants are still there in the
products. They have just been
rearranged.
Reactants
Elements
present Products
Elements
present
Lead nitrate Lead
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Potassium nitrate Potassium
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Potassium iodide Potassium
Iodine
Lead iodide Lead
Iodine
I CAN:
write a chemical word
equation to describe a
chemical reaction
state the Law of Conservation
of Mass
state the Law of Constant
Proportions.

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worksheet 5.1
90
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
J^[ bWd]kW][ e\
Y^[c_YWb h[WYj_edi
n order to share their knowledge, scientists all over the world need to
I communicate with each other. However, not all scientists speak the same
language. Fortunately, there is a single language to describe chemical reactions. It
involves chemical symbols, formulae and equations.
Chemical symbols
Every element can be represented by a chemical
symbol. These symbols are shown in the periodic
table on pages 345. You probably already know the
symbols of some of the more common elements.
In some cases, the symbol is just the rst letter of
the element; for example, C for carbon. In other
cases it is a two-letter symbol; for example, Cl for
chlorine. Some symbols come from the Latin word
for the element; for example, Pb for lead. The more
you use them, the more you are likely to remember
them.
Chemical formulae
A chemical formula indicates the number of atoms
of each type in a molecule or the ratio of the number
of atoms of each type in a compound.
The chemical formulae of compounds obey
the Law of Constant Proportions. That is, every
compound has a xed relative number of each type
of atom. For example, all pure water (H
2
O) has two
hydrogen atoms for every oxygen atom. Sodium
chloride (NaCl) has one sodium atom for each
chlorine atom. The formula for copper sulfate is
CuSO
4
because for every copper atom there is one
sulfur atom and four oxygen atoms.
Chemical equations
The chemical reaction between oxygen gas and
hydrogen gas can be described by the chemical word
equation:
hydrogen oxygen water.
The chemical equation using chemical formulae
is:
2H
2
(g) O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l).
The symbols in brackets indicate whether the
substance is solid (s), liquid (l) or gas (g). If a
substance has to be dissolved in water before a
reaction can take place, the symbol (aq) is used.
The numbers in front of the H
2
and H
2
O can be
best understood by seeing what happens if they are
not there.
The equation H
2
(g) O
2
(g) H
2
O(l) cannot
truly represent the reaction because it breaks the Law
of Conservation of Mass. The number and type of
atoms in the products must be equal to the number
and type of atoms in the reactants. A table can be
drawn to show the relative number of atoms in each
element, according to this incorrect equation.
Element Reactants Product
Hydrogen 2 2
Oxygen 2 1
Of course, this cannot be right. For every two
oxygen atoms in the reactants, one has gone
missing.
A similar table can be completed using the correct
equation. By placing the 2 in front of the H
2
and
H
2
O, the Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed. The
equation is said to be balanced.
Element Reactants Product
Hydrogen 4 4
Oxygen 2 2
So, the correct equation is:
2H
2
(g) O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l).
A balanced equation tells you the ratio in which the
elements are combined and produced.

91
5. Chemical reactions
Balancing a chemical
equation
Example (Methane gas will burn in air. This is an example of a
combustion reaction. This type of reaction produces CO
2
and H
2
O.)
Step 1: Start with the word
equation and name all of the
reactants and products.
methane gas oxygen gas carbon dioxide water
Step 2: Replace the words in the
word equation with formulae and
rewrite the equation.
Methane gas CH
4
Oxygen gas O
2
(reactants)
Carbon dioxide CO
2
Water vapour H
2
O (products)
CH
4
O
2
CO
2
H
2
O
Step 3: Count the number of atoms
of each element (represented by
the formulae of the reactants and
products).
Element Reactants Products
C 1 1
H 4 2
O 2 3
Step 4: If the number of atoms of
each element is the same on both
sides of the equation, the equation
is already balanced. If not, numbers
need to be placed in front of one or
more of the formulae to balance the
equation. These numbers are called
coefficients and they multiply all of
the atoms in the formula.
To balance the hydrogen atoms, put a 2 in front of H
2
O:
CH
4
O
2
CO
2
2H
2
O.
The oxygen atoms can be balanced by putting a 2 in front of the O
2
on the left:
CH
4
2O
2
CO
2
2H
2
O.
The equation is now balanced. It can be checked by counting the number of
atoms of each element on both sides of the new equation.
Element Reactants Products
C 1 1
H 4 4
O 4 4
Step 5: Add physical state symbols. CH
4
(g) 2O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) 2H
2
O(g)
REMEMBER
Why must you balance a chemical equation?
List the four abbreviations used to indicate the state or
nature of the substances in a chemical equation and state
what each abbreviation stands for.
SKILLBUILDER
Write a word equation and a balanced chemical equation
for each of the reactions below.
(a) Sodium hydroxide solution and hydrochloric acid
solution react to form sodium chloride solution and
water.
(b) Carbon monoxide gas and oxygen gas react to form
carbon dioxide gas.
(c) Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to
form magnesium chloride solution and hydrogen gas.
1
2
3
Name Formula
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Sodium chloride NaCl
Magnesium chloride MgCl
2
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Carbon monoxide CO
I CAN:
list the symbols of some commonly known
chemical elements
write the formulae of some common compounds
write and balance a chemical equation that uses
symbols and formulae.

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worksheet 5.2
92
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
H[WYj_edi m_j^ c[jWbi
etal elements are rarely found in the ground in their pure form. Thats
M because most of them react so easily with other substances in the ground
and in the air. Potassium and sodium are among the most reactive metal elements.
Gold and silver are among the most unreactive metal elements. Thats why
they can sometimes be found in their pure, or almost pure, form.
Measuring reactivity
Group 1 metal elements, like potassium, lithium and
sodium, are so reactive that they have to be stored
under oil to stop them from reacting with substances
in the air.
Although less reactive metals do not pose an
immediate danger, they can still cause problems.
Cars, boats and bridges (in fact all objects made of
iron) corrode (rust). Protecting iron objects from
corrosion is an important process, but can cost
industry and communities lots of money.
Silver is often found in its pure form because it
does not react with other substances very easily. But
even silver eventually tarnishes after reacting with
substances in the air.
The reactivity of metals can be investigated by
observing the chemical reactions of metals with acids.
A chemical reaction between a metal element and
an acid can be described by the equation:
metal acid a salt hydrogen.
A salt is a solid compound formed by the bonding
of a positively charged metal ion and a negatively
charged ion.
When an acid reacts with a metal, electrons move
from the metal to the hydrogen in the acid. The result
is positively charged metal ions, hydrogen gas and
negatively charged non-metal ions. The ions bond
together to form the salt.
When magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid, the
reaction is described by the equation:
magnesium
hydrochloric
acid
magnesium
chloride
hydrogen.
That is:
Mg(s) 2HCl(aq) MgCl
2
(aq) H
2
(g).
The reaction that produces rust is:
iron + oxygen
water
iron oxide.
Iron rusts faster in salt water, and also
when the iron is impure.
Most reactive Least reactive
K Na Ca Mg Al Ti Zn Fe Ni Sn Pb Cu Ag Au
Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Nickel Tin Lead Copper Gold Silver Titanium
(LEFT) Lithium, sodium
and potassium are stored
under oil so that they cant
react with the air. These
substances react quickly
and explosively when in
contact with water in the
air.
(ABOVE) The activity series
is a list of metal elements in
order of reactivity. Usually,
only the well-known
elements are listed.
93
5. Chemical reactions
REMEMBER
Why is pure gold more likely
to be found in the ground
than pure sodium?
What is the activity series of
metals?
Which gas is always formed
when a metal reacts with an
acid?
(a) What is a salt?
(b) Give an example of a
salt.
THINK
You have the choice of
making a piece of jewellery
from either zinc or nickel.
Which metal would you
choose? Why?
The elements gold, silver,
copper and iron were all
discovered more than 6000
years ago. Yet, the elements
potassium, sodium and
calcium were not discovered
until 1808. Suggest a reason
for this.
INVESTIGATE
Find out at least four different
ways of treating iron (other
than mixing it with other
elements to make an alloy)
to prevent or reduce its
corrosion.
SKILLBUILDER
Balance these chemical
equations that describe the
reaction between acids and
metals:
(a) Zn(s) HCl(aq)
ZnCl
2
(aq) H
2
(g)
(b) Na(s) HCl(aq)
NaCl(aq) H
2
(g)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Measuring the reactivity of metals
Wear safety glasses.
Before starting this investigation, read all of the instructions and
construct a table suitable for recording your measurements.
Use the steel wool to polish each of the samples of metal.
Mount the gas syringe in the clamp as shown in the diagram below.
Your teacher will tell you if the syringe needs to be lubricated. Push the
plunger in fully and attach the plastic tubing to the nozzle.
Carefully measure out 50 mL of hydrochloric acid and pour it into the
conical flask.
Connect the free end of the plastic tubing onto the arm of the flask.
Prepare to start timing. Carefully add one of the pieces of metal to the
flask and quickly seal it with the rubber stopper. Start timing as soon as
the metal is placed in the flask.
Retort
stand
Clamp
Rubber
stopper
Gas
bubbles
Hydrochloric
acid
Metal
Heatproof
mat
Plastic
tubing
Plunger
Gas syringe
Nozzle
Record (in your table) the volume of gas in the syringe every 30 seconds
until gas is no longer produced, the syringe is full or ten minutes has
passed, whichever occurs first.
Repeat this procedure with the other metal samples. Rinse the conical
flask with distilled water each time before repeating the procedure.
When you have completed your measurements, plot a graph of the
results on a single set of axes. Your graph should show how the volume
of gas for each sample changes with time. That is, plot volume of gas on
the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis.
Use your graph to list the five metal elements in order of reactivity.
Write a word equation for the reaction of each of the metal elements with
the acid. If no reaction occurred, write no reaction.
Some of the variables in this investigation were not well controlled. List
them and explain how the lack of control may have affected your results.

1.
2.
3.
You will need:
safety glasses and lab coat
steel wool
1 cm s 4 cm pieces (or equivalent
amount) of copper, zinc,
aluminium, iron and magnesium
gas syringe
retort stand, boss head and clamp
heatproof mat
distilled water
1 cm diameter s 4 cm long piece of
plastic tubing
1 mol L
1
hydrochloric acid
100 mL measuring cylinder
250 mL side-arm conical flask
rubber stopper to fit conical
flask
stopwatch or clock with a second
hand.
I CAN:
compare the reactivity of
different metals
understand why it is rare to
find a metal in its pure state
write equations for the reaction
between metals and acids.

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worksheet 5.3
94
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
L[hiWj_b[ c[jWbi
he use of metals by humans began towards the end of the Stone Age, about
T3500 years ago, when the Mesopotamians made bronze a mixture of tin and
copper. Not long after their discovery of bronze, the Mesopotamians discovered
how to smelt iron compounds found in the ground (iron ore) to extract the iron.
Other civilisations followed their example. In fact, the strength and power of all
civilisations since then has depended greatly on their ability to make use of metals.
Getting the right metal for the job
Chapter 3 described several properties of metal
elements that make them useful. Most metals:
are malleable (can be bent or beaten in to a
number of different shapes)
are ductile (can be drawn into a wire)
conduct electricity
are lustrous (shiny) when polished
expand when heated.
In addition, most metal elements conduct heat
well, have higher melting points and boiling
points than non-metals and make a ringing
sound when hit. Some metals have magnetic
properties.
Although copper is a better
conductor, aluminium is used in
these wires because it is lighter
and more resistant to corrosion
in air.

Most metals share many of the same properties.

But it is the differences between their properties
that help people decide which metal is best for
each job. For example, although copper and
aluminium are both very good conductors of
electricity, copper is a better conductor than
aluminium. For this reason, copper is used in
wiring in electric circuits. However, aluminium
wire is used in long-distance transmission wires
because it is lighter and more resistant to
corrosion in air.
The Eiffel Tower was built in 1889 to
commemorate the centenary of the French
Revolution. It took a team of 300 workers
about two years to build this magnicent iron
monument and, once nished, it stood over
300 metres high. The size of the Eiffel Tower
differs between summer and winter by about
15 centimetres because it expands when heated
by the Sun. On a very sunny day, the heat from
the Sun tends to make one side of the tower
expand more than the other side, and the
uneven expansion causes the tower to lean
slightly. The iron used in its construction
is called puddled wrought iron. Although
wrought iron doesnt rust as quickly as
some more modern steels, the tower still
needs to be painted every seven years with
a rust-resistant, zinc-rich paint.
EIFFEL TOWER
FACTS AND FIGURES
Weight: 7000 tonnes
Pieces of wrought iron used: 18 038
(individually designed and shaped)
Number of rivets used to hold the iron
pieces together: 2 500 000
Paint required every seven years:
50 tonnes
V
V
V
V
95
5. Chemical reactions
Metals on your bike
Your choice of frame for a bicycle is likely to depend
on what you want to use it for racing, doing
stunts, riding up and down steep mountains, or just
for a leisurely ride. Most bicycle frames are made
out of metals. To choose the right frame, you need
to consider the properties of the metal from which
it is made and the cost, of course! Some of the
advantages and disadvantages of the metals commonly
used in bicycle frames are listed in the table below.
Metal Advantages Disadvantages
Steel (a mixture of
iron and carbon)
Strong, easily shaped,
inexpensive
Heavy
Aluminium Lightweight,
corrosion resistant,
inexpensive
Brittle and,
therefore, easily
dented
Titanium Lightweight,
corrosion resistant,
strong, flexible
Expensive
Mixing with a metal
The disadvantages of a metal element can often be
removed by mixing it with another metal element, or
with a non-metal element. Such a mixture is called an
alloy. For example, iron is both hard and strong. It
has been used for over 6000 years to make ornaments,
tools and weapons. However, it is not hard or strong
enough to use in bridges, railway lines and buildings.
It also rusts easily. Iron can be made harder, stronger,
more rust-resistant, or even better looking, by mixing
it with other elements.
Some common alloys of iron are:
stainless steel (an alloy of iron, nickel and chromium)
is resistant to corrosion, and shiny when polished.
Eating utensils, kitchen sinks and medical instruments
are made from stainless steel.
cast iron (an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon) is harder
and stronger than iron, but not malleable. Cast iron
can be shaped when molten by pouring it into a cast.
It is used to make engine blocks, machinery, re
hydrants and some building materials.
carbon steel (an alloy of iron and carbon) is harder and
stronger than iron. Carbon steel is used in buildings,
bridges, car frames and kitchen appliances.
tungsten steel (an alloy of iron, carbon and tungsten)
is harder and stronger than iron. The inclusion of
tungsten makes it more heat resistant than other
alloys of iron. Tungsten steel is used in the tips of high-
speed drill bits.
wrought iron is made by heating and purifying cast iron,
and then hammering it to remove some impurities.
It is almost pure iron, with only a small amount of
carbon impurity. Wrought iron was a popular building
material before steel was introduced.

REMEMBER
List the properties of metals.
Why is aluminium used rather than copper in
electricity transmission wires?
What is an alloy?
THINK
Why is chromium a suitable metal for use in
shopping trolleys?
Why is steel unsuitable for the frames of racing
bicycles?
Why are alloys used more commonly than metal
elements?
How is stainless steel different from cast iron?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
IMAGINE
Imagine you have an unlimited budget to design
and build a mountain bicycle. Suggest the materials
you would use and why.
INVESTIGATE
The metal element mercury has a property that
makes it different from all other metals. Find out
what that property is and what mercury is used for.
Most metals need to be polished to continue to
look shiny. Over time, metals oxidise and lose
their lustre. Find out why metals oxidise and what
happens when an oxidised metal is polished.
8
9
10
I CAN:
describe the properties of most metals
relate the properties of metals to their uses
explain what alloys are and what they are used for.

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One of the strongest materials used in
bicycle frames is carbon bre which
is not a metal. Carbon-bre-framed
bicycles are suitable for racing and are
popular in triathlons. Carbon bre is lighter than
aluminium and titanium. But its biggest advantage
is that it can be moulded into any shape. The main
disadvantage of a carbon-bre frame is that, if it
does crack, it cannot be repaired. The whole frame
has to be replaced.
96
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
7Y_Zi WdZ XWi[i
lements can be divided into three groups: metals, non-metals and metalloids.
E Compounds can also be divided into groups. But there are thousands
of compounds and a very large number of groups. Two well-known groups of
compounds are acids and bases. Some acids and bases can eat through metal, burn
your skin or poison you. Others can make food tasty, keep you clean or keep your
bathroom tiles clean.
Acids
Some acids occur naturally (like citric acid in lemons) and
some have to be manufactured (like the sulfuric acid in car
batteries). But they share the following properties. Acids:
are corrosive (they react with solids and eat them
away). For example, battery acid will burn your skin
and hydrochloric acid cleans mortar from bricks.
usually have a sour taste. For example, lemon juice
tastes sour because it contains citric acid; vinegar
tastes sour because it contains acetic acid.
dissolve in water. Acids that are mixed with
water are said to be diluted. Acids that
have not been diluted with water
are called concentrated and are
extremely dangerous.
Bases
When a base is added to an acid, a chemical
reaction occurs. The properties of the acid are
neutralised by a base. So, in a sense, bases
are opposites of acids. But they do have
some properties in common. Bases:
feel slippery as a result of a chemical
reaction between the base and natural
oils in the skin
may be corrosive which is why some bases are
used in oven and bathroom cleaners
usually have a bitter taste
do not usually dissolve in water (bases that can be
dissolved in water are called alkalis).
The pH scale
Acidity is a measure of how strong an acid is. The
more acidic an acid is, the more corrosive it is.
Similarly, basic refers to how strong a base is. If a
substance is not acidic and not basic it is said to be
neutral. Pure water is neutral.
So, how acidic or basic is a particular substance?
To answer this, a tool called the pH scale is used.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

Bathroom cleaner (bases: calcium

carbonate, sodium carbonate)
Floor cleaner (various bases)
Oven cleaner (base: sodium
hydroxide)
Cloudy ammonia (base: ammonia)
Toilet cleaner (hydrochloric acid)
Vinegar
(acetic acid)
Hair shampoo
(usually various
acids)
Hair conditioner
(various bases)
Toothpaste (base:
calcium carbonate)
97
5. Chemical reactions
01
Very strong
acids
(sulfuric acid)
45
Weak
acids
(acetic acid)
7
Neutral
(pure water)
910
Weak
bases
(cloudy
ammonia)
1314
Very strong
bases
(sodium
hydroxide)
An indicator is a chemical that changes colour depending on the pH of the substances
with which it comes in contact. This coloured strip shows the colour of universal
indicator in substances of varying pH.
REMEMBER
List the properties of:
(a) acids
(b) bases.
List five household products
that are acids.
List five household products
that are bases.
What is an alkali?
How is dilute hydrochloric
acid different from
concentrated hydrochloric
acid?
What are the differences
between the properties of
acids and bases?
What is the pH of distilled
water?
THINK
When you vomit, you feel a
burning sensation in your
mouth and throat. Why do
you think this happens?
SKILLBUILDER
The pH of five substances
was measured and recorded
in the table below.
Substance J K L M N
pH 4 12 8 7 6
Which of the substances is:
(a) a strong base?
(b) a very weak base?
(c) neutral?
(d) a very weak acid?
(e) a strong acid?
DESIGN AND CREATE
Create a poster showing
the pH of some common
household substances and
their classification as an acid,
base or neutral substance.
1
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4
5
6
7
8
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Soda water
(carbonic acid)
Yoghurt and milk
(lactic acid)
Cream of tartar
(tartaric acid)
Bee stings
(formic acid)
Rhubarb (oxalic acid)
Lemons (citric acid)
Ant stings
(formic acid)
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)
Soap (base: sodium hydroxide)
Lime (base:
calcium
hydroxide)
I CAN:
describe and compare the
properties of acids and bases
list some common acids and
bases
discuss how the pH scale relates
to the acidity of substances.

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Go to
worksheet 5.4
98
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
7Y_Zi WdZ XWi[i Wj meha
hen an acid and a base react with each other, the products include water and a
Wsalt. Such a reaction is called a neutralisation reaction. These reactions can be
very useful. They can relieve pain caused by indigestion or the stings from wasps,
bees and ants. They can be used to change the pH of soil to make it more suitable
for growing particular plants. Neutralisation reactions are also used
in cooking and to keep swimming pools and spas clean.
To neutralise means to stop something from having an
effect. To stop the properties of acids from having an effect,
a base can be added. Similarly, to stop a base from having
an effect, an acid can be added. So, the pain caused by
the acidic sting of an ant can be relieved by adding
a weak base, such as sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda). The pain caused by the base in the sting of a
wasp can be relieved by adding a weak acid such as
vinegar.
The word equation for a neutralisation reaction is:
acid + base salt + water.
Sometimes, a gas is produced as well as a salt and
water.
Indigestion
The hydrochloric acid in your stomach helps
to break down the food you eat. It is a very
strong acid, with a pH of less than 1.5. But if
you eat too quickly, or eat too much of the
wrong food, the contents of your stomach
become even more acidic. You feel a burning
sensation because of the corrosive properties
of the acid.
To relieve the pain of indigestion, you can
take antacid tablets. The active ingredients
in antacid tablets are weak bases such as
aluminium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate
and magnesium hydroxide, which neutralise
the acid. The cause of the relief you feel can
be described by chemical word equations such
as:
hydrochloric
acid

aluminium
hydroxide
aluminium
chloride
water
hydrochloric
acid

magnesium
hydroxide
magnesium
chloride
water
hydrochloric
acid

magnesium
carbonate
magnesium
chloride
water
carbon
dioxide.
One product of this last reaction is carbon dioxide gas. You
burp to get this gas out of your stomach.
99
5. Chemical reactions
Two ingredients in pancakes are buttermilk (an acid) and baking
soda (a base). The two mix, producing a salt, water and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide bubbles get bigger when the mixture is
heated, causing the mixture to rise.
Cooking with acids and bases
REMEMBER
Why is the chemical
reaction between an
acid and a base called
neutralisation?
What are the products of all
neutralisation reactions?
Which acid can be found in
your stomach?
Explain how an antacid
relieves the pain of
indigestion.
Explain how self-raising
flour helps cakes rise.
THINK
A stinging-nettle plant
may contain an acid that
is injected into your skin
when you touch it. How
could you show that the
plant does contain an acid?
What would happen if you
put vinegar on a bee sting?
Write a word equation
to describe the chemical
reaction between
hydrochloric acid and
calcium carbonate.
Why is it that the acids in
the food and drink you
eat do not damage your
stomach?
When you add buttermilk
(an acid) to baking soda
(a base) in a mixing bowl,
does the pH increase or
decrease? Give a reason for
your answer.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
You will need:
Petri dish
electronic balance
spatula
antacid powder
0.1 mol L
1
hydrochloric acid
250 mL conical flask
100 mL measuring cylinder
methyl orange indicator
white tile or white paper.
Measure and record the mass of
the Petri dish.
Add a small amount of antacid
powder to the dish and record
the mass of the antacid and Petri
dish.
Calculate the mass of the powder.
What was the mass of the antacid
powder?
Add 50 mL of the dilute
hydrochloric acid to the 250 mL
flask.
Add 3 drops of methyl orange
indicator.

1.

What colour change occurs when

the methyl orange indicator is in
the acid?
Place the flask mixture on the
white tile (or paper) and use the
spatula to slowly add antacid
from the Petri dish bit by bit. Swirl
the flask to mix. Stop adding
antacid when the colour changes
from red to orange.
Measure and record the mass of
the Petri dish and its contents (the
unused antacid).
By subtraction, calculate the mass
of antacid used to neutralise
50 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid.
How does your result agree
with other groups in your
class? Suggest reasons for the
similarities or differences between
your results.
Use your results to calculate how
much antacid you would need
to neutralise 500 mL of dilute
hydrochloric acid.
2.

3.
4.
5.
Antacid in action
Self-raising our usually contains an
acid and baking soda (the base) which
react together when water or milk is
added. The carbon dioxide produced
causes the mixture to rise when it is
heated.
Some bottled foods, like pickles,
chutney and tomato sauce last a long
time without spoiling. They contain
acids, which keep the pH low enough
to stop the growth of bacteria.
I CAN:
explain what neutralisation
reactions are and list examples
of them
use word equations to describe
simple neutralisation reactions.

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A taste of glue
Until recently, every time you sent
a Christmas or birthday card, you
had to lick the envelope to seal it and lick
the back of the stamp before placing it on
the envelope. The taste was not pleasant.
Thomas Edison, better known as the
inventor of the electric light bulb,
invented the gummed paper that you
licked. Edison found that when he wanted
to glue two pieces of paper together some of
it got onto his hands. Sticky and unpleasant!
He suggested to an assistant to try leaving a
strip of glue on some paper and let it dry.
Later, when moistened, the glue was
activated and the two pieces of paper stuck
together. The glues that had to be licked
were made from cellulose from plants.
Todays self-adhesive envelopes and stamps
are made from rubber a natural polymer
found in trees or similar synthetic
polymers.
Boots
and all
The different parts
of boots worn by sports
men and women, and
workers in mines, on farms
and in factories, used to be
nailed or sewn together. A
hundred years ago, the glues
were just not strong enough.
Nowadays, about 90% of
the construction of boots is
done with glues rather than
sewing and nailing.
100
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
=[jj_d] ijkYa _dje _j
ithout glues, we would have to use bolts, nuts, rivets, pins, stitches and nails
W to stick things together. Glues make it very easy to join items together neatly
and quickly. Almost all glues are made from carbon compounds.
A glue is a substance that holds
materials together by attaching
their surfaces to each other.
Glues have been around for a
very long time. Archaeologists
have discovered ancient vases
that were repaired almost
6000 years ago with a
glue of tree sap. And the
casket of the Egyptian king
Tutankhamen, which was
sealed in his tomb over
3000 years ago, has been
held together for all that
time with glue. Until recent
times, all glues were made
from plant tissue or from
animal proteins.
A glue was used to hold King Tutankhamens casket together.
101
5. Chemical reactions
REMEMBER
What is a glue?
What were all glues made
from until recent times?
THINK
One type of glue used in
the past was made from
flour and water. What
are the advantages and
disadvantages of such a glue?
You have a choice of gluing
two pieces of wood together,
or nailing them together.
Which would you choose and
why?
What are the advantages of
glue over sewing and nails for
boots?
Write a list of the ideal
properties of a glue that
would hold a metal name
plate to a wooden door
without it having to be
screwed or nailed in place.
Suggest which parts of the
inside and outside of a family
car are likely to be held
together with glue.
IMAGINE
You have just invented the
perfect glue. Describe how
it works and its physical
properties.
ICT
Use the internet to find out:
(a) what sort of glue is used
in Post-It notes, who
invented them and how
they came to be invented.
(b) what to do if you
accidentally glue two
surfaces together and
wish to unglue them.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Making and testing casein glue
You will need:
cup of milk
2 tablespoons of vinegar
tablespoon
clean plastic ice-cream tub
old spoon or stick (for stirring)
paper towel
kitchen strainer
2 tablespoons of water
cup of baking soda
teaspoon
set of 50 gram slotted masses
collection of different glues to test
(not super glue or other extremely
high-strength glues)
icy-pole sticks
G-clamp.
Part 1: Making the casein glue
Mix cup of milk and
2 tablespoons of vinegar together
in the plastic tub.
Stir the mixture until no more
lumps (or curds) form.
Spread the paper towel over the
bottom of the strainer and place
the strainer in a sink.
Pour the milk mixture through
the strainer.
Gently blot the curds with more
paper towel to squeeze out any
excess liquid (whey).
Discard the liquid and rinse the
plastic tub.
Scrape the curds from the paper
towel and place them in the
plastic container.
Add 2 tablespoons of water and
stir the mixture.
Add a small amount (about
teaspoon) of baking soda
and stir, watching for bubbles of
gas.
Continue stirring and adding
small amounts of baking
soda until no more bubbles
appear.

Place the strainer in a sink and

pour the milk mixture through
the strainer.
Use your hand to squeeze the
solid pieces together into a ball.
Part 2: Testing your glue
Glue
Slotted
masses
Icy-pole stick
Clamp
Testing your casein glue
At the end of one icy-pole stick,
place about 1 cm of glue.
Overlap another icy-pole stick
over this area.
Allow the sticks to dry.
Clamp one end of the sticks to a
bench and place slotted masses
on the end of the other stick,
adding 50 grams at a time. Keep
adding weights until the glue
joint breaks or until you reach the
maximum of 500 grams.
If the glue joint does not break,
or a stick breaks before the glue
joint breaks, make a smaller glue
joint (say, 5 mm instead of 1 cm).
What mass is required to break
the glue joint?
Repeat the test with a range of
other glues, using the same-sized
glue joint.
Rank the glues in order of
strength, from strongest to
weakest, along with the greatest
mass that their glue joint could
support.
List the variables that must be
held constant during the testing
process.

1.

2.
3.
I CAN:
explain what a glue is
describe some of the properties
of glues
make and test the quality of a
glue.

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DATE: 12 JANUARY 2004 WEATHER: WARM, 26 oC
Natures super glue
A team of chemists
at Purdue University,
Indiana, USA, have dis-
covered the key to the super
glue that allows mussels to grip
on to just about any surface even
in sea water.
The researchers, led by Jonathon
Wilker, have found that the key to
the stickiness of the glue made by the
common blue mussel Mytilus edulis is
charged atoms of iron. The charged
atoms, or ions, of iron are formed when
electrons are removed from neutral
iron atoms. The mussels collect the
iron ions from the sea water.
Scientists already know that the
mussel glue is based on proteins, but
according to chemist Mike Clarke,
proteins often rely on metal ions
to tie them together and provide sta-
bility. The iron extracted from sea
water acts as a curing agent, giving
the glue its stickiness and strength.
The metal ions strengthen the links
between the polymer chains that make
up the proteins.
Potential for new surgical
techniques
By understanding how mussels glue
themselves to rocks, ropes and boats
under water, new surgical adhesives
could be discovered. It is possible
that, instead of stitching you up, sur-
geons could glue you back together.
The team at Purdue University is
already making and testing new syn-
thetic glues based on the mussel glue.
A glue based on a natural glue such
as the blue-mussel glue is likely to be
strong, non-toxic and waterproof. This
makes it perfect for use in the oper-
ating room.
The shipping industry could also
benefit from the research. By under-
standing how these natural glues
operate, scientists can work on coun-
teracting their effects. This would
allow preventative measures to be
taken against adhesive organisms
that damage shipping vessels, and the
accidental transport of foreign species
between ports.
The glue produced by the
blue mussel will stick to just
about any surface. This mussel
is attaching itself to a sheet of
Teflon, the polymer coating
used on non-stick cookware.
The substances currently used to
prevent adhesive organisms from
attaching themselves to shipping
vessels release toxic copper ions into
the water. A more natural preventative
measure would be much more envi-
ronmentally friendly.
A profile of the blue mussel
Blue mussels are served in restaurants
and sold at local fish shops. In Australia,
about five thousand tonnes are eaten
every year. They are blue in colour and
covered by a black outer layer. Blue
mussels may grow to 10 centimetres in
length and are found in intertidal estu-
aries and seagrass beds. They are also
often seen attached to wharf pylons.
Blue mussels are filter feeders
and strain plankton from the water.
They are preyed upon by crabs, star-
fish, leatherjackets, pufferfish and
flatworms.
Some blue mussels were prob-
ably introduced to Australia by ships
arriving from Europe. They have been
cultivated for hundreds of years over-
seas and are now grown commercially
in Australia. They can be grown in
special areas and seeded onto a special
rope that comes from New Zealand.
The life expectancy of blue mussels
can be up to 15 years, but adverse
environmental conditions such as
pollution will reduce the size of the
mussel and its life span.
About 5000 tonnes of
blue mussels are eaten
by Australians every year.
<=>,487B8> 05>.< 9=B 5=-
Losing your grip on things,
or coming apart at the
seams?
Your problem could be your glue.
Stuck-On-You-Glues can supply,
and improve, the glues in your life.
Stuck-On-You-Glues are produced
from natural animal proteins and are:
strong non-toxic waterproof.
Contact your nearest
<=>,487B8> 05>.<
distributor for a complete price list.
REMEMBER
From where do blue
mussels get the charged iron
atoms needed to make their
glue?
Which carbon compounds
are activated by iron ions to
make the mussel glue?
What properties of the blue-
mussel glue make it ideal for
use in surgery?
How is the team at Purdue
University using the
discovery of the mussel
glue?
THINK
Why is it important to stop
the accidental transport
of species of organisms
between ports?
Copper compounds used
in the paint currently used
on the underside of boats
are also used to stop the
growth of moss and other
organisms on roof tiles. What
harmful effects would this
roof treatment have on our
environment? (Hint: What
happens to water that runs
off the roofs of houses?)
Why is it better to make a
synthetic glue based on
knowledge of the blue-
mussel glue rather than
to just use glue from the
mussels?
INVESTIGATE
Find out how other animals
in the sea (e.g. corals) attach
themselves to rocks and
other underwater surfaces.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
I CAN:
describe how a glue can be
produced by a living thing
discuss the benefits of
research into natural
chemical processes
describe the characteristics of
the blue mussel.

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104
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
9^[Ya WdZ Y^Wbb[d][
9^[c_YWb h[WYj_edi
Metals
The table below lists the properties of most metals.
1. Copy the table and complete it by explaining
the meaning of the terms.
Property What it means
Malleable
Ductile
Conducts electricity and heat
Lustrous
Expands when heated
2. Which one, or more, of the properties listed in the
table explains why copper is used for wiring in
electric circuits?
3. Which of the properties of most metals not listed in
the table explains why:
(a) almost all metals are solids at room temperature
(b) chromium is used to make shopping trolleys
(c) aluminium is used rather than steel to build
caravans.
4. Aluminium is more brittle than other metals used to
make bicycle frames. What does brittle mean?
5. What are alloys and why are they used?
6. How does adding the metal
tungsten to iron change the
properties of the iron?
7. Which of the elements
gold or iron are
you more likely to find
in its pure form in the
ground? Give a reason
for your answer.
8. Iron that is tin-plated rusts very slowly. Explain why.
9. Complete this word equation:
zinc
hydrochloric
acid
chloride .
1 0. List four properties of metals.
1 1. Which metal:
(a) is the most reactive?
(b) combines with iron to make stainless steel?
(c) is flexible yet light and used in bicycle frames?
Non-metals and metalloids
1 2. The two non-metals that combine to form water are
hydrogen and carbon.
carbon and water.
water and nitrogen.
hydrogen and oxygen.
oxygen and nitrogen.
1 3. Write a chemical word equation for the reaction in
question 12.
Acids and bases
1 4. List three differences between the properties of acids
and most bases.
1 5. What is the difference between alkalis and other
bases?
1 6. Which property of acids and many bases makes them
dangerous to handle?
1 7. How would you change a concentrated acid to make
it a dilute acid?
1 8. Most processed food has a list of ingredients on the
packaging. Some of these say that a food acid has
been added. Why are food acids added to some food
and drink?
1 9. You have been asked to find the pH of five different
brands of toothpaste. Explain clearly how you would
do this.
2 0. The five containers below are labelled with their pH.
A
pH = 2
B
pH = 5
C
pH = 7
D
pH = 9
E
pH = 13
Which of the containers is most likely to contain:
(a) distilled water?
(b) a very strong acid?
(c) a very strong base?
(d) vinegar?
(e) bathroom and kitchen surface cleaner?
A
B
C
D
E
T
e
s
t
y
o
urself
105
5. Chemical reactions
2 1. Antacid tablets contain a weak base.
(a) Explain why antacids are bases rather than acidic
or neutral substances.
(b) Write a word equation that describes how the
base magnesium hydroxide reacts with the
hydrochloric acid in your stomach.
(c) Write a word equation that describes how the
base magnesium carbonate reacts with the
hydrochloric acid in your stomach. (Hint: There
are three products.)
2 2. You have just been for a short run. Normally, the pH
of your blood is 7.4, but your exercising muscles have
made lactic acid that mixes with your blood. What
happens to the pH of your blood after this exercise?
2 3. Some plants need a soil with a pH less than 7. What
substance would you add to soil to lower its pH an
acid, a base or water? Give a reason for your answer.
Compounds of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen
2 4. What properties would you expect in a glue designed
to hold broken bones together?
Chemical reactions
2 5. Balance the following equations:
(a) H
2
(g) O
2
(g) H
2
O(l)
(b) CH
4
(g) O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) H
2
O(g)
2 6. The respiration reaction between glucose and oxygen
is given by:
glucose + oxygen
enzymes
carbon dioxide + water.
(a) List the reactants and the products involved in this
reaction.
(b) Why is the word enzyme written above the arrow?
Electron dot
diagrams
1. The electron dot diagrams
for chlorine, nitrogen,
hydrogen and oxygen gas
are shown below. The
number of electrons in the outer shells of the elements
that form these gases are, respectively, 7, 5, 1 and 6.
CI CI
N N
O O
H H
Draw electron dot diagrams for:
(a) hydrochloric acid (HCl)
(b) water (H
2
O)
(c) nitrogen chloride (NCl
3
)
(d) ammonia (NH
3
).
Describing chemical reactions
2. Balance the following chemical equations:
N
2
(g) H
2
(g) NH
3
(g)
Mg(s) O
2
(g) MgO(s).
3. You wish to make magnesium hydroxide from
magnesium chloride and copper hydroxide.
(a) Write the word equation for this reaction.
(Hint: There is one other product.)
(b) Write a balanced equation using symbols.
4. Currently, we use chemical equations to describe a
chemical reaction. How else could you describe a
chemical equation? Use an example to explain your
new method.
5. Early scientists mixed dilute hydrochloric acid with
some calcium carbonate in a beaker and carefully
weighed the beaker and its contents. After the
bubbling had stopped, they discovered that there was
a drop in mass. They used this experiment to state that
the Law of Conservation of Mass was not true. Do
you agree or disagree with the statement? Explain.
106
Science Alive for VELS Level 6
IkccWho e\ a[o j[hci
acid: a corrosive substance that
reacts with a base to produce a salt
and water. Edible acids taste sour.
acidity: a measure of how strong, or
reactive, an acid is
activity series: a list that ranks metals
in order of reactivity, from most
reactive to least reactive
adhesive: being able to stick to
another substance
alkali: a base that can be dissolved in
water
alloy: a mixture of a metal with one
or more other elements
atom: the building block of all
elements
base: a substance that can react with
an acid to form a salt and water.
Edible bases taste bitter.
basic: refers to how strong a base is,
or how reactive it is with acids
brittle: hard, but likely to break easily
without being bent
casein: a protein found in milk
catalyst: a substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction without actually
taking part in it. A catalyst does not
change chemically as a result of a
chemical reaction.
cellulose: the substance that makes
up the cell walls of plant cells
chemical bond: a force that keeps
particles (atoms, molecules, ions or
electrons) together
chemical formula: a combination
of chemical symbols, or chemical
symbols and numbers, that
represents a compound or an
element in its natural state. Note
that the plural of formula is
formulae.
chemical symbol: a letter or
combination of two letters that
represents an element
chemical word equation: a brief
representation of a chemical
reaction, with the reactants on the
left-hand side of an arrow pointing
to the right, and the products on
the right-hand side of the arrow
compound: a substance composed
of two or more different elements
that are chemically combined.
The atoms are held together by
chemical bonds.
concentrated: mixed with little or no
water
conduct: allow to flow through
corrode: eat away the surface of a
substance by chemical action
corrosion: the chemical reaction
of a substance with the air,
water or other substances in its
surroundings (e.g. rusting)
corrosive: able to react chemically
with solids and wear them away
diluted: describes a liquid (other
than water) that has had water
added to it
ductile: able to be drawn out to
make wire
expand: become larger
glue: a substance used for holding
materials together by attaching
their surfaces to each other
ion: a charged atom. Ions are formed
by the addition or removal of
electrons from an atom.
lustrous: shiny
malleable: able to be beaten or
hammered into shape
metal: in general, a substance that
is shiny, bendable and conducts
both electricity and heat. All but
one of the naturally occurring
metals exists as a solid at room
temperature. The exception is
mercury.
metalloid: substance that is neither a
metal nor a non-metal. Metalloids
have some properties of metals and
some properties of non-metals.
molecule: two or more atoms
chemically bonded together as a
unit
neutral: when referring to chemicals,
neither an acid nor a base
neutralisation: the chemical reaction
between an acid and a base
non-metal: a substance that does
not have the properties of metals.
The non-metals are found towards
the top right-hand corner of the
periodic table.
pH: a measure of how acidic or basic
a substance is
polymer: a compound consisting
of long chains of repeating units
(molecules) chemically bonded to
each other
precipitate: an insoluble substance
formed during a chemical reaction
that takes place in water. A
precipitate is heavier than water
and settles to the bottom of the
container in which the reaction
takes place.
products: the new substances formed
during a chemical reaction
protein: compound that includes
atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, and is produced by
living things. Proteins are essential
for the growth and repair of cells.
reactants: the starting substances
in a chemical reaction. Chemical
bonds between the atoms of these
substances are broken during a
chemical reaction.
reactive: describes an ability to react
chemically with other substances
rust: corrode. The term rust applies
only to the corrosion of iron.
salt: a solid compound formed by
the bonding of a positively charged
metal ion with a negatively charged
ion
steel: an alloy of iron that includes
carbon
synthetic: not found in nature; made
artificially