HAMITO-SEMITIC AND AUSTRONESIAN:

OBVIOUS GENETIC RELATEDNESS

PART I















EL RABIH MAKKI























HAMITO-SEMITIC AND AUSTRONESIAN:
OBVIOUS GENETIC RELATEDNESS




PART I
AUSTRONESIAN ROOTS WITH AN INITIAL VOWEL


















El Rabih Makki





Bissan
Publishers & Distribution


Page No. i

























El Rabih Makki, 2014
First published in 2014

Bisan Publishers and Distribution
P.O.Box: 13-5561 Beirut - Lebanon
Telefax: 00961 01 351921
All Rights reserved for the author. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other means
now known or here-after invented, without a prior permission in writing
from the author:
rabihmackie&hotmail.com






Page No. ii


Table of Contents













Language cited: Hamito-Semitic iv

Language cited: Austronesian v

Grammatical terminology and other abbreviations and symbols vii

Abbreviations for some dictionaries and references ix

Introduction 1

Chapter One: Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian
language families 7
1.1 Hamito-Semitic language families 7
1.1.1 Semitic Languages 8
1.1.1.1 Akkadian 8
1.1.1.2 Canaanite 8
1.1.1.3 Aramaic 8
1.1.1.4 Classical Arabic 9
1.1.1.5 Old South ArabiC 9
1.1.1.6 Ethiopic or Geez 9
1.1.2 Hamitic Languages 9
1.1.2.1 Egyptian 9
1.1.2.2 Berber or Libyan-Berber 10
1.1.2.3 Cushitic 10
1.1.2.4 Chadic 10


Page No. iii

1.1.3 Proto-Hamito-Semitic sound system 10
1.1.3.1 Sound correspondences between
Semitic and Egyptian 10
1.1.4 Basic and Derived stems 19

1.2 Austronesian language family 23
1.2.1 Classification of the Austronesian languages 24
1.2.2 Proto-Austronesian sound system 25
1.2.3 Layers of surface and deep structures 27
1.2.4 PAN reconstructed affixes and their
Hamito-Semitic cognates 36
1.2.4.1 PAN *mu movement 37
1.2.4.2 PAN *ma- stative 37
1.2.4.3 PAN *pa- ~ *paka- causative 38
1.2.4.4 PAN *-en passive 38
1.2.4.5 PAN *-ar- plural marker 39
1.2.4.6 PAN *-um- actor voice 41
1.2.4.7 PAN newly discovered -ma plural marker 42
1.2.5 Some other Austronesian affixes 44
1.2.6 Reduplication 45

Chapter Two: Similarities between Hamito-Semitic and
Austronesian languages at the 2
nd
layer of surface structure 49
2.0 Hamito-Semitic explicit and implicit cognates 49
2.1 Austronesian explicit and implicit cognates 51
2.2 Special versus abstract meaning 68
2.3 Distant cognates 71
2.4 Is voice originally phonemic in Language? 73

Chapter Three: Similarities between Hamito-Semitic and
Austronesian languages at the 1
st
Layer of surface structure 76

Chapter Four: Proto-Austronesian roots with initial vowel
and their Hamito-Semitic cognates 102
4.1 Proto-Austronesian roots with initial /a-/ 104
4.2 Proto-Austronesian roots with initial /e-/ 127
4.3 Proto-Austronesian roots with initial /i-/ 141
4.4 Proto-Austronesian roots with initial /u-/. 157
Conclusion 167
References 171


Page No. iv


Language Cited: Hamito-Semitic Languages

Akk. = Akkadian
Aram. = Aramaic
Assyr. = Assyrian
Bab. = Babylonian
B = Biblical
BAram. = Biblical Aramaic
BHeb. = Biblical Hebrew
Chad. = Chadic
Cush. = Cushitic
CA = Classical Arabic
Egyp. = Egyptian
E. = Epigraphic (before a language name as in EHeb = Epigraphic
Hebrew, etc.)
ESA = Epigraphic South Arabian
Eth. = Ethiopic
Ge. = Geez (or Ethiopic)
HS = Hamito-Semitic
Him. = Himyaritic
Heb. = Hebrew
JAram. = Jewish Aramaic
Jp. = Judaic Palestinian
Lih. = Liyanitic
Mand. = Mandaic
Min. = Minaean
MSA = Modern Standard Arabic
NWS = North-west Semitic
OffAram. = Official Aramaic
O = Old (before a language name)
OAram. = Old Aramaic
Palm. = Palmyrene(an)
PHS = Proto-Hamito-Semitic
PWL = Proto-World language
Pun. = Punic
Phoen. = Phoenician
Qat = Qatabanian


Page No. v

SA = South Arabian
Sab. = Sabaean
Saf. = Safaitic
Samal = Samalian
Sem. = Semitic
Talm. = Talmudic
Targ. = Targumic
Tham. = Thamudian
Ug. = Ugaritic



Language Cited: Austronesian
Akl. = Aklanon
At. = Atayal
Bal. = Balinese
Bat. = Batak
Bik. = Bikol
Bim. = Bimanese
Bint. = Bintulu
Bis = Bisayan
Bol. = Bolaang
Bont. = Bontok
Bug. = Bugoto, Buginese
Bun. = Bunun
Bur. = Buruese
Ceb. = Cebuano
Chmr. = Chamorro
Fav. = Favorlang
Fij. = Fijian
Ged. = Gedaged
Glb. = Gilbertese
Haw. = Hawaiian
Hlg. = Hiligaynon
Han. = Hanunoo
Ib. = Iban
If. = Ifugaw
Ilk. = Ilkano
Ind. = Indonesian


Page No. vi

Iv. = Ivatan
Itb. = Itb.
Kad. = Kadzan
Kam. = Kambera
Kap. = Kapampangan
Kav. = Kavalan
Kay. = Kayan
KBat. = Karo Batak
Kel. = Kelabit
Knk. = Kanakanabu
O = Old
Jav. = Javanese
Mad. = Madurese
Mak. = makasarese
Mal. = Malay
Mang. = Manggarai
Mar. = Maranao
Mel. = Melanesian
Mlg. = Malagasy
Mnd.= Mandar
Mur. = Murung
NgD = Ngadyu Dayak
Ngd. = Ngadha
PAN = Proto-Austronesian
PMP = Proto-Malayo-Plolynesian
PO = Proto-Oceanic
PP = Proto-Polynesian
Pang. = Pangasinan
Pu. = Puyama
Pw. = Paiwan
Rmb. = Rembong
Ren. = Rennallese
Rot. = Rotinese
Ruk. = Rukai, a name given to five closely related languages spoken in
Pintung Hsein and three others in Maolin, Kao-Hsiung Hsien
Sas. = Sasak
Sa. = Saaroa
SAt. = Squliq Atayal
Sam. = Samoan


Page No. vii

Sir. = Siraya
Ss. = Saisiat
Smb. = Sambal
Sund. = Sundanese
Tag. = Tagalog
Tah. = Tahitian
Tir. = Tiruray
TBat. = Toba Batak
Tom. = Tombul
Tong = Tongan
Tont. = Tontemboan
Tuv. = Tuvaluan

Grammatical Terminology and Other
Abbreviations and Symbols

abl = ablative
adj. = adjective
acc. = accusative
assim. = assimilation
arch. = archaic
caus. = causative
C = class or stem of verbs as in CA CI kataba, CII kattaba, CIII ktaba,
etc.
C = consonant
coll. = collective
comp = compare, comparative
cpd = compound; pl. cpds
dat. = dative case
dial. = dialect(s), dialectal
dim. = diminutive
dissim. = dissimilation
du. = dual
= unidentified vowel or diphthong
ed. = editor
ext. = extension
e.g. = for example
fem. = feminine
gen. = general as in gen. Sem. = general Semitic


Page No. viii

gen. = genitive
ibid. = in the same work
id. = the same meaning
i.e = that is
imperf. = imperfect tense
imper. = imperative
ind. = indicative
inf. = infinitive
inst. = instrumental
intrans. = intransitive
lit. = literal(ly)
loc. = locative
masc. = masculine
metaph. = metaphor(ic/-ally)
neg. = negative
neut. = neuter
nom. = nominative
n. = noun
n. = number, numbers
obsol. = obsolete
op.cit. = in the work cited
orig. = origin(al)(-ly)
part. = participle
pp. = past participle
pass. = passive
perf. = perfect tense
perh. = perhaps
pers. = person(al)
pl. = plural
poss. = possessive
prep. = preposition
prob. = probably
proot = pr(imeval) (r)oot
pron. = pronoun, pronominal
recipr. = reciprocal
redupl. = reduplication
reflx. = reflexive
r. = root, roots
seq. const. = sequential constraint
sg. = singular


Page No. ix

s.o = some one
s.t. = something
ult. = ultimately
usu. = usual(ly)
trans. = transitive
vb = verb
vl. = voiceless
vs = versus, against
* = asterisk, used before a linguistic form to indicate that the form is
unattested.
v. = vowel
v. = voiced
W = unidentified semivowel (y, w, or )
= signifies, has the same meaning as, corresponds to
> develops into, becomes
< comes from, is derived from
~ variant of, alternates with
; = a derivative of, derives into as in kataba write; kattaba make one
write
= macron, a sign of vowel length
= zero
: = all are from, is from, cognate with
( ) = anything between parentheses can be dropped.


Abbreviations for Some Dictionaries and References
ACD = Austronesian Comparative Dictionary. Robert Blust and Stephen
Trussel.

AG = Akkadian Grammar & Glossary in Akkadian of Alala. George
Giacumakis.

AG = Ancient Aramaic Glossaries in An Aramaic Handbook, pp. 1-15.
Franz Rosenthal and Andr Dupont-Sommer.

Al Ayn = Kitb Al Ayn, a Classical Arabic dictionary, 8 Volumes. Khalil
Bin Ahmad Al Farhidi.

Amli = Kitb Al Amli, a study of the language and diverse literary texts,
2 Volumes. Abu Ali Kli.


Page No. x


DHSR = Decomposition of Hamito-Semitic Roots into their ultimate
Primeval Components. El Rabih Makki.
N.B. The 2014 revised edition is used as reference in the current
research. It is essentially the same as the 2013 edition, which is available
at: Web Edition (for free): https://lu-lb.academia.edu/ElrabihMakki
The basic difference is that Chapter II was split into two chapters as
follows:
Chapter Two included sections 2.1 to 2.1.14. The remaining sections
2.2 up to 2.25 have become 3.2 up to 3.25 respectively and formed
Chapter Three.
Chapter Three of 2013 edition has become Chapter Four in the new
edition.

DRS = Dictionnaire des Racine Smitiques. David Cohen.

EHD = Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, 2 Volumes. E. A. Wallis
Budge.

FL = Fiqh Al Luah was Sirru Al Arabiyah. Abdul Malak Thalibi

HED = Harari Etymological Dictionary. Wolf Leslau.

HSED = Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary. Vladimir E. Orel and
Olga V. Stolbova.

Jamharah = Jamharah Al Luah, a Classical Arabic dictionary, 3 Volumes.
Ibin Durayd.

LA = Lisn Al Arab, a Classical Arabic dictionary, 4 Volumes. Jaml Ad
Dn Ibin Manr

MA = Muam Al Amai, a Classical Arabic dictionary.

MD = Mandaic Dictionary. E. S. Drower and R. Macuch.

ML = Mays Al Luah, a Classical Arabic Dictionary, 6 Volumes.
Ahmad Bin Fris.

NWSI = Dictionary of North-West Semitic Inscriptions, 2 Volumes. J.
Hoftijzer and K. Jongeling.

OT = Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. William
Gesenius.


Page No. xi


PAP = Proto-Austronesian Phonology with Glossary. John U. Wolff.

PG = Phonecian Grammar. Harris Zellig S.

RPAA = Reconstructing Proto-Afro-Asiatic: Words, Tone, Consonants.
Ehret Christopher.

SD = Sabaean Dictinary. Beeston A. F. L at al.

hibi = Al ibi. Ahmad Bin Faris.

= i, a Classical Arabic Dictionary, 6 Volumes. Isml Jawhari.

VPHS = Sur le Vocabulaire et la Phonetique du Chamito-Semitique.
Marcel Cohen.

UG = Ugaritic Glossary. Hary A. Hoffner, in Gordon, Cyrus H., Ugaritic
Textbook.












Page No. 1


Introduction
Austronesian family is so closely related to Hamito-Semitic to such an extent that I
once considered it a Hamito-Semitic language division (see below).







How can we demonstrate that worlds languages are all related to one
another? What method or methods should be employed to prove
scientifically this linguistic relationship? Have worlds languages
preserved sufficient linguistic evidence that enables us to establish their
genetic relatedness?
Since the 19
th
century, there have been repeated attempts to establish
connections among languages previously unknown to be related. More
recent attempts aim at establishing distant linguistic relationships such as
the Nostratic family. All such attempts have been considered by the
majority of linguists as premature and poorly established. Moreover,
practicing historical and comparative linguists consider it impossible at the
present state of our knowledge to establish new language families and
broader linguistic relationships.
The Hamito-Semitic language family is historically and linguistically
the most important of all language families since it possesses the longest
recorded history of any language family, extending from 3400 B.C. to the
present time. Accordingly, if the origin of language is not found in this
family, it will never be found anywhere. Fortunately, it is found and is as
clear as sunshine.
A careful and deep re-examination of Hamito-Semitic linguistic data
over more than three consecutive decades brings to light many astounding
discoveries. Every single Hamito-Semitic, whether we call biradical,


Page No. 2

triradical, etc., is a compound of two or more elements and the meanings
of nearly all such elements can be determined with certainty. The elements
are primeval roots (or proots) combined together with or without affixes,
esp. derivational affixes, and express concrete meanings. Unquestionable
evidence is basically found in two Hamito-Semitic languages, the oldest
recorded Egyptian and the youngest recorded Classical Arabic. For
example, a root like ka- a type of hair, forelock, found in Egyptian,
Classical Arabic, and many families of languages, e.g. Indo-European as
in Lithuanian kasa tress, Old Church Slavic kosa hair, Hittite ki
comb (see DHSR: 4.3.32), is plainly a compound of [ka-] shape of,
image of and a stem [i] hair. For the two elements of the compound
and their meanings, see DHSR: 3.17.83,15.
One may ask: Why is it that an important Germanic word like God
does not have cognates in Classical Indo-European languages? The
answer is not now far to seek. It is a compound of [ga-] form, like and
wud god and so are Egyptian gyd god, Phoenician and general
Semitic gd god of fortune. For [ga-], see DHSR: 3.17.83, for Germanic
and Hamito-Semitic words, see DHSR: 4.4.6, and for [wud], see DHSR:
3.12.17, n. 1b.
Nor is it unexplainable why Classical Arabic sanafa last year, albu
heart and Egyptian wheat, for example, are unfound in any related
language. Classical Arabic sanafa is a compound of sana- year (=
general Semitic ana-tu fem. id.) and [fa-] last, ego (see DHSR:
3.17.14), while albu is a compound of [a-] condition of or manner of
(see DHSR: 3.17.83) plus lub- heart (general Semitic lub- id.). On the
other hand, the Egyptian word is a proot and found in other Hamito-
Semitic languages as in- id., a compound of i- wheat, infixed -n-, and
a- earth. All elements of the compound are also found in Egyptian,
including infixed -n-: see DHSR: 3.17.29.
Another sample example that may be cited here is the root bind
(Proto-Indo-European *bhendh- as in Sanskrit bandh-, etc. = Proto-
Hamito-Semitic *banad- as in Egyptian bnd, etc.), which is traditionally
treated as an indivisible entity or root. Discovered evidence shows
clearly that bind is a complex word consisting of at least three primeval
roots (or proots) agglutinated together: [ba-], [naw-] and [-d-], and that
the signification bind is expressed only by [naw-] (for linguistic
evidence, see DHSR: 3.13.5 & 4.9.24). The three elements, together
with their historically last development [banad], are preserved intact in
Hamito-Semitic, notably in Egyptian and Classical Arabic. The proot


Page No. 3

[naw-] is expected to be found with the same or similar meanings in
worlds families of languages. In accordance with this unquestionable fact,
Indo-European and Hamito-Semitic *banad- truly represents the last of
many ancient multilayered structure.
In addition to [band], two other well known surface layers are present in
Indo-European and Hamito-Semitic:
a) One surface layer *nawd- bind as in Latin ndus knot, Gothic
nati net, etc. = Egyptian nd (< nwd) to bind, tie, from nw id., Classical
Arabic nawu joint, etc. see DHSR: 4.9.24).
b) Another surface layer including causative /- or s-/ is seen in Sanskrit
snva- band, rope, Old High German snuor rope, etc. = Egyptian sn-t
band, from sn (< *snw) to bind, tie, Classical Arabic sanu
(expected to be *sanu, i.e. snw, rather than sanu, i.e. sny) thread:
Egyptian nw rope, cord, string as a vb to tie, bind (see DHSR:
4.10.17).
Other grammatical affixes can be added to proot [naw]. One of which is
causative /d-/ as in Egyptian dn (< dnw) to tie, bind, fetter, and so
forth.
In the light of such new discoveries: How can we trust what the
traditional work says about language, about its structure, and about its
historical development? The traditional work, together with all views,
assumptions and theories based on it, can never lead to a true conception
of what language is and to a real insight into its changes and its historical
evolution.
The purpose of the present work is to clearly demonstrate and firmly
establish a genetic relationship between Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian
language families.
Both language families have in common many essential and
indispensible grammatical forms, which compel us to make the inevitable
conclusion that they must have come from a common source. The same
assertion can be made as to certain basic vocabulary found in both
families, especially those denoting parts of the body, things in the physical
world, family relation, pronouns, and some numerals. The common
existence of such forms in language families whose members are far apart
in space and time makes it evident that they must have belonged to a
common Hamito-Semitic-Austronesian speech before its split into
separate Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian.
Our comparative study of Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian language
families will be presented in two parts, the first establishes firmly the


Page No. 4

genetic relationship between the two language families on all levels of
structure, especially the grammatical. As a matter of fact, the most
indispensable Hamito-Semitic grammatical elements are effortlessly
detected in Austronesian language family and so are its proots and surface
or traditional roots.
In addition to grammar, Part I will also focus on Austronesian roots
beginning with a vowel and their Hamito-Semitic cognates. It will be
shown clearly that the initial vowel is a reflex of a laryngeal, semivowel
(/w, y/), or grammatical element expressed by a syllable beginning with a
laryngeal or semivowel like /a-/, /ha-/, /ya-/ and /wa-/. All these elements
have identical reflexes and, in this case, the initial Austronesian vowel,
like that of Indo-European, is similar to any initial vowel found in any
Hamito-Semitic that lost laryngeals as, for example, Akkadian: See
DHSR: 4.1.12, n. b and c.
To sum up, Part I focuses on the following related topics:
1) Chapter One presents a brief sketch of Hamito-Semitic and
Austronesian language families and of their ancestral sound systems. It
also introduces and illustrates some terms like layers of surface, layers
of deep structure, comments on some linguistic phenomena like explicit
and implicit cognates and reduplication, and establishes many Hamito-
Semitic and Austronesian shared grammatical affixes.

2) Chapter Two generally focuses on the 2
nd
layer of surface structure
and demonstrates the deep affinity between Austronesian and Hamito-
Semitic language families at this layer. The chapter also reintroduces and
discusses with some detail explicit and implicit cognates, esp. in
Austronesian families, as well as distant cognates. It also questions
whether voice is originally phonemic in language.
3) Chapter three focuses on the 1
st
layer of surface structure and the
purpose is to demonstrate clearly that both Austronesian and Hamito-
Semitic also show marked sound correspondences among their common
roots.
4) Chapter Four includes a comparative study focusing on Austronesian
roots beginning with a vowel or laryngeal and their Hamito-Semitic
cognates.
The second part will be a continuation of the comparative study
between Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian language families. It will set
forth the regular and systematic sound correspondences between the two


Page No. 5

families and ascertain the meanings or functions of all other grammatical
affixes left undetermined in Part I.

It may be interesting to conclude this introduction by stating my old
view of Austronesian in relation to Hamito-Semitic.
In the long course of dark decades of working on DHSR, I used to shift
my attention to other language families whenever I got bored with the
analysis of Hamito-Semitic roots and with Hamito-Semitic and Indo-
European linguistics. One of such families was Austronesian. At that time,
the striking similarities between Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian
families led me to believe that the latter is a mere language division of the
former, and that Austronesian was split from Proto-Hamito-Semitic earlier
than other Hamito-Semitic language divisions. Aside from the fact that
this view has been abandoned, the moment you read my analysis of
Austronesian traditional roots and their Hamito-Semitic cognates, together
with the shared grammatical elements the roots incorporate, you will fully
realize that my old view, though was wrong, had its reasonable
justifications on all levels of language structure. It is for this reason that
the present Part of the research has been designed to establish genetic
relatedness between the two families in question in the shortest possible
time and on the most solid and scientific ground before reaching Chapter
Four, where I begin the comparative study of Austronesian roots with an
initial vowel and their Hamito-Semitic cognates.
The idea gathered from the foregoing paragraph must not leave the
wrong impression that Austronesian language family is easy to study and
compare with other language families. The family is indeed much more
complex than Hamito-Semitic and Indo-European, and it is quite
impossible to compare with any language family without a prior
knowledge of the underlying blue prints of language, i.e. its proots, the
things or ideas they denote, and the phonological units or combinations by
which the things or idea are expressed as well as the supposed
grammatical elements used in most languages to modify the basic meaning
of the proot.
In accordance with the fact just stated above, a comparative study
between any two language families is not a matter of giving a list of
similarly sounding words of the same sort of meaning since such words-
disregarding their number- can be found between any two language
families and they may often be loanwords or wrong cognates whose
similarities are due to sound change and/or semantic change. A
comparative study is rather the ability to implement the aforementioned


Page No. 6

knowledge in the discovery of the earliest forms or proots from which
the words are derived. This knowledge alone enables the analyst to select
the correct cognates, to decompose the word into its ultimate components,
to discover the oldest grammatical elements which have become
inseparable parts of the word, and to explain all phonological and
morphological changes which have taken place in that word in the course
of millennia.

































Page No. 7


CHAPTER ONE








HAMITO-SEMITIC
AND
AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGE FAMILIES




1.1 Hamito-Semitic language family
The Hamito-Semitic family of languages, also called Afrasian or Afro-
Asiatic because of the geographic distribution of its language divisions in
western Asian and Africa, is linguistically the most important of all
language families since it has the longest recorded linguistic documents of
any language family, extending from the 4
th
millennium B.C. to the
present. The whole family is traditionally divided into two major groups of
languages: Semitic and Hamitic.
Opinions as to the cradle-land of Proto-Hamito-Semitic differ widely.
The home has been localized in North Africa, in the Sahara Desert, in
Central Arabia, in Babylonia, etc. The consensus of opinion, however,
favors Arabia as the homeland of the Semitic peoples and North Africa of
the Hamitic peoples, while the homeland of Proto-Hamito-Semitic is still a
controversy. On the other hand, while the Hamito-Semitic family as a
whole is widely accepted and well-established, the internal classification
of branches and sub-branches within it is still controversial.



Page No. 8

1.1.1 Semitic languages. The Semitic languages are a group of
closely related languages, traditionally divided into three subgroups:
North-East (Akkadian), North-West (Canaanite and Aramaic), and South-
West (North Arabic, South Arabic, and Ethiopic).

1.1.1.1 Akkadian has a rich literature of inscriptions and clay tablets
running from 2800 B.C. to the closing centuries B.C., which make
Akkadian the third attested language in the word after Sumerian and
Egyptian. The history of the language has been divided into Old Akkadian
(or Old Assyrian) from 2800 to 650, and New Akkadian (or Babylonian)
after 650 B.C. In its oldest form, Akkadian shows considerable linguistic
decay, e.g. pharyngeals // and //, glottal fricative /h/, voiced velar
fricative //, and glottal stop // fell together as //, the confusion of uvular
stop // and velar fricative /g/, the reduction of Proto-Hamito-Semitic
distinctive phonemes as //, //, and // into //, etc. Similar phenomena of
linguistic decay are found in all other Hamito-Semitic languages with
different proportions, except CA, Ug., and OSA.

1.1.1.2 Canaanite. This group includes Old Canaanite, Ugaritic,
Phoenician, Hebrew, and Moabite. Old Canaanite is known to us from
Amarna letters found in tell-el-amarna and date from as early as the 15
th

century B.C., Ugaritic from tablets discovered in Rs Shamra and date
from at least the 14
th
century B.C., and Phoenician from numerous
inscriptions, the earliest of which are inscriptions of the kings of Byblos
and date from the 13
th
century to the 10
th
century B.C. Phoenician died out
in the 2
nd
century A.D. Its descendant Punic continued to be spoken in
North Africa (Carthage) until the 6
th
century A.D.
Old Hebrew, or Biblical Hebrew, is the language in which most of the
Old Testament was written and may be dated between 1200 and 200 B.C.
In addition, there are some short inscriptions of the 9
th
and 8
th
centuries
B.C.

1.1.1.3 Aramaic. This group falls into West and East Aramaic. The former
group includes Old Aramaic, which is known from inscriptions dating
between the 10
th
and 8
th
centuries B.C., Biblical Aramaic, the language of
the non-Hebrew part of the Old Testament, dates from the 5
th
century to
the 2
nd
B.C., Palmyrene is known from inscriptions running from the 1
st

century B.C. to the 3
rd
century A.D., Nabatian, from the 1
st
century B.C.
to the 4
th
century A.D., Palestinian Aramaic, spoken at the time of Jesus


Page No. 9

Christ and it was his native tongue. Other Western Aramaic languages are
Official or Imperial Aramaic , Judaic Aramaic, Samaritan, and Christian
Palestinian Aramaic
Among East Aramaic languages are Syriac and Mandaean or mandaic.

1.1.1.4 Classical Arabic or North Arabic is first known from Thamdian,
Liynian, and afawiyan (or afyitic) inscriptions whose dates range
from the 5
th
century B.C. to the 4
th
century A.D., and from pre-Islamic
poetry and later the Korn (7
th
century). It is the language of the Kurn
and the vehicle of one of the greatest literatures of the world. Classical
Arabic is still employed as a literary medium by Arab writers.

1.1.1.5 Old or Epigraphic South Arabic (ESA) includes Minaean,
Sabaean, Qatabanian, Haramautian, and Himyaritic. They are known
from great numbers of inscriptions ranging from the 8
th
century B.C. to the
6
th
century A.D. Modern South Arabic dialects include Mehri, Soqotri,
Shuri, Jibbali, and Harsusi.

1.1.1.6 Ethiopic or Geez, is first known from Aksmite inscriptions of the
4
th
century A.D., and has a fairly abundant literature from the 5
th
century
to the 10
th
. It ceased to be a spoken tongue in the 14
th
century, but is still
used as the liturgical language of the Ethiopic Church. Its direct
descendants are Tigrina, spoken in Northern Ethiopia, and Tigre. Among
other Ethiopic languages are Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia,
Harari, Gafat, Argobba and Gurage. The last named includes the
following dialects: (West) Chaha, Ea, Ennemor, Gyete, Endegn, Muher,
Masqan, Gogot, (East) Selti, Ulbarag, Wolane, and (North) Aymellel.

1.1.2 Hamitic languages, spoken in Africa (North Africa, in the
Sahara, in the horn of East Africa, in parts of Central and West Africa),
are traditionally grouped into four subgroups: Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic,
and Chadic.

1.1.2.1 Egyptian. Egyptian records extend from 3400 B.C. to the 3
rd

century A.D. The history of the language is divided into Old (3400-2240
B.C.), Middle (2240-1573 B.C.), and New (1573 B.C. to the 3
rd
century
A.D.), after the 3
rd
century, the language is called Coptic, which became
extinct in the 16
th
century, but continued to be used as a religious
language.


Page No. 10

Egyptian is one of the most important languages of the world for
comparative studies. It is almost impossible to carry out such studies
successfully without knowledge of Egyptian.

1.1.2.2 Berber or Libyan-Berber. This Hamitic group is spoken in
isolated pockets scattered throughout North Africa and the Sahara desert.
Its oldest records are inscriptions dating perhaps from the 4
th
century B.C.
and scattered from Sinai to the Canary Islands. Among the Berber
languages are Kabyl, Zenaga, Nefusa, Awgila, Ghadames, Twareg, Shila,
Tawlemet, Guanche, and Ahaggar.

1.1.2.3 Cushitic, spoken in southern Ethiopia, in the eastern corner of
Africa and in part of the red sea coast. Among the Cushitic languages are
Somali, spoken in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Djibouti, Oromo,spoken in parts
of Ethiopia and Kenya, Galla, Bedawe, Sidamo (dial. Kambatta, Hadiya,
Darasa, etc.), Agaw, Beja, Bilin, Guara, Afar, Kaffa, Hadiya, Walomo,
Ometo, Gidole, Janjero, Omotic, Iraqw, Alagwa, Xamir, Xamta, etc.

1.1.2.4 Chadic. This group is spoken in the central part of Chad, Northern
Nigeria, Southern Niger, and Northern Cameroons, and includes some 195
languages. The most important Chadic language is Housa, spoken in
Nigeria, Niger, and in parts of Cameroon, Togo, and Benin. Some other
Chadic languages are Angas, Bolewa, Tangale, Ngamo, Sura, Fyer, Dera,
Pero, Mubi, Margi, Bokkos, Tera, Karekare, Kulere, Boghom, Sha,
Bachama, Dangla, Migama, Mofu, Mbara, Logone, and Ankwe.


1.1.3 Proto-Hamito-Semitic sound system
Proto-Hamito-Semitic sound system is essentially the same as that
assumed for Proto-Semitic. It includes the following phonemes:

Lab. Interd. Dental Pal. Velar Uv. Phar. Gl.
1

Stops: vl. p (f ) t k
v. b d g

Fricatives: vl. s h

1
Lab. = bilabial & labiodental, interd. = interdental, pal. = palatal, uv. = uvular, phar. =
pharyngeal, gl. = glottal.



Page No. 11

v. z

Nasals: m n

Laterals: l

Trill/Flap: r

Semivowels: y w

Vowels: short i a u
long

Diphthongs: au (or aw) ai (or ay)

1.1.3.1 Sound correspondences between Semitic and Egyptian
The following comments are generally limited to the sound
correspondences between Egyptian and Semitic
2
, bearing in mind the
following facts:
a) the interchange of consonants with the same or similar point of
articulation is quite common in both Semitic and Egyptian. This
phenomenon and its causes have already been explained in DHSR,
Chapter II. Accordingly, the emphasis will be on the most frequent sound
correspondences between the two language divisions.

b) the Semitic and Egyptian cognate words below, exactly like all of
their other cognate words- traditionally called roots- are in their entirety
compound and complex words, each consisting of a number of proots
agglutinated together.


1.1.3.1.1 Stops
a) Sem. has two bilabial stops /p, b/, whereas Egyp. has distinct
hieroglyphs for two bilabials /p, b/ and a labiodental /f/; both /p/ and /f/
often interchange and correspond to Sem. /p/.

PHS *p is /p/ in Akk, Ug., Phoen., Aram.; /f/ in CA, ESA, Eth.; /p, f/ in

2
For additional information on sound correspondences between Hamito-Semitic
languages, see Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, 1995, Christopher Ehret, 1995, Marcel
Cohen 1969, and David Cohen 1970, 1993, 1995.



Page No. 12

Egyp., e.g.
Ug. pt, CA fataa to open = Egyp. pt id.
Akk., Aram. pr to separate, CA fr to spread, stretch out =
Egyp. pr to stretch out.
CA fafa-ni arch. butcher = Egyp. f-t knife.
CA fataa to rip, tear, rend = Egyp. ft to hack in pieces (~
fd to rip, cut off, hack ~ fdk to cut)

PHS *b remained unchanged in Egyp. and Sem., e.g.
Ug. bt, CA, Heb. byt house = Egyp. bt id.
BHeb. b to pour out = Egyp. bb id.

b) Sem. has three dental stops /t, , d/, whereas Egyp. has distinct
hieroglyphs for two /d, t/, which often interchange. Sem. // may
correspond to Egyp. /d/ ~ /t/, e.g.
OAram. tr door, CA tura-tu door-still, doorstep = Egyp. try
door.
Ug., Aram, Heb. yd to know = Egyp. dy one who knows.
CA CII aama to destroy = Egyp. dm id.
Akk. abu slaughter = Egyp. dbw id.
CA amsu blindness; misu dark = Egyp. tms to cover over.

PHS *k and * remained stable, while */g/ remained unchanged in all
except CA, where it became a palatal stop //, e.g.
Heb. kpr village, CA kafaru = Egyp. kpr id.
Heb. brk, CA braka to bless = Egyp. brk id.

CA urra-tu fem. frog = Egyp. rr id.
CA amu wheat, grain, Heb. ema flour, Eth. m id. =
Egyp. mw bread made of fine weaten flour.

CA uru rat = Egyp. grt a kind of rat
CA abbu earth, soil, face of the earth = Egyp. gbb earth,
ground.

PHS * is // in Sem., / y, / in Egyp., e.g.
Sem. ab father = Egyp. b id.
CA ann an interrogative how, wherever, etc. = Egyp.yn-n an
interrogative.
Akk. unu lapis lazuli, CA una-tu fem. house built with stone


Page No. 13

= Egyp. ykn a kind of stone.
CA a to will, want, in derivatives ordain, decree, etc. =
Egyp. to decree, ordain, determine, predestinate; -t something
decreed or ordained by God = CA ma-a-tu (+ God) id.

1.1.3.1.2 Fricatives
a) Sem. has three interdentals /, , /, while Egyp. has only //, which
interchanges with /t/.

PHS * is // in CA, ESA, and Ug.; // in Akk., Heb., and Phoen.; /s/ in
Eth.; /t/ in Aram. In Egyp. // interchanges with /t/ and with // in some
words and with /s/. On the other hand, Egyp. // may also correspond to
Sem. /t/ or to a dental fricative. In such cases we should reconstruct //,
e.g.
Egyp. w olive; yty olive also a kind of plant = Ug. zt
(< zyt), Phoen. zyt, etc. gen. Sem. olive.
Egyp. thou ~ t id. = Sem. an-ta, -ta, ta- thou.
Egyp. r-t willow tree = CA sarwa-tu id.
Egyp. rty bread made of fine flour = Heb., BAram. slt fine
meal, flour, CA sultu a kind of wheat, white barley.
Egyp. kt covering = CA kuswatu, BHeb.kst, Ug. kst,
Phoen. ksy id.
In some cases, Sem. // is /s/ in Egyp. as in CA alu snow, Heb. lg
id. = Egyp. srw id.

PHS * is // in CA and ESA; /, d/ in Ug.; /z/ in Akk., Phoen., Heb.,
and Eth., /d/ in Aram., and /d/ in Egyp., e.g.
Akk. zbu wolf, CA ibu, Heb. zb, Aram. db, Eth. zeb =
Egyp. dyb ~ syb id.
CA affa to hasten = Egyp. dfn id.

PHS * is // in CA, Ug.
3
, and ESA; // in Akk., Phoen., Heb. and Eth.;
// in Aram.; // in Egyp. which interchanges with /d, t/, e.g.
CA ubba-tu blade of sword, pointed edge of a spear, of a
dagger = Egyp. b spear, javelin, harpoon.
CA amia be thirsty, Heb. m, Eth. m = Egyp. m dry

3
The Ug. corresponding consonant to //, the emphatic counterpart of //, is represented
by Semitists with /t / and classified as a voiceless aspirate / / (cf. OLeary, 1969: 56-58).
We have no way of knowing why it is a voiceless aspirate, since Semitists do not
explain.


Page No. 14

land, partched ground.
Akk. uu arrow, Ug. id. = Egyp. -t spear.
CA amu brother-in-law = Egyp. m young man.
CA naara to see = Egyp. ndr eye.

b) Sem. has three dentals /s, z, /, while Egyp. has distinct hieroglyphs
for two interchangeable consonants, which could probably be /s, z/. By
Middle Egyp., however, they had become fused.

PHS *s is /s/ in Sem.; /, s/ in Egyp., e.g.
Akk. sau meadow = Egyp. s-t field, meadow.

PHS *z is /z/ in Sem.; /s/ in Egyp., e.g.
CA zau haste, rapidity; zaa to hurry, hasten = Egyp. ss
to flee; sw-t a hastening.
Sem. /z/, like // below, is in many words from an earlier //, e.g.
CA azara to help, assist, BHeb. zar to hel, aid; zer help =
Egyp. r help, assistance.

PHS * is // in Sem.; // in Egyp, e.g.
CA abaa, Heb. b to dye = Egyp. bg to dip, immerse.
The difference in meaning between CA abaa and dabaa lies in the
object to be dyed.
CA aaa, Heb. a to cry out = Egyp. id.
CA arra to tie up, wrap, Heb., Aram. rr to bind, wrap up =
Egyp. r to tie up, bandage, envelop.
CA araa to kill, to smite to the earth, strike, Heb. ra to smite
heavily, strike = Egyp. r to smite to the earth, strike.
Ug. ub, CA, Heb. b finger = Egyp. b id.
It is important to keep in mind that Proto-Sem. // has a number of
different origins, one of which is PHS //, another is //, a third is //
(DHSR, chapter II).

PHS * is /s/ in CA; /s/ in ESA; // in all other Sem. languages; /, s/ in
Egyp., e.g.
CA, Eth. sb Heb. b compter = Egyp. sb id.
CA sawu, Heb. w whip = Egyp. d id.
CA su, Heb. w leg = Egyp. sb id.
CA aiyiu filled with yearning desire, desirable = Egyp.
to delight in.


Page No. 15


Comments I
A consonant // is found in South Arabic represented with /s/, in Heb.
with , i.e., the symbol for // and a diacritic mark, and in Aram.
dialects with /s/. The attribution of this consonant to PSem. is debatable
(cf. Moscati, 1969: 8.29). It interchanges with // and /s/ in BHeb.
4
and
corresponds to // in OAram. and all other Semitic languages, i.e.
Heb. r, Sab. sr ten = Akk. eri ten, CA, Eth. aru,
OAram. r id.
Sab. sms sun, but Heb. m, Ug. p, OAram, Phoen. m,
Akk. amsu, CA amsu id.
Akk. aptu lip, CA apa-tu, Egyp. sp-t id.
CA iml the left (hand), Heb. ml, Egyp. smr the left hand.

Comments II
There is still another consonant // found only in Egyp. and represented
with a distinct hieroglyph. This Egyp. consonant interchanges with // and
// in many words and corresponds in many words to Sem. // and //, e.g.
Egyp. mm to smell = CA amma id. Egyp. also has md to smell,
this is from earlier mm-t a smell (= CA amma-tu id.)
5
.
Egyp. n to be sick, to trouble, be disturbed internally; nn nausea
= n to disturb, stir up trouble = Egyp. n nausea, trouble; sickness,
illness = CA annu be physically weak, emaciated, hungry; ana-tu
feeling nausea, feeling sick.
Egyp. n hide, skin, water-skin, leather bottle = CA annu any worn-
out receptacle or vessel made from hide, water-skin.
Egyp. rt the mole-god = CA uld mole.
Egyp. d, rd boy, child = CA audu pretty young girl, ardu
virgin girl.
We may include here examples involving metathesis as
a) Egyp. fd to steal, plunder = Akk. abtu to plunder, Heb. p id.
CA aafa to kidnap. Lebanese dialect afa (unrecorded in CA) = Egyp.
fd, i.e. to steal, plunder.
b) Egyp. n to live = CA naaa enliven. Both include an affix /n/:
cf. CA a to live, which can occur in CA as a prefix or suffix This is
the very same /n/ seen in Modern Standard Arabic as a suffix, e.g. arra

4
See, for example, DHSR, ft 73.

5
CA amma become stinky, give a bad smell.


Page No. 16

enact a law > arana legalize.

PHS * is // in Akk, Ug., CA and ESA; // in Phoen., Heb. and Aram.;
// in Egyp., e.g.
CA arra to kneel down, fall to the ground = Egyp. r to fall
to the ground.
Akk. au trunk, branch = Egy. t wood, tree, branch.

PHS * is // in Ug., CA, and ESA; // in Akk.; // in Phoen., Heb. and
Aram.; // in Egyp., e.g.
CA ann, Heb. n = Egyp. nn to sing.
CA urru jaw-bone, mandible = Egyp. r-t jaw-bone, the
lower jaw.

PHS * is // in Ug., CA, ESA, Phoen., Heb., Aram. and Eth.; // in
Akk.; // in Egyp.
CA ubbu love = Egyp. b rejoicing.
CA sw = Egyp w to journey, travel.

PHS * is // in Ug., CA, ESA, Phoen., Heb., Aram. and Eth.; // in
Akk.; /, / in Egyp., e.g.
Ug. r upper arm, CA iru arm, = Egyp. r-t hand.
CA arasu astonishment; arisa be amazed, astonished =
Egyp. r be amazed, stupefied.

PHS *h is /h/ in Ug., CA, ESA, Phoen., Heb., Aram., and Eth.; // in
Akk.; /h/ in Egyp.
BHeb. hw to fall, ruin, CA haw to fall, fall down = Egyp.
hw to fall, to descend.
BHeb. hmh to hum, growl, CA hamhama to hum, roar = Egyp.
hmhm to roar, bellow.

1.1.3.1.3 Nasals
a) PHS *m and *n remained unchanged in Sem. and Egyp., e.g.
CA mann to remain also be strong, firm = Egyp. mn
remain; mnw firm.
CA maraa to see = Egyp. mr id.
CA nma, BHeb., Eth. nwm to sleep = Egyp. nm id.

1.1.3.1.4 Laterals


Page No. 17

PHS *l is /l/ in Sem., but in Egyp. l, r, n, e.g.
CA lisnu tongue = Egyp. ns, ls id.
CA alla-tu low-lying land = Egyp. rw, lw id.
Akk. ailu buck, Phoen., Ug.yl buck, deer, CA yl stag, deer
= Egyp. r stag.

PHS * is // in CA, ESA, and Eth.; // in Akk., Ug., Phoen., Heb.; //
in Aram; in Egyp. //, which often interchanges with /d/, e.g.
CA aaa to flame up a fire = Egyp. become bright,
illumine.
CA uwu = Egyp. d member.
CA awu light (sunlight, daylight); mu-u luminous, giving
light = Egyp. dw the morning, dwt the dawn, the early morning.
Hamito-Semiticists consider Egyp. // as being equivalent to Sem. /g/ in
few words. The most commonly cited cognate is Egyp. n wing = CA
an id. The two words are based on n- side (DHSR 3.2.51) and are
therefore distant or implicit cognates.

1.1.3.1.5 R-sound
PHS *r is /r/ in Sem.; /r/ in Egyp., e.g.
Akk. raksu to bind, Ug. rks to bind = Egyp. rksw a yoke (of
horses).
OAram. r master, CA urru nobleman = Egyp. r master.
CA ariya to work, do, make = Egyp. ry to make, do, form,
create, fashion.

1.1.3.1.6 Semivowels
The two semivowels are preserved intact in CA; any change or
interchange of /w, y/ in derivatives is subject to rules that admit no
exceptions. In Ug., Phoen., Aram., and Heb., initial /w-/ usually became
/y-/; in Sabaean and Minaean /w-/ sometimes became /y-/. Sem. /w/ =
Egyp. /w, y/ and Sem. /y/ = Egyp. /, y/. e.g.
CA wa, ta-wa = Egyp. w to seek.
Akk. (w)bu to sit, Phoen., OAram., Heb. yb, Ug. yb, ESA
wb id., CA waaba expresses both to sit and to rise = Egyp. ysb-t
seat.
Akk. u, CA aw roast = Egyp. w dry.

1.1.3.1.7 Vowels
The vowel system has been preserved intact only in CA. Moscati (1969:


Page No. 18

8.68) finds that
The Proto-Semitic vowel system has an exact
reflection of Arabic whose full network of graphic
symbols mirrors the phonemic position. The history of
Arabic and its dialects shows clearly in what manner
vowels of other timbres have evolved in the Semitic
languages and have, in the course of time, acquired
phonemic status.
Gardiner (EG, 3) sees that
The entire vocal system of Old Egyptian may indeed
proved to have reached a stage resembling that of
Hebrew or modern Arabic as compared with classical
Arabic.
Akkadian and Old Canaanite have a vowel system similar to that of CA,
but with the addition of /e/ (short and long), which developed from short
and long /a, i/. However, in Old Bab. /i/ occurs so frequently for /e/ (cf.
Moscati, op.cit: 8.70). This may suggest that /e/ is an innovation. A
parallel development is noted in Arabic dialects, e.g. CA bant girls >
bant, CA bb door > bb, bait home > bt, alm knowledgeable >
alm, an > an (or an in some dialects)
6
, bin son as in bin al
Alis son > ben al, etc.
Moscati (op.cit: 8.75) finds that Ug. // has three symbols according to
the vowel which follows, i.e. i/, a/, u/. He tends to infer that the
Ugaritic vowel-system corresponds substantially to that of Proto-Semitic.
All other Semitic languages have developed a number of additional
vowels, esp. /e, o, /.

1.1.3.1.8 Diphthongs
Classical Arabic preserves the diphthongs in their entirety (Moscati,
1969: 8.102). In other Semitic languages the two diphthongs /aw/ and
/ay/ underwent various modifications. In Akk. they became // and //
respectively, while in phoen. and Heb. they became // and //
respectively. In some cases, the diphthongs remained unchanged in Heb.
Aram., Eth., etc. (cf. OLeary, 1969: 49-50; Moscati, op.cit: 8.97-
8.104). Some illustrative examples are:

6
Such changes are not confined to modern dialects, but also found in Old dialects, and
were first described in the 8
th
century and explained in terms of the phonological
environments that may or may not permit the changes. Similarly, dialectal /o/ is from /u/
as in murr bitter > morr, while // is from // and /au/ as in md pillar > md and
lau board > l.


Page No. 19

a) CA baitu house, Akk. btu, Assyr. btu, Heb. bayit, bt, Aram.
bait, Eth. bt id.
b) CA masc. lailu, fem. laila-tu night, Akk. llt, Heb. lailh, Aram.
lely, Eth. llt id.
c) CA auru bull, Akk. ru, Ug. r, Heb. r, Aram. (Palm.) tr,
Eth. sr id.
d) CA mautu death, Akk. mtu, Heb. mwet, Aram. maut, Eth. mt
id.


1.1.4 Basic and Derived stems
An understanding of Hamito-Semitic roots and the ways stems are
derived from such roots is prerequisite for any comparative study
involving Hamito-Semitic family of languages since the whole
grammatical system of the family is based upon them. Moreover, the
grammatical elements used to form the stems have become inseparable
parts of the root in some or in all of their occurrences in all Hamito-
Semitic languages. They have also become part of the root in nearly all
language families, including Indo-European (see DHSR, Chapter IV) and
Austronesian as we will see below. For this reason, it is a necessity to
keep in mind the first ten stems outlined and illustrated below, along
with the affixes used to form them.
The following outline of Classical Arabic derived stems is intended to
give a general idea about derived stems, bearing in mind that there are
some surface variations in the formation of derived stems in the family.
For this reason, all essential variations will be shed light upon.
The combination of root and vowels gives rise to the so-called the
basic (or ground) stem. The addition of one or more consonants to the
basic stem serves to form complex stems, which express various
modifications of the root meaning. It is theoretically possible to derive
from the Classical Arabic root [fl] do, make as many as fifteen different
stems, covering verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs among some other
parts of speech. By symbolizing the 1
st
, 2
nd
, and 3
rd
radical consonants of
the root by the letters /F/, //, and /L/ respectively, the entire verbal system
looks as follows
7
:

I. FaaLa VI. taFaLa XI. iFLLa

7
There are still some rare stems in CA very important for comparative study: see DHSR:
2.1.7.3, n. a.


Page No. 20

II. FaaLa VII. inFaaLa XII. iFawaLa
III. FaLa VIII. iFtaaLa XIII. iFawwaLa
IV. aFaLa IX. iFaLLa XIV. iFanLaLa
V. taFaaLa X. istaFaLa XV. iFanL
I. CI stem is the ground or basic stem; it may be FaaLa as in CA
kataba, Heb. katab to write, FauLa (CA marua, Akk. maru be
sick), or FaiLa (CA yabisa, BHeb. yb be dry). The passive is
formed by ablaut and has a stem FuiLa as in CA kutiba be written;
ukila, Heb. ukkal be eaten.

II. CII stem is intensive and formed from the basic or ground-stem by
doubling the second radical consonant (FaaL- > FaaL-) as in CA
kassara against kasara to break, Akk. ukabbis against ikbus to tread.
This pattern may also have a causative aspect as in Akk. unammir against
imnir (*inmir) to shine and CA aaka against aika to laugh.

III. CIII stem is formed by changing the vowel /a/ of the 1
st
syllable
into // (FaaL- > FaL-) as in CA ktaba to correspond against kataba
to write, braka, Eth. braka to bless, etc.

IV. CIV stem is causative, formed by prefixing - (esp. in CA and Eth.)
as in CA anzala make one descend against nazala to descend. The
corresponding causative prefixes in other Hamito-Semitic languages are:
a) /-/, esp. in Akk., Ug., and Egyp. as in Akk. u-abri against ibri to
see, Egyp. s-dmy against dmy to join, be united to. Old Arab scholars
identified this prefix as an extra letter in some roots.
In Chadic and Cushitic, // appears as a suffix as in Somali gaadsi
against gaad to reach, arrive, etc. (see DHSR: 3.2).
b) /h-/, esp. in Heb., Sab., and pre-CA. For example, Sab. h-b against
b to surrender. It exists in CA as variant of /-/: hara or ara to
pour out and was identified by old Arab scholar as an extra letter
equivalent to /a-/ in function . The prefix is originally a variant form of
/a-/.
The two causative prefixes /a-/ and /a-/, like all other prefixes and
infixes, have become inseparable parts of the root in all or in some of their
occurrences in the entire language family as well as in all Indo-European
languages (see DHSR: 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4). The same holds true of
Austronesian family as we will see below.
c) /d-/ expresses a causative meaning. With the notable exception of
Egyptian and in some cases Classical Arabic, the prefix is an inseparable


Page No. 21

part of the root in the entire family, e.g.
Egyp. d yr cause to do (Egy. yr to do, make, CA ariya id.),
d m cause to walk, to walk: CA ma to walk.
In many of its occurrences, this grammatical prefix is also found as part of
the root in Egyptian itself. For a comprehensive study of this prefixed
proot, see DHSR: 2.1.6.5ff.
The prefix is also part of the root in Indo-European and many language
families, including of course Austronesian.

V. CV stem is reflexive and formed from CII verbs by prefixing /t-/
(FaaL- > taFaaL-) as in CA taammaa against ammaa to
assemble, Syr. etaan be fortified (= CA taaana id.), Amh.
tnaffs to breathe (= CA tanaffasa to breathe).

VI. CVI stem is reciprocal, formed from CIII verbs by prefixing /t-/ as
in CA tamala, Eth. tamsala to resemble each other or one another,
Sab. tr to struggle with one another.

VII. CVII is passive, formed from CI by prefixing in- (FaaL- >
inFaaL-) as in Akk. naprusu be separated against parsu to divide,
separate, ippalti (*inpalti) be defeated (plt defeat), lippair be
loosened (*nippair) against paru to loosen, CA insatara be
hidden against satara to hide, conceal, insaala be asked against
saala to ask = BHeb. nistar be concealed and nial be asked
respectively.

VIII. CVIII stem is middle voice, formed by infixing -t- between the
first and second radical consonants of the ground-stem (FaaL- > -FtaaL-
) as in CA imtalaa against malaa to fill, Akk. imtali against mal to
fill, and Ug. yrt he washes himself (= CA yartaiu id.), Sab. rt
engage in pitched battle [r. r].

IX. CIX stem is formed from the ground stem by doubling the third
radical (FauL- > FaLL-), as in CA imarra become red, Akk.
utnennu to pray, Syr. abded be enslaved.

X. CX stem is causative reflexive made from CI by prefixing [(i)st-]: a
combination of Semitic causative */-/ and reflexive /-t-/ as in CA
istamaa to listen, the real meaning is make oneself listen (samia to
hear), Akk. uturu to lead, direct (ru be straight), Sab. stwfy to


Page No. 22

accomplish (wfy fulfill an obligation = CA istawfaya), Min. tw to
guarantee (w to trust = CA istawaa make certain), Eth.
estanfisa to draw a breath (nfs breathe).
The last five stems are of rare occurrences and it may be sufficient to
give examples on two of them to illustrate both the mode of formation and
the meaning.

XI. CXI stem expresses an ephemeral state or condition as opposed
to a permanent state or condition expressed by CIX (see DHSR:
3.19.2).

XII. CXII stem as in CA idawdaba become humpbacked, which is
from adiba id., and expresses the highest point, degree, level, and the like
+ meaning of the verb, e.g. al be sweet; CXII ilawl reach the
highest degree of sweetness, al to rise; CXII ilawl to go up the
highest point (of a mountain), idawdana, said of plants, grass, reach
the highest degree of greenness, etc.
I reiterate what I have just drawn attention to above that substances
may also be formed from every stem, that all stems cited above are
compounds of a number of proots, and that some of the first ten affixes are
found in nearly all language families as either inseparable parts of their
stems or under different grammatical labels.
In addition to CI, CVII and CVIII stems, passive voices also can be
formed from some other stems as in CIV alana to announce > ulina
be announced; CX istamala to use > istumila be used.

















Page No. 23


1.2 Austronesian language family
The Austronesian family of languages, formerly known as Malayo-
Polynesian, is one of the worlds largest language families in terms of
geographic spread, number of speakers, and number of languages-
exceeding 1200 member languages. This family is widely dispersed
throughout the islands of southeast Asia and the Pacific, stretching from
Madagascar in the West, off the eastern coast of Africa, to Easter Island in
the East, off the coast of South America, and from Taiwan in the North
and Hawaii to New Zealand in the South, covering most of the languages
spoken on the islands of the Pacific except the indigenous Papuan and
Australian languages, with a few languages spoken on continental Asia.
Proto-Austronesian, the parent tongue from which all Austronesian
languages descended, is believed by some scholars to have been spoken
6000 years ago. The homeland of this ancestral language like that of any
other Proto-Language is a controversial issue. Some scholars localize it in
the main island of Taiwan (Formosa), while some others in the island of
Indonesia and New Guinea, but for any of these places there has never
been furnished any satisfactory proof.
Moreover, some scholars also believe that the early Austronesian
peoples had come to Taiwan from southern China (the Yellow River
valleys), and that from Taiwan their ancestors migrated in waves and over
a period of some millennia to the entire areas where the Austronesian
languages are spoken. It is also believed that the migration began around
6000 years ago
8
.
The oldest known records of the Austronesian family are inscriptions
written in Old Malay and Old Javanese. Old Malay is known to us from

8
The story of Austronesian migration and how they colonized the Pacific islands is
undoubtedly fabulous and I enjoyed reading some references describing how the
Austronesian sea-farers built canoes; each accommodating enough supplies for a trip to
the unkown, taking with them their families, dogs, livestock, drinking water, tuberous
roots, taro seedlings, stone tools, etc., as I used to enjoy reading One thousand one night
when I was a boy and accepting it as true or real. The story is a needless proof that mans
mind is creative. That mind can transform with words a myth into a reality, fancy into
fact, the impossible into possible, the nonexistent into existent, and so forth.
To present an able theory concerning how Austronesian peoples settled in the Pacific
Islands, one of your eyes should focus on Austronesian peoples and the other on their
neighboring aboriginal Australians, who apparently did not possess the unsurpassed
navigational abilities and the skills to build canoes as their neighbors, the Austronesians.




Page No. 24

six inscriptions found in areas of southern Sumatra, dating from the last
quarter of the 7
th
century A.D. Old Javanese has great numbers of
inscriptions starting from the early 9
th
century A.D. and covering a period
of more than six centuries.


1.2.1 Classification of the Austronesian languages
The classification of the Austronesian languages into branches and sub-
branches is controversial, and several competing linguistic groupings have
been proposed by scholars. It is difficult to present a classification that
enjoys a general agreement to a language family as vast and complex as
the Austronesian, especially when it lacks old written documents.
The present work does not favor one classification over another, nor
does it argue which of them is linguistically more or less accurate, since
the whole issue of classification lies outside the scope of its aim and
interest.
It may be geographically convenient to divide the Austronesian family
of languages into two major branches: the Western and the Eastern.

1.2.1.1 The Western branch is chiefly spoken in the Philippines, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Madagascar, and in parts of Taiwan, Vietnam, and Cambodia.
Some of the Western Austronesian languages are Malay, Javanese,
Sundanese, Acehnese, Aklanon, Bahasa Indonesia or Indonesian, Bali,
Balinese, Barae, Batak, Bikol, Bolaang, Buginese, Buruese, Hanunoo,
Hiligaynon, Ilokano, Itbayaten, Kambera, Kapampangan, Madurese,
Makasarese, Malagasy, Mandar, Manggarai, Maranao, Ngadha,
Pangasinan, Rotinese, Sambal, Sasak, Tagalog or pilipino, tetum,
Visayan, and Uma.
The Formosan languages include some 20 languages and most of them
are now extinct. Among the Formosan languages are Amis, Atayal, Bunun,
Kavalan, Paiwan, Pazeh, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiat, Sediq,Siraya, Thao, and
Yami
9
.


9
Some scholars treat the Formosan grouping as a distinct branch of Austronesian, and
some others consider all languages spoken outside Taiwan as forming one branch called
Malayo-Polynesian or Extra-Formosan, while those spoken in Taiwan as consisting of a
number of distinct branches of the Austronesian family. There are still others who group
Formosan languages into at least nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian.



Page No. 25

1.2.1.2 The Eastern branch, usually referred to as Oceanic
10
, is spoken in
most of New Guinea and in the islands of Melanesia, of Micronesia, and
of Polynesia. Some of the Oceanic languages are Tolai of New Britain,
Motu of southeastern New Guinea, Chamorro of Guam
11
, Carolinian of
Northern Mariana Islands, Marshallese of Marshall Islands, Saa of the
southeastern Solomons, Fijian of Fiji, Gilbertese (Kiribati) of Kiribati,
Tongan of Tongo, Samoan of Samoa, Tahitian of French Polynesia, Maori
of New Zealand, Hawaiian, the indigenous language of the Hawaiian
Islands.


1.2.2 Proto-Austronesian sound system
Most Austronesian languages have between 16 and 20 consonant
phonemes and between 4 and 5 vowels phonemes
12
. In addition,
Austronesian scholars believe that Proto-Austronesian had laryngeal
consonants as distinctive phonemes. However, they disagree on their
number and phonetic character.
Apart from laryngeals, there is also a marked disagreement among
scholars on the number and phonetic nature of Proto-Austronesian
phonemes as the following three different reconstructed sound systems for
Proto-Austronesian show.

1.2.2.1 Robert Blust reconstructs the following phonemes
13
:
Labial Alveolar Palatal Retroflex Velar Glottal

10
Oceanic has been divided by scholars into a number of sub-branches. Some scholars
like Pawley and Ross (2006), for example, recognize nine high-order subgroupings, while
Some others treat Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian as distinct branches.

11
Some scholars classify two languages of Micronesia Chamorro and Palauan as
Western Austronesian languages.

12
Hawaiian has only 8 consonant phonemes, while Maori and Rapanui have 10
each.

13
The following symbols or some of them are often used by scholars for reconstructed
PAN consonant phonemes:
/D/ voiced retroflex stop
/q/ glottal stop or guttural (velar, uvular)
/S/ voiceless alveolar fricative, while /s/ (or //) voiceless palatal affricate
/c/ voiceless palatal affricate
/C/ voiceless alveolar affricate
/N/ palatalized alveolar lateral
/R/ uvular trill or alveolar.


Page No. 26


Stops: vl p t k q or
vd b d D g,
Nasals m n
Fricatives s h
Affricates C c z
Laterals l N
r-sounds r R
Semivowels w y or j

Vowels: high front /i/, high back /u/, mid central // and low central /a/.
Diphthongs: /ay/, /aw/, /uy/, and /iw/.

1.2.2.2 John Wolffs Reconstruction differs from that of Robert Blust in
the consonant system only as the following chart displays:


Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stops: vl p t c k q
vd b d g

Nasals m n
Fricatives s h
Laterals l

Semivowels w j(y)

Vowels: /i/, /u/, /a/, and /e/ (= //).
Diphthongs: /ay/, /aw/, /uy/, and /iw/.
1.2.2.3 Otto C. Dahl considers that Proto-Austronesian had the following
phonemes:

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Laryngeal

Stops vl p t, t, t k, t

, k q
And vd b d, d, d d

, Z, g g
affricates

Nasals m n n
Fricatives S H


Page No. 27

Laterals l,
r-sounds r R

Vowels: /i/, /u/, /a/, and //, the two highest vowels /i/ and /u/ may be
syllabic or non-syllabic.

1.2.3 Layers of surface and deep structures
Before beginning our comparative study of Hamito-Semitic and
Austronesian families of languages, a number of facts must be
underscored and made explicit. As the heading of this section plainly
indicates: a surface structure consists of a number of layers and so is the
deep structure
14
. All linguists, esp. comparative linguists, have thus far
dealt with and offered an accurate description of the first layer of surface
structure.

1.2.3.1 Grammatical affixes that have been incorporated into the proot, i.e.
primeval root, in Hamito-Semitic (see DHSR, Chapters 2 and 3) and Indo-
European (see DHSR, Chapter 4) are present in Austronesian language
family. Our primary task is to determine such grammatical affixes in
Austronesian words.
Once Austronesian proots are established, we will discover that
Austronesian language family, like any other language family, has a very
limited number of proots with huge numbers of derivatives, and that such
proots are found in all language families. Accordingly, nearly all what
Austronesian scholars call roots are indeed nothing but compound words
composed of either proots and grammatical affixes or of at least two
proots blended together.
For what concerns grammar, differences between Hamito-Semitic and
Austronesian language families can be examined on two distinct layers of
structure, the first surface and the first deep. The former shows clearly that
grammatical differences are hardly reconcilable, while the latter shows
very clearly that grammatical differences are normal and similar to those
found between any two genetically related languages. For this reason, I do
not often find myself obliged at all to delve into other layers of deep
structure to prove the obvious, I mean their genetic relationship. This very
strong claim will surely be frown on by worldwide scholars. As a matter
of absolute fact, the claim is indeed nothing save a very simple truth

14
For an illustrative example of such layers, see Comments of 2.3 below.


Page No. 28

expressed in plain words and a shining fact that spreads its dazzling and
eye-piercing rays in all directions so that a blind can see it.
The ideas stated in the two foregoing paragraphs necessitate concrete
evidence in affinity with the claim built on them. Consider the following:

1.2.3.1.1 PAN *isip to count, think, consider
Cebuano isip to count, consider,
Kankany isipto think, deem, be of opinion,
Maranao isip to count, number,
Ilkano isip to consider, think on; intellect, mind,
Bikol isip to think about, mull over,
Tagalog isip thought, mind, judgment, opinion, idea, plan,
Hiligaynon isip number, count,
Aklanon isip to consider, reckon, ponder,
Hanunoo isip thinking, perception, thoughts.

HS cognate on the 1
st
layer of surface structure
The HS surface cognate is the word in Egyp. ysp to reckon up, keep
count of something. A question may be raised here: Is Egyp. ysp a proot,
root, or complex word? Putting the same question in different words: Is
Egyp. surface form ysp identical with its supposed deep form in PHS? The
answer must be here not at all. Apart from Semitic evidence, esp. that of
CA, which we will see shortly, Egyp. evidence speaks for itself and tells
that [ysp] is definitely a complex word of at least three distinct forms.

Decomposition of Egyp. [ysp] into its ultimate parts
Egyp. ysp is a complex word consisting of at least two prefixed proots
and a stem as follows:
1) Proot [a-], a causative prefix and is in CA /a/, in Egyp. /y-, -/, in
Akk., Ug., Heb, etc. /a-/. The suffix is an inseparable part of the word in
all of its occurrences in Egyp., Cush., Chad., Berb., Akk., Ug., etc., but in
some of its occurrences in CA and Eth.
DHSR: 3.3 studies this grammatical prefix in depth. Some illustrative
examples of PHS causative /a-/ are:
1a) Egyp. ygr make silent < gr be silent = CA siru still, quiet,
where causative /s-/ is part of the root. The same causative is detachable in
Egyp. s-gr make silent. For caus. /s-/, see n. 2 below.
1b) Egyp. y to cut < id. CA CIV aaa cause to divide <
aa to divide.


Page No. 29

1c) Akk. abtu to perish, Ugr., OAram., Heb., Phoen. bd id. = CA
bda be perish, perish; CIV abda cause to or make perish.
The root is also seen in Egyp. ybt-t you have destroyed = CA CIV
abad-ta id.
15

1d) OAkk. epu to add = CA CIV afa caus. of fa to add.
1e) Finally, an example identical with [ysp] in which two prefixed
causative proots became part of the word in Egyp. is ysmn make firm,
establish < smn to establish < (earlier) s-mn to establish, fix firmly <
mn be fixed, established, stable, to remain = CA manna be firm,
strong also to remain.
A very interesting example showing the two causatives in an opposite
order is Egyp. s-ybk to make to weep, to grieve, where /y-/ (< a-) is
part of the root. Akk., CA, Heb., etc. gen. HS bky to weep; CA CIV
abk make one weep. For caus. /s-/, see below.

2) Another causative proot /a-/ in CA /sa-/, in Egyp. s-/, in Akk., Ug.,
etc. /a-/. It is an inseparable part of the word in most of its occurrences in
CA, in some of its occurrences in Egyp., Akk., etc., and in all of its
occurrences in Heb., Aram., etc. Like any other affix, it can appear
initially and finally in HS languages.
For a comprehensive study of this prefix in Hamito-Semitic languages,
see DHSR, esp. 3.2. Some examples showing that PHS causative /a-/ is
part of the root are:
2a) OAram. pr beautiful, Amorite pr be shining, BHeb. par be
beautiful, pleasing, CA CIV a-sfara to shine (face, morning); show
ones beauty (woman): PHS stem [par] in Egyp. pr to shine also to
see = CA CII farra to show, i.e. cause others to see, etc. (DHSR:
3.2.17).
2b) Ug., Phoen., BHeb., Aram. kr to hire: PHS stem [kar] to hire
as in CA kar id., etc. (DHSR: 3.2.14).
2c) Akk. akpu to lie down, Phoen., Ug., Aram., BHeb. kb, Eth.
sakaba id.: PHS stem [kab] as in CA kab sleep for a very brief period,
nap; lie-down.
2d) Egyp. sr make strong, be strong and with causative y-: yr id. =
CA irru strong, mighty, etc. (DHSR: 4.7.14).

15
Variant abat-ta, by assimilation of voice, i.e. -d- changes to -t- to match the following
-t- of personal pronoun -ta you (masc. sing) in voice.



Page No. 30

2e) Egyp. sy causative of y to come: see Comments III of 3.35
below.

3) A stem [yp] signifying in Egyp. to count, reckon up, consider,
examine, inspect, assess, enumerate; ypy to think, to consider; yp-t
numbering, census, measure; ypp to count.
Egyp. [yp] is also seen with causative [sa-] as in s-yp to inspect, check
accounts, examine into, revise, test: PHS stem [wap], which has also
been preserved intact in CA CV ta-waff to count, enumerate (LA).

1.2.3.1.2 Among many other derivatives of stem [wap] to count in
Austronesian languages are the following two PAN words, traditionally
treated as independent roots:

PAN *iyap to count
Bontok iyap count; iyap-en be counted,
Maranao iap account for, count,
Bolaang Mongondow iap count, calculate ~ iab id.
Sekar iaf count,
Ifugaw uyap act of counting, computing.
Austronesian *iyap is a compound of prefixed proot [a-] cause to,
make and stem *wap to count.
HS: CA CI waf be numerous, be many (in number)
16
. Its CIV a-wf
also expresses be more in numbers (LA).

1.2.3.1.3 PAN *upa- payment for work, work, salary
Malay upah payment for services rendered, wage,
Ilokano upa work by the day, for daily wages,
Itawis upa wage,
kapampangan upa compensation, fare, rent,
Old Javanese upah to pay; a-upah to give a reward, pay a wage,
Balinese upah-ang be paid for,
Malagasy hofa rent,
Balinese ufa loan, salary
Kayan upah wages.

16
On the other hand, CIV a-wf signifies have a view of something with the purpose of
knowing it, becoming aware of it or acquainted with, i.e. = Egyp. wp to
inquire into a matter.



Page No. 31

HS: Egyp. wp-t income, daily supply; wp work, business affairs,
worker; wpw-t lists of things, accounts, Sab. wfy pay a debt, fulfil an
obligation, h-wfy bestow something on someone, grant; st-wfy derive
profit from, accomplish, Jibbali f to pay a debt, CA waffa to pay
whatever due to someone, including debts, wages, loans, etc..

Comments I
The presence of a number of causative affixes such as [a-], [a-], and
[da-]
17
in many worlds language families like Austronesian, Hamito-
Semitic, and Indo-European is now unquestionable. This phenomenon
strongly suggests that such proot affixes were used from their very first
inception to expresses different meanings or perform different functions,
which may or may not be originally causative. For example, CA uses [a-]
to express make another (others, something) plus the meaning of the
verb as in araa make someone read: araa to read. This fact
plainly suggests that *da-raa and *sa-raa would involve either
different persons/things, different activities or functions. On the other
hand, if we want to express make oneself read, we will have to use CX
stem (i)staraa make oneself read, a cpd of /s-/ cause, /-t-/ self,
and vb araa (see DHSR: 3.22.1, esp. 5b).
An important question may arise here: Do languages use those we call
causatives with the same verb or with the same word form? The answer is
of course positive and examples are found throughout DHSR, also in the
Introduction above where Egyp. uses both /sa-/ and /da-/ with stem [nw]
and in 1.2.3.1.1, n. 1e above, where it employs two causatives /a-/ and
/sa-/.
With the notable exception of causative /a-/ whose signification is
well-established as stated above, the special shade of meaning or function
each causative expresses when combined with nouns to form causative
verbs
18
is at the present time difficult to determine with certainty
19
.
Among other causative affixes found in world languages is caus. [pa-],
which plays an important grammatical function in Austronesian and

17
For Austronesian causative [da-], see 2.1.1 below.

18
At a later stage of language development the noun was converted to a verb. For the
historical evolution of parts of speech, see DHSR, esp. 3.25.6.

19
For example, in addition to the causative idea expressed by [da-] in both Egyp. and
CA, CA also favors sudden, unexpected action, while Egyp. may favor place/put.


Page No. 32

Hamito-Semitic families. Some examples from Austronesian languages
are:

a) PAN *pa-deket cause to stick, adhere
Kadazan pa-deket cause to stick to: see 2.1.2c below.
It is important to keep in mind that PAN *pa-deket above includes two
causatives: *pa- and *de-: see 2.1.1 below, while *pikit in 2.1.2e below,
for example, includes one [pi-].

b) PAN *pa-dalem deepen, make something deep
Bikol pa-rarom deepen,
Mapun pa-lawom make something deep

c) PAN *pa-sakit make sick < *sakit pain: see 3.16 below
Aklanon pa-sakit to cause/inflect suffering on,
Ibaloy pe-sakit to make someone sick,
Kapampangan pa:-sakit to burden,
Cebuano pa-sakit to make sacrifices.
Romblomanon pa-sakit someone is caused to experience pain by a
part of the body which pains,

d) PAN *pa-SateD cause to return < *SateD return
Paiwan pa-satjez cause something to be returned: satjez to return
something.

Comments II: PHS [pa]
Prefixed proot [pa-] is found as a free morpheme in CA [fa], called by
old Arab grammarians fa sababiyyah
20
, i.e. causative fa. For example,
araba-h fa baka-t
beat he her cause cried she
his beating her caused her to cry or the reason for her crying (LA).
1) Prefixed [pa-] is inseparable from the root in Hamito-Semitic,
including CA, and many other language families, including Austronesian
in some of its occurrences. This causative, like others, is also used to form
nouns, esp. abstract nouns, among others.
It is the very same [pa-] of CA faria be happy: ra-tu ease, relax,
peace of mind, rest, orig. happy, glad. This original signification
becomes evident as we prefix neg. [ta-] to stem [ra]: taria be grieved,

20
This is the very same [fa] in BHeb. ap also, BAram. ap id., CA fa next, then (in
order), and also, etc..


Page No. 33

afflicted. We can also prefix [ma-], [a-], etc. to stem [ra] to create new
roots all expressing different shades of ease of life, rest, enjoyment, e.g.
maria rejoice; marau joy, exultation, gaiety,
araa delight, lit. enlargement of life (see DHSR: 3.21.6.2).
2) Prefixed [pa-] is easily separated from the root in Egyp. as in f-t to
feed, clearly a cpd of PHS proot *[fa-] make plus the Egyp. noun -t
food = CA t id. One should note here that while /-t/ is part of the
root in CA, it is a suffix in Egyp.

Comments III
PHS [pa-] is doubtless present in such two samples of examples which,
like other affixes, will surely enhance and broaden our understanding of
how world languages evolve and become differentiated from one another
in the course of time and how traditional roots are created.
i) CA fadmu extremely red, lit. saturated with red color; mu-
faddamu id.: CA, Akk., etc. damu blood.

ii) PHS word [pam-] charcoal as in CA famu, Ug., Heb., Aram.
pm, Eth. fm, etc. id. is a cpd of [pa-] plus [am] to burn. For the
ultimate origin of cpd [am], see DHSR: 3.2.6.

3) To sum up, every single language or Proto-language has at least two
grammars:
3a) one is obvious or surface and has been studied thoroughly and
accurately by linguists,

3b) the other is deep and foreign to all students of language. It can
never be established without discovering the proot since its elements are
fused with the proot to form together the traditional root as, for example,
PAN *isip above. At this level of grammar the differences among families
of languages are very similar to those existing between related languages.
For example, in Austronesian as well as in nearly all Hamitio-Semitic
languages caus. /a-/ is an inseparable part of the root; /a-/, too, is part
of the root in Austronesian and in many Hamito-Semitic languages.

1.2.3.2 Without knowledge of proots, any comparative study between any
two language families will be- as it has always been- unfruitful and a
waste of time and of ink. It is, for this reason only, all attempts to prove


Page No. 34

genetic relationships among known families of languages have been a
failure.
knowledge of proots is also necessary for reconstructing any proto-
language and its grammatical system. Otherwise, we will end up
reconstructing derivatives, complex, and compound words and wrongly
assume that they are roots as in all reconstructions of proto-languages of
various language families.
The examples given thus far in 1.2.3.1.1ff above show clearly that
PAN had, in addition to /pa-/, three causative prefixes /a-/ /a-/ and [da-/
(for Austronesian causative [da-], see 2.1.1 below) . This very simple
discovery alone calls for a drastic revision of all what has been written on
Austronesian roots and grammar, and demonstrates that Austronesian
scholars, exactly like all other scholars working on language families,
have been extremely busy in working on the obvious, e.g. what it can be
seen, touched, felt, etc.
It is indeed a pity that all comparative linguists each in his field take
great pride in their miraculous and phenomenal achievements as well as in
the traditional comparative method they employ to discover what may
rightly be called the obvious.
Correspondences among proots rather than roots are therefore the only
solid, reliable, and trustworthy criterion for establishing both cognates
among related languages and reconstructing their proto-forms. From a
historical point of view, the only valid grammar is the one based on
proots, rather than on compound and complex roots or words.
Accordingly, the comparative method, along with all its theoretical
principles and procedures, as advanced by Indo-Europeanists and followed
closely by scholars across the world, is impotent since its main concern is
to compare the most obvious linguistic features and forms of the first
layer of surface structure between the languages compared in order to
reconstruct the proto-language from which they have descended. By
restricting illustrative examples to PAN only, some of the obvious
shortcomings of this inept method are:
1. It fails to see any linguistic fact lying beneath the first layer of
surface structure.

2. The free roots of the reconstructed proto-language established by the
comparative method are nothing save compound and complex words
including a number of bound and free morphemes combined together, e.g.
PAN *isip above. See n. 4 below.



Page No. 35

3. It establishes derivatives of a root as roots, e.g. PAN *isip, iyap, etc,
above, which are derivatives rather than roots.

4. It is incapable to deal with traditional roots as complexes of
phonological and morphological elements fused together. In consequence,
it has thus failed to make a distinction between their phonological units
and morphological units. It treats them all as basic sound components of
the root, e.g. PAN bound morphemes *i- and *-s- are considered, exactly
like phonemes *-i- and *-p, as sound constituents of the root.

5. The grammar reconstructed for the proto-language on the basis of the
comparative method is solely based on the deceptive first layer of the
surface structure and is therefore invalid since it does take into account
the most ancient grammatical elements of the proto-language, e.g.
causatives *i- and *s- of root *isip.

6. All historical and comparative linguists talk incessantly about sound
change and insist that language changes in the course of time. In practice,
however, the forms they reconstruct for a proto-language through putting
into practice the comparative method rarely differ from those found in its
daughter languages, e.g. PAN *isip is also isip in various Austronesian
languages (see 1.2.3.1.1 above).
If we assume that PAN was spoken more than 6000 years ago, we find
that its word *isip has not undergone any noticeable change in daughter
languages in the course of about 6000 years. Is this believable? To say the
truth, the answer must be positive because this is what the tenets and
precepts of the comparative method dictate.
The sole valid method is the one whose only aim is to discover and
establish proots along with their constituent sound segments.
It may be important to note that it is only Egyptian in which most of the
proot appears in some cases (early stages) as independent word and in
some cases (esp. later stages) as an inseparable part of the word. Classical
Arabic is so close to Egyptian; it is the language in which nearly all
archaic features and forms of Proto-Semitic and Proto-Hamito-Semitic
have been preserved intact. It is for this reason that knowledge of Egyptian
and Classical Arabic are prerequisite for any promising comparative study
among language families
21
.

21
As for Classical Arabic, its proper linguistic materials, esp. dictionaries like ML, ,
LA, etc., are not, to my knowledge, translated or found in a foreign language. Knowledge


Page No. 36


1.2.4 PAN Reconstructed affixes and their Hamito-
Semitic cognates
Robert Blust (2013), a distinguished Austronesian scholar, attempts to
reconstruct the Austronesian most widely used affixes in word-formation
and determine the signification or grammatical function of each affix. It
should be born in mind, However, that PAN affixes, like those of any
proto-language, vary in their productivity in daughter languages from
most productive to unproductive. Some of such affixes are:
1) PAN *ka- allative; to (someone or some place), inchoative, stative,
past time
22
,
2) PAN *ma- stative,
3) PAN *mu- movement,
4) PAN *maR- relationship of parent to child,
5) PAN *pi- causative of location,
6) PAN *pu- causative of motion,
7) PAN *pa- causative of dynamic verbs,
8) PAN *pa-ka- causative of stative verbs,

of Classical Arabic, and not of Modern Standard Arabic, is of crucial importance for any
comparative study involving Hamito-Semitic. All Semitists and Hamitosemitists rely
basically on Modern Standard Arabic. It is for this reason they could not detect that
Classical Arabic traditional roots include many affixes, some of which were already
pointed out by old Arab scholars, and that its words express special or concrete
meanings rather than abstract meanings. Moreover, in their comparative studies of
Semitic or of Hamito-Semitic languages they sometimes missed either the Classical
Arabic form or its real signification. For illustrative examples, see DHSR: 2.1.3, n. 2,
3.2.56.8, n. a, etc.
To show you the importance of what I have just drawn attention to in the foregoing
paragraph concerning knowledge of Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic CV ta-
waff expresses only to die and never to count, enumerate as it does in CA (see
1.2.3.1.1, n. 3 above).

22
For the grammatical functions and significations of HS prefixed proot [ka-] and
suffixed [ka-], see DHSR: 3.17.83 and 2.1.6.8 respectively. I will compare PHS [ka]
and Austronesian [*ka] in Part II of the research.
I still have something new to add about suffixed [ka-] only. The suffix is also used to
form a noun, e.g. CA huwwa-tu (-tu = fem. suffix) abyss, chasm (: haw to fall
down, Egyp. hw id., etc. (DHSR: 2.1.6.11, n. 5.) > haw-ku falling down in or into
huwwa-tu. It is common as a vb in the reflexive stem: ta-hawwa-ka be falling down
(carelessly). The whole root is not in use in MSA.




Page No. 37

9) PAN *pa-ka- simulative, pretend to X (X = verb),
10) PAN *Sa- deverbal instrumental noun,
11) PAN *Si- instrumental voice,
12) PAN *ta- verb prefix,
13) PAN *-a patient voice; imperative,
14) PAN *-i locative voice; imperative,
15) PAN *-an instrumental voice,
16) PAN *-an locative voice,
17) PAN *-en patient voice,
18) PAN *-ay future,
19) PAN *-ar plural,
20) PAN *-um- actor voice,
21) PAN *-in- perfective, nominalizer, etc.

Comments
I have thus far established some common Austronesian-Hamito-Semitic
affixes and determined their significations or grammatical functions. I will
continue to do so in the course of the research and, as we will see, several
additional Austronesian affixes undetected by Austronesian scholars will
be uncovered and illustrated fully. My following comments on Blusts list
will be confined to very few selected affixes.

1.2.4.1 Among some affixes that have attracted my attention is PAN *mu-
movement (n. 3 above), which is an autonomous proot in Hamito-
Semitic: see Comments III of 3.35 below.

1.2.4.2 PAN *ma- stative (n. 2 above)
It is is most productive in the languages of Taiwan and the Philippines,
e.g.
Thao ma-bric heavy, ma-puzi white,
Tagalog bigat weight : ma-bigat heavy,
init heat : ma-init hot (Blust 6.3.1.3).
Fossilized reflexes of *ma- in eastern Indonesia are often preserved as
/m-/ as in Ende mite, Lamaholot mita (< PMP *ma-qitem) black, while
in some languages of western Indonesian *ma- has been truncated to a- as
in Old Javanese putih: a-putih white. Reflexes of nonstative *ma- occur
in some high-frequency verbs as in PMP *ma-tiduR/ma-tuduR to sleep,
and PMP *ma-huab (POC *mawap) to yawn (Blust ibid.).
a) HS [ma-] as in CA ma-m adj. oppressed, n. aim oppression,


Page No. 38

as a vb ma (LA).
b) Past participles function as adjectives as in CA ma-ft open, n.
fat, as a vb fataa; ma-n adj. hanged, connected, n. nauu hanging,
connection as a vb na, ma-fd lost as a vb faada to miss, fail to
find.
The method of employing /ma-/ to form participles in HS languages is
not rare in Austronesian as, for example, Amis kilim to search for > ma-
kilim found: see Comments of 4.2.26 below.
c) HS *ma- has become an inseparable part of the root in numerous
traditional roots. For example, BHeb. maar nakedness; naked place =
CA mairu naked , n. maru (rare) > maira to fall, as hair, feathers;
CIV amara, said of the earth, become naked, i.e. with no trees, grass,
and plants: PHS stem [ar] as in CA uryu nakedness, nudity, OAram.
rr be denudated, BHeb. arr be naked, etc. DHSR: 3.10.35.
Another example is Egyp. /m-/ in m deep = Sab. my id., etc. are
from proot [a] (DHSR: 3.10.24, n. 1b). For many similar examples see
DHSR: 3.10.
d) Austronesian stative *ma- is often found to correspond to Hamito-
Semitic [mu-], e.g. PMP *ma-qitem above < PAN *item darkness (see
2.1.6f below) = CA mu-timu dark, n. atmu, fem. atma-tu darkness,
lit. the first 3
rd
of night following the sunset (in many modern dialects mi-
tim dark, due to vowel harmony).

1.2.4.3 PAN *pa- ~ *paka- causative (n. 7 & 8 above)
This causative has already been established (see Comments 1 and
Comments on [pa-] of 1.2.3.1.3 above). Illustrative examples from Kayan
below show that the distribution of *pa- and *paka- resembles the
distribution of English a/an respectively.
Kayan su far: p-su to separate things,
Kayan asp dirt: pk-asp to soil,
Kayan tai cry: p-tai make someone cry,
Kayan urip life: pk-urip save the life of a person or animal; spare,
Kayan hm cool: p-hm let something cool, as coffee before
drinking it (Blust, op.cit: 6.3.1.9).

1.2.4.4 PAN *-en passive (n. 17 above), or direct passive as opposed
to some other types of passive.
PAN *kaen eat; *kaen-en be eaten (Blust 6.3.3.2). See 3.60
below.


Page No. 39

The prefix is also used in nominal derivation. Blust (ibid.) finds that
A noun reflecting this affixed form is found both in
Philippine-type languages (Thao kan-in be eaten by
someone, (ka)kan-in food, Yami kann, Ilokano kanen
food, Casiguran Dumagat kann eat something; food,
cooked rice, Botolan Sambal, Kalagan kann, Kalamian
Tagbanwa ann cooked rice, Tausug kaun-un be eaten
by someone; cooked rice, Malagasy hanina be eaten;
food), and in languages that lack a Philippine-type verb
system (Mukah Melanau ua kann any special food, as
ones favorite food, Kayan kann cooked rice, food,
Palauan kall food, Tongan kano flesh or substance,
Rennellese kano kernel, as of a nut; flesh, as of a coconut,
fish or bivalve, Nukuoro gano flesh of, meat of). Apart
from this one form patient nominals derived by a reflex of
*-en in languages that do not have a Philippine-type verb
system are rare.
The same affix appears as a prefix in HS and performs the same
function, i.e. passive: see 4.2.16 below. It is also used in nominal
derivation as in CA an to bend; pass.in-an; n. in-in. For /-n-/ as
a marker of deverbal nouns in both Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian
language families, see 4.2.18 below. It is also used to form adjectives in
both families.

1.2.4.5 PAN */-ar-/ plural (n. 19 above).
Blust finds that the infix appears in only a few languages, and that in
some languages it reflects *-al- or *-aR- (Blust, op.cit: 6.3.2.3).
Illustrative examples are:
a) Paiwan -ar- signifies do on all sides, in various directions as in
kim search: k-ar-a-kim search everywhere,
tjzak a drop of liquid: tj-ar-a-tjzak constantly dripping; dripping
on all sides.
b) Hanunoo -ar- plural as in
aba length, long: ar-aba long (pl.),
ani harvesting rice with the bare hands: ar-any-un be harvested by
hand (pl.),
daka large: d-ar-aka large (pl.),
diit small: d-ar-iit, d-ir-it small (pl.),


Page No. 40

taid close together: t-ar-aid close together (pl.), as of fence poles,
stakes, etc.,
taruk dance, dancing: t-ar-aruk-an dancing, i.e., much dancing,
badil gun, firearm: b-ar-adil-an shooting of firearms.

Comments
Hamito-Semitic affix /r/ has a number of meanings or grammatical
functions. Comprehensive studies were given to both suffixed [-r] and
prefixed [r-] in DHSR: 2.1.67 and 3.15 respectively. Infixed [-r-] also
got its share of deep study: see, for example, DHSR: 3.15.29.
In dealing with Austronesian plural marker [-ar-] and its possible HS
cognate, we should make a distinction between the signification of [-ar-]
in Paiwan and that in Hanunoo.
i) The type of meaning that [-ar-] adds to the Paiwan stem mirrors that
of CA [-r] as in baara [r. br] to scatter everywhere/in all or various
directions ~ (metathesis involved) i-baarra [r. bara] ~ ibaarra [r.
br]: baaa to send, orig. scatter: cf. baaa to scatter. An example
from MSA and Arabic dialects is nafara to scatter everywhere/in all or
various directions: naafa to scatter.
ii) There is no clear evidence showing that [-r] is a plural marker in HS,
though examples like Egyp. y goat = CA ru (r. wr or yr) coll.
sheep are not rare. Variants are arru pl. (r. rr) sheep, waru pl. (r.
wr) id., baaru cows, where *ba = large, a- = a proot for small
cattle, and a proot *-r-.
iii) Returning to Austronesian /-ar-/ and limiting our discussion to the
data given above, we find that /-ar-/ is prefixed to the word if it begins
with a vowel. If the word begins with a consonant, then /-ar-/ occurs right
after the initial radical consonant.
All words in HS must begin with a consonant. Accordingly, we should
focus on infixed /r/ rather than prefixed /r/. The question arises here: Does
HS have an infixed plural /r/?
Like nearly everything else, examples of infixed /r/ identical with
Paiwan and Hanunoo /-ar-/ in distribution can be found in CA.
Syntactically speaking, a verb with infixed /-r-/ right after the initial
consonant exactly as in Paiwan and Hanunoo words often calls for a
plural object or, in pass., plural subject, e.g.
arama, said of camels, to bring scattered camels together, make them
gather; i-ranama pass., said of people or of camels, id.: aama tie an
animals mouth with a string (or im) to prevent it from biting. Note


Page No. 41

that tie an animals mouth etc. = bring the upper and lower (frontal) parts
of the mouth together etc.
i-ranama (< *iraama, which is very difficult to pronounce),
usually said of people, to gather and stick to one place, i.e. dont leave
it: aama stick to one place (i.e. lit. to the earth) and dont leave it:
a to kneel down (on ones knees on the earth or ground); uwatu
gathered soil; sitting.

Comments
Frankly speaking, I dont see any phonetic or grammatical relation
between CA final /-r/ and infixed /-r-/; they are of different phonetic
nature and have dissimilar functions. Thousands of obvious examples like
those cited above do not affect my conviction.
A distinction must be made between final /-r/, which is a proot, and
infixed /-r-/, which is often an allophone of its immediately following
consonant, having no identifiable meaning of its own. In accordance with
this fact, CA iranama above is an old variant of CII aama becoming
arama, with the first /--/ dissimilating to /-r-/.
The basic meaning of CII is intensive, i.e. much, many, a lot of, e.g.
compare CA CI active and passive stems with their corresponding CII
stems, paying attention to grammatical agreement:
a) CI atala a man, men, people to kill a man/men/people and its
pass. utila a man, men, people a man was killed/ men, people were
killed.
b) CII attala *a man, men, people to kill men/people, pass. uttila
*a man, men, people men/people were killed.
We may note that CI may take a singular or plural object in the active
voice and a singular or plural subject in the passive voice, whereas CII
requires in both the active and the passive a plural object and plural
subject respectively.
Semantically speaking, the basic meaning of n. am is size, bulk;
CII aama make something sizeable, reduce the size of, said of a herd
of camels, to bring scattered camels together, i.e. reduce the spreading
out of camels by bring them together. This is actually the signification of
iranama above.

1.2.4.6 PAN *-um- (n. 20 above)
An affix /m/ can occur in HS as an infix (DHSR: 3.10, n. 5). It can also
appear as a prefix and a suffix (see DHSR: 1.10). e.g. CA [smd]: mu-s-


Page No. 42

ma-iddu swollen (one) (DHSR: 3.10.18), [md]: mu--ma-iddu flat
(land), etc.: see DHSR: 3.10, n. 5). Infixed -m- here expresses a form of
agent noun.
An example of prefixed [m-] is Egyp. ymg be weak, sad: g be
weary. Its CA cognate is CA . For the ultimate origin of this cpd
word, see DHSR: 3.25.2.

1.2.4.7 PAN newly discovered /-am/ plural marker
Austronesian languages make a distinction between exclusive and
inclusive first person pronouns
23
. In other words, they specify whether the
hearer is included in the first person plural we.

1.2.4.7.1a PAN ikami (exclusive) we (but not you)
Malay kami,
Chamorro hami,
Tagalog kami,
Cebuano kami,
Pangasinan (si)kami,
Itawis ikami.
Pampangan ikami

1.2.4.7.1b PAN *ikamu, *sikamu you pl.
Ibanag sikamu,
Cebuano kamo,
Chamorro hamo.

1.2.4.7.2 Relevant HS Personal Pronouns in /-m/ pl. ending
HS proots [-m] and [-n] serve as a pl. marker. For what concerns the
subject under study a distinction can be made between the two endings: [-
m] is a masc. pl. ending, while [-n] is a fem. pl. ending. Of these two
endings, we will be concerned with the masc. only, i.e. [-m]. For

23
PAN *ikita (inclusive) we and you
Mal. kita,
Ceb. kita,
Chamorro hita,
Pangasinan (si)kata,
Itawis itta (< ikta),
Pampangan ikata.



Page No. 43

information on HS dependent (i, e. affixes) and independent personal
pronouns, see DHSR: 3.22.2.
What follows is a brief outline showing how some pl. pers. pronouns
are formed in Proto-Hamito-Semitic, taking into account both independent
and dependent personal pronouns.

1.2.4.7.2a PHS word [antum] you pl.
Heb. attem (< antem), Eth. antmmu, CA antum, etc. The word
consists of PHS term [anta] you sg. and /-m/, the plural marker. The 2
nd

sg. pronoun is seen in all HS languages as in Akk., Heb. att (< anta), Ug.
at < ant), Sab. nt, CA anta, etc. id.
It goes without saying that PHS [antum] is ultimately from nom. tu
plus the pl. suffix /-m/: CA katab-ta wrote you sg., i.e. you write,
whereas katab-tum wrote you pl., i.e. you wrote.

1.2.4.7.2b PHS word [humu] they
Ug. hm, OAram. hm, CA hum(u), BHeb. hm(ma), etc. id. The word is
a cpd of PHS term [hu-] he and the plural ending /-m/. The term for he
is in Heb. h, Ug. hy, Phoen., OAram. h, etc. id.
As a suffix, [-hu-] him, his as in Heb. h, CA hu, Eth. hu, Syr. uh,
etc. id. For example, CA kitbu-hu book his, i.e. his book and saala-hu
(he) asked him.

1.2.4.7.3 Decomposition of PAN pronouns (*ikami we exclusive and
ikamu you pl. above) into their ultimate components

1.2.4.7.3a PAN *ikami (exclusive) is perh. a cpd consisting of two
elements: [a(n)ku] I and a pl. suffix /-m/. PAN [a(n)ku] as in Malay aku,
Cebuano ako, Pangasinan ak, Tagalog ako, Kayan anu-k, Rukay -unako,
etc. = PHS word [anaku] I as in Akk. anku id., etc. 4.1.32 below. In
following this analysis, the original meaning of the Austronesian term
seems to have been we.
The same grammatical element (you may call it, if you wish, a pl. case
ending) is present in IE and thus represents a surface element of
differentiation between IE term for we and its HS cognate term for I.
Consider the following:
Vedic Sanskrit vayam we, Avestan vam id. (v- = w-) = HS: Egyp. w
I.


Page No. 44

The Indo-Iranian ending has been lost in other Indo-European
languages, hence Hittite wei(s) we, general Germanic w we.

1.2.4.7.3b PAN *ikamu, *sikamu you pl. is unmistakably a cpd of two
elements: *ika, *sika you sg. and /-mu/, a pl. marker. The former
element is in Chamorro hao, Pangasinan ika, sika, Itawis ikaw, Maori koe,
Pampangan ika you sg..
The same PAN pronoun *ika you appears in HS as independent (or
suffixed pronoun) as in Akk. -ku, CA -ka, Eth. -ka, Syr. -k, etc. you,
your. For example, CA kitbu-ka book your sg., i.e. your book and
saalu-ka (he) asked you sg.
The whole PAN cpd *ikamu = PHS [-kum(u)] you, your pl. as in CA
kum(u), Heb. -kem, Eth. kemm, etc. id. For example, CA kitbu-kum
book your pl., i.e. your book and saala-kum (he) asked you.


1.2.5 Some other Austronesian affixes
Additional grammatical affixes common to Austronesian and Hamito-
Semitic language families will be studied in the Chapters below. Among
such affixes are:

1) Austronesian *da- causative = HS [da-] causative (2.1.1f).
Other causative prefixes mentioned above, namely [a-], [a-] and [pa-]
will also be further illustrated.

2) Austronesian *-na, forming ordinal numbers like fifth, sixth = HS [-
nw], forming ordinal numbers: see Comments of 3.53.

3) Austronesian *-a imperative suffix = HS [a-] imperative prefix
(4.1.3).

4) Austronesian *-i imperative suffix = HS [i-] imperative prefix
(4.3.1).

5) Austronesian *-an adverbial suffix = HS *-an adverbial suffix
(4.1.38 below).

6) Austronesian *e- numeral prefix = HS [a-] numeral prefix
(4.2.1).


Page No. 45


7) Austronesian *in or *en, a affix forming deverbal nouns and
adjectives = HS [-n, i.e, -an, -n], a suffix forming deverbal nouns and
adjectives (4.2.18).

8) A number of affixes /t, k, etc./ added to words for family
relationship in both Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic families: see
Comments of 4.3.25-4.3.25.

9) Austronesian *a- adjectival suffix = HS [a-] adjectival suffix,
which can also occur as a suffix: see 4.1.17.

1.2.6 Reduplication
A study of reduplication, along with its various types and grammatical
functions, in Hamito-Semitic has already been carried out in DHSR, esp.
in 2.1.14.2. In addition, section 4.18.3.1a, which is basically a
comparative study of reduplication in Hamito-Semitic and Indo-European
and its grammatical functions, includes a survey of the grammatical
functions of reduplication in representatives of many world language
families, including Austronesian. It has been proved that reduplication
was first used in PWL to indicate plurality.
The purpose of this brief section is just to draw attention to one fact:
Austronesian fully reduplicated forms often correspond to Hamito-Semitic
fully reduplicated forms or to doubled roots, i.e. those whose 2
nd
and 3
rd

consonants are identical. Few illustrative examples are:

1.2.5.1 PAN *saksak to hack, chop into pieces
Amis cakcak to cut into pieces,
Bontok saksak to divide a piece of meat into two portion,
Malagasy sasak the half,
Cebuano saksak to chop something into pieces.
PAN variant *siksik to cut
Sundanese siksik to cut up fine,
Javanese siseq to scrape off,
Chamorro sese to cut,
Madurese seksek to slice,
Rennellese suki to pierce.


Page No. 46

HS: Egyp. sksk to cut down, CA sakka to cut (the ear).
One variant form is CA hakka caus. to pierce with a spear, strike with
a sword. This implies that [sk] is a compound of caus. [sa] and proot [kk]
sharp pointed object: Akk. kakk weapon, Assyr. kakku arm,
weapon, OffAram. kk tooth
24
.

Among Austronesian kindred roots we may mention here the following
root:
PAN *suksuk pierce, penetrate, insert
Kavalan suksuk key ; smuksuk to lock,
Puyuma suksuk to lock; suaksuk key,
Ibaloy soksok to insert something into a narrow place,
Mandar susu to pierce,
Sasak suksuk to pierce through something,
Balinese suksuk be pressed together,
Bontok soksok to slide one object behind another,
Bikol mag-suksok to insert something into a narrow slit or opening.
HS: Akk. akku to harrow also to pierce (with a spear), CA akka
(of spear) thrust, stick into, CIV caus. would be aakka; akku
adhering, sticking; akka also signifies to enter (into), Chad.: Housa
ska to pierce, slaughter, Sha suk knife.
It is important to note that /s/ and // interchange, hence CA sakka to
enter (into), etc. See Comments of ft. 23 below.

1.2.5.2 PAN *CelCel to beat, pound
Paiwan tseltsel to pound in a nail,
Kankanaey teltel cho up, cut to pieces, bruise, beat to pieces.
HS: CA alla to break and destroy, to demolish, make fall apart.

1.2.5.3 PAN *tabtab to cut, beat
Paiwan ma-tsabtsab be beaten repeatedly with open hand,
Cebuano tabtab hack something off with several blows,
Tombul tabtab to cut,

24
Proot [kk] has given rise to many traditional Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian roots,
of them is the root in PHS and PAN [kar] to dig, field, etc. as in HS kar- id. and
Austronesian: Thao kari dig up k(m)arikari dig up repeatedly. The doubled root
appears in Akk. ikk-ru, CA akk-ru one who digs, i.e. ploughman, tiller, Berb. skka
to plough, etc.: see DHSR: 3.3.30. It seems that final proot [-ru] was once used in
PHS to express the agent: see DHSR: 2.1.6.7.


Page No. 47

Javanese tatab, tatap to beat, pound,
Madurese taptap to beat,
Bontok tabtab to chop, trim.

PAN variant *tebteb to cut off
Kankanaey tebteb to cut down,
Balinese tebteb to cut off short,
Peraps Paiwan tsabtsab to shake.
HS: CA tabba to cut off, perish, perh. Egyp. dbdb to slay, stab (?).
A more likely Egyp. cognate, however, is bb to smash, break in
25
.

Comments
Among some implicit cognates, we may mention here PAN original
caus. *eteb to cut off
Balinese eteb to cut off,
Kelabit eteb act of cutting, the mark left by cutting.
HS: CA CIV atabba cause to cut off.

1.2.5.4 PAN *sagsag to break, crack
Tagalog sagsag broken lengthwise,
Balinese sagsag break, crack,
Ilokano sagsag become destroyed by beating or shaking.
HS: CA aa to break, beat.

1.2.5.5 PAN *dakdak to beat
Tagalog dakdak to blow,
Toba Batak dakdak to hammer,
Tons. dadah to hit with implement,
Paiwan dakdak to kick.
HS: Akk. dakku to pound, CA dakka to pound, crush, beat down ~
daa, to knock, pound; dadaa to knock, pound repeatedly, BHeb.
da to crush, beat small.


25
Also CA sabba to cut. All are based on proot [*ba or ab] to cut: see DHSR:
3.2.20.
Comments
Knowledge of the proot underlying the Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic words above
makes it immaterial only at present to determine exactly the phonetic nature of the initial
consonant- I mean here CA ta-/sa-.


Page No. 48

1.2.5.6 PAN *uu to knock
Javanese uquq to knock,
Chamorro dakdak to knock,
Fijian tutu to beat the drum,
Madurese okok, akak sound of knocking.
HS: CA aaa to knock exceedingly as a n. sound of knocking.

1.2.5.7 PAN taltal to pound, crush, hit
Toba Batak taltal to hit, beat,
Isneg tatl to crush,
Balinese taltal to hit repeatedly,
Ilokano taltal to crush, comminute.
HS: CA talla to throw someone down, kill; mi-tallu strong; taltala
to shake repeatedly, to shake and frighten.

1.2.5.8 PAN *pedped press together, pack solid
Bontok pedped to press together, to compact, as soil, by stepping on
it,
Amis pedped to pack solid.
HS: CA fadfada, fadda to tread or press so heavily or so strongly on
the earth/ground with the feet.

Comments
The Austronesian and HS words above are derived from [pad], a
common IE and HS cpd term for foot as in Egyp. pd, Sanskrit pad-
foot (DHSR: 4.8.1).

1.2.5.9 PAN supsup sip, suck
Amis copcop to suck,
Bikol supsup to sip, suck
Maranao sopsop to suck.
HS: CA affa to sip id.

1.2.5.10 PAN *ulul or hulhul loose
Ifugaw ulul unbuckle, unfastened, detach,
Binukid hulhul lower (ones trousers), slip down (ones trousers).
HS: CA halhala to weave loosely; mu-halhal loose, flimsy (of anything).



Page No. 49


CHAPTER TWO








EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT COGNATES









2.0 Hamito-Semitic explicit and implicit cognates
It is of great importance to distinguish between explicit and implicit
cognates
26
in historical and comparative linguistics. Explicit cognates are
direct and easy to notice and found in any comparative study of two or
more related languages. For example, Egyp. sr and CA saara to burn
are explicit cognate, and so are Akkadian kalbu and CA kalbu dog. On
the other hand, implicit cognates are indirect and impossible to establish
without knowledge of proots. The presence of implicit cognates in related
languages is due to the adoption of grammatical affixes as inseparable
parts of their words as the Austronesian words in 1.2.3.1ff above, for
example, clearly demonstrate. For a discussion of this linguistic
phenomenon, see DHSR: 2.1.13, n. 3 and n. 4.
Some illustrative examples from Hamito-Semitic are:
a) Ug., BHeb. bar, BAram. bar, etc. to burn are implicit cognate
forms of Egyp. sr, CA saara, etc. to burn. Ug., Heb., and Aram. used

26
Explicit & implicit cognates are used instead of direct and indirect cognates in
DHSR.


Page No. 50

[ba-] with stem [ar], while Egyp. and CA used [sa- or a-] with the same
stem. For proots [ba-], [sa-], see DHSR: 3.13 and 3.2 respectively. For
the ultimate origin of stem [ar], see DHSR: 3.17.1.
b) Similarly, CA daira to burn in a way that the fire gives only
smoke which is, like [sr] and [br] above, based on [ar] above. For proot
[da-], see DHSR: 2.1.6.5.1ff.
c) CA hl to have sex with a woman = Heb. gl to lie with a woman
= Eth. gl have sex with a woman. For causative [ha-] in CA, see DHSR:
3.4, and for causative /a- or sa-/, see DHSR: 3.2.
d) Egyp. db to pray, supplicate is an implicit cognate form of Akk.
upp to pray, CA sabbaa to pray, praise, BHeb., Aram. b to
praise. All are based on stem [ba]. For proots [da-] and [a-], see DHSR:
2.1.6.5, n. 3b and 3.2 respectively.
On the other hand, Egyp. sb prayer, supplication is an explicit
cognate of Akk. upp, CA sabbaa, etc. above in (d) and is thus based on
stem [ba]: For the ultimate origin of stem [ba], i.e. bawa-, see DHSR:
and 3.2.27.

Comments
It becomes evident from the examples set forth above that implicit
cognates are not confined to sister languages, but that they are also found
in the same language, e.g. CA sr ~ dr, Egyp. db ~ sb above.
Consider the following examples of roots from CA:
a) dafa to kill, i.e. make + dead,
b) daffa to kill, i.e. make + dead,
c) daf to kill, i.e. make + dead,
d) fda to die,
e) sawfu death; caus. a-sfa of sfa to perish, die (= EHeb. h-swp
be finished, etc.: cf. DHSR: 3.20.5, n. 2),
f) ta-waff to die; waf-tu death,
g) ru-f-tu remnants of a dead body,
h) fta to pass away, be over,
i) fa to die, and so forth.
Information on this incomplete list of traditional roots and their
common origin are scattered in Chapters II and III of DHSR.





Page No. 51

2.1 Austronesian explicit and implicit cognates
As mentioned above, Austronesian scholars like all other worldwide
scholars dealt only with the first layer of surface structure of every
word, leaving all other layers of surface and deep structure entirely
untouched. Accordingly, we will make use of their description of first
layer of surface structure to uncover the 2
nd
layer of surface structure
and then other layers, as the data under discussion may demand.
For example, the following sample of cognate words are considered by
Austronesian scholars as derived from Proto-Austronesian *dakep. Let us
take a deep look at them to see what kind of deep reality the deceptive
(first) surface structure conceals.

2.1.1 PAN *dakep to seize, catch
Hiligaynon dakop to seize, catch, capture, trap, snare,
Aklanon dakop to catch, capture,
Cebuano dakup to catch, arrest,
Mansaka dakup to seize, catch,
Tagalog dakip catching, capturing, etc.
The Proto-Austronesian root cited above is a surface form of another
deeper-surface form (or 2
nd
layer of surface form) and consists of two
elements:
1) a proot [da-] to cause, make (see DHSR: 2.1.6.5.1ff).
2) a stem [kap] palm of the hand as in Ug. kp, BHeb. kp, CA kaffu
palm of the hand, Egyp. kp, kp hollow of the hand = PAN stem
*kep, as the discussion below will show clearly.
3) Many languages may prefer to convert the noun [kap] to a verb to
express the very same idea as in Egyp. kp to seize, CA *kaffa to snare,
trap, preserved in kiffa-tu a net used by a hunter for trapping animals (=
Egyp. kp hunter, lier-in-wait).
4) Many other languages may add proots as affixes like [a-], [da-], [a-
], [na-], [ma-], [ra-], etc. to express ideas and activities having to do with
(the palm of) hand, depending of course on the phonotactics of each
language, e.g.
CA CX istakaffa to extend the hand, to surround also take with the
hand, CV takaffa to take with the palm of the hand, etc.
CA nakfu hand-ach, etc.
A natural question may arise here: How do we know for sure that the
analysis given above is correct? Evidence proving what has been said is


Page No. 52

true must come only from Austronesian languages themselves. Otherwise,
it will be invalid.
Suffice it to study carefully the developments of PAN *dakep in its
various dialects to arrive at the inevitable and unquestionable conclusion
that the above stated analysis is correct in essence, in form, and in content.
Consider the following:
Malay dakap ~ dekap folding the arms or hands over one another,
Karo Batak sin-dakep a measurement as much as a man can enclose
with both arms encircling; n-dakepi hold in the arms, embrace,
Sundanese si-dakep to cross the hands over one another,
Balinese nakep to grap something with the flat hand, seize,
Sasak be-se-dakep with arms crossed over the chest
27
,
Thao s-m-akup to grasp in the hands or arms, catch, and so forth: see
below.

Comments
Implicit cognates, as defined and illustrated, are as widespread in
Austronesian as in Hamito-Semitic and many other language families, and
it will difficult to establish a historical relation between Austronesian and
any other family of languages without knowledge of this phenomenon. We
can utilize this natural linguistic phenomenon to add further evidence to
the already established fact in 2.1.1 above. Consider the following
implicit Proto-Austronesian cognate:

2.1.1a PAN *ra()kup gather in the cupped hands
Javanese rakup with the hands together,
Rotinese lau scoop up with cupped hands,
Saa rau gather up with the hands,
Malay rakup laying two things one against the other at an angle.
Bolaang Mongondow rakup as much as one can hold with the two
hands together.

Comments
Two basic questions may be raised in connection with PAN *ra()kup:
i) What is the meaning or grammatical function of /ra-/?

27
This is in fact the meaning of CA ta-kattafa. It is too early to go farther than recording
an observation.



Page No. 53

ii) What is the origin of infixed --, which is, like -m-, quite frequent in
Austronesian roots?
For what concerns the first question, I will certainly answer it in the
course of this research. I will also determine the meanings or functions of
such Austronesian prefixes as /t-/, /n-/, /R-/, and /S-/.
As for the second question, it may be originally a dental or alveolar /-n-
/, usually becoming /--/ before velars and /-m-/ before labials in many
reconstructed roots
28
. It is in some of its distribution from /-W-/ (= /--/, /-
w-/, or /-y-/), which is a constituent part of suffixed proots like /raW],
[daW-], [saW-], [naW-], [maW-], etc. It is only in Egyptian that this /-W-/
was partly preserved.
A question that may come to ones mind: Is there linguistic evidence
supporting an earlier /-W-/?
Three kinds of evidence are available:
a) As has been mentioned above, Egyptian preserved the earlier /-W/.
For example, Semitic causative [da-] is in Egyptian [da]: d k = cause
destruction, i.e. to destroy: See DHSR, esp. 2.1.6.5 ff.
b) A visible reflex of /-W-/ is often reflected in Semitic by doubling the
initial consonant of the following proot, hence Egyp. d k to destroy
= gen. Sem. dakk id.
c) The linguistic change noted in Semitic is also seen in some
Austronesian languages. For example, compare Isneg and Balinese
cognates in 2.1.2 below; Isneg, Paiwan, Ilokano and Tagalog, Bikol,
Malay cognates in 2.1.2c; Ilokana and Javanese, Cebuano, Balinese,
Bolaang Mongondow cognates in 2.1.5a below; etc.

28
This view excludes cases in which an original phoneme as /-m-/ becomes /--/ before a
velar as in Malay and Iban ggam grasp < PAN *gemgem id. It also excludes final /-
/, which is most cases from /-n/.
Much more important, It also excludes cases where Austronesian /--/, esp. in initial
position, = HS (i)n, serving to form the passive voice and its accompanied substances
(nouns, adjectives): see 1.1.4, n. VII above. In this case, Austronesian /--/ and its
passive ending /-en ~ -in/ are ultimately variant forms (see, for instance, ft. 38 below).
This phenomena, which may appear strange, is actually found in not only in language
families, but also in related languages and individual languages, e.g. Ug. t-sm (< twsm)
beauty = CA wsm-t id. CA negative /n/ can occur as a prefix and a suffix, and so does
Semitic caus. // in Semitic languages.





Page No. 54

A fundamental question may be posed: Is Semitic first /-k-/ of dakk
from the /-/ of [d] or from /-/ of [k]? Arguments for and against either
choice can be cited, but the general tendency of sound change noted in
similar compound words is for the final consonant of the first element of a
compound to change in the process of forming compounds: compare the
change of final /-n/ in im-possible, il-legal, and i-complete.
Some other implicit cognates based on stem [kap] are:

2.1.1b PAN *sakep to catch, seize
Manggarai cakep to catch, seize,
Cebuano sakup to catch, capture,
Iban sakap fish trap,
Maranao sakep to catch, capture.

2.1.1c PAN *akup scoop with both hands
Maranao akop to scoop with both hands,
Ilokana akup-en to gather with both hands,
Ifugaw akup act of scooping things with ones two hands,
Kenyah m-akop to scoop with both hands,
Hiligaynon hakup handful, fistful.

2.1.1d PAN *tikep to catch, seize
Javanese tikep to catch, seize.
Here also belong Kavalan tkep deadfall trap, etc. = CA kiffa-tu above
in 2.1.1, n. 3.

2.1.1e PAN *(h)akep seize with the hand, embrace
Cebuano hakup scoop with one hand,
Old Javanese akep embrace tightly,
Hiligaynon hakup handful, fistful

Comments I
8) Implicit cognates are found in all language members of a family with
different proportions and, consequently, in nearly all language families
again with different proportions. They are indeed among the most needed
lexical and grammatical elements to prove historical relationships among
language families. They had been originally free proots used as separate
words and, in the course of millennium, they have been reduced to bound
proots used as derivational and inflectional affixes. The rate of their
frequent usage, i.e. implicit-cognate frequency, and degrees of their loss


Page No. 55

or retention in a language family may be used as a time indicator of its
separation from the immediate parent speech. They can also be used to
determine with certainty the degrees of closure among language families.
All proot affixes discovered in Hamito-Semitic (see DHSR) such as
[ma-, sa-, da-, a-, na-, -ta-, ta-, -t, ra-, etc.] are found in Austronesian
languages. When a Hamito-Semitic cognate is not given, the sequences
involving a proot affix are not often permitted.

What follows will include some additional Austronesian implicit
cognates and their Hamito-Semitic cognates.

2.1.2 PAN *ekat, eket to stick, adhere
Isneg akkat to cleave, stick, adhere,
Balinese eket bird-lime, sticky stuff, etc.

2.1.2a An implicit cognate is PAN *raket be sticky, adhesive
Old Javanese raket adhering, sticking,
Sundanese raket to stick, adhere,
Manggarai raket to stick, adhere,
Madurese rekat to stick; rekt coherent, etc.

2.1.2b A second implicit cognate is PAN *si()ket to stick, adhere
Manggarai ciket sticky, adhesive,
Ngaju Dayak siket to fit well (clothes),
Samoa soot-ia be united,
Iban sheket cause something to adhere
29
,
Amis siket be attached, joined to, etc.

2.1.2c A third cognate is PAN *deket to adhere, stick
Isneg dakket to adhere, stick,
Paiwan djekets overcooked rice used as paste to adhere, stick,
Ilokano dekket paste, adhesive; glue,
Tagalog dikit paste, glue,
Bisayan dikit joined,
Madurese rekt coherent,
Bikol duket to glue, stick,
Malay dkat near, etc.


29
The meaning is clearly causative.


Page No. 56

1) Examples of cognates based on *deket are:
1a) Tagalog i-dikit to attach, stick or fix something specific, Bikol i-
dukot to glue, stick, etc.

1b) Kadazan pa-deket cause to stick to.

1c) The passive is formed by suffixing *-en as in Balinese deketin be
stuck to, Lun Dayeh deketen be stuck on = CA inkata-na id. (see
below).

2) Examples of cognates based on stem *ket are:
Ilokano d-um-ket to stick, adhere,
Isneg d-um-kat to stick to, adhere.

2.1.2d A fourth implicit cognate PAN *ta()ket to adhere, stick to
Sasak taket to adhere, stick to,
Baree taka to stick, adhere.

2.1.2e Another implicit cognate is seen in PAN *niket be sticky
Isneg nikat resin,
Kankanaey niket resin, etc.

2.1.2e PAN pikit to stick to
Tongan piki hold on, stick or adhere,
Pangasinan pikit sticky; plaster,
Tagalog pikit closed (said of eyes),
Hanunoo pikit closing the eyes,
Maranao pikit to attach, stick on, paste.
The root correspondence between HS and Austronesian involves
metathesis. The HS cognate may be the root in Egyp. k magnet, Coptic
tek to stick, adhere, Cush.: Galla tuka to touch, CA aka-ma to stick
to (but also kaam, kaab bear, nearness
30
: see DHSR: 4.5.3 and
4.11.2. My final word on the root correspondence will be cited in 4.3.20,
n. e below.



30
A less likely cognate is the root in CA katana to stick to perh. to the outer surface of
a thing, i.e. not to the interior (ML, LA), CIV aktana cause to stick, katila (< katina)
to stick, adhere, with caus. /s-/ su-kktu, in an old saying, very close to, near (LA).
See, however, 4.3.20, n. e below.


Page No. 57

2.1.3 PAN *ra(m)buk to strike, break
Malagasy ravoka to pound rice,
Sasak rabek hit, strike,
Nggela rambo to break,
Arosi rabu to srike, knock, etc.

2.1.3a PAN *dabuk to strike
Malagasy daboka to beat,
Areare rapu to strike, hit.

2.1.3b An implicit cognate is PAN *sambak to strike, hit
Mandar samba to hit, strike,
Yamdena sambak to stamp on the ground with the feet,
Fijian saba to slap, strike strongly, etc.

2.1.3c PAN *tambak to strike, hit
Proto-South Sulawesi *tamba(k) to hit, pound.

2.1.3d PAN *ambak to beat, hit
Mandar amba to hit, beat,
Yamdena ambak stamp on the ground with the foot,
Cebuano ambak jump up and down.
2.1.3e PAN *la(m)bak to strike, beat, hit
Ngadha laba to drum; strike, beat, hit, knock,
Cebuano labak to throw something hard on the ground,
Motu lapa to strike, as with sword.

2.1.3f PAN variant *lambuk to strike, beat, knock, pound
Arosi rabu to strike, knock, hit
Proto-South Sulawesi lambu(k) to pound rice.

2.1.3g Another cognate is PAN *ibak break, split
Rembong ibak piece cut or split off,
Malagasy ivaka be apart,
Manggarai ibak part, half of something split.
HS: Chad.: Mandara bak to strike, beat, Cush.: Afar bak to destroy,
Berb. Tua bakkat to pound, strike, CA bakka to break ones neck, CIV
abakka.
With caus. /s-/: Egyp. s-bk to destroy, cut.


Page No. 58

With caus. /da-/: Modern Standard Arabic and all dialects dabbaka
strike the ground (floor, etc.) heavily or strongly with the feet.

2.1.4 PAN *sekep to cover
Balinese sekep hide, cover up, keep secret,
Sasak sekep to cover ,
Bolaang Mongondow tokob ridgepole cover, etc.

2.1.4a An implicit cognate is PAN *ekep to cover
Kayan kep to brood on eggs,
Bolaang Mongondow oob to brood on eggs,
Manggarai ekep to brood, sit on eggs, etc.

2.1.4b A second cognate is PAN *ta()kup to cover, enclose
Cebuano takup shutter; takup be closed, close,
Ilokano takup to patch.

2.1.4c A third cognate is PAN *tukup, *takub to cover
Balinese tukub cover, covering,
Kavalan nukub to cover
31
,
Bolaang Mongondow tukub cover over.

2.1.4d A fourth cognate is PAN *sakep to close
Cebuano sakup to close,
Banggai sakop to close.

2.1.4e PAN *ekup to close up
Isneg akkup to catch (birds) in their nest at night,
Javanese ekup close up, etc.
HS: Egyp. kp to cover, hide, kp place of concealment, kp hiding
place, Chad.: Sura kup to cover, Mafa kap to cover with clothes,
Angas kp to cover.


2.1.5 PAN *si()keb to cover
Javanese sikeb cover the eyes with something,
Balinese sekeb to cover, cover up,

31
Traced by Wolf (PAP: B62.3.12) to PAN *tukub. I believe that /na-/ is a proot and not
a variant of /t-/.


Page No. 59

Tiruray sikeb cover of a rice pot.

2.1.5a An implicit cognate is PAN *akub to cover
Javanese akub large covered basket,
Ilokana akkub, akob cover, wrapper,
Cebuano akub covering over the opening of a small boat,
Balinese akeb covering, lid,
Bolaang Mongondow akub to cover.

2.1.5b A third cognate is PAN *ekeb or *ekeb to cover
Isneg akkab spread a net over an agglomeration of pebbles in a
stream,
Bintulu keb lid, to cover,
Murik kep lid, cover,
Kankanaey ekeb covered, enclosed,
Balinese ekeb to hide, keep secret, etc.

2.1.5c A fourth implicit cognate may be PAN *tikeb to close up
Tboli tikeb door.

2.1.5d A fifth implicit cognate is PAN *tu()kub to cover
Balinese tukub cover, covering,
Bolaang Mongondow tukub to cover over.

2.1.5e A sixth implicit cognate is PAN *Ra()kub to cover
Bontok lakob to cover completely,
Bolaang Mongondow gankub to cover.

2.1.5f PAN variant *ru()keb to cover over, cover up
Manggarai rukeb cover over,
Javanese ukeb to cover something tightly.

Comments I
An interesting linguistic phenomenon, called by old Arab scholars
Add, i.e. a word expressing two contradictory meanings, is common
in Classical Arabic and Egyptian but not very much common in other
Semitic and Hamitic languages. It has also been noted in Indo-European
and many other language families. For description and explanation of this
linguistic phenomenon, see DHSR: esp. 3.2.47.


Page No. 60

Austronesian family is not an exception. We have just seen in 2.1.5ff
above that Austronesian words express to cover. The opposite meaning,
i.e. to uncover; open can also be expressed by derivatives of the same
stem, e.g.

PAN *ekab to uncover, open
Old Javanese ekab to open, unfold,
Balinese ekab open something by lifting a lid,

PAN variant *ikab to open, uncover
Old Javanese ikab blown open,
Kelabit ikab an opening.
HS: Egyp. kbw to open.

PAN *sikab to uncover, open
Malay sikab opening by unveiling,
Sundarese sikab to blow open,
Old Javanese sikab to open, move apart.

PAN *su()kab to open
Ilokano sukab to open from below,
Balinese sukab to uncover,
Tagalog sukab-in to open, as oysters,
Bisaya sukab to open,
Maly sukab pulled loose.

PAN *tu()kab to uncover, open up
Kankanaey tukab to uncover, open, set open,
Maranao tokab to open,
Iban tukap to discover by diligent inquiry.

PAN *ekab to uncover, open
Tausug okab to open,
Tagalog hikab to yawn,
Baree oka to open.

PAN *ukab to open, uncover
Maranao okab to open,
Banjarese ukab to open,
Kadazan ukab to uncover, open,


Page No. 61

Cebuano hukab to open,
Kelabit -ukab to open, as a door,
Balinese ukab-in be opened.

Comments II
It is important to note that there is no proot [kb] (// = a vowel, any
vowel) in worlds languages, nor is there a proot [bk]. There is only a
compound word [kb] or [bk] to open, where the very same proot
[kaW] can appear as a prefix or suffix. It happens that Austronesian, like
Hamito-Semitic, can have them both. In addition to *kuba above, Proto-
Austronesian also has *buka to open as the following cognates can
confirm:
Malay buka to open,
Javanese buko, bukaq to open,
Tongon fuke to uncover,
Madurese bukkaq to open,
Aklanon bkaq id,
Sebu Bisayan buka to open,
Tagalog buka to open, be opened,
Atayal buka to split,
Kavalan buki to untie, undo.

PAN implicit cognate *labak wide open
Sasak labak spacious, wide,
Manggarai labak wide (of the mouth).
HS: CA bakka to separate from, split: see below.
For what concerns Egyp. [kbw] open and its Austronesian cognates,
they are ultimately from [b ~ wb] ~ [p ~ wp] to open (= CA fa id.;
fakka to open, baa to publish, spread and widen also fafaa (by
redupl.) to open, sa-faa ~ a-faa to open in some CA dialects but
to close in some others: see LA). In this case, /ka/ and /a/, whether
used as prefixes or suffixes, are most certainly proots signifying here
condition or state of. See their significations in DHSR 3.17.83.

Comments III
The fact that an Austronesian word expresses two contradictory
meanings like cover and uncover may be partly due to dialectal
differences and partly to the fact that the prefix or part of it originally
includes an element that serves to express both a grammatical function


Page No. 62

and negation. The whole situation here is similar to that found in CA as
in asarra keep secret and its opposite meaning to disclose a secret,
divulge, afraa make happy and make sad or unhappy, etc. (see
DHSR 3.2.47).

Another example of Austronesian implicit cognates is:
2.1.6 PAN *tidem dark, obscure
Javanese tiem darkened, obscured,
Sasak tidem with the eyes close,
Gedaged tidom night, darkness.

2.1.6a A cognate is PAN *sedem dark
Bintulu sedem dark,
Ilokano sa-r-dam evening,
Isneg sidam evening, etc.

2.1.6b PAN variant *sidem obscure
Ifugaw hidum shadow,
Old Javanese sirem dimmed, evening time, etc.

2.1.6c PAN *edem cloudy, dark
Old Javanese m-eem extinguished, lusterless,
Karo Batak endem clouded over,
Palawan Batak ma-udum rain cloud.

2.1.6d PAN *demdem dark(ness), overcast
Bunun dumdum dark, gloomy, overcast,
Itbayaten remdem cloud; ma-remdem cloudy, overcast,
Kelabit dedhem dark, darkness,
Balinese demdem jet black, shining black hair,
Palauan ke-remerem period when moon is waning.

2.1.6e PAN lidem dark
Kankany black,
Kayan lidem dark,
Ilokano litem livid black and blue,
Tagalog lilil shade.

2.1.6f The root here is PAN *dem dark = HS: Chad.: Gabri dam
darkness, Kabalay dama id., Cush.: Galla dama brown, of dark color,


Page No. 63

Eth.: Harari dma, South Ethiopic dama id., Egyp. dm shut the eyes, CA
u-dma-tu, with prefixed /-/, brown, dark, dmis dark
32
.
If one wishes to express the utmost degree of darkness, he can prefix
proot [a-], but in this case initial /d-/ becomes /t-/ in both language
families: CA atma-tu intensive darkness = PAN *item darkness as in
Malay item darkness, Javanese item id, Bisayan itom, Bikol itom
darkness.
For PAN *sedem ~ *sidem (2.1.6a-2.1.6b above), CA sadm mist,
haze. It is needless to say that both include caus. /a-/.
For PAN *demdem (2.1.6d above) = CA damdama to cover over, to
bury; dumdimu a kind of tar exuding from a type of tree; damm
ugly.

2.1.7 Implicit cognates may also be approached by positing a proot
common to World Language (WL) and examining its developments in
Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic as the following inexhaustive list of
surface Austronesian roots and their Hamito-Semitic cognates may clearly
show:

WL *puW blow < mouth, opening
2.1.7a PAN *sumpit blowpipe, blowgun, a compound of proot [se-] and
proot [pu]. For PAN *pu, see Comments I below, and for PAN *se-, see
Comments II.
Malay sumpit shooting with a blowpipe,
Ilokano sumpit injection; blown gun,
Cebuano sumpit blowgun,
Tagalog sumpit blowgun,
Aklanon sumpit to jet out, splurt,
Iban sumpit blowpipe.

2.1.7b PAN *seput blowpipe, a compound of proot [se-] (see Comments
II below) and proot [puW].
Bintulu sput blowpipe,
Kayan hput blowpipe,
Iban seput breath, to breathe.
HS: CA safata (Comments II below).


32
Also with affixes, mostly infixes, dhm, dlhm; mh, ms, lms, rms, etc. each expresses a
degree or shade of darkness.


Page No. 64

2.1.7c PAN *ma-numpit shoot with a blowpipe, a compound of proot
[nu] (see Comments III below) and proot [puW].
Toba Batak ma-numpit shoot with a blowpipe,
Tae ma-numpi shooy with a blowpipe
HS: CA na-ffata blow from the mouth, as when one is angry or
coughing, na-ffaa blow, etc.

2.1.7d PAN *eput puff, blow from proot [puW] above.
Maranao pot puffing sound
Kenyah put to blow out.
HS: CA uff to blow. One may add /-t/ as in dial. ift a buffing
sound, used to express annoyance, irritation.

2.1.7e PAN *pali- to blow, of the wind, a compound based on proot
[puW].
Aklanon palid get blown away by the wind,
Ilokano palig be carried off by the wind, etc.
HS: CA ta-fala to blow with the mouth, spit out, SA: Mehri tefl to
spit.

Comments
A question may arise: What is the signification of [-l-] or what idea
does [-l-] add to proot [puW]? Another question: What is the deep
difference in meaning between CA taffa to spit out and tafala above?
Proot [-l-] has a number of different meanings and frequently
interchanges with /r/ in Hamito-Semitic, esp. in Egyp. and CA. Some of
such meanings were dealt with in DHSR.

2.1.7f PAN *ipi to blow
Rukai iipi to blow,
Tongon ifi to blow with the mouth,
Bugotu ifu to blow (pan-pipes, fire),
Tolai ipi blow of the wind,
Bunun ma-ip blow of the wind,
Squliq Atayal j-m-up blow of the wind.
HS: CA: dial. iff blow from the mouth upon fire also = ift above in
2.1.7d above.

2.1.7g PAN *upi to blow


Page No. 65

Bimanese ufi to blow,
Nggela uvi-uvi blow with the breath,
Saa uhi blow with the mouth upon something,
Tongan ifi blow with the mouth, inflate,
Fijian uvu-ca blow with the mouth.
HS: CA uff to blow, dial. iff id. BHeb., BAram. t-wp spit out,
Cush. tuf, Chad. tup, etc. DHSR 3.7.5: see Comments I below.

Comments I
All words above are based on proot [puW ~ up] in CA uff to blow
(with the mouth), fh be exhaled or given off (as perfume)
33
, Cush.:
Somali ufaf to blow, Kambatta uffae to blow, Qabenna uffiyo, Eth.:
Harari uf bya to blow, blow out, blow on the fire with the mouth,
Tigrinia uf bl blow to revive the fire, Amharic ff al to blow, blow
out.

Comments II
PAN *sumpit (in n. a above) consists of caus. *sa-, infixed /-m-/, proot
*puW, and derivational suffix /-t/, which is orig. used to form a noun from
a verb (see DHSR: 3.9).
Both forms are also seen without infixed /-m-/ and suffixed /-t/ as in:

PAN supa to blow, spit
Baree supa to spit or blow chewed medicinal herbs on (a patient,
Arosi tuha to puff out, spit,
Kavalan siup to blow,
Amis sopa to spit.
The very same cpd is also seen in HS as in CA saf to blow (esp. the
wind); saftu blown dust by the wind, Chad.: safa to blow, to
breathe, etc. see DHSR: 3.2.30.

PAN *tuba, *suba to spit
Proto-Polynesian *tufa to spit,
Palauan tub spittle, saliva.

Comments III

33
With various suffixes: fa to blow (wind), CIV afa id., BHeb. p to blow,
breathe, etc.



Page No. 66

PAN *ma-numpit (n. b above) is also a cpd of [nu-] and [puW] and is
seen in HS as in CA naffa dust blown by horses feet as they run also
water scattered (blown) from a cloud as well as to blow (the nose) =
Egyp. nf to breathe, blow at; nf air, wind, breath = CA nafafnafu.
Among hundreds of traditional roots based on [puW], we may mention
CA nasafa to blow (the wind) also make use of the wind to sift grains
and rid them from bad particles, consisting of [na-] + saf above or saffa
id., which is in turn from [sa-] cause and fa breath, act of blowing
through the mouth or spitting, hence nafa, nafa, nafas, etc.
With prefixed /t-/, originally forming CV stem: Egyp. tpy to breathe,
tf to spit, tfn id. = CA taffa id.: Cush.: Galla afufa to blow also
whisle, tufa to spit, etc.
To proot [puW] most certainly belong BHeb. nap to sift, Ge., Tna.
nfya id., Har. nfa id.
Proot [n-] was prefixed to *puW twice in CA as follows:
(a) added directly to *puW as in nafiyyu dust blown by feet of horses
as they run,
(b) added to the already established saf above as in nasafa to sift.
Thus nasafa is a cpd of three elements /na-/, /sa-/ and proot [fa].

Comments IV: PAN *S-
Implicit cognates are not over. An additional Austronesian root is:

PAN *Seyup or *(S)iyup blow with the mouth
Paiwan siup suck in air,
Tiruray iup to blow,
Cebuano huyup blow air, blow something away,
Thao m-iup to blow (with breath),
Toba Batak iup blowing on,
Maranao iop blow with the mouth, etc.
Saaroa uhi breathe upon,
Mota uw to blow with the mouth,
Tongan ifi to blow with the mouth,
Buruese upi-h to blow,
Fijian uvu-ca to blow with the mouth,
Bisayan hu:yup to blow with the mouth,
Bunun ma-ip to blow with the mouth,
Puyama mi- iup to blow with the mouth,
Ngadyu Dayak tar-iup to blow.


Page No. 67

PAN *Seyup is a cpd of three elements: caus. a-, caus. a-, and proot
[puW].
One of the most fundamental questions that can be raised in
Austronesian studies may be: What is the phonetic value of *S-?
PAN *S- has a number of different origins and, therefore, a number of
different phonetic values. In addition, this prefix is seen not only with
verbs, but also with nouns, and some other parts of speech, e.g.

i) *Sepat four as in Pazeh sepat, Kavalan u-spat, Amis spat four,
etc. < PAN *apat ~ *epat four (4.1.47 below).

ii) *Sapuy fire as in Bunun sapud, Paiwan supuy, Pazeh hapuy,
hapwi, etc. id. < PAN *apuy (4.1.50 below).

v) *Sesi flesh, meat as in Paiwan seti meat, Kayan si-n flesh,
meat < PAN *isi (< 4.3.40 below)

vi) *Sikan fish as in Hoanya sikan fish, Bunun (central) iskan id. <
PAN *ikan (4.3.19 below).
The prefix is in some cases causative and in some other cases an
interdental fricative. There is still, however, a third origin which I am not
fully certain of it and, for this reason, I prefer to deal with later
34
.
The following Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic cognates show that
PAN *S- below is unquestionably from /-/

PAN *Suyeab to yawn
Atayal m-suyap to yawn,
Aklanon huyab to yawn,
Hiligaynon huyab to yawn,
Cebuano huyab to yawn, gape,
Kapampangan uyab yawn.

PAN variant *Suab yawn
Amis sowaf to yawn,
Rukai ma-swa-swab yawn,
Bontok owab yawn,
Itbayaten a-hwab yawn,
Ifugaw uwab act of yawning, yawn,
Malay uap yawn,

34
An /*S/ can also appear as a suffix as in Paiwan usa two, Pazeh dusa, Amis tosa,
Thao tusha id. This a case ending.


Page No. 68

Old Javanese hwab yawn,
Balinese uab yawn.
HS: CA CI aiba to yawn is arch. and has never been widely used
throughout the history of the language. The commonly used stem is CVI
ta-aba to yawn; ta-ubu yawing. A variant ta-waba existed and
it was proscribed by old Arab grammarians.
Observation shows that Formosan often uses prefixed *S-, from /a-/,
where other languages use caus. /a-/. Consider the following examples:
a) Paiwan satjez return something,
Bikol hatod deliver, bring or accompany to a particular place.

b) Paiwan sevuts remove grain stalks from field after harvest,
Banjarese ambut pull off the husk of a coconut,
Balinese ebut pull up (weeds), draw out.

c) Amis skak to crow,
Isneg akka to cackle, of fowls,
Malay ekak a crow.

d) Pazeh m-snaw to wash utensils
Bikol hanaw to wash the hands or feet.

e) Amis sanek a bad odor, smell,
Pazeh sa-sazek to smell,
Monobo hazek to smell, to kiss,
Tiruray arek to kiss,
Balinese adek smell.

f) Paiwan ma-sulid to sleep together,
Aklanon hulid to sleep with.

g) Amis solot to pull,
Bontok olot to remove grain from rice panicles by pulling them
through ones hands.

h) Paiwan sedjam something borrowed,
Tboli m-edom borrow
Bikol hadam borrow.




Page No. 69

2.2 Special Versus Abstract Meaning
As proots are combined together with or without affixes to form words,
traditionally called roots, the meanings expressed by such words would
inevitably be special and never abstract. In accordance with this logical
and indisputable fact all abstract meanings are originally concrete or
special. This subject has already been discussed thoroughly in DHSR:
2.1.10.
A study of Austronesian cognates reveals a situation similar to that
found in Hamito-Semitic: CA words usually express special meanings,
whereas their cognates in other Hamito-Semitic languages usually express
abstract meanings. Most Austronesian languages are much closer to
Classical Arabic in this respect than to other Hamito-Semitic languages.
Consider the signification of each of the following Austronesian words in
the four groups of cognates:

2.2.1 Kankanaey ayat to set two roosters fighting,
Ilokano ayat to confront a gamecock with another gamecock,
Manobo ayat to prepare to strike, aim a spear.

2.2.2 Tondano asu bamboo to bail water,
Old Javanese asu draw or scoop water,
Mentawai asu fetch water,
Kedang ahu fetch water.

2.2.3 Cebuano amaga a forest tree,
Tae mara tree with beautiful black wood,
Makasarese amara tree with strong wood.

2.2.4 Balinese emu have the mouth full without swallowing,
Sundanese imiy hold something in the mouth for a while,
Kedang emur mouth-wash,
Sika umur have the mouth full,
Seeding umul suck and hold in the mouth.
As has been stated above, each Austronesian word is a compound of a
number of linguistic elements, and each element has its distinct meaning.
Accordingly, the signification of the word is naturally the sum total of the
meanings of its elements. For the time being, it may be sufficient to
comment on one group of cognates. I will choose the last group (2.2.4)


Page No. 70

simply because one component part [-r] of the earliest compound has been
lost in some Austronesian languages without a trace.
As in all cases, the decomposition of a word into its ultimate
components furnishes valuable information not only about the method of
word formation involved in its creation, but also about its earliest
signification as well as syntax, esp. word order.
One may note that the meaning expressed by each word is special, and
that the special meaning centers on two ideas, one of which is mouth and
the other an action taken place in or performed with/by the mouth.
The same Austronesian compound is also seen in an opposite word
order as in Tontemboan urem hold in the mouth, Cebuano ugum hold
and keep something inside the mouth.
The compound consists of two elements: a stem [em]
35
from *m-
with as in Egyp. m id. also in, by, at, etc.. It is the very same *m seen
in CA ma I have, i.e. in my hand, lit. in hand my, where [ma-] = in,
with, [a-] = hand, and [-] = my, hence maak you masc. sg.
have, where [-k] = you masc. sg., maa-n we have, etc. = Egyp. m-
in the hand (of), which corresponds to CA ma in the hand (of),
hence with; maan together (with).
Shifting the order of [ma] to [am] gives you its cognates in all other
Semitic languages as in Sab. m with, together with, BHeb. im, Aram.
am, etc. id.
The second element of the compound is in Egyp. r mouth.

Comments
b) Comparison of cognate words among related languages or families of
languages reveals an interesting linguistic phenomenon; the same
grammatical affix may appear as a prefix or suffix without any change in
its meaning or function.
For example, in Austronesian languages the passive is formed by
suffixing [-en], whereas in Hamito-Semitic is formed by prefixing [in-, i.e.
in] (see 4.2.16 below). Similarly, Austronesian languages express the
imperative by suffixing [-a], whereas Hamito-Semitic by prefixing [a-]
(see 4.1.3 below). In Cushitic the causative is formed by suffixing [-],
whereas in its sister Semitic by prefixing it, etc. see DHSR 3.2. For more
examples, esp. from HS and IE, see DHSR 4.19.2ff and 4.19.3.4.1ff.


35
PAN [em] is not from *em seize, hold (cf. Egyp. m seize, etc.) as the surface
structure may suggest.


Page No. 71

b) The reason for the phenomenon just illustrated in n. b above is that
the affix has its well defined meaning or function and the stem also has its
meaning so that the position of the affix does affect the meaning intended
by the combination at all. It is for this reason alone you can shift the order
of radicals, i.e. word syllables, esp. in CA.

c) Another related linguistic phenomenon concerned with traditional
roots and involving shift is that the root radicals, and consequently the
whole word, can be put in any order without any change of the basic
meaning, thus CCC, CCC, CCC, CCC, CCC, and CCC. All
express shades of one basic meaning
36
. The reason is that CCC is
originally a complex word consisting of at least three free morphemes
agglutinated together. For a thorough discussion of this phenomenon, see
DHSR, Comments I of 3.2.51.



2.3 Distant cognates
We have thus far dealt with implicit and explicit cognates and shown
that phonologically different forms or roots are surface manifestations of
one single form lying beneath them. Such surface forms have been termed
implicit cognates since they are based on the same stem. For example,
PAN *ra(m)buk, *dabuk, *sambuk, *tambak, *ambak, etc. to strike are
all based on stem [bak] to strike = HS [bak] to strike: see 2.1.3 ff
above.
There is still what I call distant cognates which differ from both
explicit and implicit cognates in that explicit and implicit cognates are
based on the same stem, whereas distant cognates are based on the proot
of that stem. To clarify this idea, it is well to give an illustrative example.
Suppose for a while that Hamito-Semitic has lost all traces of stem
[bak] above or simply chosen not to compound proots, like [baW] and [ak
], together to create new words. What is to be done in this case?
We have no choice but to use distant cognates. Among HS distant
cognates, we may mention [dak] to pound, beat, strike, break (for caus.
[da-] and proot [ak] to destroy, etc., see DHSR: 2.1.6.5.1). Some other
kindred roots are dwk, dyk, dk, nky, nk, nkb, tkk, tk, nkp, mtk, htk, and
so forth (see DHSR). Note that [a] expresses an identical meaning, and

36
C, C, and C are used as symbols for any three different radicals.


Page No. 72

that it has, like [ak], a huge number of kindred roots, together with
thousands of derivatives (in a language like CA), based on it.
All Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic roots enumerated above are mere
derivatives of one single proot [ak]. This proot is expected to be found in
all language families of the world.
The identification of distant cognates hastens the establishment of
genetic relatedness among language families and truly constitutes a giant
step toward the reconstruction of Proto-World language on a firm ground.
Furthermore, the use of distant cognates can compensate for any loss of
words (or traditional roots ) that may take place in language in the course
of time, and neutralize the difference in datable records among language
families, as that between Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic.
Another example of distant cognates is PAN *tekes to bind firmly
and HS ys-t rope, cord. For the purpose of illustration, I will explain in
some detail why they are cognate.
The PAN root is seen in Maranao tekes to bing, hold, firmly,
Balinese tekes to fasten, fix in place, etc. All are from a cpd of *ta- (see
DHSR: 3.7), [aW] ~ [kaW] (see DHSR: 3.17.83), and proot [as]
bind, tie, fetter.
Among implicit Austronesian cognates is PAN *i()kes bound firmly
as in Sasak ikes firm, well-bound, Manggarai ikes tied to
37
.
HS has both the proot and, like Austronesian, the compound based on it
as in Egyp. (y)s to tie, bind, fetter ~ s id.; ss a tie, fetter, bond:
yss to tie, fetter; ys-wt pl,, yss-t cord, rope: See DHSR: 3.17.83.5.
One of the CA cognates is mu-karkasu fettered. The etymological
story of this quadriliteral root [krks] is as follows:
There is originally a proot [as], perh. a rope, cord, fetter to which
[kaW] state/condition, etc. was prefixed: [kaWas] > *kaas > *kas >
*kas (see DHSR: 3.17.83). Later, a proot [ra-] was prefixed to [kas] not
only in CA, but also in all HS language divisions, including Egyp., as in
Akk. raksu to bind, Ug., Heb, rks, id., Egyp. rks-w yoke of horse =
CA riksu noose, cord (for prefixed [ra-], see DHSR: 3.15.1ff). The
CA form karkasu represent a partial reduplication, whereby the first
radical is repeated according to this Semitic pattern: Faala > FaFala.
For this and all other types of reduplication, see DHSR: 2.1.14.2. It may
be interesting to note that CA can also use /r-/ as an infix, hence [krs]. The
Berber division of Hamito-Semitic has only [krs].

37
The question whether PAN passive suffix *-en can also appear as a prefix will be dealt
with later.


Page No. 73

Comments
I have thus far presented a number of analyses of HS and Austronesian
cognate words above. For Austronesian *tekes, for example, one surface
layer [*te] & two deep layers: deep [-k-] and deeper [s] and for Egyp.
[s]: one surface layer [a] and one deep [s]. For the deepest layer or
proot, see Comments of 4.3.20 below. This implies that [s], or even just
[s], is not a proot. The real proot is, as will see, is phonetically quite
different.

The last example below will be left to the reader to answer. He should
decompose the PAN root into its ultimate components, select the exact HS
cognate from three given roots below, explain his choice, and point out the
component elements of the chosen cognate as well as the ultimate
component parts of the two other roots.
PAN *utana to ask, inquire
Iban tana to ask, inquire, question,
Kambera ka-tana to ask about,
Makasarese kutana to ask about,
Malagasy ontany enquiry, interrogation, question,
Malay tana interrogation.
HS: Egyp. (a) n to ask, enquire,
(b) dny to question, interrogate,
(c) n to ask, request.



2.4 Is voice originally phonemic?
In nearly all languages voice is phonemic, i.e. capable of
distinguishing one meaning from another, and anyone can cite hundreds of
minimal pairs drawn from his language to show the meaningful contrast
between voiced and voiceless pairs.
In Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) voice is strictly speaking
phonemic and so is in other languages. In Classical Arabic, however,
voice is not always phonemic and there are considerable interchanges in
this respect, a fact that has been treated in depth in DHSR. This implies
that what is absolutely true at the present stage of a language, say MSA,
may be somewhat untrue at its earlier stage, i.e. Classical Arabic. As we
go further back in time to other stages (e.g., PSem., PHS, pre-PHS, and so
on), we may be confronted with averages like: first, half-true, next,


Page No. 74

somewhat true, then, rarely true, and finally, absolutely untrue. In
Egyptian, too, voice is not always phonemic as the following examples
may suggest:
km to see ~ gm id.
tkn approach, draw near ~ tgn id. ~ dg ~ dg id.
tbn circle, circuit; drum, tambourine ~ dbn id.
tmm sack, mat ~ dmm id.
d to give ~ t id., and so forth.
An in-depth study of Austronesian roots reveals the frequent absence of
contrast between voiceless consonants and their voiced counterparts. This
same phenomenon has already been noted in both Hamito-Semitic and
Indo-European and given what it deserves of discussion (see DHSR, esp.
the Comments of both 4.6.18 & 4.9.39).
We have already seen in 2.1.4ff and 2.1.5ff above that both stems [-
kep] and [-keb] express an identical meaning, i.e. to cover. Similarly,
PMP *baqbaq expresses mouth and *kabaRa expresses shoulder,
while in PO their respective cognates are *paqpaq and *kapaRa. These are
not isolated examples that can be explained away as coincidental or
ascribed to sound change since they can be supported by so many others.
We have also seen in 2.1.7ff above that PAN *pu expresses to blow,
and so does *bu, e.g.
Soboyo buufuu to blow, as on a shell trumpet,
Rotinese fu puffed up, as the cheeks when blowing,
Tolai vu to blow, blow on (as wind), blow on a trumpet,
Ngadha bu trumpet, shell trumpet,
Gilbertese bu sea-shell horn, trumpet,
Kwaio buu conch shell,
Gedaged fu blowing.
An implicit cognate is PAN *suba ~ *tuba (see Comments II of 2.1.7g, n.
b above).
Moreover, as we will see in 4.2.2 below, PAN *ubun expresses heap,
pile as in Sasak ombon heap up earth, Bontok ubon be crowded
(people), etc. This vary same meaning is also expressed by PAN *upun,
e.g.
Bontok opon gather in masses,
Kanakanabu upon together,
Yamdema upun hang in the air, of smoke in an enclosed area,
Sasak umpun smoke
38
.

38
In addition, each member of the minimal pair has implicit cognates.


Page No. 75

Furthermore, we have just noted in 2.1.3ff above that PAN *-bak
expresses to strike, break, which is in depth the very same meaning
expressed by *-pak as the following Austronesian implicit cognates may
strongly suggest:

2.4.1 PAN *sepak to break, split
Ilokano seppak to break, snap, of bows, limbs,
Tae sepak cut off the leg of an animal,
Tagalog sapak to split something lengthwise,
Manggarai capak to tear off, split, etc.

2.4.1a PAN variant *sapak to break, split
Tagalog sapak to split lengthwise,
Kapampangan aspak crack,
Manggarai capak to tear off, split.

2.4.1b PAN another variant *sipak to break, split
Maranao sipak to split,
Toba Batak sipak split apart.

2.4.1c PAN *Repak to break to pieces
Bontok gepak-en to break, smash,
Malay repak crumbling under pressure.

2.4.1d PAN *Ripik to break to pieces
Maranao gepik to break,
Iban repik to split in thin pieces.

2.4.1e PAN *rupuk sound of breaking
Ilokano roppok break short, break in two,

2.4.1f PAN *upik to break off
Toba Batak upik broken off,
Tontemboan upi to tear off, pull off.

2.4.1g PAN *tepuk to break, hit
Puyuma tpuk to hit,
Manggarai tempok to break,
Karo tepuk to clap the hands.



Page No. 76

2.4.1h PAN *upak, *hupak to split, break
Maranao opak to break, split,
Malagasy ofaka peeling off,
Tiruray ufak to split lengthwise.

2.4.1i PAN *epak to break, split
Cebuano upak to break or cut off a piece of something,
Toba Batak upok broken to pieces; man-upok break something
off,
Balinese empak break, break off of itself (e.g. a branch), etc.
HS: CA fakka to separate, break; CVII infakka be split or broken
(by itself), Egyp. pk to separate, Berb.: Shila fuku id.





























Page No. 77


CHAPTER THREE







SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HAMITO-SEMITIC
AND AUSTRONESIAN AT THE 1
ST
LAYER OF
SURFACE STRUCTURE









Before beginning our comparative study of Hamito-Semitic and
Austronesian language families, it may be important to draw attention to
the fact that the similarities between Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic are
not limited to deeper surface structure, or 2
nd
surface structure, but
that they are quite obvious on the surface structure, or 1
st
layer of surface
structure. Consider the following list of Austronesian roots and Hamito-
Semitic cognates:

3.1 PAN *manu which, what
Chamorro manu what,
Seediq manu what,
Mal. mana which,
Mlg. mana-kuri, manahuana who, etc.
HS: Assyr. min what, Eth. mn what, but in CA man who. All
are from a compound of proot [ma] which, what, who and suffixed [-n].


Page No. 78

The proot is in Egyp. m what, who, CA m what, which (DHSR
3.20.1, n. 2f).

3.2 PAN *teka to arrive, come; to raid, to attack
Old Javanese tka to come, to arrive,
Acehnese tka to come, arrive,
Yakan tekka arrival; mag-tekka to raid, attack,
Mapun takka to arrive, to reach a destination; ka-takka arrival,
Balinese teka to come, arrive.
HS: Egyp. tkk, tktk to invade, attack: tk to enter, invade; tknw he
who enters; tkn to enter, draw near, approach, tkm to approach, tkr
to approach, come, etc.

3.3 PAN *benan deer
Paiwan venan coll. deer,
Favorlang binnan deer.
HS: CA binnu smell of deer dung.

3.4 PAN *dgdg to run in masses, crowd
Malay ddaq crowded together,
Sundarese digdig to run in masses, etc.
HS: CA daa to walk in short steps (said of a group of people). It
can also express hasten, du group of people walking together,
Egyp. dg to walk, march, while dgg to run quickly, Cush.: Somali
degdeg to hurry.

3.5 PAN *munu to dwell, stay
Bugotu mono to abide, stay, dwell,
Arosi mono to dwell, reside,
Tolai mono to stay in a house and keep guard.
HS: Egyp. mn to abide, remain, be permanent, be fixed, stable,
established, Cush.: Somali man house, Oromo mana, Galla man id.
(DHSR 2.3.35). It is not surprising to find in CA man near, next to or
in front of, used exclusively with house and nothing else at all. Hence,
my house is man your house, i.e. in front of it or near it. As for the
pre-Islamic word man houses, it is a truncated form of manzilu
houses and is thus from a different root.



Page No. 79

3.6 PAN *muna brain
Fijian mona brain,
Roviana monana- the brain.
HS: Cush.: Som man mind, Chad.: Sura, Angas man to know,
Montol man id. PHS stem [man] to think; to know.

3.7 PAN *manu- (with extensions) bird, chicken
Fordata manu-t bird,
Kei mau ~ manu-t bird, chicken,
Madurese mano bird,
Delang manu chicken,
Tamuan manu chicken,
Sundarese manuk bird,
Sawai man chicken, bird,
Tetun manu chicken.
HS: Egyp. mn-t the swallow, mn dove, mn-t dove, pigeon, bird
(also mny-t, mn kind of bird, etc.), Chad.: Kariya mnu bird.

3.8 PAN *tana- earth, land
Malagasy tane earth, land,
Iban tanah earth, land,
Malay tanah land, country,
Kerinci tanah earth,
Taboyan tana earth,
Dusun Dejah tana earth,
Paku tan earth,
Old Javanese tanah land, country, earth,
Sasak tana earth, ground.
HS: Egyp. tnn earth, ground, CA tanaa, tanaa, etc. to dwell in a
place.

3.9 PAN *laud sea, ocean
Malay loot sea,
Javanese lod ocean,
Tamuan laut ocean,
Sambal laut ocean,
Katingan laut ocean,
Delang loot ocean,
Bikol loot ocean,
Bisaya lawod open sea.


Page No. 80

HS: Egyp. rwd-t shore, bank: CA mi-l strand of sea, perh. from
*mi-lw. I dont know why the instrumental mi is used. Is it truly
instrumental?

3.10 PAN *debdeb chest, breast
Hanunoo dubdub chest, breast,
Tagalog dibdib chest,
Pazeh zebzeb chest.
HS: CA ubyu udder, pl.a-b.

3.11 PAN *kakaCu spider
Pazeh kakasu spider,
Bunun kakatu spider,
Thao kakatu spider.
HS: CA ukku spider (male), uksu (*uk-u)id., originally
female spider. Another derivative of [vk, v = vowel] spider by
infixing /-n-/ is ankabu id., where its final [-bu] = male, anka-b-tu (<
anka-b-u female spider = BHeb. akb, BAram. kbt spider: see
DHSR: 3.23.9.
It is important to note that the presence of this compound word in
Austronesian languages, esp. in Formosan, proves the earlier distinction
of gender in the whole family.

3.12 PAN *bali wind
Saisiyat bali wind,
Thao fari wind,
Amis fali wind,
Paiwan vali wind, air.
HS: CA ballu cold wind: stem [bal]
39
.

3.13 PAN *tali cord, rope
tagalog ta:li cord, rope,
Bikol tali cord, rope,
Javanese tali cord, rope,
Malay tali cord, rope,
Isneg tali rope, cable,
Rukai calisi rope,

39
PAN also has with extensions: *belit, *bilid wind.



Page No. 81

Paiwan tslis a hem rope,
Puyama ali cord, rope.
HS: CA lu cord, rope.

3.14 PAN *batu stone
Tagalog bato stone,
Pazeh batu stone,
Thao fatu stone,
Squliq Atayal btu-nuh stone,
Saisiat batu stone,
Bunun batu stone,
Atayal btu-nuh stone
Tundyung batuu stone,
Kapuas batu stone,
Bandajar batu stone
Tolai vat stone.
HS: CA bahtu stone.

3.15 PAN *sulig spear
Tagalog suli:giq spear,
Malay slig spear,
Javanese suligi spear.
HS: CA salim pl. spear, the sg. form is unrecorded
40
.

3.16 PAN *sakit pain
Ilokano sakit sickness, pain,
Malay sakit being in pain, sick,
Iban sakit painful; sick,
Maranao sakit pain, sickness,
Hiligaynon sakit pain, grief, sickness,
Isneg takit pain, grief, sickness,
Tagalog sakit desease, sickness,
Hanunoo sakit pain, illness,
Bontok sakit be painful, to hurt.
HS: Egyp. sk-t pain, anguish, despair.


40
It is also found in IE, notably in Old Church Slavic sulica and Old Irish sleg spear.


Page No. 82

3.17 PAN *rakat walk, a compound of proot [ra-] and stem [kat], a cpd
of [ka] (see below) and suffixed *-t. The proot also appears in PMP as
*lakaw, PO as *lako.
Amis rakat movement, walk,
Cebuano lakat to walk,
Tongon laka to go, walk, step, etc.
HS: Egyp. ktkt (redupl.) to walk in short quick steps, CA ta-katkata
(redupl.) id., Chad.: Mubi kt to go, go out, Birgit kaati id. (see DHSR
3.11.46).
All Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic words above are ultimately from
a proot [ka] as in Egyp. kyw to move ~ k to move, kty or ky
runner: CA kaka (redupl.) to run, as a thief runs.

3.18 PAN *ra()suk insert, penetrate, a compound of proot [ra-] and
stem [suk]
Bikol rasok peg,
Old Javanese rasuk to enter, etc.
One of the implicit cognates is PAN *tisuk to stab, stick to as in
Sundanese tisuk stabbing, nisuk to stab and Hiligaynon tisuk to stick
into.
For more implicit cognates, see 4.4.23 below.
HS: Akk. sikka-tu a nail, CA sakiy a nail, sukku an extremely
narrow opening (of anything) also the hole of snakes and scorpions, so-
called because of the narrowness of its opening; CIV asakka would
signify to penetrate into such a narrow opening, Egyp. sk spear (see
DHSR 3.3.30).

3.19 PAN *dahan old, ancient
Illokano daan old, ancient (things),
Bikol daan old (things); mag-daan to age,
Hiligaynon daan old, Aklanon danna older, ancient,
Cebuano daan old, previous, the one before.
HS: Sab. d already, previously, etc. see DHSR 3.9.21.

3.20 PAN a-nu if
Paiwan nu if,
Isneg no if,
Kavalan anu if,
Atta nu if,


Page No. 83

Sambal no if.
HS: CA in if, Egyp. yn conditional particle.

3.21 PAN nipen tooth
Tongon nifo tooth,
Thao nipen tooth,
Bunun nipun tooth,
Chamorro nifen tooth,
Samoan nifo tooth,
Maori niho tooth,
Malagasy nifi tooth.
HS: CA nbu-n canine tooth, a compound of n canine tooth and
[ba] cutting.

3.22 PAN *buah fruit
Javanese who fruit,
Malay buah fruit,
Squliq Atayal buai fruit,
Siraya voa fruit,
Delang buah fruit,
Tamuan buah fruit,
Tongan fua fruit.
HS: Egyp. b-t fruit. CA fkiha-tu coll. fruit, pl. of the pl. fawkihu
appears as a compound of *fa, i.e. fa fruit + *kihu a tree. Concrete
evidence supporting that *fa is a term for fruit comes from compounds
including this particular *fa such as aafa to cut or cull fruit, Akk. p
id., where a- is a root signifying to cut in CA as well as in sister
languages a, aa, aam, aab, etc. (DHSR: Comments of 3.9.1.3).

3.23 PAN *basu cheek
Delang pipi cheek,
Tamuan pipi cheek,
Dusun Dejah pasu cheek,
Taboyan pasu cheek,
Chmr. fasu cheek,
Murung sobia (by metathesis) cheek,
Paku pahu cheek.
HS: Egyp. bws cheek, pl. bwsw.


Page No. 84


3.24 PAN *nati calf
Maranao nati calf,
Cebuano nati calf, kid,
Tolai nati-na the young of animals.
HS: Egyp. ntt bulls for sacrifice.

3.25 PAN *saua spouse
Kadazan savo spouse,
Kayan hawa- spouse
Itawis atawa husband
Tagalog a-sawa spouse,
Ngadyu Dayak sawe spouse,
Chamorro a-sagwa spouse,
Bintulu saba wife
Yamadena sawa spouse,
Kankany asawa husband.
HS: CA a-tu [r. w] spouse, Sab. st id. (s usu. = ).

3.26 PAN. *na genitive marker of 3
rd
pers. as well as the 3
rd
sg. agent
Tagalog ni-ya,
Bikol -ni-ya,
Old Javanese -nya,
Chamorro -na,
Gilbertese -na,
Fijian -na,
Atayal ni-a.
HS: Egyp. n, n a mark of the genitive also agent as in w to
beat: w-n beater.

3.27 PAN *isa name
Tigak isa- name.
Nakanai isa- name, identity,
Puluwat yiit name,
Anejom n-ia name,
Tutuba isa- name.
HS: Egyp. nys to name, to be named, to call; Nys caller, title of a
god < ys to hail, call to. This is ultimately the very same stem seen in


Page No. 85

CA ism name: samma to name, gen. HS umu. For the ultimate
origin of the HS cpd umu, see DHSR: 3.3.19.

3.28 PAN *tahu excrement
Tagalog ta:e excrement,
Tongan tae excrement,
Saar ti:i excrement.
HS: Egyp. tt fetid matter, dirt, excrement, Assyr. u mud, earth,
clay: proot [iy] or [], also Semitic -n clay, mud, etc.

3.29 PAN tibu deep place in water
Manggarai tiwo deep place in water, pool,
Fordata tvu deep hole of the reef,
Buruese tifu swamp, lake.
HS: Egyp. tbteb (redupl.) depth (of a river).

3.30 PAN *kuti vagina, vulva
Thao kuti vagina, vulva,
Bunun kuti vagina, vulva,
Paiwan kutji vulva.
HS: Egyp. kt vulva, vagina.

3.31 PAN *biti belly
Javanese wt belly,
Sundanese biti belly,
Taboyan butu belly,
Sambal butu belly,
Dusum Malang butu belly,
Murung butui belly,
Paku buntu belly,
Samihim buntu belly.
HS: Chad.: Sura ut belly, stomach, Angas wut id., Berb.: Ntifa bu
belly and i-bini naval, Awjila a-b navel, CA banu belly,
BHeb. been womb (CA ban also expresses womb).

Comments
Among other common words for belly is Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
*kempu belly = Akk. upp-um, CA uff-un basket, with -b-: CA


Page No. 86

ibb-tu, Heb. ebah stomach, Egyp. b-t bowels, intestines (see
DHSR 4.2.31).

3.32 PAN *tutu breast
Paiwan tsotso breast,
Rukai toto breast,
Thao tutu breast,
Ami tsotso breast,
Taboyan tt suck,
Dusum Dejah tt suck.

PAN variant *titi breast
Aklanon titi nipple, teat,
Ceduano titi breast; suck the breast,
Soboyo titi suckling.

PAN variant *titiq breast
Hiligaynon titi nipple,
Bintulu titi female breast,
Hiw tit breast.

PAN *susu female breast
Bunun susu breast,
Amis coco female breast, teat,
Saaroa u-susu female breast,
Kavalan sisu breast,
Ilokano suso breast, teat, udder; pa-susu-en to breastfeed,
Aklanon soso female breast,
Tagalog suso breast; pa-susu to nurse, give milk to,
Itbayaten s(om)oso suck from the breast; pa-soso-en to let a baby
suck breast milk.
HS: Ug. d, d breast, CA ady breast; ad to nourish (a baby)
from the breast = Egyp. tyt to suckle.

3.33 PAN *baa shoulder (Dahl, 1977: 91).
Katingan bahu shoulder,
Kapuas bahu shoulder,
Siang bahai shoulder,
Murung bahai shoulder,


Page No. 87

Dohoi bahai shoulder.
HS: CA bu distance between shoulders as a vb stretch the hands,
arms also measure with the arm, Ge. b span of the arms, Tigre b
id., Meh.bt, Soq b id. (DHSR 3.17.30).
For the Semantic relationship between arm and shoulder: cf. Egyp. kp
arm, shoulder.

3.34 PAN *mata eye
Tagalog mata eye,
Javanese mata eye,
Siraya matta eye,
Sambal mate eye,
Chamorro mata eye,
Murung mata eye,
Paku mato eye,
Aklanon, mta eye,
Kapuas mata eye,
Rukai maca eye,
Siang mata eye.
HS: Egyp. mtmt (redupl.) pry into, CA mat myopia < Egyp. m-t
sight, vision, something seen < m to see, look at; caus. m.

3.35 PAN *matay to die
Chamorro matai to die; dead, corpse,
Sasak mate to die,
Manggarai mate to die,
Tetum mate to die,
Gedaged mat to die, expire,
Tae mate to die; dead,
Javanese mati dead, pati death,
Taboyan mat to die,
Madurese mate to die; dead, pate to die; death.
HS: Akk. mtu to die, CA mta id.; mautu death, OAram. mwt to
die, Egyp. mwt, mt, m to die; death.

Comments I
Dahl (1976: 63), following Dyen, regards Javanese pati and Madurese
pate above as variant forms of mati and mate respectively: CA fautu


Page No. 88

sudden death, fta be over, go away, pass away, Chad.: Aungi fat- go
away, Egyp. p-t remote ages, etc. see both DHSR 3.11.29, n. 6a.
There is a proot [pa] signifying before in time, ago, former, afore,
etc. as in Egyp. sf yesterday: [s] evening plus [f], etc. see DHSR
3.17.14.

Comments II
PAN *matay has been treated by some scholars as a compound of *m
(meaning ?) and *-aCay (C = alveolar affricate) death as in
Ifugaw ate = a word base of all the words that convey the meaning of
death, die, kill;
Tiruray atey dying,
Bimanese h-ate to kill,
Saisiyat masay to die, etc.
I dealt with HS root [mwt] die, death, dead in DHSR 3.9.32 and
established m, i.e. mw, as an unquestionable proot signifying death,
dying; to die as in Egyp. m death. But in 3.7.25 of the same book I
also established a proot [tau] or [at] to die. To the already cited HS
cognates in that section, I add CA atwu death. In addition, we should
also expect [ad] die, death as in Egyp. yd death, perdition, CA ta-
d, said of people, die one after another
41
.

Comments III
The problem we have just dealt with above is similar (though by no
means identical) to PAN *mai to come as in
Favorlang mai to come,
Kambera mai to come,
Rembong mai come, Come on!, Lets go,
Bimanese mai come, Come on!, Lets go,
Tetum mai to come, etc.
HS: Egyp. m, my, ym to come; m come!.

Again, there are two distinct proots in both families at this stage of
historical development.
1) A proot [ma- ~ am] to come in CA amma to come to, go to (go
toward a place), Eth.: Tigre ammm go toward a direction, Cush. im-
t to come, etc.

41
The possibility that [tau] is from an earlier [au] to die as well as mortal > man
should not be dismissed. It is, however, too early to deal with.


Page No. 89


2) A proot [ai or ay] to come, to go. Some illustrative examples
from Austronesian languages are:
Ilokano ay to come; um-ay id.,
Tiruray ay to go, to come,
Tboli ee come on!, etc.
HS: Egyp. y to come, to go; , yw, etc. to come, Cush.: Sid e to
enter, Omat ai to come, Chad.: Dera ya to go, Daba ya to come.

Comments IV
Very closely related to PAN *am or *ma- to come are such
derivatives as Tetum tama to enter, Iban tama Malagasy tamy to
enter. For proot [ta-], see DHSR 3.5.
For what concerns their similarly sounding words as in Toba Botak
tama suitable, appropriate, Ilokano tama conveniently, suitably, fitly,
Rotinese tama fit together well, they are of a different origin. Their HS
cognates are Egyp. tm what is fitting, seemly also complete; entire,
CA tammu moral sublime or perfection; tammu perfection; complete,
entire; atamma to accomplish, etc.

3.36 PAN *soko leg, foot
Javanese sikel leg, foot,
Malay kaki leg, foot,
Delang kaki leg, foot,
Tamuan kaki leg, foot,
Madurese soko leg, foot,
Sundanese sukuq foot.
PPh. *ski leg, foot (AIC, Fasc. I, p. 111).
HS stem [] leg in CA su id., BHeb. , BAram. id.

Comments
Another Austronesian root for leg, foot is seen in Taboyan p,
Dusum Dejah p, Dusum Malang p, Samihim p, Paku p, etc.
leg, foot, Kapuas, Katingan pai, Siang paa, Murung baam id. = HS:
Ug. pn foot, etc.

3.37 PAN *paha thigh
Tamuan paha thigh,
Delang paho thigh,


Page No. 90

Bandjar baha thigh.
HS: CA pa thigh, BHeb. pd id.

3.38 PAN *kah- tree, wood: Dahl (1976: 33) reconstructs *kaSiv
Tagalog ka:hoy,
Bikol kahoy, kayu,
Javanese kaju,
Delang kayu,
Malay kaju,
Saar kioo,
Saisiat khy,
Thao ka:wi,
Pazeh kahui,
Paiwan kasiw,
Ami kasui
HS: Egyp. k-t a plant, kw fruit. It may belong here CA kawu
shooting leaves, a plant. For CA *kihu tree, see 3.22 above.

3.39 PAN *muntai kind of citrus tree
Maranao montai grape, orange,
Uma munte orange,
Proto-Ambon mue citrus fruit.
HS: CA muzzu acidulous pomegranate from mau wild
pomegranate tree, Egyp. md stick as a vb to saw wood. It is from this
mau tree the term for honey in numerous world languages are
derived. See DHSR: 4.7.54.8.

3.40 PAN *saup to help, assist ?
Kapampangan saup help,
Cebuano saup sharecropper,
Maranao saop business partner,
Iban saup help, assistance.
HS: CA saafa to help, assist; isf assistance, help.

3.41 PAN *sakay boat; to sail
Bikol sakay-an boat; mag-sakay ride in a boat,
Aklanon sakay ride (on), travel (on),
Pangasinan sakay to navigate,


Page No. 91

Iban sakai (of boats) come to land.
HS: Egyp. sk to ferry over, transport by boat, skr to sail, CA
sukkan rudder, rear part of a ship, etc. all are based on the stem in Egyp.
sk sea, lake.

3.42 PAN *lakay grandfather
Hanunoo laki grandfather,
Pangasinan laki grandfather,
Ilokano lakay old man, husband,
Isneg lakay old man,
Yami akay grandfather,
Kankanaey la-lakay go grow old.
HS: CA ma-lk angel, messenger of God, hence laaka message,
letter (of course not any ordinary letter or message), ma-lku arch.
king; laaka send a message, Ge. lk id. as a n. minister, Harari
laaxa, lxa to send; lx messenger, message. The term mlk
kingdom, Gods kingdom in BHeb. as well as in BAram., Syr., etc. is
based on [lk] and should be distinguished from the Aramaic loanword
malkt kingdom. The CA corresponding term is derived from malaku
king > malaka to own, possess > CA ma-mlaka-tu fem. kingdom.
In the course of time /--/ of ma-lku king has been shortened to /-a-/
in some languages or dropped in some others for ease of pronunciation.
Moreover, initial /ma-/ (a prefix in CA malku above) became an
inseparable part of the root in all Semitic languages, including CA which
has older ma-lku and its later form malaku: Ug., Phoen., OAram.,
OffAram., Hatra, Palm., JAram., Nab., Sab. mlk king, Heb. melek
king, Akk. malku, CA malaku id.

3.43 PAN *Cau person, human being
Pazeh saw person, human,
Thao caw or aw person, human, being,
Paiwan tsau-tsau person,
Kanakanabu tsau person,
Puyama au person,
Saar tsu-tsoo person
Tsou tsou person,
Rukai u-tsao person,
Itbayaten tawo person,
Isneg tao man, human being,


Page No. 92

Pangasinan tao people, person,
Hanunoo tawu man, person,
Aklanon tawo person, people,
Cebuano tawu man, person,
Hiligaynon tawu man.
HS: Egyp. man, male, CA awiy warrior (comp. Egyp. ()
soldier) also prisoner as well as guest.

3.44 A root of greatest interest is PAN *kuden clay cooking pot since it
is both related to material culture and extending back in time to the
Neolithic age. The root is seen in many Austronesian languages such as
Kuruti kur, Fijian kuro, Motu uro, Nauna kul, Hanunoo kurun, Maranao
koden, Kelabit kudn, and Toba Batak hudon.
HS: Egyp. ktw-t cooking pot, seemingly from ktw boiling pot,
caldron, kettle, CA katinu cup, goblet.
I believe that Austronesian proot /-d-/ and HS proot /-t-/ are from a
morpheme phonologically different from either. Consider the following
Egyp. kindred roots:
a) Egyp. k pot, vessel = Egyp. -t a measure vessel; d-yw
pot, vessel, bowl
b) Egyp. k pot, vessel also a kind of dye apparently related to
Egyp. k a plant from which a dye was made: Latin carthamus
tinctorius,
d) Egyp. kb pot, vessel, vase = Egyp. bw id.
e) Egyp. ks sanctuary pot or vessel = CA kasu cup, glass, etc.:
PHS stem [kau].
There is no doubt at all that all above cited words are from a cpd
consisting of proot [ka-] plus a term for earth, clay. Evidence drawn
from Semitic languages confirms that the proot for earth is [a] = Egyp.
[t] (see , for example, DHSR: 3.17.29). The situation here is similar to
PAN *ipu cup and PHS *wp id. You can prefix to both words the very
same proot [ka-] to create a new word kp or kb cup. Both forms are
expected to be found in so many world languages. For proot [ka-], see
DHSR: 3.17.83.

3.45 PAN *mansar bandicoot, marsupial rat
Damar madar bandicoot, Motu mada id., Fij. waca large rat,
Kamarian bandicoot.


Page No. 93

HS: Akk. umru rat.

3.46 PAN *siku end of something
tongan hiku tail, end, tip,
Nggela igu-igu tail,
Niue hiku end, tail; faka-hiku to make an end of, destroy, cause to
cease,
Tavaluan iku end,
Samoan siu tip, extremity,
Rennellese siku tail of any animal or fish, end, suffix.
HS: Egyp. sk make an end of, destroy as a n. the end, death, the
finish of a matter; skk to bring to an end, Pun. sk to die, CA sikka-tu
tip of plough, OffAram. sk-t tip, esp. of plough.
Comments
Evidence from both Austronesian and CA demonstrates that /s-/ is a
prefix, i.e. a causative prefix. CA akka-tu death, from a lost verb
*akka to die, bring to an end. This verb has been preserved in akk
to die (due to the common interchange of // and //), hence ukwatu
tail. Austronesian evidence is seen in such implicit cognates as *ikuR
tail and *iku id.: see fts 52-54 below.

3.47 PAN *tidal to look upward, face upward
Bugotu tada to look up; rei tada to lift up the eyes,
Nggela tanda up, upward; tandal-agi to put face up,
Manam tidal-i to look up to somebody,
Gedaged tada to look upward, etc. (see 4.3.22 below).
HS implicit cognate: CA dalla to guide, point at; dall a guide, Sab.
dll scout.
As for the notion of up, upward: CA CIV adalla seems to signify be
above, e.g. said of an eagle, lit. to hunt a prey from above, said of a
man, to be above his peers. The HS root is a cpd consisting of [da-]
make, cause and [al] see (DHSR: 3.17.2).
A semantically and phonologically explicit cognate is HS [al] seen in
Akk. nalu to see, Assyr. nalu to look, look up, BHeb., BAram. nl
to lift up, etc. All are from the root in CA alla to look at someone or
something from a higher place, rise above so as to afford a view over,
overlook (DHSR: 3.11.14).

3.48 PAN *gilaw gleaming, luminous


Page No. 94

Malay gilau brilliancy, luminosity,
Cebuano gilaw steady flow of light from something glowing,
gleaming; glow, gleam.
HS: CA alwu polishing, burnishing; aliyyu clear, obvious, lucid;
al to elucidate, clear up, uncover, said of dishes, etc. to clean as to
make them shine, Phoen., OffAram. gly to uncover, BHeb. gl to
uncover, make naked.

Comments
It is most likely that the root under study is a cpd of two proots: [ga]
(for its signification, see DHSR: 3.17.83) and [la] as in CA lalaa to
shine, gleam, glitter, beam (see DHSR: 3.7, n. 4).
Among Austronesian kindred roots are:

PAN *gilap radiance
Ilokano gilap flash,
Javanese gilap shiny, gleaming,
Manggarai hilap radiance.

*gilak to shine, glitter
Aklanon gilak to glitter, shine,
Cebuano gilak to glitter, sparkle.

3.49 PAN *ger sound; grunt, growl
Maranao ger grunt, hum,
Singhi Land Dayak gur growl,
Old Javanese g(um)er thundering, roaring.
HS: CA arara-tu sound also the low guttural sound made by a
male of any large quadruped; arara to growl, grumble: PHS proot
[gaW]: see DHSR: 3.11.58.

3.50 PAN *telu three
Ivatan tatdo,
Tagalog tatla,
Ibanag tallu,
Ilokano tallo,
Salako talu, tau,
Samoan tolu,
Tuvala tolu,
Tongan tolu,


Page No. 95

Malagasy telo,
Hawaiian kolu,
Rotuma folu,
Thao turu,
Fijian tolu,
Cebuano tulu,
Madurese tello,
Kavalan turu,
Aklanon tatlo,
Pangasinan talora, tal.
HS: CA ulu third: alu three, Phoen., Heb. l id., OffAram.,
Hatra, Palm. tlt id. The term for tree seems to be closely related to CA
ulla-tu fem. a number of, a group of people.

3.51 PAN *pitu seven
Malay pitu,
Javanese pitu,
Tagalog pito,
Madurese petto
Ilokano pito.
HS: CA and gen. Sem. sabatu masc. seven, Egyp. sf id.: PHS word
abatu.

Comments
The reconstructed PAN root does not seem to account for an initial /-
/as in Balinese sapta seven
42
. In taking this into consideration, the PAN
reconstructed term becomes identical with Proto-Indo-European *septu- as
in Sanskrit sapta. The change of /-b-/ to /-p-/ is due to progressive
assimilation upon the loss of /-a-/: sabatu > *sabtu > saptu.

3.52 PAN *lima five
Seediq lima,
Amis lima,
Puyuma lima,
Isneg lima,
Ilokano lima,
Tagalog lima,

42
Is it an old loanword from Sanskrit?


Page No. 96

Cebuano lima,
Malay lima,
Malagasy dima,
Old Javanese lima.
HS: Cush.: Galla lima two, Somali liba two, etc. The main
difference here is that HS lima two counts two hands, whereas PAN
lima five counts the fingers of one hand. It is just for this logical
reason that the term for five is also the term for hand in many
Austronesian languages.
A similar difference is noted between the Sino-Tibetan term for 8 as
in Archaic Chinese pwat id. and Hamito-Semitic term for 4 as in Egyp.
fdw, ft id., from [pawt] as in CA fawtu the small openings (or space)
between the five fingers, which are four in number. Sino-Tibetan counts
the openings of both hands, whereas Hamito-Semitic counts the openings
of one hand: see DHSR: 3.25.10.1. For Austronesian cognate term, see
4.1.47 below.
The closest CA term is lumma-tu fem. a group of people between 3
and 10. The original meaning of lamma is to gather with the hand,
lamlama to gather from here and there. The same /l/ is seen in Semitic
lamasa to touch with the hand: massa id. It can occur in medial position
as in CA mallasa to touch with the hand < *massasa by dissim., etc. see
DHSR: 3.17.32. The proot [ma] hand is also seen in HS man, mn, m,
etc. to give, orig. to hand: see DHSR: 3.17.72.
PHS proot [ma] hand corresponds to PAN *ima hand; five:
Bunun ima hand,
Isneg ima hand, arm also quadrupeds: lima five above,
Kankany ima hand, arm: lima five,
Sasaki ma hand: lima five,
Motu ima hand, arm; five
Ngadha ima hand, arm.

Comments
Apart from numerals, there is a suffix which is much more significant
than the HS and Austronesian numerals; it is /-n/, a marker of the ordinal
number and equivalent to English /-th/ in fifth, sixth, etc. It appears in most
Austronesian languages as /-n/ or its variant /-/, but in few languages as /-
m/. Let us examine the terms for fifty and then for fifth in Some
Austronesian languages, before stating the HS corresponding suffix.
Malagasy dima-n-polo fifty,


Page No. 97

Samoan lima-a-fulu fifty,
Binamise lima-m-puru fifty.
The term consists of three elements: lima -n- pulu = English *{five+th
+ ten}, i.e.*{ fifth + ten} = Sem. nom. am + n(a), i.e. five + -n(a)
50.
To express fifth in Austronesian, drop pulu, the term for ten, hence
Bugotu lima-na fifth, Lau lima-na fifth, etc.
The Austronesian suffix [-na] corresponds neatly to HS suffix [-nw] as
the following examples from Egyp. show:
dw five > dw-nw fifth,
sf seven > sf nw seventh,
mt ten > mt-nw tenth (Semitic mia-tu 100).
The term for fifteen would be in Egyp. mt dwy, i.e. *ten five. In
Semitic it is the opposite: am aar fifteen, i.e. *five ten.

3.53 PAN *sulah pointed stick
Balinese sula skewer, pointed stick,
Cebuano sulah-an kind of nose fish with a sharp projection in front of
the eyes.
HS: CA mi-sallah big needle; sullaa-tu thorn (of palm-tree).

Comments
It is likely that PAN *sula horn as in Rotinese sula horns (of buffalo
or deer) and Buruese sula-n horn is related to *sulah pointed stick,
and all can be traced to [il or al] as in CA mi-allu horn that was used in
ancient times like a spear or dagger.

3.54 PAN *sirab to burn
Bikol sirob to sear,
Maranao rarab to burn,
Bontok silab place a fire underneath something,
Kejaman sirap to burn.
HS: BHeb. rb heat of the sun, BAram. rb be hot, dry: CA
sarbu mirage, i.e. thirst. A closely related root is seen in CA arbu dry
(trees, plant), BHeb. rab to burn, scorch, Akk. rabu to burn: see
DHSR: 3.2.50.

3.55 PAN *sina shine, radiance
Maranao sina sunshine; to shine,


Page No. 98

Old Javanese a-sina shining, radiant.
HS: CA san splendor, brilliancy; san sun-light also shine of
lightning as a vb to shine: PHS stem [an] sun > an-t year (sana-
tu year, Ug. n-t id.) > an old, etc.

3.56 PAN *si(n)dep sunset, west
Subanen sindep sunset,
Kayan (Uma Juman) hirep dusk.
HS: CA sudfa-tu light, i.e. sun-light in some of its ancient dialects
also darkness in some others; asdafa CIV in the former dialects to
shine (the sun, the morning) and in the latter begin to fall, grow dark
(the night). The former meaning is found in sister languages: see DHSR:
3.2.47.
Blust and Trussel (ACD) connect PAN *sidep above with PAN *sejep
to enter, penetrate as in Paiwan tedep to enter (house) and Kankany
segep to enter, come in, go in. They derive both from a root *se[dDj]ep
set, of the sun and trace to that root Hanunoo salup setting (of the
sun), Manggarai cerep to hide, enter quietly, etc.: CA sadafa to veil,
cover with a veil; sidfa-tu curtain; sudfa-tu door.

3.57 PAN *buntu swollen, of the belly
Manggarai buntu swollen of the belly,
Rembong buntu bloated (of the belly),
Iban buntu swollen, bloated,
Sangir buntu bloated,
Acehnese bunto swollen up, inflated.
HS. The Austronesian words above are derived from the root for
belly (3.31 above). A similar derivative in CA ban having big or
bloated belly.

3.58 PAN *butuy swollen, of the flesh
Cebuano butuy to swell (said of flesh) as from a bee sting,
Hanunoo buntuy protuberant belly.
HS: see 3.57 above.

3.59 PAN *keret to cut
Puyuma krkt to cut; (m)rt to cut something into thin slices,
Paiwan keret to reap with a knife,


Page No. 99

Malay krat to cut,
Javanese krt to cut,
Sund. kirit id.
HS: Akk. kartu to cut, Phoen. krt id.: CA kirti-mu axe, etc. see
DHSR: 4.3.28.

3.60 PAN *kan to eat
Tagalog ka:in to eat,
Tombul kan to eat,
Chamorro kanna to eat,
Puyama -kan to eat,
Paiwan k-m-an to eat,
Pazeh k-m-an to eat
Malay ma-kan to eat,
Sequliq Atayal qan-iq to eat
Ami kaen to eat.
HS: Egyp. nn to eat: PHS proot a food as in Egyp. -t id., CA
t id., etc. see DHSR: 3.9.27.

Comments
It is plainly evident than Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic cognates
include a suffix /-n/, serving here to form a verb from a noun. This
example, like any other similar example, shows clearly how the verb, as a
part of speech, has developed from the noun, preposition, etc. in the course
of time, a subject was thoroughly discussed and illustrated in DHSR: see,
for example, 3.25.2, 3.25.4 & 3.25.6.
To create a verb stem having to do with food, i.e. expressing to eat,
feed, and the like, or to create substances expressing quality, quantity,
kinds, etc. of food, you add affixes to the proot, hence the more affixes
you add (, d, m, n, , etc.), the more traditional roots you create. In the
course of time, some of the affixes may be lost, modified, or become
fossilized and unproductive. Such linguistic changes constitute one basic
element of differentiation among not only language families, but also
among daughters of the same language family. It may be well here to give
some examples.

a) Egyp. used prefixed proot [fa-] to modify the basic meaning of [a]
as in f cake, loaf; f-t to feed also food; f to eat, feed. Traces
of this Egyp. compound are found in Semitic as in Ug. pw, CA fw to


Page No. 100

drink, as food, e.g. milk. It is in this sense [pw] is similar to CA maa
to suck (baby animal) its mothers udder, na to suck the bone, i.e. eat
esp. what is inside the bone (and what is on it of fat or meat).
It is most likely that CA fa-tu (from r. fw) poverty, meant orig.
no food belongs here. The agent noun is far poor (man). It seems
that *faw is variant of one of the most ancient PHS negatives [bw],
preserved as such in Egyp. and some CA compound words (cf. DHSR:
3.21.5).

b) Egyp. to feed whose initial pharyngeal /-/ may be variant of
caus. /a-/ or it is a proot: [a-] abundance, hence the compound original
meaning was abundance of food. However, the Egyp. root as it stands is
found only in an old CA saying: aa to eat and in laia and (/l-/ can
be used as infix) alaa eat.

c) CA da, with caus. [da-] (also said of an animal baby) to suck its
mothers udder.

3.61 PAN *te ringing in the ear, buzz, hum
Javanese e hum, buzz, purr,
Maranao te ringing in the ear,
Mang. te buzzing or ringing in the ear,
Paiwan te moan (as person).
HS: CA ann ringing in the ear, buzz, hum.

3.61 3.68 Proto-Austronesian Question Words:
a) PAN *inu where = CA aina id.,
b) PAN *iyan when = CAaiyna id.,
c) PAN *an(n)u how = CAann id.
d) Proto-Malayo-Polynesian is distinguished by a form *apa what as
in:
Old Javenese, Malay, Iban, Sasak, Karo Batak, Balinese, Mandar,
Tontemboan, Makasarese, Manggarai, Tamuan, Delang, Banjar, etc. apa
what = Egyp. p id., etc. see 4.1.46 below.

e) PMP also has its distinctive term for how, which is *ku(y)a = Akk.
aika, OAram. yk, Ug. ik, etc. id, but in CA the cognate is kaai or
kaaiyin: see DHSR 3.20.3 and 3.20.4.


Page No. 101


f) PMP word for when is interesting and deserves some discussion
for a good reason.
As we have just seen above, the PAN word for when is iyan and that
of CA is aiyna, lit. what time, consisting of [ai] what and (gen. HS
id.) and [na-] time as in Egyp. nw id., etc. Accordingly, we expect the
PMP word to be a compound word, consisting of its own word for what,
i.e. *apa, plus [-an], the common Austronesian word for time. However,
our expectation comes half-true and the word in question is p-iyan, i.e.
what what time, using both its term for what, i.e. [p(a)] as well as the
term for what in other sister languages. It is thus a compound of three
rather than two elements.

g) The last common question word in PAN is *isai who = Egyp. ys
id., Phoen. who, which.






















Page No. 102


CHAPTER FOUR







PAN ROOTS WITH INITIAL VOWEL
AND
THEIR HAMITO-SEMITIC COGNATES









The present study will be concerned with Proto-Austronesian roots
beginning with an initial vowel and the focal point will be Austronesian
most indispensable words, that is to say those having to do with family
relationships, parts of the body, numbers, particles, things in the physical
world, grammatical elements, names of animals, basic verbs, nouns, and
adjectives. It has been found that the initial vowel is in most cases a reflex
of either a laryngeal (/, h, , , , /) or semivowel (/w, y/). As a matter of
fact, laryngeal and semivowel have identical reflexes (see DHSR 4.1.12,
n. a, b, and c.
The study will not often decompose Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian
cognate words into their ultimate components. This task has already been
done for the corresponding Hamito-Semitic roots in DHSR. It will be
sufficient to refer the reader to that reference in which the ultimate origins
of their shared cognates are ascertained.
As I have just mentioned above, the initial vowel is in most cases a
reflex of laryngeal or semivowel. In some other cases, however, the initial


Page No. 103

vowel may be a reflex of the causative prefix /-/ or other grammatical and
lexical elements as the definite or indefinite article, a derivational prefix,
and proots such as [a-], [ha-], etc. For what concerns the causative /-/,
Austronesian languages are similar to nearly all Hamito-Semitic
languages, including Egyptian and Akkadian, in which the causative /-/
has become an inseparable part of the root (see DHSR 3.3). Even in
Classical Arabic, the causative /-/ is part of the root in some of its
occurrences. It is important to note that the /-/ in question is also used to
form substances, i.e. nouns and adjectives.
Generally speaking, many Austronesian languages are also similar to
some Hamito-Semitic languages in that an earlier /-n-/ before a labial /-b
& -p/ has become /-m/ by assimilation, and that the first member of
doubled /-bb, -pp/ has also become /-m-/ by dissimilation. This type of
sound change is quite common in world languages and attention was
drawn to in DHSR, esp. in 4.3.12.
My second and more important concern in this research is to continue
wiping the dust of time off the Austronesian roots and bring to light as
many ancient grammatical elements becoming inseparable parts of such
roots as the data may permit.
Finally, the following comparative study accepts Proto-Austronesian
roots exactly as they are reconstructed by Austronesian scholars, esp. the
notable and meticulous reconstruction made by Robert Blust and Stephen
Trussel and entitled Austronesian Comparative Dictionary (ACD). Other
reconstructions made by Austronesian scholars such as Otto Dahls
Proto-Austronesian, John Wolffs Proto-Austronesian Phonology with
Glossary, etc. will also be taken into account.















Page No. 104


4.1 PAN Roots with Initial Vowel /a-/
Proto-Austronesian had no initial vowels. In other words, every Proto-
Austronesian word must begin with a consonant, exactly like that of Proto-
Hamito-Semitic and Proto-Indo-European. Accordingly, a consonant
should be reconstructed whenever a Proto-Austronesian word begins with
a vowel. As has already been mentioned, the initial consonant may be a
laryngeal, a semivowel, or a proot beginning with either.

4.1.1 PAN *a interjection, exclamation
OJav. aha exclamatory particle, Nias aha interjection, Ngd. a
interjection; oh, ah, Akl. a exclamation of discovery, Mak. a
exclamation.
HS: Egyp. h an interjection O, oh, CA ha, haha, haha
interjection.

4.1.2 PAN *a interjection, exclamation
OJav. ah ah!, oh!, ha!, Mnd. a oh, Bug. a id., Ngd. a oh, Rot. aa
exclamation, Akl. a, Tont. a id., Bug. a oh.
HS: BHeb. ah ah, alas, CA h interjection expressing pity also
grief, sorrow.

4.1.3 PAN *a imperative suffix
Jav. -a imperative suffix, Bun. -a, Ruk. -a, Sa. -a id., Knk. -a id., Bik. -
a, Akl. -a, a suffix expresses a command, Sas.. -a, a suffix marks the
object of the imperative.
HS: CA a- (i-) is used to form the imperative of some verbs as in
akur! thank, a-nur! look, see.

N.B. Some weak verbs may take final /-h/ to enable one to pronounce the
form as in rih! see!: raa to see, ih! protect!: wa to protect.

Comments
The very same Austronesian imperative suffix can also appear as *ia,
e.g. Wuvulu maa to see, look: maa-ia look at it!.
Another variant is PAN *-i = CA i-iral! go away!, ira! read:
see 4.3.1 below.


Page No. 105


4.1.4 PAN *a and
Haw. a and, then, but, Fij. a and, or, but, Maori and, and then,
Nias a and, Lou a and.
HS: Akk. u and, CA wa id., Sab. w and, or, but, etc. See DHSR
4.16.1 and 4.16.2.

4.1.5 PAN *a connective or linking particle: see ACD.
HS: CA a, called alif wal, connective or linking particle (DHSR
3.3.19 and 3.3.27).

4.1.6 PAN *a, definite and indefinite article, a, the
Bug. a personal article, used with proper names, Nggela a personal
article, used with names of people among others, Fij. a common article
used before nouns, Tigak a article: a, the, Label a id., Palauan a
article.
HS: CA al, the definite article. It is also used with proper names to
express dignified, great, etc. as in al Hasan Hasan the great, the
magnificent. It is prefixed to demonstrative to form interrogative and
relative pronouns as inal-la-t fem., al-la- masc., al-la-n masc. pl.,
etc.

Comments
There is a striking similarity between Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian
languages with regard to the fate of this article. In some Semitic such as
Phoenician, Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic it was reduced to /a or /,
while in others including the languages we have just mentioned as well
as CA itself it has become an inseparable part of the word: see DHSR
3.18.

4.1.7 PAN *a, *ha interrogative particle
Tag. ha interrogative particle meaning: what is it? or what do you
mean?, Bont. a tag question, Leti a emphatic particle used to indicate
a question, Mang. -a postposed question marker.
HS: Ug. a, CA a interrogative particle
43
.


43
Forms with initial /h-/ as in BHeb. ha and CA h interrogative particle are from [a].
The use of [h] as interrogative is quite rare in CA, e.g. h innak Zayd? = a innak
Zayd? Are you Zayd? (the examples are taken from LA, r. [h]), where /h/ here is
variant of /a/. In Modern Arabic, h expresses what do you mean?. 4.4.24 below.



Page No. 106

4.1.8 PAN *aha negative marker
Kad. aa not, Bint. no, not.
HS: Akk. aya not, etc. DHSR 3.21.1.

4.1.9 PAN *aba father
Mal. aba-h father, Sund. aba-h id., Mnd. abi, Tir. aba-y, Bug. ambo
id., At. aba father, used in direct address, Mar. abo father, Wolio abha
daddy, Bim. aba father.
HS: Egyp. b father, CA and gen. Sem. ab id.

Comments
Derivatives of [ab] father include among others:
Austronesian: Mal. aba elder brother, Wolio awo stepfather, step-
mother, Yamdema abe mother in law, etc.
HS: Harari abba elder brother, Amharic abbiyye big brother, uncle,
Cush.: Hadiya abbyyo brother, Galla aba father, person, etc.
The pl. form of ab expresses ancestors, forefathers as in Egyp. abwt,
CA ab, abawt.

4.1.10 PAN *abal beetle
Ilk. abal-abal a kind of beetle, Tir. aba-abal a kind of scarab,
beetle.
HS: Egyp. bb beetle, scarab.

Comments
A variant *ampal, with voiceless /-p-/, is also seen in OJav. ampal a
kind of beetle, Jav. ampal beetle, Manabo ampal cockroach.
Egyp., too, has pw beetle, scarab, with -ext.: pwt pl. a kind of
beetle.

4.1.11 PAN *abi to seize, grasp
Ged. abi to seize, grasp, take hold of, Nakanai abi to take, get,
catch, etc. are related to Kad. ambit take with the hands, TBat. ma-
ambit to carry, Numbami -ambi to take, hold, get. All are also related
to Bont. aba carry on ones back, as a child, Knk. aba carry (children)
on the back, Akl. aba(h) to climb on ones back, If. aba carry a baby
on ones back, Mar. ababa to carry on the back.
HS: The significations of Austronesian words plainly tell that they are
all offshoots of either notion:


Page No. 107

a) back
b) or , less likely, baby or infant.
Suppose that the earlier signification is baby, infant, then the HS
cognate is the root seen in Akk. bbu, OAram. byb baby, infant, etc.
If it is back, then the HS cognate is the root seen in Egyp. b-t
back
44
.

4.1.12 AN *abat wound; to wound
Ngad. abha to wound, cut oneself, Bur. abat wound, Buli yabat
wound, be wounded.
HS: CA aba scar from a wound as a vb abia to have a scar
(wound) (LA).

4.1.13 PAN *abat west/south wind
Tom. boat storm from the west, Tag. haba:gat west, south wind,
Tong. af storm; afats-ia stormed over.
HS: Egyp. yb-t, ybet east wind, yb-(t) the east, the left side: b
the left side.
On the other hand, Egyp. hb expresses south wind = CA habba to
blow (wind), Eth. hababa, Cush. haba wind, etc. see DHSR 3.17.34,
n. f. In addition, CA hf, haif south wind.

4.1.14 PAN *abaw high, lofty
Mlg. avo high, lofty, eminent, Jav. ambo hoist sail, Berawan appiw
tall.
Some PAN variants are:
PAN *umbaw
Bur. uba upper part, Mar. umbew go higher than another, Ceb.
umbaw overlook, tower over.

PAN *ambuh
Mlg. (Merina) ambo high, lofty, Ceb. ambu overlook, looking from
a high point.

PAN *embaw
Sangir embo what is moved on top, Berawan appiw tall.

44
Finally, if it is seize, grasp, then the HS cognate is the root in Egyp. f id.


Page No. 108

HS: Egyp. bw-t high ground, high place, high rock; bw be great, to
magnify, CA baw, grandness, greatness.
With prefixed n-: CA na-bwa-tu anything high, lofty, eminent.
N.B. Austronesian initial /a-/ may be a derivational prefix.
Some other related words are:
PAN *ambu
Ib. ambo proud, haughty, Malagasy avona pride, haughtiness,
arrogance.
With prefixed s-: Malay sombo arrogance and prefixed t-: tambo
arrogant, stubborn. All = CA baw, which also expresses, pride,
arrogance

Comments
Concerning the data under discussion, LA states that aba-tu (= I make
turn back home) camels > means: I return camels to ma-ba-tu = lit.
home in a mountain. It seems that notion of high, top is an essential
component of the underlying semantic structure of the root. To this day,
the most eloquent and accurate term for to occupy a high ranking
position is ta-bauwaa. Next is ital lit. rise (oneself), CVIII of al
rise < al prep. on, above, over.

4.1.15 PAN *abu fish
Bik. abo fish, Ceb. abu-abu kind of fish, Kamarian apu kind of
fish, Mal. ikan ambu-ambu bonio fish.
HS: Akk. ab-tu fish. The Egyp. cognate is most likely bt rather than
b a kind of fish.

4.1.16 PAN *abu dust, ashes
Tag. abo ashes; abuhan ashpit, Tam. habu, Del. habu ashes, Bis.
abo, Bik., abo ash, Fav. abo id., Mad. abu, Mur. abu, Kap. habu
dust, Tom. abu dust, ashes, Mal., abu, Kerinci abewq id., Ami afo,
Bun. habo ash, Sa. aboo id., Ss. ab, Pw. qavu, Sir avo, Pu. havu
id., Tabojan , Dusun Malang abu, Dusun Dejah habu dust, Ruk. abo
ashes, Kav. ibu id.
With s-ext.: Ib. abus ahes, Mang. awus id.
HS: CA hab dust; hab, said of fire, turns into ashes, hence hab
expresses, according to Azhari, both dust and ashes (LA r. hb).



Page No. 109

4.1.17 PAN *a-, *ha- adjectival prefix
Kad. a- adjectival prefix, Bik. ha- adjectival affix prefixed to
adjectives denoting height, length, and depth, Mak. a- prefix used before
adjectives, Arosi a- adjectival prefix.
HS: CA a an adjectival affix can occur as a prefix and as a suffix. As a
prefix, it serves to form adjectives denoting defects and colors as a-
waru one eyed, arasu mute, arau lame,abyau white,
afaru yellow, aammu hornless (animal, from amma to cut off the
tip of), and so foth. All are masc. adjectives.
The corresponding fem. adjectives, which denote defects and colors,
are formed by suffixing [-], hence awr, ars, ar, bay, afr
and amm; denoting respectively one-eyed, mute, lame, white, yellow,
and hornless (animal).
In addition, a large subclass of general adjectives, which are all fem.,
can be formed from verbs and masc. adjectives by suffixing the same [-].
Some examples are:
asanu masc. handsome > fem. asn
samiu masc. forgiving > fem. sam
abu masc. sweet > fem. ab

4.1.18 PAN *amuk, hamuk to attack, the caus. of *muk
Tag. hamok had-to-hand fight, Banj. hamuk furious attack, Mal.
amok id., NgD. amok murderous attack, furious, Bal. amuk rave, be
furious, attack in fury, Soboyo hamo to rob.
Blast and trussels comment on Old Javanese wk furious attack
and amk attack furiously is as follows:
These morphologically related forms in Old Javanese
suggest that this comparison may have resulted from the
borrowing of the affixed form amk. Despite its initial
appeal, this hypothesis fails to explain the initial /h/ in
Tagalog, Banjarese or Sobyo. (ACD)
Let us suppose that Old Javanese amk is a loanword, the donor must
have the form with a long //. Until this is proved, we consider the
Javanese word as native, whose long vowel is a reflex of laryngeal.
HS: CA maik violent, mortal adversary; maaka to fight and defeat
(in wars) also to humiliate and treat with contempt, to rub vehementely,
to wallow someone in mud or soil. CIV caus. would be amaka. It is said
once (about 1400 years ago) that if (we suppose) maak is a term for a
man, then the man will surely be evil man.


Page No. 110

All words above are from a cpd of, at least, three elements: [ma],
forming an adjective from the verb akka (like maik above) or a noun
(mak), akka to subjugate, vanquish, prevent, strike, exhaust or tire out;
miakk adj. = maik above. The stem ak is in turn a cpd of /a/ and [ak].
For more information on the three elements and very numerous roots
derived from [ak] destroy, damage, hurt, etc.), see DHSR: 2.1.6.5.1-
2.1.6.5.3.

4.1.19 PAN *ai anaphoric and relative pronoun
Lau ai which, Tong. ai where, in which, on which, Dohoi iai
who, Ren. ai anaphoric particle, Smb ai anaphoric and relative particle,
Tuv. ai anaphoric pronoun, Motu ai.
HS: Akk., CA ayyu who, which, Heb. id., etc. see DHSR 3.20.2
and 4.17.4.

4.1.20 PAN *ai-t to copulate
Ged. ai have sexual intercourse, Haw. ai to have sexual relations,
Maori ai to copulate, lie with a female, ai-taa progeny, Fij. cai have
sexual intercourse with. Some PAN variants are:

PAN *ait copulate
Ged. yait fornication, Mono-Alu aiti to copulate, Maori ai to lie
with a female, copulate, Ib. ait desire, crave.

PAN *ayut copulate
Bahasa Indonesia me-ayut to copulate, Bont. ayot sexual desire,
Knk. ayot semen, sperm, Mansaka ayot have inordinate sexual desire.
HS: Egyp. hy to copulate; hyw progeny, family, hy husband. See
4.1.69 below.

4.1.21 PAN *amben belly strap
Sund. amben belly strap of a horse, Mak. amba id., Jav. amben
belly band.

PAN variant *ambet strap
Mar. abet strap, Bal. ambet id., Mal. ambat noose, KBat. abit the
long cloth that is fastened under the armpits by women.


Page No. 111

HS: CA ubna-tu a band used to hold the pants around the belly,
Egyp. bn-t a belt, girdle
45
.

4.1.22 PAN *ambih extension to house
Sund. ambe-n gallery, veranda of a house, Sas. ambe-n side-wings of
a roof, Bal. ambe-n front balcony, veranda, porch.

PAN variant *surambi, a cpd of three elements: *su-, *ra-, and stem
*ab-
OJav. suramby-an outer veranda, front porch, NgD. sarambi an
extension in front or behind a house, Sund. surambi front veranda, outer
porch, KBat. Surambih to annex to a large house, extention.
HS: Egyp. bt booth, hall. The closest CA cognate is ib arch.
wall.
For the significations expressed by all words above, it is very important
to read How language words develop in DHSR 3.25.4.

4.1.23 PAN *adi no, not
Bont. adi no, not, Bal. adi no, If. adi no, not, Binukid hadi id.,
Seediq adi, a negative element, Gondang ade no, not. For PAN
negative *eda, see 4.2.3 below.
HS: Egyp. t not: See 4.2.3 below. For HS negatives [t] and [d], see
DHSR 3.21.6 and 3.21.7 respectively.

4.1.24 PAN *adu to contest, compete
Jav. adu in contact, in confrontation, Sund. adu come into contact
with one another; -adu to fight, confront, Mar. ado threaten, Bal. -
adu to fight, Mal. adu getting up a contest.
HS: CA ta-adda to challenge.

4.1.25 PAN *agam to think, consider
Ib. agam to consider, think, TBat agam to think.
HS: CA aama to weigh mentally; experience, know through
experience also to think, imagine as in the following expression: ta-
uma-ka (it- imagines/thinks -you) ai-n- (eye-my, i.e. my eye) lit. I
think my eye saw you.


45
CA aban big-bellied, swollen-bellied; abina to swell, only the belly, abana
having a big-bellied, etc.


Page No. 112

4.1.26 PAN *agem hand
Bint. agem hand, Sebop agem id.: Mad. agem, Bal. agem to hold,
Hlg. agum to attain, abtain.
HS: Cush. gaan hand (*gaam): Somal gaan, Ormo gana, Boni
kaan i.
Theoretically speaking, take a proot and prefix to it proot [ga-], [ka-], or
[a-] (see DHSR 3.17.83), you will get an idea manner, characteristic,
condition, etc. plus the meaning of the proot, e.g.
a) CA and gen. HS lb heart > CA also has lb id.,
b) Egyp. hand > g also hand,
c) HS: Cush. gaan above and IE: Greek gun hand are both from a
cpd [ga-] plus [a-] hand as in Egyp. -w dual hand, CA [-a ~ a-] in
cpds id.
In conclusion, PAN *gem is a cpd of proot [ga-] and *am as in Egyp.
m fore-arm, fist. Accordingly, the pre-PAN word was *ga-am and its
signification was most likely act or manner of the fist. For evidence, see
below.

Comments I
Among implicit cognates based on PAN stem *gem (< pre-PAN *ga-
am) are:

a) PAN *gemgem hold in the fist
Ruk. wa-gmgm hold in the fist, Pw. gmgm fist, Mal. ggam
to grasp, grip, Il. gemgem fist, Sund. ggm grip; handful.

b) PAN *Ragem grasp in the fist
Sas. ragem held tightly in the fist, OJav. a-agem hold (in ones
hand); agem handful, Lun Dayeh ragem clenching of the palm.

c) PAN *-kaem clenched hand; wrestle, embrace
If. go-kom fist, clenched hand, Mang. re-kem to wrestle with,
embrace.

4.1.27 PAN *ago-s stream, river
Chmr. agua water, Tong. qau stream, Bik. agos river, Sebu Bis.
agos flow.
HS: Assyr. ag stream, river, Egyp. yg stream, flood.


Page No. 113


4.1.28 PAN *agu and, also
Mar. ago and, also, Mang. agu and, more, yet more, still, Rmb. agu
and, with, together with, Kam. au and, with.
HS cognate is either
(a) in Egyp. k also, moreover, kt (from k-t) also, BHeb. k
strongly affirming, surely, truly, BAram. hky, hkn id., Sab. k thus, etc.
The CA cognate is most certainly akd sure, for sure: see DHSR
3.20.10.
(b) CA aal yes, air id., Egyp. ger also, further, moreover < *gai
or a-gai.

4.1.29 PAN *air water
Mal. aer water, Ind. air water, Deland arai, Tamuan arai, Aw., Wed.
wairu, Tav. waila id., POC *wair water (AIC, Fasc. 2, p. 733).
HS: Egyp. yr-t flow of water, yr, r river, Chad.: Housa wuriya
stream, Miya wr lake.

4.1.30 PAN *akaR root
Bal. akar root, Bis. akaw vine, creeper, Mal. akar root, root-fibre,
Tuv. aka root, Ren. aka id., Haw. aa vein, tendon, muscle, Sam. aa
root, Fij. waka id., Tundjung akar, Bamang akar, Siang akat id., NgD.
akar, Futuna aka id.
HS: OAram. r root, CA uru root of anything ~ iru root
also vein.

4.1.31 PAN *ake tree
Tong. ake hardwood tree, Maori ake tree, Haw. ae id.
HS cognate is either
a) the root in CA aika-tu group of trees,
b) the root in CA i tree, Egyp. y reed.

4.1.32 PAN *a(n)ku I
Kay. anu-k, Ruk. k-unako I, Sas. anu mine, Tigak nak I, Tont.
anu-k mine, Mal. aku I, me, Tag. ako I, Ib. aku I, me, my, mine,
Hlg. aku I, Mlg. aho I, myself, Kap. aku I, Ss. y-ako I, Iv. ako
I, Akl. ako I, Sa. iako, -ako, Itb. ako I, At. s-aku I, Bik. ako, Ceb.
aku, Haw. au, Maori au, Tah. au, Sam. au I, Bur. y-ako me, Kapuas
aku, Siang akuh I.


Page No. 114

HS: Akk., Phoen., Ug. nk I, me, Egyp. ynwk I.

Comments
The Hamito-Semitic word is a compound of three elements:
a) [a] I as in Egyp. y id., CA and gen. Sem. a as in a-salu I ask
(saala to ask).
b) -na- demonstrative, hence the combination an also signifies I
as in Ug. an, CA an, etc. id. This same /-n-/ is also seen in some
Austronesian languages as in the first four language words cited above.
c) [-k-] is used in Semitic as accusative and genitive of the 2
nd
pers. sg.,
dual and pl., as in the following examples from CA:
saala-ka he asked you masc. sg.,
saala-ki he asked you fem. s.g.,
saala-kum he asked you masc. pl., etc.

kitbu-ka your (masc. sg.) book,
kitbu-ki you (fem. sg.) book,
kitbu-kum your (masc. pl.) book, etc.
It is possible that the original meaning of a-n-ku is masc. sg. me,
mine (see DHSR 3.22.2 and 4.3.72). This clearly implies that the fem.
pronouns for me and mine were different.

4.1.33 PAN *akup scoop with both hands
It is from *kup (palm of the) hand and its initial /a-/ is caus. /a-/: see
2.1.1 & 2.1.1c above.
HS: see 2.1.1 above.

4.1.34 PAN *al get, take, seize
Amis ala to take, ala-en be taken; ma-ala be taken, Uma ma-ala
seized, caught, Bont. ala to get, Sund. ala to get, fetch, Ilk. ala-en
to take, get, Mlg. ala-ina be taken, fetched, Thao ara get it!, Rot. -
ala to take, get, capture, Ngd. ala to take, win, capture.
HS: perh. Sab. wl to get, obtain is caus. of [wal]: CA ta-wall to
take charge of, take in hand, CX istaul take possession of, capture,
seize, occupy by force, Min. t-lw, wlw take charge of.

Comments
Some Austronesian cognates suggest a connection between capture
and marry as Komodo ala id., Banggai po-ala to marry, and Wolio po-


Page No. 115

ala marry one another. Blust and Trussel (ACD) tend to favor the
connection.
CA ma-wl slave (man, woman), originally captive of war. The
word also signifies setting free a slave; waliy guardian of woman, of
orphan, Sab. wly-t pl. protected persons
In my opinion, it is unfeasible to trace CA [hl] to [l] ~ [wl], as did
old Arab scholars, in order to explain a fact that both ahl and l express
the same meaning family, etc. (DHSR: 3.5.10). The reason for bringing
up this fact is because CV ta-ahhala to marry.
There is still a related root, originally applies to woman, as in ta-wlh
to separate a captive woman from her child.

N.B. It is likely that PAN *alaq to defeat is closely related to PAN *ala
to take, seize: OJav. alah be defeated, to lose, succumb, Bal. alah to
destroy, defeat, abandon, Kad. aha to defeat, conquer, overcome, Bug.
p-ala to win, Mal. alah to defeat, k-alah a condition of inferiority,
NgD. alah to lose; k-alah to lose, be overcome.

4.1.35 PAN *am to eat
Tir. ama to eat, Bal. amah id.
HS: Egyp. m to eat; m, mm food, Chad.: Kwadza am- to
chew, Cush.: Iraqw ayim id.

4.1.36 PAN *ama father, uncle
Isneg am father, uncle or any relative whose relationship is similar to
that of a father, Saa ama, Ceb. amah-an father, Akl. ka-amah-an
fatherhood, Bont. ka-ama-en uncle, Fij., Bun. tama, Pw. tjama
father, OJav. r-ma id., Buli hm, Sam. tam-a, Maori tama father,
Nias fa-ama call father, Itb. ama father, ama-en foster father, father
-in- law, Bik. ama father, Mar. ama, Sa. ama id.
HS: Akk. ammu paternal uncle, CA ammu id.; amma-tu fathers
sister, Heb. am relative, Sab. m uncle, male agnate, Meh. m
uncle.

Comments
CA ammu is also used as address term to show respect for older people
and so is amma-tu. A similar usage is noted in Austronesian as in Isneg
amm father, Mal. ema-k aunt, mother, Mang. ema father, etc.



Page No. 116

4.1.37 PAN *amein all, finished
Ilk. amin all, entire, complete, Bun. amin all, Pw. amin finished,
there is no more, If. amin all, persons or things, Bont. amin all,
Isneg ammin all, finish, completely.
HS: CA umm all; general; amm perfect, complete (anything);
amam become many, much, multiply in number, Akk. ummmu
people, OAram., Phoen. m people, Sab. m-t general populace
(DHSR 3.12.17)
46
.

4.1.38 PAN *an an adverbial suffix making locative suffix; nominal suffix
marking location
Mlg. -ana, Tag. -an, At. -an, Bik. -an, Ilk. -an, Bont. -an, Pw. -an, Chmr.
-an, Ceb. -an, Akl. -an, Hlg. -an.
HS: CA -an, an adverbial suffix as in ar-an eastward: ar east,
ras-an directly: ras head, lail-an at night: lail night.

4.1.39 PAN *an- ant, termite
Han. anay white ant, termite, Kelabit. ane id., Mar. any ant, Tag.
a:nay termite, Ilk. anay white ant, termite, Kap. ane termite, Bik.
anoy termite, Bont. aney id., Akl. anay, Hlg. anay id., Mal. anay white
ants, Fij. yane moth, Tong. ane id. Zork (1978: App., p. 106)
reconstructs PPH *a:nay
HS: Eth.: Harari nt a kind of red ant, Wolane, Zway wnt id.,
Chad.: Dangla itta (in-ta) louse, Jegu int-aato id., Cush.: Iraqw itna,
Aun inti id.

4.1.40 PAN *anabu shrub, small tree
Ceb. anubu shrub or small tree, Ilk. anabo small tree, Isneg anabo
kind of tree with red or yellow flowers, Ib. nabu grass.
HS: Chad.: Pero anbibi flower, Cush.: Bilin amboobaa id., Galla
ababo a flowering plant, Sem.: Akk. embbu reed, CA anba-tu, pl.
anbbu egg-plant.

4.1.41 PAN *anay to finish, terminate
Bis. anay to finish, terminate, Mal. anay-anay id., Bik. any id., Ren.
oti id, Maori oti id.

46
Mar. amin formula used in ending prayers, so be it (= CA mn id.) is a loanword
from either Arabic or a European language.



Page No. 117

HS: CA CI nah, CIV caus. anh to finish, terminate.

Comments
It is of great importance to note that Ren. and Maori words correspond
to CA CVIII stem intah and not to CIV anh as do other Austronesian
languages.

4.1.42 PAN *(a)nipa large snake
Narum nipah snake , Tunjung nipa id ., Miri n ipah id ., Kiput lipah
snake, Isneg annipa very large and venomous snake with a big head
47
,
Ngd. nipa kind of large snake, Mar. nipay snake, serpent, Yamdena
nife kind of large snake, KBat. nipe snake.
HS: Egyp. nf-nf a serpent deity, which is ultimately related to Egyp.
yf viper, serpent and to Sem. [pa] as in Ug. ap viper, adder, CAaf
id., etc. see DHSR: 3.3.27.
Semitic initial /a-/ in Ug. and CA word above is a connective particle:
the root is [py].

4.1.43 PAN *(a)nuhus smoke ?
Mang. nus smoke, Ceb. anuus soot, Ngd. nu smoke, cloud,
Komodo nuh smoke.
HS: CA nus smoke with no flame.

Comments I
PAN initial /a-/ is a reflex of the definite article. Accordingly, the CA
corresponding word with the definite article is written al-nus, but
pronounced an-nus. The /-l/ becomes identical with the initial sound of
the following word if it is interdental, dental (alveolar) or palatal. The
question whether the Austronesian is a loan from Arabic should not be
dismissed at all.

Comments II
I have tried in the current research to exclude all words that I see as CA
loanwords in Austronesian. For example, the following Austronesian
words are all ultimately from CA afwan pardon > Banj. ampun
pardon, Kad. ampun pardon, forgive, Bal. ampun id., Sund. ampun

47
The term for snake that fits this description is CA infi ~ uff. In Egyp. f-t asp,
viper, adder. It is most likely that Ug. n snake, Heb. n serpent = CA ana are,
with the loss of /-f-/, from nf-, a root expresses in CA worm, lizard and perhaps
snake.


Page No. 118

pardon, forgiveness, Sas. ampun id., Mang. ampo id., Rot. apon id.,
etc.
Another CA word is naffasa to deflate, empty, esp. of air, from
breathe (out) > Tag. umpis deflated, said of ballons or air-filled sacs;
impis deflated, shrunken, Jav. impes reduce a swelling, Kay. upeh
empty ears or husk of padi grain, Mang. ipes empty rice husk,
Casiguran Dumagat epes shrink, as a balloon when the air is let out, etc.
Any question mark (?) next to a PAN root indicates that the root is from
CA.

4.1.44 PAN *aat to care, take care
Bik. iat be careful, take care in doing something; careful, Mar. iat
careful, to treat with respect, Kad. iat take care, heed, look out,
Sangir ia watch out, becareful, Mak. ma-ia mindful of, remember,
Mal. ber-iat take care, Fordata iat to remember, Baree ia to take
care of, think about.
HS: CA inyatu care, attention, concern; an take care of; CVIII
itan to heed, pay attention to, care for, anna to appear in front of
ones (eyes ?, mind ?), hence anna + a term for mind comes to ones
mind, remember, think of.

4.1.45 PAN a-nu if
Paiwan nu if, etc. see 3.20 above.
HS: CA in if, etc.

4.1.46 PAN *apa what
Mal. apa what, how, which, Ib. apa, OJav. apa, Tont. apa what,
Mnd. apa id., Bal. apa what; apa apa whatever, Chmr. hafa id., KBat.
apa what, Mand. apa, Wolio apa what?
HS: BHeb. yp what kind of, how, Egyp. pt ~ pt what, a
demonstrative in origin: p as in p n what belongs to (n = belonging to), p
y what is mine (y = my, mine), pl. pw.

4.1.47 PAN *apat four
Tag. apat four, Bik. apat id., Ilk. uppa id., Hlg. apat, Bug. eppa, Akl.
apat, Kap. apat, Iv. apat, Pang. apat id., Ceb. upat id., Tuv. fa, Sund. opat,
Jav. pat, Bal. papat, Pw. spat, Pu. pt, Sir. hpat id., Tundjan pat, Kapuas
epat, Katingan pat id., Tabojan opat, Dusun Dejah pat, Dusum Malang
pat, Lawangan, Paku pat four, Siang opat id.


Page No. 119

HS: Egyp. ft four, PChad. *f-d id.

4.1.48 PAN *apahapah armpit, crotch
Chmr. afaafa armpit, crotch, Pal. uau crotch, Sangir papa- (in
compounds) armpit, esp. of animals,
HS: perh. Egyp. p arm and shoulder

4.1.49 PAN *apuni tree fern
Mar. puni tree fern, Napu apuni id., Mang. puni id.
HS: CA afn pl. white tree, a kind of plant that becomes a tree.

4.1.50 PAN *apuy fire
Ruk. apoy fire, Mal. api, Ind. api, Tam. api, Del. api, Mlg. afu, Bat.,
api fire, Iv. afi, Tuv. afi id., Ace. afuy id, Bug. api, Mar. apoy, api, Kap.
api, Iv. apoy id., Ilk. api, Pu. apui, Sir. apoy id., Tag. api id., Muna ipi id.,
Ibanag afi, Tboli ofih id.
HS: Chad. afu, afa fire, CA mi-fu oven, OAram. p, OffAram.
ppwn to cook, bake, Phoen.p id., etc. see DHSR 3.2.47, esp. n. 7.

Comments I
I. The same proot is also seen with affixes as in Dusum tapui fire,
Rungus tapui, etc. = Egyp. tp fire, flame, CA tafia, etc. DHSR 3.2.47,
n. 7.

II. Another PAN root based on [ap-] is *Capa
Pu. tapa roast from a distance, Pw. tsapa dried meat or fish, Tag.
tapa beef exposed to smoke, Bik. tapa smoked beef, Ceb. tapa to
smoke fish, broil fish not to close to the embers, T tapa-i hang up to
smoke, Uma -tapa dry by a fire.
HS: perh. CAaf stones surrounding a fire and holding up logs in a
fire-place so that meat, cooking pot, etc. are actually placed at a distance
from the fire, Eth. Tigre tft stone of the fire-place. Otherwise, see
n. I above.
It should be noted, however, that the CA word is a cpd of [aW] stone
plus [paW- or Wap] fire. The proot [aW] is seen in Egyp. t stone,
altar stone, slab of stone and in CA awiyyatu fem. stone.

III. The proot also appears with caus. /s-/ in some Formosan language as
in Pw. sapuy, Ss. hapoy, while in Thao apuy, etc.


Page No. 120


IV. Wolff reconstructed *sehapuy > apuy fire (PAP: D1.2.4): CA
ahbu luminous meteor, glowing piece of fire (DHSR: 3.17.33).

V. For PAN *epan start a fire, see 4.2.23 below.

Comments II
Some Austronesian languages have *kalayu fire as in Bik. kalayo,
Ceb. kalayo, Waray kalayo, Hlg. kalayo, Akl. kaeayo, Tausug kayu fire.
HS: Egyp. r fire, CA sa-ru fire derived from kar to burn, Akk.
arru to burn.
It is possible that HS al to burn, fry, roast is an old variant: BHeb.
l to roast; Niph. nileh burned, scorched, CA al to fry.

4.1.51 PAN term for day, sun
Tag. araw, BAt. ari, Maori ra id., Iv. araw id. Mal. ari day, Pu. wari
id. Sa. a:ri id., Ind. mata-hari sun, from mata eye and hari day and
so are Del. mato-hari, Banjar mata-hari, Tamuan mata-ari.
HS: Egyp. hrw day, Cush.: Galla ora today, Chad.: Buduma yrow
day, etc. see DHSR 3.13.24, Comments III.

Comments
Another widespread Austronesian term for day, sun is seen in Mar.
gawie day, Pang. ageo, Ib. aggaw, Yog. agaw day, SAt. uagi sun,
Ciuli At. wagi, Sir. wagi sun. A root *wai has been reconstructed to
account for those words as well as for those given above. Dahl, 1977:
13.8, n. 2.
A third reconstructed form is *hagaw as in Pw. qadau, Pu. kaau day,
Ib. aggu sun, Saa s-ato sun, Sam. ao day, daylight.
It is important to keep in mind that a thing in the physical world like
sun may be expressed by tens of etymologically different words,
depending on its position in the sky, on its color and shape (sunrise vs.
sunset), on the way we imagine it to be, and so forth. In addition, many
words that had been earlier derived from terms for sun could be used to
refer to the sun or day. For example, CA hirah the sun in the
afternoon, noon; harin a year. Shifting the order of radicals does not
change the basic meaning, hence riyah. Moreover, when the sun is in
the middle of the sky, i.e. exactly at noon, it may be called wirah.
Among numerous other terms, we may mention HS na-hr daylight (vs


Page No. 121

night), which is originally a term for sun. See DHSR 3.13.24, esp.
Comments III.

4.1.52 PAN *asi() to make wine or beer from rice
Bis. pe-asi rice wine, Kad. ma-asi to make rice beer, Iban asi
cooked rice, Itb. ma-asi to separate aged wine from yeast.
HS: Egyp. sw a kind of wine or beer.

Comments
Apart from the obvious fact that the sources of Egyp. and Austronesian
beer and wine are quite different, the basic ideas to consider here are
fermentation, the process of making beer and wine, and knowledge of
wine.

4.1.53 PAN *asu dog
OJav., Bug. asu dog, Tag.aso id., Ace. ase id., Pang., Ilk. aso, Bun.
asu, Tom. asu, Sir. asu id., Bont. aso, Kap. asu id., If. ahu dog, Mar. aso,
Ib. asu, Bal. asu id.
HS: Egyp. , ws, -t dog, Berb. uu greyhound, Cush.: Hadiya
wis dog, etc. see DHSR 3.23.3, under Comments.

Comments
Another Austronesian term for dog is seen in Maori kuri, Tuv. kuri
dog, etc. = gen. Sem. word kalb masc. dog, where final [-b] is a masc.
marker: Chad.: Housa kar dog, Barawa kre, Kuseru kele dog, etc.
see DHSR 3.23.3, n. 7.
There is still another Austronesian word for dog as in Ceb. iro, Tans.
iro id. This is perhaps from the word in Egyp. wr dog.

4.1.54 PAN *asat to dry up, become dry, with initial caus. /a-/
Jav. asat dried, become dry, Bal. asat thirsty, dried out, Akl. atas
evaporate, Mad. asat dried up, Asilulu asat drought.
HS. A less likely cognate is the root in Egyp. y to dry up, caus. of
w be dry, hot; arid, drought. It corresponds to Semitic aw-: aw to
roast, aw-b heat, hot, aw-l, etc. It is ultimately a term for sun.
A more likely cognate is the root in CA CIV aw to dry up; aw
become dry, thirsty, w dried, stiff; aw empty, BAram., Syr. h
be thirsty, BHeb. dryness, drought.



Page No. 122

4.1.55 PAN *atas high, tall
Ace. ateuh up, above, Mad. attas high, above, Mal. atas position
above, Hlg. taas tall, Tir. taah long, Mar. ej upper, Tond. atas
above, Ib. atas upon, above, Gilb. eta upper heavens.
The HS cognate is either
a) The root in CA a-au tall: see DHSR 3.14.1. The addition of
elements as in alams, alas, etc. does not affect the basic meaning. The
proot here is [au], while proot [a-] = much, too much (see DHSR
3.13).

4.1.56 PAN *(h)atay liver
Tag. atay liver, Bis. atay, Bik. atay liver, Jav. ati, Mlg. at, Ib. ati
liver, Ind. hati, Bandjar hati liver, Mal. ati, hati id., Tong. ate liver,
Mur. atoi, Siang atoi, KAt. atei, Smb. atei, Mad. ate heart, liver, Saar
atsii liver, Pw. qatsay, Pu. haai liver, Ruk. aay, Ami hatai, atai
liver, Pazeh asai id.
HS: Egyp. t heart, CA au liver.

4.1.57 PAN *ati negative marker
Motu ati no, not, negative marker, Bim. ati no, not, Rejang at not
yet.
Some Austronesian kindred roots are:

a) PAN *ta negative marker: no, not
Leti ta no, not, not exist, Erai ta not, Sekar ta no, not, Watubela
te-i id.

b) PAN *tahe negative marker, no, not
Arosi no, not, negative particle, Buma t no, Tong. t non-, un-
without.
HS: Egyp. t not, CA t-, Cush. -ti negative marker, etc. (DHSR
3.21.6).

4.1.58 PAN *au yes
At. au, aau yes, alright, Maori au, Ib. au yes, indeed, Mlg. au
yes, Proto-Micronesian *au yes
HS: Egyp. w certainly, CA -h yes (dial. ayw), Eth.: Ge., Te.,
Tna. wa yes (see DHSR, ft. 251, p. 458).



Page No. 123

4.1.59 PAN *aura wind
Lou aur wind, Aua auana id., Kwaio au southeast wind, Bug. aara
trade wind, Nauna wind.
HS: CA r,uwr, r cold wind, south cold wind; uwr is also an
arch. term for south.

4.1.60 PAN *awa exclamation in lamentation
Mota awa exclamation in lamentation, Glb. awa exclamation of
surprise
HS: Assyr. ua alas as subs. grief, pain, CA auw exclamation of
grief, pain; auwh exclamation in lamentation, Egyp. w grief, pain,
etc. see DHSR 3.2.8 and 3.14.4.
With /-h/ becoming part of the root (cf. CA auw-h above): Egyp. h
grief, pain, loss, sorrow = CA h exclamation in lamentation and also
exclamation of grief, pain.

4.1.61 PAN *awa space between earth and sky, atmosphere
Tag. awa interval of space, Mal. awa-awa air between earth and
sky, OJav. awa-awa sky, air, Sund. awa-awa atmosphere.
HS: CA aw-un air or space between earth and sky also air.

4.1.62 PAN *awat help, assistance
NgD. awat to help, save, deliver, rescue, Han. awat help,
assistance; um-awat to help
HS: CA awu help, assistance, Heb. wt to help, succor.

4.1.63 PAN *away face
Tanjong yauai face, Dairi Pakpak awe id., Melanau jaway id.
HS: Egyp. face, CA mu-aiy whole of the face.

4.1.64 PAN *awer to roar (of wind, of river)
Ilk. awer the sound of a swollen river, a strong wind; ag-awer to roar
(stream, wind), Itb. aber roaring, Saa awa to roar, of flood.
HS: CA awru mouth of a flowing water into the sea also gulf as a
vb to low, roar. Another term is arru noise, gurgle of flowing water.
All are from a proot [aw] in CA aw-t sound, noise, said of wind to
roar, Egyp. r t the roar of the earth (t = earth), the whistling of
wind.


Page No. 124


4.1.65 PAN *aya exclamation of annoyance, surprise, etc.
Ged. aia interjection indicating wonder, astonishment, Amis aya
exclamation showing displeasure, OJav. ayah exclamation of
incredulity, If. ayaya exclamation of astonishment or surprise.
HS: Egyp. hy interjection; hahy ha-ha.

4.1.66 PAN *aya term of family relationship: mother, parent, father,
uncle, aunt
At. aia mother, mothers sister, Jav. y-aya father, Mak. aya
mother, Mal. aya-h father, Ib. aya- uncle, stepfather (term of
address), Argumi yai mother, Acehnese ayah father, Seru aya aunt,
uncle, Kembayan oya mother.
HS: Cush.: Gala ayo, aye mother, Somali yo step-mother, Ge.
ayay companion, in Tigre ayay parent, Harari y mother; y used
in address; w y parents lit. father (w) and mother (y), Zway y
mother.
CA aya-tu may render oneself, ones figure, person as in I saw aya-
ta-hu could be rendered I saw him in person.

4.1.67 PAN *ayam domestic animal
Tag. a:yam dog, Bis., Bik., Akl. ayam dog, Jav., Mal. ayam hen,
Ind. ayam chicken, Bandjar hayam id., Pazeh ayam bird, Pu. hayam,
Ami ayam, Sir. ayam id., Pw. qaya-qayam id.
HS: Egyp. ym animal, as a vb to bring down birds and animals with
a boomerang.

4.1.68 PAN *ayaw to plunder, raid
Kad. azou to plunder, Kay. ayan an enemy; war, Knk. ayyaw to
chase, catch, pursue, Manoba ayaw raid a settlement and kill people at
random, Kenyah ayau war, enemy.
HS: see 4.3.58 below.

4.1.69 PAN *ayud to copulate
Kay. ayn mate with, copulate (of animals), Akl. ayod ayod move the
waist up and down (as in the act of intercourse).
We have already seen two reconstructed PAN variant roots *ait, *ai-t
and *ayut: see 4.1.20 above.
HS: Egyp. d to copulate, it is initial /-/ is from /h-/.


Page No. 125


4.1.70 PAN *at there (distant)
Han.ati there (distant), Kay. ati-h (Uma Juman) that (distant),
Kay. (Busang) ati third person demonstrative, Mlg. aty here.
HS: Egyp. d here, there, perh. CA mt, from mi-it, mid from
mi-id the farthest (esp. in horserace) (LA), Ge. attata be far,
distant.

4.1.71 PAN *aCeb trap, metathesis involving correspondence
Ss. aesb deadfall trap, Sa. acv id., Knk. ateb rat trap, If. atob,
Bik. atob trap, Mansaka atub trap, Kel. ateb id.
HS: perh. Egyp. ybt trap, snare, net ~ yb to snare.

4.1.72 PAN *asu food offering
Ren. asso food offering, Arosi ato distribute food at feasts, give
food to the sick, Sam. aso food for visitors.
HS: Egyp. an offering made by fire ~ s an offering, ~ y id., y-
tt meat and drink offering, perh. BHeb.ie-h a sacrifice offering. All
are derived from stem [i] below.

4.1.37 Austronesian kinred roots for smoke
PAN *asu smoke
Tag. aso smoke, Bik. aso smoke, fumes, Ceb. asu smoke, Chmr.
asu smoke, steam, vapor, Nggela ahu smoke of a fire, Sam. asu
smoke; f-asu to smoke, Saa sau-sesu to smoke (a fire).

PAN *asuk smoke
Ilk. asok smoke, fume, vapor, steam, Isneg asu id., Itawis atuk
smoke, Bont. asok smoke, Kap. asuk id., If. ahuk id., Rembong asuk
blackeded by smoke.

PAN *aseb smoke
Jav. aseb smoke, steam, Puyuma hasv-an smoke, Acehnese asab
smoke, soot, steam, Bint. sab smoke.

PAN *asep smoke
Sund. heseup smoke, steam, OJav. asep incense, Ilk. asep incense,
perfume, Bal. asep smoke.



Page No. 126

Comments
No real smoke (i.e. smoke of fire) without a fire. The HS cognate may
be [i] fire as in Akk. iatu fire, Ug. it, Phoen. fire, Egyp. ystt
incense.




















Page No. 127


4.2 PAN Roots with Initial /e-/
4.2.1 PAN *e numeral prefix
Haw. e numeral prefix used only with 1-9, Mono-Alu e numeral
prefix used only with 2-4, Tong. e particle used before numerals, Sam.
e id.
HS: CA and gen. Sem. a ~ i a prefix used only with the cardinal
numbers 2 and 4 as in CA inain 2, arbaa-tu 4. It is perh. the same
as that used before the term for finger as in CA and gen Sem. uba
(~iba ~ aba).

4.2.2 PAN *ebun heap, pile, flock
Casiguran Dumagat ebun swarm, gather, as ants on sugar), Nggela
ovu heap, crowd, pile, flock as a vb to assemble, heap, Lau ofu pile
up, amass, Kenyah m-bun a heap.
Among PAN variants are:

PAN *ubun
Sas. ombon heap up earth, Hlg. hubun group, Bont. ubon be
crowded (people).

PAN *abun
Ilk. ambon to assemble, concourse, Mentawai abut to collect,
gather.
HS: BHeb. b be dense, thick, compact, OffAram. by thickness,
CA abiy dense, thick, ubb entirety, all; much abundance, abba to
fill, make full.
The addition of /-n/creates a new root expressing in CA, as in abanna,
bulky also fleshy, fat.

4.2.3 PAN *e(n)da dont, no, not: see 2.1.23 above.
Mar. da none, lose, not, Bal. eda do not, Mal. endah no, not,
Maloh eda dont, Kam. nda particle of negation, Mal. endah no,
not, T da negative particle.
HS: Sab. d no, not, etc. see DHSR 3.21.6 and 3.21.7.


Page No. 128

The Austronesian words above may be from a cpd of two negatives:
*an ~ na and *da. The use of two or more negatives to express strong
negation was not not rare at the early stages of languages (DHSR: 3.21).

4.2.4 PAN *edem cloudy, dark
Karo Batak endem clouded over, etc.
HS: See 2.1.6 above.

4.2.5 PAN *ega dry near a fire
Tag. igadried up, Kay. ga be dry; dryness, etc. A kindred root is
the following:

PAN *gagan to heat near a fire
Mal. gaga toasting, slow roasting near a fire, Mar. gaga to heat
in fire, Sund. gaga hot.
HS: Ug. agn fire, Egyp. gy to burn, CA aggama be hot, flame up
a fire, etc.: see DHSR: 4.4.72.

Comments
Ug. and Austronesian final /-n/ is a derivational suffix: see Comments
of 4.2.23 below.

4.2.6 PAN *(e)ka thou
Mal. ka, Tag. ikaw, Jav. kowe you sg., Kap. ika, Hilg. Ikaw thou,
Maori. koe, Fij. iko, thou, Ace. kah, Sawu iko id.
HS: Egyp. yk thou, CA -ka you, your (masc. sg.): see 1.2.6.3b
abobe.

4.2.7 PAN *ekeb cover
Bal. ekeb keep secret, hide, Kay. kep to brood on eggs, Fij. oko
to cover, Bint. keb to cover, lid, m-ekeb close by covering with
something.
HS: see 2.1.4 above.

4.2.8 PAN *elem shade, darkness
Bol. oem shade, Mang. lem new moon, dark, Bont. elem
sheltered or surrounded, as a trail which passes through a forested place.

PAN variant *alem or *halem


Page No. 129

NgD. alem night; alem malem last night, Mlg. alina night,
darkness, Kel. alem night, Banj. Ham last night, yesterday, before,
Mang. alem quiet, still.

PAN variant *tilem
OJav. tilem night of the dark moon, Bal. tilem last day of the moon,
new moon, Knk. tilem black pig

HS: CA alm, said of shade, thickly or densely dark; lam darkness,
blackness, Eth.: Tigriniya hlmt darkness, obscurity.

N.B. A question may arise: Is there any relation between the Austonesian
and HS words cited above and the HS word alm darkness? The
question can be answered only after we determine the meaning of proot
[a-]. For this reason, our study of Austronesian and HS words above is
not final.

4.2.9 PAN elet exert strength
If. olot strength, force, Pang. elet firmness; ma-let strong, Nias
l expenditure of strength or effort (for something).
HS: BHeb. l strong, might, ultimately from the same root in Assyr.
alllu strong, mighty.

Comments
Austronesian -t in *elet above is originally used to form an abstract
noun *elet strength > as a vb use or exert strength: comp. Assyr. ellatu
might = CA allatu weapon, lit. all tools or all kinds of weapon used
in war. The root also expresses horn (for its strength. For this reason, it
was used as a weapon in pre-Islamic time); allies; family relatives (Assyr.
ellatu femaly relatives); color, from notion of bright, hence alla be
bright, glitter (= Assur. allallu a brightly-colored bird, from ellu
bright). Suffixed /-t-/ is also found as part of the root in CA alata to
prevent someone from doing something or from moving ahead and drive
him away.

4.2.10 PAN *eli high-pitched sound
Bal. eli to weep, wail; crying, T alli vague sound from a
distance, Mang. li to sound; sound.


Page No. 130

HS: BHeb. ll to wail, to howl, CA allu scream, shout as a vb alla,
Saf. ll wail, moan, Akk. all woe, alas.

4.2.11 PAN *elu bend, curve
Bug. ello neck, Jav. m-elu to bend, to bow, Fordata elun bent,
curved.

PAN variant *ile to turn, rotate
Tir. ile to whirle, Kenyah (Long Anap) ile to turn the head.
HS: CA CIV alw to bend, twist, curve, Akk. law to fold, BHeb.
lw to twine, fold, Ge. tlwy to bend
48
.

Comments
Initial PAN /e-/ is a reflex of caus. /a-/. A natural question may be
asked: How do we know that the root has an initial caus. prefix and not,
for example, an initial laryngeal or semivowel?
The best and most convincing evidence is always one drawn from the
language or language family under study. If the Austronesian languages
do not confirm what has been assumed with unquestionable evidence, then
the assumption will be simply groundless.
a) Closely related to *elu above is *lulu or *luluN to wrap, roll
Tausug ln to wrap something by turning it over and over, to roll up,
Palauan me-luyl to roll up,
Saa lulu to fold,
Tetum lulun to wrap up, roll up.
The PAN newly introduced root corresponds neatly to BHeb. llm pl.
winding stairs; lult loops, BAram. lwl winding stairs.

b) Another Proto-Austronesian related root is *liliu to turn around
Tongan liliu to turn around,
Roviana liliu to turn around with the same movement, as clock
hands.

4.2.12 PAN *ema to kiss
Itawis amma to kiss, KBat. ema to embrace, kiss.
HS: Egyp. m, m to embrace.

48
The same caus. prefix appears in ancient Greek of IE eile to wrap. According, PIE
*wal to twist is from an earlier /a-/ (see DHSR: 4.16.8).



Page No. 131


4.2.13 PAN *ema maidservant, mother
Jav. ema-k maidservant; mother, Tag. ima- mother, Ib. ma- id.,
Mal. ema-k mother, aunt, Bug. emma- id.
HS: Cush.: Sidamo am mother, wife, Hadiya ama, Darasa ama id.,
Cush.: Kwadza ama mother, Iraqw ama grandmother, Phoen. mh
slave girl, servant, CA ama-tu id.

4.2.14 PAN *em
Ib. mit small, little; anak-mit baby, Sund. sa-emet a little bit, very
small quantity, Ngd. eme small, few.
HS: Egyp. m little, small, slight.

4.2.15 PAN *emun if
Malanau mun if, Manobo emun id., Kapuas amun, Katingan amun,
Siang amun if.
HS: Phoen., JAram. m, Heb. im if.

4.2.16 PAN *en, *in passive marker
Bont. -en as in iyap-en be counted: iyap to count, Bolaang
Mongondow -on as in iap-on be counted: iap to count, Tag. -in, OJav.
-en, Ceb. -un, Kay. -en, Iv. -en, At. -un, Bu. -en, Pang. -en, Han. -un, Itb. -
en, Mentawai -in- passive marker. See 1.2.4.4 above.
HS: CA [in] passive marker as in kataba to write > in-kataba be
written. For HS cognates, see 1.1.4, n. VII above.

4.2.17 PAN *en, *in past tense marker
Bun. -in- past tense infix, Pw. in- past tense marker, Knk. -en past
tense marker, TBat. -in- id.
HS: see 4.4.18 below.

4.2.18 PAN *in, *en marker of deverbal nouns
At. -in- infix forming nouns, TBot. -in- forms deverbal nouns and
also a marker of passive, Wolio -in- marker of deverbal nouns, Roviana
in-, -in-, can be used as a prefix and infix and forms nouns and adjectives,
Wetan -in- used to form nouns from verbs,
HS: affixed /n/ has several functions to perform in HS language family,
some of them have long been known and described, and some others have
been very recently discovered and firmly established in DHSR: 3.11. We


Page No. 132

will be concerned here with two grammatical functions of affixed /n/,
namely, one forming nouns from verbs and the other forming adjectives
from verbs.

a) Suffixed /-n/, a deverbal noun marker.
Sab. ryn satisfaction: ry be satisfied
CA ruwn satisfaction: raiya be satisfied,
OffAram., Palm. ln power, streng: l exercise power over,
BHeb. rbn famine: reb be hungry,
Ug. krn drunkenness: kr be drunk.

b) Suffixed /-n/, forming adjectives.
OCan., OArm. rn adj. other also used as a substance the rest. The
same form is also used as adj. in BHeb. last
49
,
CA nasn drowsy: naisa be drowsy,
BHeb. ltn winding, tortuous is not from al to twist, but from a
lost noun *lt (Gesenius, OT, pp. 810-821).
Eth. eran black: aar be black.

4.2.19 PAN *ena hit with a spear
Bwaidoka ona to spear, throw a spear, Nggela ona stakes or spears
fixed for enemy to traed on, sharp pointed stick, If. ona catch something
by a trap, hit a mark with a spear, stone, Law ona stake in a hole to
impale an enemy.
HS: Egyp. n a sharp edged or pointed tool, adze, axe, auger.

4.2.20 PAN *enzi a term of address to girls ?
Sund. enji a friendly name for girls, Ngad. edzi to friendly, Bol.
Mongondow ondi term used by elders to address girls to about 17 years
of age.
HS: CA nisa-tu fem. Miss, a term of address to girls.

4.2. 21 PAN *eit complain loudly
Ib. ut grunt, grunting (pigs), Kam. au howl, bark.
HS: CA anata to moan, groan, the /-t/ in the Austronesian and CA
words is unquestionably a suffix forming nouns from verbs: CA anna to
moan, sigh, groan (un-loudly, i.e. with closed mouth), Ug. t-nt

49
But in CA rn, i.e. n is a pl. form others, sg. ar. A similar instance is Sab.
wn alliance < Sab.w brother, ally, but in CA (wn) iwn pl. of a.



Page No. 133

murmur, Syr. an id. BHeb. hit-nn groan, Chad.: Ngisim a
speak, etc.
We can shift the order of [an] to create new roots as in CA naata ~
nahata, naaa = BHeb.a (DHSR: 3.11.87), etc. BHeb. na, nh,
nam, nham (*nam), etc. Egyp. nym, HS nd.
We can also keep the order [an] and add suffixed proots to create other
roots such as n and n, see DHSR: 3.11.90.
Some Austronesian implicit cognates are:

PAN *uut to grumble, mumble
Tag. uot numbling, Tbat. uut-uut grumbling.

PAN *ur to moan, growl
Bont. ool to moan, groan, Tag. uol to grumble, growl, Ilk. uor
to moan with closed mouth.

PAN *iqii to rumble
Knk. iiin to rumble, roar, Tag. ii sound of the violin, If. iii a
bamboo flute.

PAN *ius to moan
Kam. iu sound of sighing or moaning, Akl. ios to moan in
sadness, Bik. ios-ios to whimper.

PAN *ee buzz, hum
Tir. ee buzzing sound, Jav. m-ee id.

PAN *eik high-pitched sound of complaint
Simalur ei weep, cry (children), Tont. eek to squeak, cheep,
chirp, Minangkabau eek crying of a child.

PAN eut complain loudly
Kam. aut howl, bark, Monobo eut burst out into loud speech.

4.2.22 PAN *egem hold something in the mouth, roll around in the
mouth
Saa okom-i to roll around in the mouth and swallow it, Nggela
ogom-i hold solid in the mouth, TBat. Ogom hold solid in the mouth


Page No. 134

without swallowing, Ceb. hold something inside the mouth, Mar. gem
hold in the mouth.
Blust and Trussel (ACD) consider the following words as belonging
here: Sas. egem carry in the closed hand, Sangir egu the wings with
which a hen protects her chicks, Gorontalo oomo clenched in the fist.
They also traced them all to PAN *gem grasp in the fist, but without
explaining their choice or at least justifying it. The connection is wrong
and it is self-explained below.
HS: CA aama to roll food around in the mouth for either swallowing
it or just tasting it: amu biting with the molar teeth; awimu pl.
teeth, hence aama also express to estimate with the teeth whether
something is hard.

4.2.23 PAN variant *epan start a fire: 4.1.50 above.
TBat. ma-opan make a fire, OJav. a-empani to light a fire.
HS: compare Egyp. pns to burn also to roast, cook.

Comments
The original function of /-n/ here is to form a substance. In the course
of time it has become an inseparable part of the root in most of its
occurrences in language families. Some examples are:
a) CA barhana to evidence, demonstrate with a proof < burhn
proof, evidence < baraha, CIV abraha to show, prove < stem [bar or
par
50
, both exist in HS] as in Akk. bar to look at, inspect and ultimately
from proot [ra] or [ar] see, orig. eye. So, [ba- ~ pa-] is a proot. A
similar example is Ug. byn to know, Heb. byn cause to understand,
CA baiyana to demonstrate, make obvious < CA baiya to bring to light,
throw light upon.

b) IE: Sanskrit agnis fire, Church Slavic ogn id.= HS: Ug. agn fire;
PAN *ega (4.2.5 above) are all from a stem [ag] burn, kindle a fire:
CA agga, Somali g, etc. see DHSR: 4.4.72.

c) The /-n/ of PAN *ebun heap (4.2.2 above) is a derivational suffix
and the very same /n-/ seen in PAN *abun to assemble as in Knk. ubon
to assemble, gather together, Mang. umbu to heap, pile up, Ilk.
ambon to assemble, collect; ambo-en to join in fighting against an

50
CA CII farra to show, Egyp. pr to see, etc. (DHSR: 3.2.17).


Page No. 135

enemy. Consider CA abbaa to mobilize the army against an enemy,
i.e. make assemble. The causative idea is expresses by doubling /-b-/.
For exhaustive information on affixed /n/ and its various grammatical
functions and meanings, see DHSR: 3.11.
Returning to Austronesian and Egyptian words above, the Austronesian
/-n/ and Egyp. /-n-/ in pns have the same function as the /-n/ discussed in
n. a and c above. As for Egyp. final -s, it may be caus. occurring as a
suffix rather than prefix.

4.2.24 Some other PAN derivatives of apuy fire (4.1.50 above)
PAN *epi- burned food
Sas. empi burned rice which adheres to the pot, Kamarian epi
burned food which adheres to the pot.

PAN *epit burned food
Kamarian epit burned food which adheres to the pot, Sas. empit
burned rice which adheres to the pot, Mar. pit bottom-most part of pot
of rice, Ceb. hupit have something sticking to it, as feces on rump.
HS: CA inst. mi-fadu food roasted or cooked and without the inst.
mi-: fadu id. also fire; ta-faudu burning: see 4.1.50 above.

4.2.25 An example of PAN derived stems formed by infixing /-t-/
a) PAN *etip burned rice which adheres to the pot
Sas. entip burnt rice stuck to cooking pot, Bal. entip, Mak. atti crust
of rice in cooking pot.
HS: Egyp. tp to burn < *Wpy: see 4.1.49 above. See DHSR: 3.2.47
(HS root dp), esp. n. 7-7d.

Comments
The method employed to form stems by infixing /-t-/ came to an end in
late PHS. All stems then formed by infixing /-t-/ have become autonomous
roots in the entire language family.
CA has preserved both stems, the earlier and the later, much more than
any HS language, e.g. BHeb., Syr., OffAram. td to prepare, BAram. td
be prepared, CA atada id. < CA adda, ad id., Egyp. d id. For a
comprehensive discussion of infixed /-t-/, see DHSR: 3.8.


Page No. 136

PAN and Egyp. roots above are compound words. The Egyp. root
consists of caus. [t-] (Egyp. d and t interchange in any position) plus [p],
while the PAN root includes infixed [-t-] and has developed from *epuy.

4.2.26 PAN *epus end
Mar. pos stub, end, Bik. apos butt (cigarette), stump (candle), Tir.
efus cigarette stub, continue up to the end of a task
HS: Ug. aps end, BHeb. epes end, extremity.

Comments
Some Austronesian derived stems are:
a) PAN *tapus finished, end
Akl. tapos to finish, end, Hlg. tapus finished, Palawan tapus-an
end, Han. tapus finished.

b) PAN *ti(m)pus
Mar. timpos act through to the finish, Mnd. tippus out of breath.
HS: perh. CA a-fasa to die.

c) PAN *te(m)pus end
Bal. tepos break off, interrupt, end in, Arose ohu finish, complete.

d) PAN *upus end, finish
Bolaang Mongondow uput end, termination, Akl. upos consumed,
used up, Knk. upus consumed, finished, empty, Ngd opo end, finish;
opu to die out, perish.

e) PAN *ebus finished, gone
Akl. obus used up, gone, Banggai obus finished, done, etc.

f) PAN la(m)pus gone, terminated
Knk. lapus gone, vanished, Jav. lampus dead, Ib. lempus over,
finished.

g) PAN *mampus gone, used up
Mang. mampos gone, used up, Mal. mampus be wiped out, to die.

Comments


Page No. 137

PAN ma- of *mampus above corresponds clearly to PHS [ma-], a past
participle marker, as in CA alima to known > malm known
(DHSR: 3.10). Also see PAN ma- stative in 1.2.4.2 above.

4.2.27 PAN *epuk make a popping sound
Mang. puk sound of a fart, Jav. empok discharge stomach gas or
flatus, Sas. empok pop, burst out, explode.
HS: CA afaa to fart.

4.2.28 PAN *eput to puff, blow
Mar. pot puffing sound, etc. see 2.1.7 above.
HS: See 2.1.7d above.

4.2.29 PAN erak harsh, loud sound
Mal. rak cracking sound,Tir. erok the sound made by falling water;
falling water, Mnd. arra to weep, cry.
HS: CA arak sound, of colliding waves; colliding waves.

4.2.30 PAN *esa one
Mal. esa one, Sund. esa id., Rot. esa unity, one, Tont. esa one,
other, only, Tag. isa, Hlg. isa one, Ceb. usa, isa, Akl. isaea, Bont. ka-
sa first, Itb. asa id., Pw. eta id., Ss. h id., Kav. issa one, Ib. sa,
Salako asa one, Rungus iso id.
HS: CA as one as opposed to zak double, pair = afu and witru
respectively or fardu and zauu.

Comments
The word for one seems to be the first element of a cpd term for 100
in many world languages. It is also found in the term for 10 in many
others. For example, CA ad ten years or decade includes proot [aW]
one and so does the term aru 10. An example from Austronesian
languages includes Malay, Javanese se-puluh (one) ten, Malay se-ratus,
Javanese sa-tus (one) hundred.

4.2.31 PAN *esek crowded, crowd together
Mak. assa to press against something, forcefully cram something in,
Fij. oso narrow, crowded, strait; vaka-osooso-taka to crowd together.

PAN variant *asek, *hasek


Page No. 138

Ceb. hasuk to pack inside tight by compacting it down; compressed and
well-packed inside a container, Mar. asek to press, Ib. ansak to press
back (as enemy in a battle), Mal. ask stuffing, Mak. assa to press
against something.
HS: CA aaka be crowed together, amassed, assembled, collected.

Comments
How amazing is the grammatical function or meaning of final [-ka]!:
compare aada to amass and aaka be amassed. The same suffix
may also add a signification much, many. At any rate, both [da] and [
ka] are among suffixed proots that can combine with root a to stuff,
pack inside tight by compacting it down, cram in to slightly modify its
meaning. An example has already been cited in 3.22 above.
Another example illustrating suffixed proots to stems in order to create
new roots is HS stem [par] to divide which can give rise to a large
number of roots by the addition of suffixes such as prs, pr, prk, pr, pr,
pr, prr, pry, prm, prd, pr, prz, and pr. All express to divide, with
each expressing a shade of that notion. For a comprehensive treatment of
this linguistic phenomenon, see DHSR: 2.1.8.1ff.
A question may arise here: Does this linguistic phenomenon exist in
Austronesian language family? The phenomenon does exist in
Austronesian languages, but has rarely been detected by Austronesian
scholars. It may well here to give some illustrative examples.
PAN *il to see, look at as in OJav. ilo, etc. (see 4.3.22 below) used
to combine with suffixes to express particular shades of the basic idea
see. In the course of time the suffixes have become permanently attached
to the root. In consequence, words which had once been mere derivatives
of *il have come to be established as autonomous roots. Consider the
following examples:

PAN *ilah to see
Kankany ila to look at, see, behold,
Cebuano ilah- identifying mark or sign,
Lun Dayeh ileh knowledgeable
Bontok ila to see
PAN *ileR to look askance
Kayan ilah to squint (of eyes
Maranao ileg crossed-eyed



Page No. 139

PAN *ili to see, look at, examine
Bikol hili look at; a look,
Old Javanese ili to look at (regard observe) with attention,
Tiruray ili- to look around, scan.
There are still some other related roots. One of which is PAN *tidal to
look apward: see 3.47. For the HS cognate, see 4.3.22 below.
Some other examples of kindred roots are: *eut, *uur, *ee, eik,
*ius to groan, moan (Comments of 4.2.21 above); *upun heap, pile
(see 2.4 above) and umpuk id.
51
; ikuR tail
52
, iku id.
53
, and *siku
54
;
PAN *asu smoke, *asuk, *aseb, *asep smoke (4.1.37 above), PAN
*isu to move, *isud, *isuR (4.3.47 below), PAN *gilak, *gilaw, *gilap
shine (3.48 above), and so forth.

4.2.32 PAN *esem sour
Mal. m-asam sour, acid, Bint. sem kind of sour fruit, Kay. sem
sour, Kad. onsom id., Tont. esem sour, vinegary. All are from *emes
by metathesis.
HS: Akk. emu sour, CA mi id., Egyp. m vinegar.

4.2.33 PAN *eteb to cut off, prune (trees)
Bal. enteb cut off, prune (trees), Kel. eteb act of cutting (wood).
HS: CA aaba to cut wood; ab wood-cutter, BHeb. ab to
cut wood.

4.2.34 PAN *eter to tremble, shake
Mar. ter to vibrate, Mang. ter to tremble violently, Jav. eter
causing something to tremble, earth-shaking, Sund. enter-enter shake,

51
PAN *umpuk heap, pile, collection
Mal. umpuk to pile up, Jav. umpuk (to heap) in a pile; -umpuk to pile, Tag.
umpok small group of persons.

52
PAN *ikuR tail
Bun. ikul, Pu. ikuR, Pang. ikol, Kel. iur, Mal. ekor, KBat. ikur, TBat. ihur tail.



53
PAN *iku tail
Tboli iko, Mang. iko, Mak. iko tail. A likely cognate is the root in CA ukwa-tu
tail.

54
PAN *siku tail
Nggela igu tail, Tong. hiku tail, Sam. siu tip, extremity, Ren. siku tail of an
animal or fish, Maori hiku tail of a fish or reptile.



Page No. 140

tremble, vibrate.
HS: Assyr. tarru to tremble, shake, etc. see DHSR 4.5.20.

Comments
a) PAN initial *e- is from caus. *e-: cf. CA CIV atarra.

b) A form without caus. *e- is seen in PAN *tirtir as in Tong. tete
tremble, shiver, KBat. tirtir shiver with cold. It is also seen in Mar.
and Mang. words above. Both Javenese and Sund. words above preserve a
visible reflex of caus. /a-/.
HS: CA tartara to move back and forth, to shake (repeatedly).


















Page No. 141


4.3 PAN Roots with Initial /i-/
4.3.1 PAN *i imperative suffix: see 4.1.3 above.
At. -i, Hlg. -i, Bik. -i imperative suffix, Bont. i- as in i-ali come,
imperative of ali.
HS: CA i-hab! go!, i-hab! you pl. go!: ahaba to go, etc.

4.3.2 PAN *i exclamation of wonder, disgust
Jav. i exclamation of pain, Ceb. i exclamation of surprise, Tolai ia
there, Pw. i exclamation of wonder, Bun. ia exclamation, Kam. i
shriek of pain.
HS: Egyp. exclamation; id. Phoen. y exclamation: woe
EHeb., Pun. y exclamation oh.

4.3.3 PAN *iaq here, there, this, that
Ren. ia here, ia this, that, there, Tong. ia that, those, Maori. ia
that, Haw. ia this, Akl. ia here, Sa. ie this, these, Rot. ia this,
here.
PAN variant *ieq as in Sas. ia this, Bint. ie this; d-ie here,
Rembong ia over there.
HS: Egyp. y here, hereabouts: see 4.3.6 below.
N.B. Egyp. y is from *y, which in turn interchanges with [hy].

4.3.4 PAN *iak to cry out
Tag. iak to cry, sob, Bik. iak to cry out, Ceb. iak chirp, Bont. iek
to laugh, Mal. iak to whine.
HS: Egyp. yky to cry out; ykk cry, song.

4.3.5 PAN *ian dehortative, dont, may not
Kel. ian dehortative, dont, Mak. ia may not
HS: CA arch. iniy (-h) expresses ideas like may God forbid, not to
expect, may not. Egyp. yn post negative particle. It can also occur as a
suffix [inh] with the signification no, not, EHeb. yn (there is) no,
Pun. yn id., Eth.: Har. inn no.

4.3.6 PAN *ian that, this, here, there (see above 4.3.3)
Bik. ian that, those, Mal. yen that, Isneg in that, there, Tag. ian


Page No. 142

that, d-ian there, Agta yan there.
HS: Cush.: Bilin in this, these, inj that, those, Khama en, anil
masc. this, ani fem. this; masc. that, fem. et that, Damot enni
masc. this, fem. enn id., an masc. that, fem. an.
Sem.: OffAram. hn this, JAram. hn there, BHeb. hnh hither. CA
has a set of at least three related demonstrative: hun here > hun-ka
there > hun-li-ka yonder: see 4.3.3 above and 4.3.10 below.

Comments
Tag. d-ian there includes a demonstrative d-. This demonstrative is
seen in Subanun d-ion there and in some others as in Bint. d-ie here
(4.3.3 above), Iv. dia id. (4.3.10 below). All are from a cpd of [-]
this, the as in Egyp. d the, CA this; -ka that, Sab. this,
these, BHeb. z this, etc. see DHSR: 2.20.2, n. 1. You may also see
OLeary (1969: 90) and remember that d in the examples he cited from
Arabic dialects and Aramaic is from [].

4.3.7 PAN *ian dwell, reside, live in a place
TBat. ian to live, dwell, Bont. iyan to stay overnight, If. ian to
stay for a short time, Mar. ian source, Ilk. yan place, location, Kad.
izan-an domicile, place of residence.
HS: Egyp. ywnn abode, home: wnwn to be, exist; wn room,
chamber, Palm. wn habitation, abode, OAram. wyn seek shelter,
etc. see DHSR 3.12.14, n. 5 and 4.16.4.
N.B. The following HS forms are most likely belonging here: Egyp. yn-t
abode = CA cpd ayn household; ayn chiefs, masters (of a tribe,
community, village, state). It consists of proot [a-] great (see DHSR:
3.14) and stem *yn house, dwelling; this is in turn based on *[w] as
in w to shelter, lodge plus suffixed /-n/.

4.3.8 PAN *iap a kind of brown fish
Waropen ia brown fish, Buli iaf id.
HS: CA uffa-tu a white fish or hiffu a kind of fish.

4.3.9 PAN *iap, *iyap to count
Bont. iyap count, If. uyap act of counting, reckoning, computing,
etc. see 1.2.3.1.2 above.
HS: Egyp. yp to count, reckon up; caus. s-yp to check accounts, to
inspect, examine, etc. 1.2.3.1.2 above.


Page No. 143


4.3.10 PAN *ie- this
Sas. ia this, Rmb. ia over ther, Bint. ie this; d-ie here, Iv. d-
ia here.
HS: CA h (grammatically called mar) this (for a thing or a
person near the speaker) and perh. here, e.g. If you are ask: Where is
X? If X is near you, say: h huw , etc. (quoted from LA) = Ug. h in ht
now, i.e. this time: compare CAaln now, consisting of two free
morphemes al this and n time. Ug. [t ] in ht is from HS [ta-] time
(DHSR: 3.20.1).

4.1.11 PAN *iba- companion, close relative: see PAN *iba below in
4.1.12.
Bik. iba different, distinct also to accompany, Akl. iba(h) be
companions, Pu. iva elder sibling, If. iba brother, cousin, companion,
friend, Han. iba companionship, Tag. iba other, different, another,
Hlg. iban some other, other, Bim. iwa friend, close relative, Singhi
iban son-in-law, Kel. iban child-in-law.
HS: CA awbu genetically related people, b sg. related, son-in-
law and CA awba-tu parent, sister, daughter are from one single root.
The related word in 4.3.14 below determines the form with initial /-/ as
genuine.

4.3.12 PAN *iba close relative
If. iba brother, sister, cousin, friend, Bint. ivan parent-in-law, Bim.
iwa close relative, Akl. ka-ibah-an companion, Nias iwa tribe, clan.
HS: see 4.3.12 above.

4.3.13 PAN *ibaS companion, other (ACD)
Ib. iban person, Akl. ibah be companions, go together also
different, other, another, Bik. iba different, distinct, Han. iba
companionship; iba other, different, but not in the sense of being
distinct or separate, Tag. iba different, other, another, Itb. ka-yvan
companion, Iv. ka-yvan friend.
HS: CA aba-tu fem. group of heterogeneous people, i.e. having
different fathers or not descending from one father.

4.3.14 PAN *iba self, very closely related to words in 4.3.11-4.3.12
above.


Page No. 144

TBat iba person, self, one, Bal. iba self, body; iba-iba alone.
HS: CA aubu self.

4.3.15 PAN *ibak break, separate from
Mlg. ivaka be disjoined, etc. see 2.1.3g above.

Comments
PAN root includes caus. /a-/: cf. CA bakka to break, separate from;
CIV abakka id.

4.3.16 PAN *ibun bird
Ilk. ibon large bird, Tag. ibon bird.
HS: Akk. abbunnu bird, Egyp. bnn kind of bird.

Comments
Final double /-nn/ or any final double radical in Akk., CA, and Egyp.
has a well-defined grammatical function. This grammatical function was
identified and firmly established in DHSR: 3.3.37, n. 4b.

4.3.17 PAN *idi then, at that time
Ilk. idi formerly, in time past, at that time, then (when), Waropen iri
then, however, but, next, Kenyah idi then, not till then.
HS: EHebr., Samal z then, at that time, CA i id. (see DHSR
3.20.1, n. 2d).

4.3.18 PAN idus nasal mucus
Sas. idus snot, Palauan irt mucus (from the nose only), Mal.
(h)ius snot, mocus from the nose, Mang. irus nasal mucus, snot.
All are probably related to PAN *asio sneeze as in Bwaidoga asio
sneeze and Wuvulu atio id.
HS: Chad.: Dghwede wdisa, Migama haddiso to sneeze, Makilko
waddiso id., Cush.: Oromo hissi sneezing, CA aasa to sneeze, from
the nose only hence ma-is nose.

4.3.19 PAN *ikan fish
Mal. ikan fish, Jav. iwak id., Ilk. ikan, Sund. ikan, Fij. ika, Maori ika,
Rapanui ika id., Murung in, Siang oin fish. The term is found
without /i-/ in some Austronesian languages like Dusun Malang, Samihim,
Paku knah, etc. fish.


Page No. 145

The same form may appear with initial /s-/ in some Formosan
Languages as in Hoanya sikan and Bun. (Central) iska:n, while in Bun.
(Northern) ka:n.
HS: a mere guess is CA kana or akan as in kana-t ~ kana-d ~ anka-d
a kind of fish.

4.3.20 PAN *ikat to tie
Mal. ikat to tie, Ib. ikat to tie together; -ikat to tie something
together, Sas. -iket to bind with a rope, Bint. iket tying, m-iket to
tie, Bal. iket to tie, bind, OJav. iket a band, tie; um-iket to bind, tie,
Kap. m-ikat to braid, Sekar eket to tie, bind.
HS: CA aada to knot, tie; ida-tu a knot, tie, BHeb. d to
bind, Ge. ad id., Gt. akd, Har. agda to bind, tie.

Comments
Frankly speaking, Austronesian and Hamito-Semitic words as set forth
above are etymologically noncognate. To establish firmly the HS cognate
root, we need to examine more Austronesian roots and check as whether
the new roots are related to *ikat above.
1) A related traditional root is PAN *siket to tie, bind, which is, like
/i-/ of PAN *iket, orig. caus. of the cpd word *ket as in Amis siket be
attached, joined to, Bik. hikot net, Ceb. hikut to tie something up.

2) With prefixed proot [ra-] added directly to the compound *ket: Mad.
raket to couple.

3) Other Austronesian implicit cognates are PAN *tekes to bind firmly
and *i()kes well-bound, tie to, together with their HS cognate [s ~
ks] to tie, bind, fetter: see 2.3 above.

4) All Austronesian words above are from *ka, a cpd of *ka
condition of and proot *a or *a to bind, tie, fetter. The major
difference between HS and Austronesian is that proot [--] can occur
freely in HS, esp. in Egyp. as in to wrap up; bandlet, from to tie,
bind, hence -t n. tie, binding. This is the very same proot underlying
a large number of roots in HS. One of such roots is the following:

4a) Akk. asru prisoner, CA asru, Ug. asr, BHeb. sr, etc. id. As a
vb: BHeb.sar to bind, to fetter, OAram. sr, BAram., Syr. sr, Eth. sr,


Page No. 146

etc. id. = Egyp. yr prisoner. As we should expect, Egyp. [--] here can
freely interchange with /-s-/, hence ysr prisoner.
We have already drawn attention to the fact that PHS // becomes /s/ in
many of its occurrences (and in some cases /t/ and //) in Semitic and/or
Egyptian: see 1.1.3.1.2 above.
A very important important fact must be noted here is that PHS final [-
r] as in HS asr prisoner above and in CA far one who is poor (from
fa-tu poverty (-tu is a fem. marker), etc. is an agent noun similar in
function to that of English writer < write. I have just used the term
similar rather than identical because it appears to me that its original
function in HS is not doer of the action, but rather the object acted upon
by the action, etc.; it is what we may call object agent and is very close
to the instrumental case.
To realize fully what I have just drawn attention to with regard to final
/-r/, it is sufficient to notice the obvious difference in meaning between /-r/
in English prisoner, i.e. one who is not the doer of the action; the real
doer is someone else- the police, the judge, etc., and /-r/ of writer, i.e.
one who is the doer of the action.

4b) Another root is one in Ug. y to bind, attach, Tigre wa to
tie, knot, CA auaa to fetter, bind, tie, etc. All are based on [--]
bind, tie, fetter. The very same affixed proot, i.e. [a-] which appears as
a prefix can also occur as a suffix.

4c) To illustrate what I have just said about [a-] in n. 4b above, I will
cite an example which will give a very clear picture about how language
develops and changes in the course of time.

4d) PHS [kaW] to destroy, harm, etc., please see all its derived
meanings in DHSR: 2.1.6.5.1, n. 1. gave rise to Egyp. yk to suffer
injury, be lost or destroyed; yk-t injury, pain, something lost; yk cry;
yky to cry out. Let us prefix to it PHS [baW], discussed in depth in
DHSR: 3.13, the resulting root is Egyp. byk to cry. The addition of
caus. /a/ creates another autonomous root: ybk weeping, cry (like CA
ibku id.) = Akk. bak to weep, to cry, to lament, CA bak, Ug. bky,
BHeb. bk, Eth. bakaya, OffAram., Samal, DAram., etc. bky id.
The story of prefixed [baw] is not over. It can also be suffixed to PHS
proot [kaW] as in Egyp. ykb to weep, to cry, to lament, etc.



Page No. 147

4e) It most likely that all Austronesian words for to stick, adhere and
their Hamito-Semitic cognate words (see 2.1.2) are based on proot [--],
and the original signification of stick, adhere is touch, be very close to.

4.3.21 PAN *ikey cough
Ibanag ikeg cough, Isneg ikg id., Itawis ikag cough, Kay. iken a
cough, Bint. iked id.
HS: CA hakaa to cough; n. huk.

Another PAN variant is *ukuk to cough
Pang. okok to cough; cough, Mang. okok sound of coughing, Ged.
uk name of the sound made when afflicted with asthma or whooping
cough = Cush.: Galla kake whooping cough.

4.3.22 PAN *il see
OJav. ilo to see, watch, look at oneself (in a mirror), Fij. ilo to look
at, as a reflection in water or in a morrot, Mota ilo to see, know, Ged. il
to look at, view.
Some other related roots are:

PAN *sile to squint
Bal. sile to look away from, Mang. cile narrow, of the eyes.

In addition, PAN *ilah to see, PAN *ileR to look askance and PAN
*ili to see, look, examine: see Comments of 4.2.31 above.
HS: Egyp. il mirror, Cush.: il as in Galla iali to look; illala to look,
see, Som. il eye; ilaali to watch, Oroma ilaala to look, Chad. il, il
to look, see; eye, CA -l: see DHSR 3.17.2.

4.3.23 PAN *ili, *hili village, town
Isneg ili village, town, country, Itb. hili town; ka-illi-an town
mate, Bont. ili village, town, Itawis ili town, Ilk. ili town; um-ili
to reside in a town.
HS: The HS cognate is either
a) the root in CA illa-tu fem. village, town; illu inhabitants; ma-
alla-tu place of residence; alla to reside in a palce,
b) or the root in Assur. alu city, perh. Cush.: Galla ola village.

4.3.24 PAN *iluR saliva, spittle


Page No. 148

OJav. il saliva, Mal. liur saliva, Nias ilo spittle, Mak. iloro
moisture in the mouth, Mang. ilur saliva, Baree ilu desire, arouse a
desire for something.
HS: Akk. lru saliva, Heb. rr to emit saliva or any liquid, CA rru
saliva of infants.
Another CA related term is rul saliva of domestic animals (DHSR
3.10.34, n. a & b).

4.3.25 PAN *inda mother, lady
Sambal (Botolan) indo mother, Rejang indo id., T indo as a term
of address), Ngaju Dayak indu mother, Kap. indu, Minangkabau indu
mother, etc. see below.
HS: Cush.: Kafa ind mother, Basketo ind, Janjero ind other,
Badditu indo, Bedja enda mother, etc. see below.

Comments
My first comments on the Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian common
term for mother centers on a guttural suffix /K/ attached to the term,
while other comments in 4.3.26 below will focus on some other affixes,
including [-da] of *inda above.
The following examples from Hamito-Semitic and Austronesian
languages unmistakably show the presence of suffixed /-K/.
i) Austronesian: Mal. indo-k mother, Simalur ind-x mother (as
address), Toba Batak indu-k leader.

ii) Hamito-Semitic cognates: Eth.: Harari ind, id mother, Selti
nda, Wolane nda women.
With suffixed -t/-d from an ealier /-K/ via //: Zway adot, Ea adot,
Muher adot mother, Geyto adot id., Ennemor add, Endegen add,
Tigrinya adde (*and-de) id. The same suffix /K/ is also seen with other
terms for family relationship as in Zway aba male, Harari ab
husband, male, Selti aba, Wolane aba brave (man), i.e. brave
male). All are based on ab father.

4.3.26 PAN *ina aunt, mother, femal
Pw. ina, Pazeh ina, Ss. ina mother, Knk. ina id., Nias ina mother,
aunt, Rot. ina(k) mothers sister, woman, wife, Bal. ina mother
(animals), Bont. ina term of address for ones relative, aunt, mother in
law, mother, Taboyan in mother, Lawangan n, Dusun Dejah in,
Dusun Malang inai, Samahim, Paku in mother.


Page No. 149

HS: Cush.: Janjero int mother, Chara ini, Afar in mother, inn
aunt, Saho ann, Sidamo ann id., Eth.: Harari anna paternal aunt,
Argoba anna, Selti ant, Wolamo, Masqan annat id.

Comments I
PAN variant *t(a)-ina mother as in Ruk. t-ina, Bun. tina, Pw. tja-ina,
Bint. tina, Glb. tina, Sam. tina-a, etc. The prefixed proot is found in
Austronesian language divisions and is thus reconstructed for PMP, PO,
PP as *t-ina, *tina, and *tinana respectively. The very same prefix is also
found with the term for father: PAN *t-ama > PMP *t-ama, PO *tama,
PP *tamana.
An important question rises here: What is the signification of PAN *ta-?
Another crucial question may be: Is Austronesian *ta- the same as that
seen in CA and Phoen. -t? CA aba-ti, esp. in the Koran, my father: abu
father, /-t/(meaning ?), /-i/, a reduced form of [-] my. Instead of
abati, one can simply say ab my father which is the most widely used
form throughout the history of the language.
Old Arab scholars assume that -t = O, i.e. O, my father. In other words,
it is used as a substitute for y O, a vocative particle. One problem with
this view is that the word in question is often preceded by y. For
arguments proving that the view is wrong, see DHSR: 3.9, n. 5a. Judging
from its usage in CA, the affix seems to be a title of respect equivalent to
master, lord. It is possible that it is the one seen in Egyp. yt chief,
king
55
, which is also a term for father but not of mother, since male
rather than female is traditionally the chief, master, or leader of a tribe or
primitive society.

Comment II
The term [t] father is in Berber ti, but in Semitic ad as in Ug. d
id.;d-t, Phoen. d-t lady = Austronesian *tata father as in Ceb. tata,
Chmr. tata, Ibaloy tata-, Sambal tata-y, etc. id.
The term appears in Indo-European as atta (Greek, Latin, and
Germanic), Hittite attas, etc. : DHSR: 4.5.37. The same form is also seen
in Semitic ad-n master, sir; lady. It is, I believe, the very same proot
suffixed in Austronesian languages to their term ina- mother: PAN
*inda lady, mother. Consider the following examples:

55
or ty god.



Page No. 150

Cebuano inday title of address for a female the same age or younger
than the speaker,
Tirurai ida-y mother (in address),
Iban inda-i call mother, a term of address for woman of mothers
generation,
Old Javanese inda- mother,
Kapampangan inda- mother,
Aklanon inday (*inda-y ?) Miss also address term for girls and
ladies, etc.
I have already drawn attention to the actual presence of two words
relevant to our discussion in CA, namely ga man and sa woman. The
word sa is from a female seen in CA as un id., Ug. a-t wife,
Akk. a-t woman, etc.

Comments III
The suffix attached to Austronesian inda- above has attracted my
attention. The suffix appear as /-y/ in Tir., /-i/ in Ib., /-/ in OJav., /-/ in
Kap., and perh. part of the root in Akl. All of them are probably
allomorphs of one single free morpheme [ya] O, vocative. This particle
occurs in HS before the name. It is in Egyp. y and CA y as in y ab O
my father!
What may strengthen the view put forth above is that the suffix
performs the same function with similar terms for family relationship in
some Austronesian languages. Consider the following examples:
Manabo (Dibabawon) ina- mother (address),
Tagalog ina-y mother (address),
Murik na-y mother (address),
Komodo ine mother (vocative).
Kelabit ana- my daughter (address)
56
.
Cebuano umpu- grandparents sibling of the same generation (also
used as term of address), etc.
My view on the affixes discussed above are not final. They can only be
final when a clear distinction is made between such affixes and similar
affixes used as classifiers.

4.3.27 PAN *iet to remember, be aware

56
It is to be noted that genitive case in HS is expressed by suffixing -y, pronounced .



Page No. 151

KBata. iet remember, bear in mind, Sund. ieur to think about, be
mindful of, OJav. iet awareness, Bal. iet to think about, come to
ones self, remember, Sas. iet to remember.
HS: see 4.1.44 above.

4.3.28 PAN *i-ni this, these
Mar. ini this, these, Mlg. iny this, that, Bik. ini this, these, Sund.
ini, Sas. ini this, Ss. h-ini this, here.
HS: Egyp. n this, these; n these.
The following Austronesian words are most likely related:

PAN *i-ni this, here, now
Seedig nii this, here, now, At. iani id.
57
, Mlg. also ito-ni this, Bis.
nih that, Kap. ini this, Bik. ini this, these, Hlg. ini this, Sa. ini
that.

4.3.29 PAN *inu where
Ss. ha-yno where?, At. inu where? anywhere, Pw. inu where?,
Dohoi inn what?, Kenyah inu where? also what, Mlg. ino what?
how?, Mar. ino why?, Melanau inew what?.
HS: CA aina where?, anna why?, OAram., OffAram. n
where(ever), BHeb. yin where?, etc. see DHSR 3.20.2.

4.3.30 PAN *inum to drink
OJav. inum drinking, Bik. inom to drink, Bis. inom id., Ilk. inum,
Ceb. inum, Mar. to drink, Tag. inom act of drinking, Hlg. inum
drink, beverage, Ngd. inu to drink, Motu inu-a to drink, Saa inu id.,
Sam. inu, Maori inu drink, Haw. inu to drink, a drink, Mlg. inom-a
drink (imper.).

PAN *unum to drink
Maori unu to drink, Fij. unu id., Seimat unu, Titan unu, Mota un to
drink, Kambera -unuu to drink, Chuukese wunum-I to drink,
smoke, Puluwat wunum- drink, smoke, beverage.
HS: Egyp. wnm to drink also to eat. A shorter wn is also found in
Egyp. and expresses to eat.


57
The term for now is in CA al-n, a cpd of al this, the and n time, it is time
also now: see DHSR 3.22, n. 3 and n. 4.


Page No. 152

4.3.31 PAN *ikem to close, shut
Knk. ikem to close, shut up, close up, Isneg ikkam to take hold of,
seize, Jav. ikem to close ones mouth.
HS: CA akama, said of a beast of burden, to close or wrap its mouth
also to wrap, tie something, as to close it tightly, hence to imprison;
CII akkama id.: kammama to wrap ones mouth.

4.3.32 PAN *ipit near, come near; edge
KBat. impet come near to something, Rejang ipit get close to
something, Ngd. ipi edge, border, shore; come near, Baree impi walk
along the edge
HS: fatu edge, side: affa stay near, watch closely, go round, and
surround, as do bodyguards accompanying a president or king.

4.3.33 PAN *ipu hair, feather
Lau ifu hair, ifu-la hairy, Saa ihu hair, feather, Tolai ivu-na
hair, fur, feathers, Kwaio ifu-na hair; ifu-ai let hair grow.
HS: Egyp. f, f hair, CA faiu id. (DHSR 3.12.15, n. 2).
One may prefix proot [a-] abundance, much to [fai] as in CA ifu
abundance of feather, of hair. For proot [a-] abundance, see DHSR
3.14.

4.3.34 PAN *ipu cup, vessel
Tong. ipu cup, Sam. ipu cup, bowl, dish, Haw. ipu a name for
vessel as dish, mug, calabash, Glb. ibu calabash, gourd,
HS: Egyp. yp-t vessel, pot, vase, ypd, from *yp-t
58
cup, pot also
measure
59
.



4.3.35 PAN * PAN *imput tail of animals
KBat. imput tail end, Sas. iput the thick part of the tail, Ngaju
Dayak keput tail of a turtle.

PAN *ipus tail

58
Among other functions of /-t/, it forms nouns from verbs and from nouns. In some
cases it becomes /-d/ and in some others a part of the root: see DHSR: 3.7.

59
It is most likely that they are directly derived from notion of measure as in Egyp. yp
to measure, yp-t a measure, a measure of corn. If this connection is correct, then the
CA cognate is wf arch. drachm and four cents, i.e. a measure of money.



Page No. 153

Bont. ipos tail of an animal, Itawis ifut tail, Itb. ipos id.
HS: see 4.2.26 above.

4.3.36 PAN *iri jealous (?)
Jav. iren (< iri + an), Sund. hiriq jealous, Mal. iri hati spite, malice,
Tag. hi:liq stimulus.
HS: CA ira-tu jealousy; airn jealous.

4.3.37 PAN *iro iro reflection
Arosi iro iro clear pool in which one can see ones reflection ~ kiro
kiro id., Aua iro-iro to reflect.
HS: CA mi-r-tu mirror: ra to see. The Austronesian repeated
word is found in CA as in rara see ones reflection in the mirror, to look
at oneself in the mirror.

Comments
An Austronesian parallel root is PAN *ilaw reflection: see 4.3.22
above.

4.3.38 PAN *isaw intestines
Tag. isaw small intestines, Jav. iso large intestine, Bal. iso belly,
entrails (of animals).
HS: preh. CAa entrails.

4.3.39 PAN *isi tooth
Sangir isi tooth, Bug. isi, Maloh isi tooth, T isi id., Kalamian
Tagbanwa isi tooth also flesh, meat
HS: Chad.: Angas s tooth, Chip ayas id., Montol s id., Greek
as, Mupun s id.; Cush.: Darasa isso id.

4.3.40 PAN *isi flesh, meat
Pu. isi meat, flesh, Mang. ici flesh, Palawan Batak isi meat,
flesh, Maloh isi id., Itb. asi meat, flesh, meat of fruit, Mal. isi
contents, the flesh of anything, Sas. isi flesh (of animal as opposed to
fat and bone), Komodo ici meat, Ngd. isi flesh, Bur. isi-n meat,
flesh, contents, Yamdena isi-n flesh, contents, Asilulu isi- flesh,
NgD. hisi have flesh, Uma ihi flesh.
HS: Chad.: Gisiga ie flesh, Cush.: Aun. i meat, Ome a meat,
body, Mocha ao, Yamma aaa meat, Gim a, Maji a-ku meat,
body.


Page No. 154


4.3.41 PAN *isi to be, exist
Knk. a-isi to exist, Mlg. (Marina) isi to be, exist; there is, Banj. ba-
isi to exist, have, possess.
HS: Assyr. iu to be, have, BHeb. ye exist, CAaisa be, exist:
see DHSR: 3.21.2.1.

4.3.42 PAN *isi inhabitants, people, derived from *isi be exist
(4.3.40 above).
KBat. isi residents of a house, village, etc., i.e. people, TBat. pa-isi
inhabitants, Sas. isi-n members of a household, Ngd. isi people,
residents, Rot. uma-isi members of a household, Rembong isi tuna
original inhabitants.
HS: Phoen. man, BHeb. , Sab. ys id., Ug. bn human being,
man, a cpd of bn son of (= CA bin id.) and - man: CA ys be
exist.

4.3.43 PAN *isi to fill
Soboyo isi to fill up, put in, OJav. isy-an filling, Mal. me-isi to
fill, fill up, KBat. -isi to fill, TBat. ma-isi to fill, Sas. isi to fill,
Mang. ici- id., Kenyah -ise to fill, OJav. ma-isi filled with,
possessing, isy-an filling, Mnd. isi-a filled, NgD. ka-isi richness,
wealth.
HS: Egyp. ys to fill full, caus. of s to be full, filled full.

4.3.44 PAN *isu, interjection used to chase off animals
Isneg issu to shoo pigs, Bim. iso shout to chase off chicken.
HS: CA aus, interjection used to shout at goats and cows.

4.3.45 PAN *iSu 2
nd
pers.sg.
Sas. soo, Atayal isu, Amis iso 2
nd
sg.
HS: Egyp. w 2
nd
sg., dependent pronoun, and can never stand as first
word of a sentence).

4.3.46 PAN *i(h), isu(h) urine
Tag. i:hi urine, Seediq isu urine, Tsou suu, Pazeh siu urine,
Pw. isiq, Bun. isah urine, Pu. sih, Bik. ihi urine, Ruk. isi, Fav. isi
urine, Ss. soo, Bis. ihi, urine, Squliq Atayal h-m-oq, Ami isih
urine.


Page No. 155

HS: Egyp. w-t urine. But see DHSR: 4.10.30.

4.3.47 PAN *isu to move, budge
Sangir isu to move up, budge, push aside, Ngd. isu to press on, push
away.
With d-ext.: Tag. isod act of moving, Mal. esut pushing away
gently.
With R-ext. Bik. isog to move nearer or farther, Ib. insur to move,
adjust.
HS: CA hazza to move, budge also to shake, as the wind moves
branches of tree back and forth; CVIII ihtazza be moved, shaken;
hazhaza to move something repeatedly.
With -ext.: hazaa to shake; CV tahazzaa be agitated, as in
walking.

4.3.48 PAN *iu to bathe
Tolai iu to bathe, Mandegusu iu to wash, esp. the body.
HS: Egyp. ye, to bathe, wash.

4.3.49 PAN *iwas to avoid, evade
Tag. iwas avoidance, evasion, Ceb. iwas to slip away from, get out
of the way, Ilk. iwas to move from side to side, turn to the left, to the
right.
HS: CA ta-a [r. w]to avoid, evade.

4.3.50 PAN *iya she, he, it (Dahl, 1977: 16).
Hlg. ia 3
rd
sg., Mal. ia id., Marshallese e id., Ib. ia id., Chmr. guiya id.,
Mot. ia id., Bug. i-ia she, Ans. i she, he, Puluwat yiiy 3
rd
sg., Mlg. izy
3
rd
sg. and pl., Bal. ia id.
HS: Phoen., Moab., OAram. h she, he, it, CA hiya she, it, Ugr. hy
id., etc. see DHSR 3.22.2, n. 2.

4.3.51 PAN *siya she, he, it
Tsou si, hi, Ss. siya she, he, it.
HS: Akk. , , Egyp. sw, etc. see DHSR: 3.22.2, n. 2a.

4.3.52 PAN *isa name
Tigak isa- name, etc.


Page No. 156

HS: see 3.27 above.

4.3.53 PAN *ijan when
Chmr. a-ian when, Tag. ka-ilan when, Fij. na-ica time when,
Bal. p-idan when, Pw. ida when, Kay. iran when.
HS: CA aiyna when, BHeb. n id.

4.3.54 PAN *hiup to suck
Tag. hi:gop, to suck, Bis. higop, Mal. irup id., Pw. s-im-iup id., Pu.
sir-p-au, Ami mi-tsir p to suck.
HS: Egyp. yf to squeeze: CA uffa-tu little milk left in the udder
for for the baby to suck ~ uffa-tu expresses only little milk left in the
udder.

4.3.55 PAN *i()kit to bite
Dusun Deyah -ikit to bite, Ceb. ikit to bite off a small piece with
the front teeth.
HS: OffAram. nkt to bite. In Arabic dialects the cognate is nata to
bite, where /k/ become //. All are variant forms of the root in Ug. nk to
bite.

4.3.56 PAN *itek be small, little
Simalur itek small, Akl. intok to become smaller, shrink; ma-itok
small, short, tiny, Mang. itek small in amount, Bolaang Mongondow
intok small, young; be or become small
60
.
HS: Chad.: Sura kat small, Mupun kat id., Egyp. kt be small or little,
tiny; ktt baby, child.

4.3.57 PAN *ili flow, current
Jav. ili flow, current, Bolaag Mongondow ili id., Ilk. ili menstrual
flow, Ib. ili downstream.
HS: Sab. yl to flow; watercourse, CA ailu flowing water on the
face of the earth.

4.3.58 PAN *io spear, related to *ayaw to plunder, raid: 4.1.68
above.
Motu io spear, Lau o war arrow, Gitua izo spear thrown with the

60
Ngd itu small, small in amount may belong here.


Page No. 157

hand.
HS: PHS proot [aW] spear, arrow. The same proot appears in Egyp. in
various forms: y pl. spear, arrow: y to fight ~ spear, arrow as
a vb to fight, wage war, -t spear, lance: to fight, raid, pillage,
destroy, fighting, raiding: y enemy, war, etc. Finally,
spear as a vb to destroy, injure = CA uy-tu or awa-tu arrow,
Ug. id.

4.3.59 PAN *ipun a kind small fish
Ilk. ipon a kind of fish, Isneg ipon id., If. ipun small fish living in
rivers, Ngd. impu fish spawn, Jav. (h)impun small edible fish, Mar.
ipon goby.
HS: Egyp. pnn a kind of fish.

4.3.60 PAN itu catfish
Pang. ito small catfish, Mar. ito catfish, Ceb. itu catfish, Bik.
hito freshwater catfish, Akl. hito fish.
HS: Egyp. ty a kind of fish.













Page No. 158


4.4 PAN Roots with Initial /u-/
4.4.1 PAN *ua, perhaps family
OJav. ua uncle, aunt also used to address an old person, Bal. ua
uncle, aunt, Makanai e-ua-gu parent-in-law, daughter-in-law, Jarai wa
uncle, aunt, Mak. ua father, uncle, aunt, Arosi ua grandfather,
grandchild.
HS: Egyp. w children; w-t goddess of nurses and children ~ w-t
family.

Comments
Egyp. w-t above is clearly a cpd of two proots [a] (for its signification,
see DHSR: 3.14) and [aw or au] plus -t, forming here a noun from a
noun (DHSR: 3.9).

4.4.2 PAN *ubet buttocks
Isneg ubat buttocks, seat, bottom, anus, Itawis ubat buttocks, anus,
Bont. kobet buttocks, Ilk. ubet buttocks, rump, bottom, Casiguran
ubet female genitalia.
HS: Egyp. pd the buttocks also the genital organs of female and
male.

4.4.3 PAN *udan rain
Pazeh udan rain, Pu. hual, Ami hora rain, Ruk. udal id., Pw.
quda, Bun. hodan rain, Jav. udan rain, Sir. audal, Bik. uran, Tag.
ulan, Smb. uran, Law. uran id.
HS: the cognate is either
a) The root in CA widn rain also moist, wet, widn watered
placed: wad to flow, Sab. wdy to water a place; Sab. st-wdn be
flood-irrigated etc. see DHSR 3.11.4 and 4.6.47.
b) A more likely cognate is the root in Egyp. wn flood, stream: CA
wuu water, Phoen., EHeb. m-w place of outflow. CA variant
a-tu rivulet, brook, stream.

4.4.4 PAN *udi to follow, come after
Ilk. udi last, rear, hindmost, Ged. uzi to follow, Itb. mana-wdi be
last, Tag. huli late, tardy, position behind, Mar. ori behind, late, Bal.
uri be behind, walk behind.


Page No. 159

HS: CA ad to follow from behind; itad to follow; ta-add
pursue, inquire into; awd pl. last (of anything), Egyp. t to follow,
be behind someone or something; the hinder part; tt to follow, march
after, slip behind. As one should often expect, all words above are
derived from the root in Ug. dy to see.

4.4.5 PAN *uki vagina, vulva
Ilk. uki vagina, Isneg oku the vulva, Bont. uki vagina, Mar. oki
pet name for girls.
HS: Egyp. k, k-t vagina, vulva: see 3.30 above.

4.4.6 PAN *uak crow
Itb. owak black crow, Tag. uwak crow, raven, Bik. uwak crow,
raven, Akl. uwak crow, Ceb. uwak crow.
HS: CA aw ~ wa cawing of a crow ~ uw id., ~ id.; as
a vb na-aa [r. n] to caw ~ na-aa id., etc.
All are based on a proot [*aW] ~ [Wa] as in CA wawaa-tu coll.
mixture of sounds or noises made by birds also talking too much
(person), Egyp. cuckoo, to cry out = CA ~ awu ~
to cackle (hen), aa or uuu "magpie", ahah a laugh loudly,
Chad.: Bidiya kaak cough, keeke bird, Fayer kukwe rooster, Cush.:
Galla kakawe to thunder, kaki-sa caus. to cackle.
From this proot so many traditional roots have evolved in various HS
languages as well as in many other language families.

Comments
Among Austronesian implicit cognates are the following:
PAN *uak sound of retching
Bahasa Indonesia uak retching, physical nausea, T ua sound of
belching, Mang. oak retching, nausea.

PAN *ekuk make a croaking sound
Mang. kuk croak of a frog, Bal. ekuk the rise and fall of the voice
of dove.

PAN *ekit shriek
TBat. okiy okit to sob to sob, Mal. eket creaking of a carrying-
pole, Jav. ekit creaking sound.



Page No. 160

PAN *sukak harsh throaty sound
Bal. sukak cough, clear the throat, T suka heavy sobbing, etc.

PAN *Sekak to crow, to caw
Amis skak to crow, Isneg akka to cackle, Ib. kak a crow, Ngaju
Dayak kak raven, Mal. ekak a crow.

PAN *pikak make a harsh throaty sound
Rot. hika to laugh loudly, Bolaang Mongondow pekak frog, Hawu
hika morning bird, named from its cry.

PAN *pikik chirp, squeak
Knk. pikik chirp, as some birds do, Hawu peki squeaking of mice.

PAN *e()kek make a sound
Mang. kek imitation of the sound of a fart, Ilk. ekkek laugh with
subdued laghter.

PAN *ekik shrill sound
Tboli m-ekik cry, Rot. eki scream, shriek, laugh, make noise, Bal.
ekik sound sad also species of bird.

HS: few additional HS roots based on [Wa ~ aW] are:
1) Egyp. to cry out, CA aiu loud and intense sound; loud outcry,
BHeb. a to cry out, cry out to any one, OffAram. to cry, Cush.:
Xamta aw to ask, Ometo yk, Kaffa ook to shout, Somali awaa
shout caused by grief.
All HS words above are definitely from a cpd composed of [aw] and [Wa].
The first element is in CA aw (< awaw) coll. noise, tumult: awwa-tu
sg. or uwwa-tu id. While [aw] has given rise to very few traditional roots in
the course of time, its variant [aw] has given rise to so many in various HS
languages. See, for example, DHSR: 3.21.3.4 & 3.21.4.5.

2) CA paa, fapaa to bark (a dog when it is afraid). Another traditional
root is ta-p drawling also echo of the sound heard when snapping ones
fingers, etc..

3) raa [r. r] "a kind of noise (Al Ayn I, 157), i.e. sound or noise produced
by anything or by an animal as it moves. However, it often expresses sound


Page No. 161

made in the stomach, etc. and is similar to that expressed by a perh. fart, a
word almost impossible for a human being to pronounce without feeling pain in
his throat.
It goes without saying that HS naha to bray , cry, shout belongs here
(DHSR: 3.11.59).

4.4.7 PAN *uaa to be
Mlg. ari exist, created, TBat so-uada to exist, Mad. baa, Mal. oda
to exist, Jav. ora, Fij. wara-i not to be, Tag. wala id., Chmr. gwaha
present, Proto-South Suawesi *dia to be, exist.
HS: CA a to become.

4.4.8 PAN *udehi last, late, behind
Isneg udi last, If. udi last, the last, Ilk. udi last, rear, Itb. mana-
wdi be last; pana-wdi rear, posterior, hind part, behind, Ib. udi after,
later, Ged. uzi to follow, go to the rear, Sika odi expression of the
future time.
All Austronesian words cited thus far have preserved no single trace of
the original root. Their initial /u-/ or /w-/ is a reflex of caus. /a-/.
Some languages preserving two fragmentary traces are: Bik. ma-huri
be last, be late, Kei m-ur rear part, Wolio m-uri future, later, Haw.
m-uli after, behind.
A language preserving traces of three surface elements, but with
metathesis is Ceb. ka-ulahi-an the last.
HS: The HS exact cognate is the word in Ge. adara be behind, late;
dr posterior part; dra behind, after, Tigrinya dhar stay
behind, etc. The word is a cpd of a number of morphological elements:
a) caus. /a-/,
b) another caus. /-da-/
c) and a surface root[aar], which expresses in HS languages all
meanings expressed by Austronesian words above as in Assyr. aaru
future, be behind, CA r last, end, behind, be late, retard, posterior
part, from behind, far behind, rear, last, etc. see DHSR: 2.1.6.5.8.

4.4.9 PAN *u()kat to recall, bring to the mind
Tag. ukat act of recalling or bring up again, Bik. ukat to recall, bring
to mind, Ceb. ukat to revive, bring back to ones consciousness
something which has long been forgotten.
HS: Egyp. k-t mediation, thought: k to think out, mediate, think
also to speak, say, repeat. In CA, as in Austronesian languages,the


Page No. 162

suffixed /-t/, forming a noun from verb, became a part of the root: CIV
caus. akatta, katta to count, calculate also to repeat to someone what
was said exactly as you heard it.

4.4.10 PAN *uku-q bent over, hunched
Bal. ukuh walk in bent posture, Tag. uko with head bowed low in
decrepitude
HS: CA CVIII ittakaa of wakaa to recline, lean, Akk. ukk be
weak, Ge. wakka, Amharic wkkk be fatigue, Egyp. ky to bow

4.4.11 PAN *ukur measure
Jv. ukur, ukor, Mal ukor, Mad okor, Sund qukur id.
HS: Egyp. r measure.

4.4.12 PAN *ular snake
OJav. ul snake, Jav. ulo id., Mad. olar, Ind. ular snake, Bandjar
ular, Delang ular snake, Tamuan ular, Sund. qoray, Mad. olar id., If. ulal
small brownish snake, Sas. ulah, ular snake, Mak. ulara, Kam. ularu
snake.
HS: Chad.: Jegu illo, Msg wala snake, Dangla aalo id., Cush.:
Somali olaaol leech, Ome ule id. It is also seen with an initial /y-/ as in
some Chad. languages ial snake, Egyp. rt id. This initial /y-/ is found
in Semitic, esp. in CA as in yafr, yall, yanb, etc.: see DHSR 3.6.

4.4.13 PAN *ulay worm
Tag. ulai intestinal worm, tapeworm, Banj. luai worm
HS: Egyp. l-t worm.

4.4.14 PAN *ule penis
Tong. ule penis, Sam. ule, Marshallese wl penis, Ren. uge penis,
Haw. ule penis
HS: CA ulul (redupl.) penis.

4.4.15 PAN *ulul, *hulhul to bark, of a dog
Itb. hulhol sound of barking dog; h-om-olhol to bark, as of a dog,
Ceb. hulhul to bark.
HS: CA harra to bark, of a dog, lit. barking of the dog here is less
loudly than its nub, another term for to bark, esp. when it gets
impatient, Syr. herr to mew, of a cat (CA hirru cat), SA: Mehri
hrr make a dog attack someone, Eth.: Tigrinya rrr to call a cat


Page No. 163


4.4.16 PAN *ulih return home
Isneg li return, go or come back, Itawis uli again, repetition, Kap.
uli to go home, Bik. uli return home, Ceb. uli return something to
someone, Kenyah uli return home, Nggela oli back, again, come
back, Saa oli return, replace.
HS: perh. CA waala go back to ones shelter or fortified place of
residence, mu-wl-tu in succession, happening consecutively (LA):
la to return, go back, SA: Mehri h-wl to return, come back.

N.B. All words above are derived from family, i.e. ones family, tribe
(CA l id.) or dwelling, i.e. ones dwelling, ones tribe or family
dwelling (CA ma-wil id., where ma- is the HS proot for place).

4.4.17 PAN *umal speechless, dumb, mute
Tag. umi speechless due to shyness or embarrassment, Isneg umal
dumb, mute, Ilk. umel id., Buli umal stupid person.
HS: Egyp. m silent, CA amala lit. lower ones voice (low voice,
undertone) and hide it inside the mouth, i.e. dont open the mouth or part
the lips, so that the voice cannot be heard, as an adj. mil.

4.4.18 PAN *una first, former
Tolai m-un formerly, firstly, first, Isneg onna first, former, ona the
first, Ilk. ona first, Kay. una go ahead, go first, Tag. una first, prior,
earliest, Narum uneah ancient times, Bolaang Mongondow m-una
first, ancient.
HS: CA awnu not first, once in the past, common in pre-Islamic
times and often used with arb war as in arb awn not the first war,
i.e. was preceded by another. It is also seen in awn woman that once
had a husband, a cpd of au first, one and -na = perh. before in
time
61
, but there is no strong evidence supporting the signification
assigned to -na. The slim evidence comes from some Eth. languages (see
DHSR: 3.17.37): Egyp. one also first as in ms firstborn (ms =

61
It may be important to note that [-m] and [-n] can express past and future
respectively. Consider the following examples from CA:
i) la-m yaktub lit. not (= la) + past tense (= -m) + ya- (= he) + -ktub write, i.e. He
didnt write.
ii) la-n yaktub lit. not (= la) + future (will for ever), etc. above. i.e. He will never
write. As one may note here tense in negative sentences is indicated by a suffix
attached to the negative particle. The present tense is: l yaktub he does not write.


Page No. 164

born), Cush.: Somali uun only, Berber iun or ian one: see DHSR:
4.15.20.
PHS variant au (or wa) is from [au] first and former as in CA
auwal-n [r.wl] first, former, ancient =adam-n id. (see below). It
seems that /-l/ here and /-n/ in CA words above are very ancient variant
forms in the HS family.
A third variant /-m/, which expresses exactly the same meaning in all
Semitic languages in their root [dm] first, former, ancient, must also be
added for phonotactic consideration, i.e. a sequence like *dl or *dn is
not permitted. See DHSR: 4.17.15 and 3.19.4.
As a rule that admits no exception at all, when a proot splits into two (or
more) variants in a language or language group, and the language wants to
keep them all, it must differentiate between them in either meaning or
usage. I add to this indisputable rule a factor distribution as, for example,
Semitic allows proot [-l] in [wl] but proot [-m] in [dm] since the former
cannot be suffixed to [ad].

4.4.19 PAN *umbul spring, fountain
Nias umbu spring, fountain, well, OJav. umbul well up, arise, Bal.
umbul fountain, spring, bubble up, well up (water).
HS: CA wablu copious rain; wabala to flow copiously, BHeb. ybal
to well, to flow (water); mabbl, Syr. mmml flood, Amharic
wblo copious rain with wind.

4.4.20 PAN *urub flame
OJav. urub flame, blaze, to burn, Tag. ulob flame that reaches up
high, Mlg. oro burning, Ib. uru set fire or smoke to, Mal. m-urup
fiery or brilliant (of color).
HS: Egyp. rb flame, a burning.

4.4.21PAN *utah to vomit
Ilk. uta uta to vomit, throw up, Isneg ota to vomit, OJav. utah to
vomit, spit out, Mad. ota, to vomit, Mar. ota to spit, Bal. utah to
vomit, Pu. m-utah to vomit, Ss. m-ot, Pw. otjaq id., Itb. ota matter
that is vomited, Pazeh m-uta to vomit, Ami ma-otah id., Bun. m-otah
to vomit.
HS: CA a to vomit, nauseate; aay-n nausea, vomiting.




Page No. 165

Comments
Itb. ka-wta act of vomiting, state/conditioned of vomiting. The special
meaning that prefixed proot [k-] adds to the root is identical with that
found in the earliest records of Hamito-Semitic: Egyp. y state, act,
condition, etc. ~ ky (see DHSR: 3.17.83). Isnt that amazing?

4.4.22 PAN *uu moaning sound
Ngd. uu to sob, moan, sigh, Sam. make a hollow sound, Maori
inarticulate sound, Fordata uu howling of dogs.
HS: Assyr. a alas used as substance grief, pain, CA w(h), dial.
w woe, alas: see DHSR: 4.16.41.

4.4.23 PAN *u(n)sek press into, a cpd of caus. /a-/ + sak.
Ceb. usuk drive shakes into the ground, Mang. ucek push through a
crowd, Akl. usok pole (of a fence), Fij. uso thrust a stick into, pierce,
etc.
HS: See 3.18 above.
Austronesian related roots are:
PAN *usuk press into, penetrate
Ilk. y-osok to insert, Ceb. usuk to drive shakes into the ground, Bur.
oso-k to put into, enter, Sam. usu-i (of spear) to stick, thrust.

PAN *dusuk ~ tusuk to pierce, penetrate, orig.
cause to pierce
Mang. ducuk to stab, pierce, penetrate, Ib. tusok to pierce.

4.4.24 PAN *huy respond to a call, exclamation, interjection
Tag. hoy an answer to a call, Pang. oy exclamation (to attract
attention of distant person), interjection, Bont. uy expression used to
attract attention, Bik. hoy hey, a response when one is called, Ngd. oe
answer to a distant call, Tong. ui to call out to, call out, Niue ui to
invite, call.
HS: CA h response or answer to a call; h to call (out), invite (usu.
animals. If we want to express distant location, we suffix /-n/ to ha:
[hn], as in the arch. mu-hwan
62
.

62
This the first time I detect a suffixed [-n] signifying distant in the language. It seems
that /h-/ expresses near demonstrative.



Page No. 166

CA h is also used as a response when one is called = Bik. hoy
above
63
. See ft 43 above.

4.4.25 PAN *utan a to ask, inquire
Malay tan a interrogation , Kam. ka-tana to ask about, inquire, etc.
see 2.3 above.
HS: see 2.3 above.

4.4.26 PAN *utus to command
Tag. utos to command, order; ordinance, law, edict, OJav. utus order,
command, Mal. utus sending a mission; utus-an representative, TBat.
utus-an representative.
HS: Egyp. w to command: w to decree, give an order,
command; w-t law, edict of a Council. In addition, w to send out, to
go on an expedition (DHSR: 3.12.1, esp. n. 2). The possibility that the
Austronesian root is borrowed from CA remains open.






















63
Due to the interchange of /h/ and //, h (~ reduced form ha) may also be used to
express negation, a topic I didnt illustrate and pay the deserved attention to in DHSR.


Page No. 167


Unfamiliar Conclusion




It may be well to conclude this part of the research with comments on
Adelaars view (2006, pp. 96-97) on the list below which includes two
terms from Orang Asli languages, namely die and bathe, compared
with Land Dayak languages.
One may wonder why I have chosen to end this part of the research
with this subject instead of presenting concluding remarks on Hamito-
Semitic and Austronesian data set forth above.
This subject has been chosen for two reasons:
a) to comment for the second time on some terms like genetic
relationship, borrowing and chance,
b) to explain the unexplainable data below.

Northern Aslian to die to bathe
Kensiu kbis nlay
Kintaq Bong kbis nlay
Jehai kbis lay
Mendriq kbs lay
Dateg Deq halt nay
Mintil kbus suc
Bateg Nong kbus sc
Che Wong kbus mamuh

Central Aslian
Semnam kbs mamuh
Sabum kbs mamuh
Lanoh Jengjeng kbs mamuh
Lanoh Yir kbs mamuh
Temiar ndat muh
Semai I dat mamuh
Semai II kbis mamuh
Jah Hut kbs mamh



Page No. 168

Southern Aslian
Mah Meri kbs hm
Semaq Beri kbs mahmh
Semelai khbs hm
Temoq kbos mahm
Adelaar finds that forms like kbs and mamuh are also generally used
in Land Dayak languages, and that the word for to die is related to the
words for to kill and to sleep.

Land Dayak dead kill sleep bathe
Bekati kabis amis buus mamu
Lara kabih amh buih mam
Golek kobis kbis biis mamuh
Nonguh kobis kmis bis mamh
Pandu kbis mis biis mane
Ribun I kobis kobis biis mandey
Ribun II kbis kmis biis madey
Jangkang kbi kmi bi mani
Lintang kbis kmis biis mani
Aye-aye kubs kums bis man
Sungkung kabs nnbs bs mamuh
Sekayam kbis amis bis M mh
According to Aledaar, a genetic relationship will not account for the
similarities between Orang Asli and Land Dayak languages, since Orang
Asli languages- he tells- are classified as Austro-Asiatic and Land Dayak
languages as Austronesian. While he doesnt dismiss the possibility that
their similarities may be due to chance, he tends first to favor borrowing.
But suddenly (in the next sentence), he changes his mind, dons a
sociolinguistic mantle, and prefers to explain the similarities in terms of
what is called language shift, a hypothesis purely based on conjecture
or, more precisely, on a fertile imagination. His story of how the original
Aslian speakers shifted to Dayak language in the very remote past, but
resisted to give up few words of their original language such as those for
to die and to bathe, though unconvincing, is still amusing and
compels a discontented reader like me to smile.

1) Genetic relationship. The classification of languages into language
families should mean from now on that the languages of a given family of


Page No. 169

languages, say, for example, Indo European languages, are more closely
related to one another than to languages of another family, e.g. Hamito-
Semitic. Accordingly, one can say that Sanskrit is more closely related to
Greek than to Egyptian. The very same statement can be used to classify
language divisions within the same family, e.g. Germanic languages are
more closely related to one another than to any of the Slavic languages.
The statement does not imply that the languages in question are not
related.

2) Similarities among languages may be due to either borrowing or
genetic relatedness, but never to chance. A topic was discussed in depth in
DHSR: esp. in 3.25.

3) Returning to Aslian and Land Dayak languages, their similarities
must be due to genetic relatedness as long as we can not prove with
unquestionable evidence that are due to borrowing. Any primeval proot, or
primeval stem based on that proot, found in a language must also be found
in all languages. In accordance with this principle, the word stems cited
above must be found in Hamito-Semitic. Scientifically speaking, the mere
presence of such stems in Hamito-Semitic will not be sufficient and
significant for any purpose unless we explain in strictly scientific terms
the changes which have taken place in them in the course of millennia.
Here lies the difference between a scientific and nonscientific research and
between stating a fact and giving a guess.
What follows includes a deep study of HS corresponding cognates at
the 2
nd
layer of surface structure and my explanation of every linguistic
feature noted in such cognates holds true of their Aslian and Land Dayak
cognates.

4) Stem [kab] expresses sleep, be dead or kill among many others
related notions.
4a) Stem [kab] sleep
Ug., Aram., Phoen. kb, etc. to lie down, consisting of caus. /-/ and
stem [kab] = CA kab to sleep for a brief period of time, take a nap, etc.
see DHSR: 3.2.12.
A closely related word is CA kbs nightmare, lit. nightmare falls on
someone sleeping. Its final /-s/ is a derivational suffix used to form
nouns. It is the very same /-s/ seen in CA bbs baby, infant = Akk.
bbu id. For a discussion of this suffix, see DHSR: 2.1.6.9.
Another closely related word to kbs above is Sem. kaba have sexual


Page No. 170

intercourse, ultimately from lie down with.
4b) Sem [kab] kill; dead
The same caus. /-/ is also used in HS as a suffix, hence BHeb. kba
to trample under foot, subdue (~ kbas id), CA kabasa press down,
subdue < CA CV ta-kabbaba to fall dead; kabkaba to throw someone
in an abyss, i.e. kill.
Another related notion is to put out, quench, i.e. put an end to as in
BHeb. kb, CA kab, etc.
CA kabasa to cover (a pit) with soil also bury the hide of an animal
until the hair or wool falls apart. This is the same root seen in Cush.:
Galla kabba ring fence around a grave, which is related to Galla
kabanesa caus. make gold (= CA kabs a kind of jewel), perh. orig.
used to ornament a grave.

5) Stem mamuh to bathe = CA CII ammama to bathe; CV ta-
ammama to bathe oneself; ammm bath also bathroom. All
Orang and Land Dayak languages have lost the initial voiceless laryngeal.
One important fact must be born in mind, the CA word is based on late
PHS stem [am] hot; heat, ultimately from root [wm], a cpd of [aW]
sun and [ma or am] burning. Accordingly, Aslian and Dayak words
must also be from a root expressing in one way or the other hot, heat,
burning to be established as cognate.


















Page No. 171


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