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2012

 530.145.6
22.314
204

http://shop.rcd.ru

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. .: , 2012. 516 .
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ISBN 978-5-93972-944-4
c . . , 2012

c , 2012

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22.314

. . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii
1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3. . . . . . . .
1.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.8. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.9. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2. . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.
2.2.
2.3.

2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. () . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1. () . .

1
1
2
3
5
5
7
12
13
15
18
20
21
21
22
24
27
27
28
30
30
31
33
34
35

iv

2.5.2. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. () . . . .
2.7. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1. () . .
2.7.2. (*)
2.7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36
37
39
39
42
44
46

3. . . . . . . . . .
3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2. . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3. . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.5. .
3.2. , (*) . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47
47
49
51
51

4. . . . . . .
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2. . . . . . . . .
4.2. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2. . . . . . .
4.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. , , . . . , ** . .
4.4.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2. * . . . .
4.4.3. * . . . .
4.4.4. * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1. . . . . . .

66
66

52
56
58
63

66
69
72
75
76
77
79
80
81
82
83
84
86
86

4.6.

4.7.

4.8.

4.9.

4.10.
4.11.

4.5.2. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.3. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.2. * . . . . . .
4.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.4. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.7. *
4.7.8. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.1. * . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.2. * . . . . . . . . . .
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.2. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.3. *** . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.1. ** .
4.11.2. . . . . .
4.11.3. * .

5. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1. . . . .
5.1.2. * . . . . . . .
5.1.3. () ***** . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4. . . . . . . . . .
5.1.5. ,
.
5.2. ()
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1. : * . . . .

87
89
90
90
92
94
99
99
100
101
101
102
103
104
106
109
110
111
114
114
115
116
119
121
121
123
124
125
125
125
128
128
130
131
133
133

vi

5.2.2. *
5.2.3. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4. . . .
5.2.5. . . . . . .
5.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.7. * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.8. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.9. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.10. * . . . . .
5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2. * . . . . . . .
5.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. . . . . . . . .
6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2. . . . .
6.1.3.
6.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.5. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.6. . . . . .
6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1. * . . . . .
6.2.2. * . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.4. * . . . . .
6.2.5. * . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.6. * . . . . . . . . . .
6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2. : . . . . . . . .
6.3.3. : - . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4. . . .
6.3.5. ** .
6.3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.7. * . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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134
134
136
137
137
141
143
144
146
147
147
154
155
157
157
157
158
158
161
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
176
176
176
178
179
180
182
183
191

vii

7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.1. () (*) . . . . . . . 194
7.1.1. ** . . . . . 195
7.1.2. * . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.1.3. () * . . . . . . . . . 196
7.1.4. (*)196
7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.2.1. () 197
7.2.2. ? () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.2.4. - . . . . 202
7.3. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.3.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . 209
7.4. ( )** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.5. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.5.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.5.2.
(*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.5.3. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.5.4. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.5.5. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.5.6. (**) . . . . . . . 226
7.6. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.6.1. (*) . . . . . . . 235
7.7. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1. () . .
8.1.2. . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4. ()
8.2. * . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1. ** . . . . . . .
8.3. ? () . . . . . . . . . . .

243
243
243
244
245
245
246
246
250

viii

8.3.1. (*)
8.3.2. () . .
8.3.3. (*) . . . . . . .
8.3.4. () . . . .
8.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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251
253
254
256
257

9. (*) . . . . . . . . . .
9.1. (*) . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.2. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.3. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2. ? () . . . .
9.2.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2. () . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3. () . . . . . .
9.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1. () . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2. . () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3. () . .
9.3.4. () . . . . . . . . .
9.3.5. () . . . .
9.3.6. () . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.7. () . . . . . .
9.3.8. () . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.9. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

259
259
260
261
265
267
268
269
271
274
274

10. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.1.
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2. () . . . . . . . . . .
10.3. () . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4. . . . . . . .
10.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

294
294

276
278
280
282
284
285
289
292

294
295
297
297
297
298
299
300
300
301

10.6.3.
10.6.4. . . . . . . . .
10.6.5. . . . . . .
10.6.6. . . .

ix

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302
302
303
304

11. -1 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1. . . . . . . . . . .
11.2. . . . . . . .
11.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3. . . . . . . . .
11.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.3. * . . . . . . . . .
11.4. . . . . .
11.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2. ** . . . . . . .
11.5.3. **** . . . . . . . . . .

306
306
308

12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3. . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4. * . . . . .
12.5. . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.2. - ** . . . . . . . . .
12.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6. . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.1. . . . . . . . .
12.6.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.7. * . . . .
12.7.1. * . . . . .

328
329
330
330
335
337
342
343
343

309
309
311
311
314
316
317
319
320
322
322
324
326

343
347
347
347
348
349
350

12.7.2. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.8. ** . . . . . . . . . .
12.9. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.10. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.11. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.11.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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351
353
356
358
358
361

13. . . . 363
13.1. . . . . . . . . 363
13.2. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
13.2.2. . 366
13.2.3. . . . . . . . . 367
13.2.4. . . . . . . . . 368
13.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.3.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
13.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
13.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
13.5.2. . 377
13.5.3. 379
13.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
13.5.5. . 384
13.5.6. . . . . 386
13.5.7. . . . . 388
13.5.8. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
13.6. . . . . . 391
13.6.1. 392
13.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
13.6.3.
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
13.6.4. ?** . . . . . . . . 395
13.7. ** . . . . . . 395

xi

14. -2* ( ) . . . . . . .
14.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.2. () . . . . . . .
14.2.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.5. () . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3. -1 -2. ?* . . . . .
14.3.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.2. () . .
14.4.3. ()
14.4.4. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

398
398
399
399
401
401
403
405
406
406
407
409
410
410
411
413

15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.2. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.2. jz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.3. j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.4. jz , j 2 . . . . . . . . .
15.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.7. a
j ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
15.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.2. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.3. ** . . . . . . . . .
15.3.4. ** . . . . . . .
15.4. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4.1. 1 . . . . . . . . . .
15.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

415
415
415
418
421
421
424
425
426
429
430
432
434
435
437
439
440
442
443
444
445

xii

15.5.1. 1 + 1 . .
2
2
15.5.2.
15.5.3. j + 1 .
2
15.5.4. 1 + 1 .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

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448
449
452
453

16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3. . . . . . . . . . . .
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455
455
456
458
462
463
465
465
467
469

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26

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2.2.

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30

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31

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32

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34

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39

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40

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41

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42

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2.7.

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43

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44

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2.7.

( )

45

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46

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48

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3.1.

49

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(3.4)

(3.3), -
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50

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(3.4) , (
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p(a b) = |A(a b) |2 =
= |Aa |2 + |Ab |2 + (Aa Ab + Aa Ab ) =
= |Aa |2 + |Ab |2 + 2|Aa | |Ab | cos(a b ) =

= pa + pb + 2 pa pb cos(a b ).

(3.5)

a = arg Aa , b = arg Ab .
.
(3.5) (3.2) , :

(Aa Ab + Aa Ab ) = 2|Aa | |Ab | cos(a b ) = 2 pa pb cos(a b ). (3.6)

, , ,
. , . , |Aa | = |Ab |, p(a b) = 2|Aa |2 (1 + cos(a b ))
4|Aa |2 .
? .
1.
, . , .

3.1.

51

, ( ),
(),
,
.
2. ( , ),
. , ,
, .
, ,
. . .
3.1.2.
, . . , 1 2,
3,
1 2 2 3:
p(123) = p(12) p(23) .

(3.7)

A(123) = A(12) A(23) .
(3.8)
, p(12) , 1 2,
, A(12)
.
(3.8)
, (3.7). , -
.
, , ,
, - .
3.1.3.
. 1 (x),

52

2 (y), . :
(x, y) = 1 (x) 2 (y)

 =  1 2 .

1 (x),
2 (y),
:
(x, y) = 1 (x) 2 (y)

= 1 2 .

.
3.1.4.


.
(
) ( , ) , .
. .

, x, , . .
x , px x, x , (x),
x. , () ( ) x,
1:2
+

(x) dx = 1.

, x , . . x ,
. W x,
, .

3.1.

53

, , x x [a, b]. , ,
b
p[a,b] =

(x) dx.
a

( ) x . . :
+


(x) dx +

px = 1.

xW

, , - . (x) ,
, , 1. - ,
. - f (x) x0
, (x)
+


f (x)(x)dx.

- :
+


(x)(x)dx = (0).

,
:

px0 (x x0 ).
 (x) = (x) +
x0 W

:
+


 (x) dx = 1.

, , . . - ,
.

54

r(x)

r(x)

a
r(x)

. 3.3. .

, [a, b], ,
p[a,b] , .

, x, , . . x
, x, x ,
x.
, () ( ) x, 1.
,
, x x [a, b]. , ,
b
|(x)|2 dx.

p[a,b] =
a

3.1.

55

Y(x)
a

Y(x)
a

Y(x)
a

. 3.4. .

x
. . , [a, b],

, p[a,b] ,
.

[a, b]
P[a,b] :
P[a,b] (x) = I[a,b] (x)(x),
IW W

1, x W,
IW (x) =
0, x  W.

(3.9)

(3.10)

56

P[a,b] (. .
),
, ,

2
P[a,b] P[a,b] (x) = I[a,b]
(x)(x) = I[a,b] (x)(x) = P[a,b] (x).

(3.11)

,
, ( ) ,
:
P 2 = P .

(3.12)

,
,
.
3.1.5.
(n) n , n. n , . . n ,
k (k = n),
.
,
:

2 = | =
|(n)|2 = 1.
n

, . ,
:

| =
(n) (n).
n

(n) n (n (k) = nk ),

3.1.

57

:
(n) = n | = |n  ,


n |k  = nk =

1, n = k,
0, n =
 k.

(n) , , , , n ,
. ( ), (n) = |n 
, . . , , n , .


.
,
(2 = 2 = 1). , ? .
, n ,
n .
n
n n :
An = (n) (n) .
     
n n

(,
n) n :

(n) (n) .
(3.13)
A =



n
n

. 3.5,
(3.13).
, , ,

58

3
n=1

F*(1)

Y(1)
n=2

F*(2)

F*(...)

Y(2) Y
Y(...)

n = ...

. 3.5.
n (3.13).

.
, , .
(n) (n)
.
k () () k , ( )
.
, , , . . (3.13) .
(, ).
,
.

3.2. , (*)
, ,
. (. 3.6). (. 3.7).
,

3.2.

, ( *)

59

: .

Af = A1 A1f + A2 A2f .

(3.14)
w(x)

x
. 3.6. .

. 3.7. 2 .

60

w(x)

A21'

A11'

A1
A2

|A1A11'A1'f+
+A1A12'A2'f+
+A2A21'A1'f+
2
+A2A22'A2'f+|

A1'f
A12'

A22'

A2'f

x
. 3.8. 2 2 .

(. 3.8). 1 2 :
A1 = A1 A11 + A2 A21 ,

A2 = A1 A12 + A2 A22 .

(3.15)

(3.14),
, :
Af = A1 A11 A1 f + A2 A21 A1 f +
+ A1 A12 A2 f + A2 A22 A2 f . (3.16)
, .
, ,

.
, (. 3.9).
,
, . ,

3.2.

, ( *)

61

() , .
, .
w(x)
2

|?exp(iS[x(t)/h])Dx(t)| =
=|lim ?A1A12'...Anf|

Anf

A1

x
. 3.9. , , ,
,
( ) .

t1
L(x, x)
dt.
(3.17)
exp i S[x(t)] = exp i
h
h
t0

,
.
, , , , . . , S[x(t)]
x(t) , . . ,
S[x(t)] = S[x(t) + x(t)] S[x(t)] + o(x) =


= S[x(t) + x(t)]
= 0,
x(t).

(3.18)

=0

. (3.18) -

62

, , ,
.
, ,
, , , ,
. , . ,
, .
,
, .
. , ,
. 3.10.

. 3.10. : ; , ( ,
, ), ( ),
, , , ,
, . .

(**) . 3.10 . . ,
(),
, .

3.2.

, ( *)

63

, , ,
. 3.113 .

. 3.11.
.

. 3.12.
(19181988).

.
, . , , ( ),

. ,
, ,
( ).
3.2.1. (*)
, ; ,
, .
,

.
, , , , .
, ,
,
( ,
3
, .

64

. 3.13. .

. 3.14
- , . . . . . . .
? .
! . . .
? . . .
, , , . . .
?
, . . . .
,
, , , 4

,
).
, , (
, ). ,

E t h,
(3.19)
E , , , t
, h .
, , , ()
, , .
, , - (. . 3.155 )
W ,
4 . . ; , : , 1979.
5 ( , ), . .
,

3.2.

, ( *)

65

80 , . W n p ( - ), W e e .
W
, W , 15 6 .
Ve
+

e
W

n
. 3.15. . , . W . 3.14.

, , . ,
, ,
.
, , W + , W + ee , ,
, ,
, - ( , ) ,
. ( , .)
( )
( ), .

.
, .
6 ,
.

. . .
. . .
. . . .
( ,
)
, ,
, .
,

, .
: ,
, , , (, , ),
. . .
( ), , ,
( ), 5 .

4.1.
4.1.1. ?
,
, .

4.1.

67

(x, p), . .,
, 1 .
.
,
.
2 , . ., , 3 .
,
. , , ( , ) .
, , , .
. .
,
, . 10 ,
10 , 3 ,
, 30 (
). , , , ,
, .
(*) ,
6 K (3 3 ,
K ), L3 2K ( K 1
.
2 .
, , - ,
- .
3

.

68

L3 L L L).
,
N , . . 6N K .
(*) (L3 )N K.
100 100 100
106 .
( -
, , . .)
, , , ,
,
4 .
, ,
,
. . (x1 , x2 ) (x1 ), , (x2 ), .
12 (x1 , x2 ).
12 (x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 ),

(4.1)

, . .
(4.1)

12 = 1 2 .

(4.2)

( 1 = 2 ) 12 = 21 = 2 1 , . . 21 (x1 , x2 ) =
= 2 (x1 ) 1 (x2 ).
12
, (
4
, , , , , . -

. , - ,
, , , .

4.1.

69

)
 (i)
(i)
12 (x1 , x2 ) =
1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 )

12 =

(i)

(i)

1 2 .

(4.3)
, ,
, ,

. , .

12 (x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 )

12 = 1 2 .

(4.4)

(. .
),
12 , ( )
 (i)
 (i)
(i)
(i)
12 (x1 , x2 ) =
1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 )

12 =
1 2 . (4.5)
i

, ,
, , , (
), (), . ,
.
, , ( ), , , ,
, (. .
) .
4.1.2.

,

70

, . . , ( + , . .
) (c). ,
, , , .
,

, . . c ( c = 0 ) .
, . , ( , .
2).

. 4.1. 1886 . (18621943). W
H.
, ,
, .
, ,
, , ( ), ,
( ).
,
(3.13) .
n- :
(a, b) =

n

k=1

ak bk .

(4.6)

4.1.

71

,


n
n


 2

(a, a) =
Re ak + Im2 ak .
(4.7)
ak ak =
k=1

k=1

,
,



| = (x) (x) dx,

| =
(k) (k).
(4.8)
k

! ,
.
, ,
.
L2 ( ) l2
( ). H. Cn .
(*) . 5 , . .
() . , L2
l2 .
x U
W ,


| = (x) (x) dx +
(k) (k).
(4.9)
U

kW

( ):
2 = |.
5

72

4.2. ()
,
,

,
.
. , ,

,
.
, Aij . , .
(-) , ,
Ai .
, .
(-) , , Ai . , .
:

ua =
ui ai .
i

:
(au)ij = ai uj .
:

(AB)ik =
Aij Bjk .
j

, .
, . .
:


((AB)C)il =
(
Aij Bjk )Ckl =
Aij Bjk Ckl =
k

jk

4.2. ( )


j

Aij

73

(Bjk Ckl ) = (A(BC))il .

, ,
A, B :

AB = BA,

, , , .
,
, :

Aii .
tr A =
i

( ) () ,
, :

(Aa)i =
Aij aj ,
j

A(a + b) = (Aa) + (Ab)

(4.10)

( ).
() , ,
:

(uA)j =
ui Aij ,
i

(u + w)A = (uA) + (wA).

(4.11)

A u a, , u
Aa, uA a:
uAa = u(Aa) = (uA)a.
:
u = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . 0),
  
i

a = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . 0)T ,
  
j

(4.12)

74

. . i- j- , A:
uAa = Aij .

(4.13)

:6 (A )ij = Aji .
: A = A.

1, i = j,

: 1ij = ij =
0, i = j.
: U U =
1.
a b , ,
:

ai bi .
(4.14)
a|b = a b =
i

b a :
(ba )ij = bi aj .

(4.15)

: a ( ) A

Aa = a,
C .
( )
.
( )
, .
( ,
) () A B :
[A, B] = AB BA = 0,
, () A B .
6 , (A )ij = Aij (AT )ij = Aji . ,
. , (= ) . !

4.3.

75

() () () :
A + A
A A
,
ImA =
,
2
2i
(ImA) = ImA,
(ReA) = ReA,
A = ReA + i ImA.

ReA =

() , () A
ReA ImA:
Aa = a

(ReA)a = (Re)a,

(ImA)a = (Im)a.

() ReA ImA , () A
,
[ReA, ImA] = 0 [A, A ] = 0.
(), , . , (), U = U 1 , [U, U ] =
= U U 1 U 1 U = 0.
(), (. . 4.2):

[A,
B]
=0

C
A + iB

R
A

iR
iB

iR
i
iA

e = {e | R}
e
(, , ). . .

4.3.

, -

76

. 4.2

4.2. , ( ),
(. .
).

. 4.3. (19021984). W

c (x) - , - (x) - -.
4.3.1.
( ).
, , ,
;

4.3.

77

| - ( ),
-, (x);
| - ( ),
- | = (|) ,
-, (x);
A ( ), .
:
C .
H -. (
, ). - (
) ,
-. H
.
H -. - ( ) , -. H H H C
.
H H H H. (
) , .
(-
-, , /, ).
4.3.2.
|| = | = (|) | =
(

78

) (. (4.8), (4.14))
;

A|
- :
( A).

A(| + |) = A| + A| ( (4.10));

|A - ( A).

: (| + |)A = |A + |A ( (4.11));

= A |A|
= |A
( (4.13)). :
- |A - |,

- | - A|,

A;

|A|,
A = A ( . ), | = 1 A
;
|| - (
4.15).
|| - |:
(||)| = | | = ||.
(4.16)
  

|| - |:
|(||) = ||;
(4.17)
  

|| = | | -
-,
, : 1- |,
2- | (. (4.1), (4.2));

4.3.

79

|| = | | = (||) -
(-) -, , ,
-,
(. ).
4.3.3.
( a, b, c , -, , ):
(a ) = a,
= , C ,
(a + b) = a + b ,
(abc . . . ) = . . . c b a
,
(|) = |,
(|) = |.
:
= A = A = |A |
= |A|
|A|

= A = B = |B|,
,
, |A|

( ), B =
= A ( 4.2),
(||) = ||,
(|) = (|) = |,
  

(A|)
= |A = A|,

= A |,
(|A)

80

(||) = ||,
(||)(||) = |||| = | | | = ||| =
  

= | |.
     

4.4. , , . . . ,
**
. , , , , . , , .

: . ,
, (
) ,
() :

(ABC)il =
Aij Bjk Ckl .
jkl

() ().
( , ) A
B AB, BA:


(AB)ik =
Aij Bjk ,
(BA)ik =
Bij Ajk .
j

,
.
. , ,
.
,
,

4.4.

, ,

. . . ,

**

81

. , , , , , , , - ,
(? ? ?) -:

D
ABC

n
=
il

Aij

Dm n

Bj m k Ckl =
Aij Bj m k Ckl Dm n .

jkm

jkm

.
-:
. ,
.
.
.
. .
, , , . ,
, , , . ( (3.13) . 3.5, . 3.2 ,
(*).)
.
4.4.1. *
( , , ) ,
( ) .
, k .
().

82

,
, . / .
:
/ -, -. .
/ . .
,
, , x y R, , , /.
.
/ /. , ,
/ r = (x, y, z, ).
( ) ,
.
, .
, , .
, , ,
( ) /. , .

( ).
4.4.2. *
,
, ,

4.4.

, ,

. . . ,

**

83

, , .
: ()
- -.
, /
/ .
.
, ,
. ,
( ), .

.
, .
,
, ( ).
, ,
.
4.4.3. *
/:
-, -, .
- . ,
, , -
- :
|

|  |  |  .

ijk Akji

qrs

(4.18)

s r q

, , , - :

A B

B)
ik jl =Ai j B k l
(A

)(B|
).
|| = ( A|
(A B)
B)
ik jl j l
(A

Ai j j

B k l l

84

,
( , ), ,
. , (4.18)
- , -
(), -, . . -:
|

|  .

ijk Akji qrs s

4.4.4. *
i - |;

i - |;

i i = | ;

Aij A;

Aij j -: A|;

Aij i -: |A;

4.4.

, ,

. . . ,

**

85

Aij i j = |A|
;

Aii = tr A A;

C)
AB
C;

Aij Bkj Cik = tr(AB

ij - | =

ij - | =

| |  ;

 | |

Aij jk A (,

) - |: A
1| = (A|
)| ;

Aik jk A (,

);

) - |:
1 A|
= | (A|

86

Aij
kl A, ;
A

kl

Aij
-: A|
( i, j
kl
k, l I = (i, j) K = (k, l),
AIK K );

Aij
il tr1 A;

Aij
kj tr2 A.

4.5.
4.5.1.
, - ,
() :
| = 1.

(4.19)

(4.9),
(x) (x) (x U ) (k) (k)
(k W )


(k) (k) = 1.
(4.20)
| = (x) (x) dx +
U

kW

4.5.

87

, .
(4.19) ( ).
,
:
|
|.  = 
.
|
ei ( R, |ei | = 1)
.

:


(x) dx +
p(k) = 1.
(4.21)
U

kW

,
. , ()
. . ,

, , . ,
.

p
ipr

p (r) = e h .
(4.22)
, , . . .

( ).
4.5.2. .

, ,
. -

88

, ,
,
.
|, k
|k . ,
,

|k ,
(4.23)
| =
k

k |k  = pk kk ,


k |k  =
pk = 1,
| =
k,k 

(4.24)
(4.25)

pk k.7
|k  | Pk :
|k  = Pk |,
Pk Pk = Pk kk ,

1.
Pk =

(4.26)
(4.27)
(4.28)

Pk , k ( ).
Pk , .

, , , . , , , . ei |

, |
, R,
|


7 ,

kk =

1, k = k ,
.
0, k =
 k

4.5.

89

ei , .
( )
.
4.5.3.
3.1.5
.
pk 4.5.2
:



k | = k |
|k  =
k |k  =
pk kk = pk .
k

k

k

k -: , .
, , ,
, , , . , ,
: ? ,
.
A = |
8 .

p = |||2 = || =
= |(||)| = |P | = tr(P P ), (4.29)
8 0
( ) 1
.
, 1, 0. .
, , ,
.
, ,
.

90

P = ||.

P = ||,

P (. (4.26),
(4.27), (4.28) ).

4.6.
4.6.1. ,

| (x)
- x, .


| = (x) |x  dx +
(k) |k .
(4.30)
kW

|x  |k  - x k . (x U )
, (k W ) .
.
-.
9 . , ( )
:


(k) = k | = k | (x) |x  dx + k |
(k ) |k  =
=

(k ) k |k  =

k W

(x) = x | = x |

=
U
9

k W

(k ) kk ,

k W

(x ) |x  dx + x |

(x ) x |x  dx =

(k) |k  =

kW

(x ) (x x ) dx .

. . 4.7.6.

4.6.

91

,
, . . x0 (x) = x |x0 , . . , .
,
-:
k |l  = kl = l (k).
(4.31)

k |l  = 0,
k |k  = 1.

k = l,

(4.32)
(4.33)

-:
x |y  = (x y) = y (x).

(4.34)

x |y  = 0,

x = y,

(4.35)

x |x  =

().

(4.36)

, . . , , !
,

.
, H, .
, (4.32), (4.33) (4.31), (4.35), (4.36) (4.34) (, ,
). , - (ax) =
= (x)
|a| ( x), , .
,
: x ax x
x
.
a

92

( ) .
4.6.2. *
, ,
H () . ,
,
: (x) = x |, ,
x |x  , ,
x |y . , : , .
, . , . , , , .
, . , ,
, .
,
, . .
D H

lim n | = x0 | = (x0 ).

, - .
, x , x (
) . . ,

4.6.

93

,
, - .
, , . .
wlim n (x) = (x x0 ) = x0 (x)
n

D H

lim n | = x0 | = (x0 ).

,
D D. H
 , . H
H ,
. ,
H H . H , -, .
D = H. , : , ,


(x) (x)dx.
, D
,
D  .10
, H,
: D 
D.
D H D

(4.37)

.
10
, D H, D,

.

94

D .

(4.30), ,
(4.34).
. 4.6.3 , 4.7.1 4.7.2 .
4.6.3.
, (4.30) -
,
-. ( - ),
-. , (4.30)
m | (
, {|x }xUW , - ):



(x) |x ,
m | | = (x) |x  dx +
U

(m) = m | =


xW

(x) m |x  dx +
U

(x) x (m) dx +

=
U

(x) m |x  =

(4.38)

xW

(x) x (m).

xW

(4.38) (m) | , (x) .

, m |x .
, , m x. m |x  - ,
.
m |x  - , , -

4.6.

95

, . ,
, , ,
:
+
+ i(p p )x


ip1 x ip2 x
2
1

h
p1 |p2  =
e h e h dx =
e
dx =

+R i(p2 p1 )x

h
e
dx = 0.
= lim
R+
R



sin(
2

(4.39)

p2 p1
h

R)

(p2 p1 )/
h

*

G : H1 H2 .
H1 H2 , H
1 2. , H, H1 H2 (),
.
H1 H2 , . .
- ,
- ,
:
J : H1 H2 ,

J 1 : H2 H1 .

( H1 H2 ), , . . H1
H1 :
= J 1 G : H1 H1 .
U

96

- ()
( ),

.
U
, M1 : H H1
: H H , M2 =
, U

= M1 U : H H1 .
, , , , , .
,
.
, , ,
11 .

L2 (R) ,
( hk):
k (x) = 1 eikx = x |k ,
2

k R.

x0 (x) = (xx0 ) (
x0 ).
.
, . .
k |l  = (k l).
k |l  , k = l
() , 11 .
,
: ( ), ( ).

4.6.

k |l  = 1
2

97

+

ei(lk)x dx

(. (4.39)).
+R
2 sin((l k)R)
ei(lk)x dx =
,
R +
lk
R

, - .
- , e|x| , +0,
k |l  = (k l) , ,
:
+
+



| =
(x)(x)dx =
(k)(k)dk,

+


(k) = |k  =

eikx dx,
(x)
2

+


(k) = k | =

eikx (x)dx.

+
+


(x)|x dx =
(k)|x dk | =

(k) = k | (x) = x |, k |x  = x |k  :

+

(k) =
k |x (x)dx,

+


(x) =

eikx
(k)dk =
2

+

x |k (k)dk.

x , k ,
. x k , , , , , x k x0
x.

98

k, p = hk.

h:
i

p (x) = 1 e h
2h

px

p R.

*

,
1
12 , 2
, .
h
i

, p (x) = eikx = e h px
, .
,
:
+

dp
| =
(p)(p)
.
2h

(4.40)

, / dp
dk
2
h = 2 .
. n,
dn p
dn k
(2
h)n = (2)n .
:

(p) = p | =

(x) = x | =

e h

i
px

h (x)dx,
px

(p)

dp
,
2h

p (x) = e

x (p) = e h

i
px

px

= x |p ,

= p |x  = x |p  .

:
x |x  = x (x) = (x x ),

p |p  = p (p) = 2h (p p ).

.
: 2h, -

4.7.

99

. , , , .
, 4.6.3.

4.7.
.
, ,
. ,
. , , .

, ,
.

,
12 :
A : D V,
D, V H,
= ,
A

A()
= (A),

, H ,
C,

+ ) = A
+ A.

A(

. , x,
, ,

x
: 
x .
, .
4.7.1. *


(Aa)m = n Amn an A : D V
12 D A
H. .
, .

100

- :

A(x)
=

Axy (y) +

yW

Axy (y) dy.

(4.41)

yU

W , , , U , .
Axy x y.
x,
(x, y).
D H ,
,
|| D H |A|.
, ,
:
A : D H C,

D,

H = L2 (U ),


 |A|
=
(x)Axy (y) dx dy. (4.42)
A : || =
x,yU

.
( 4.6.3 .)
4.7.2.

y .
(4.43)
Axy = x |A|
, (4.41)
(4.31), , (4.34),
.
(4.13)
.
(4.42) (4.43) / / .

, ,

4.7.

101

A = |A|.

(4.44)

(4.44)
, 4.6.2 *, 4.7.1 *.
4.7.3.
() () A :
|xy  (x , y ):



 

xy  = x|xy .
+ dx
+
dy (x, y)|xy , A|
| =
xW

yWy (x)

Uy (x)

(4.45)

A(x,
y) = x (x, y).
, ( )
() ,
.
4.7.4. **
. , ,


k  = k|k ,
| =
(k)|k , A|
k

A|
=

(k)|k ,

(k) k |.

102

A(k)
= k (k),

(k) , ,
, k.

:

  
(A )(k) = k (k),




.
, , (k) , . , k , .
, .
4.7.5.

:
(. . ) :

=  |A|
 = |A| ,
A
|

|
|  = 
.
|

(4.46)

, | 
A (

). ,
-,
-
k |l  = kl ,

k, l W, x |y  = (x y),
k |x  = 0, x U, k W,

x, y U,

4.7.

103

x U W (
) |(x)|2 :

 
 =
+ dx x |(x)|2 .
 |A|
xW

4.7.6.
,
H H ,
|x y |.
- - (4.16),
(4.17).
. ,
, :

A =
|x Axy y | dx dy.
x,yU

,




A=
|x Axy y | dx dy +
|x Axy y | +
x,yW

x,yU

|x Axy y | dx +

xU yW

 

|x Axy y | dy,

xW yU





A =
+
dx
+
dy |x Axy y |.
xW

yW

xU

(4.47)

yU




1=
+
dx |x x |.
(4.48)
xW

xU

104

4.7.7. *
/, ?
, .
, . ? , ! ,
. () . , H , .

:


| = 1  + 2  2 + i + i2 i i2 .
4
13 .

. , ,


2 = | = |(x)|2 dx < , H,
R
x
( x)


x2 = 
x|
x = x2 |(x)|2 dx , x
 H.
R
x
|
H. , ,
13 , ,

 + 2 +  2 = 22 + 22 .
,
.

4.7.

105

- H. , H,
.
?
. , , . .
, H ,
H. H , ( ), .14
, A
,
eiA ( R),
. (|u| 1) H.
A = A ,
A A . ( ).
, , . .
= A|

|A
, , ,
.
(*) A A
. ,
. A ,
A . A A .
, - ,
,
14

A,

A = sup

A


< .

106

() .
,
, ih x
. ,
, .
.
( )
: (
).

,
.
4.7.8. *
(4.8 *). ,
, , .
() :





tr A =
+
dx Axx =
+
dx x|A|x.
(4.49)
xW

xU

xW

xU

, , () .
,
.
, - -, :
tr || = |.

(4.50)

(4.50) :
= tr A + tr B,

tr(A + B)
(4.49).

(4.51)

4.7.

107

, (4.47), (4.50), (4.51) (4.49), .

(4.49) (4.51),
(4.50) :



tr || =
+
dx x ||x  =
xW

xU

dx |(|x x |)| =

xW

= |

xU

xW


+

dx |x x | | = |1| = |.

xU

(4.50)
(), - - ( ):
tr(ab . . . yz) = tr(zab . . . y) = tr(b . . . yza).

(4.52)

a, b, . . . , y, z , , - , , ,
. . ( 1 1).
(4.52) (4.51) , ,
:
tr = ,
C.
(4.53)
(!!!) ,
1 1,
n n
1,
1 n n. ,

tr(1) = n = = tr .
*
:
H = H1 H2 .
,
, :
(x, y) = y|x|.

108

| =

(x, y)|x|y.

x,y

( ,
.) (y|x|) = |x|y H,
|x |y H1 H2 .
H ( . . )
:
 |y  .
A(x, y; x , y  ) = y|x|A|x

A =
|x|yA(x, y; x , y  )y  |x |.
x,y;x ,y 

H = H1 H2
H2 :



|xA(x, y; x , y)x | =
y|A|y.
(4.54)
trH2 A =
x,y;x

, , H1 .


x ) =
A(x, y; x , y).
(4.55)
trH2 A(x;
y;y

, H2 H1 (. .
/, ).

H2 , ,
, H2 . , (4.53) ( !) A1 : H1 H1
trH2 A1 = A1 .
(4.56)
:

tr A = trH1 trH2 A = trH2 trH1 A.

(4.57)

4.8.

109

4.8. *
( ),
,
.
. . . 1927 .
,
, | ( (x))
( ). . 4.4.
. - (19081968).
(
, )
1 = ||,

| = 1.

(4.58)

, pk |k  ,
.

=
|k pk k |,
k |k  = 1.
(4.59)
k

|k  , .

, . .
= ,

|
|  0, H,

tr = 1.

(4.60)

: ,
.
, , .
.
,

110

, . . ( . 5
) , , .
:
= tr(A
).
A

(4.61)

,
( - -) (4.52),
(4.58) (4.59), (4.61)
:
= tr(A
1 ) = tr(A ||) = tr(|A |) = |A | = A
,
A
1




= tr(A
) = tr A
A
|k pk k | =
pk tr(A |k k |) =
=


k

pk k |A |k  =

.
pk A
k

, ,
, pk
k .
, ,
, , (4.29), P
p = P  = tr(P ).

(4.62)

5 .
4.8.1. *
, , ,
( ) , ( ) , ,
.

4.8.

111

, (4.59) . ,
.
(4.59)
(4.58).
, , (Q, P ),
 (Q, P ) = (Q Q0 ) (P P0 ).
. , ,
E eE/T , T ,
(kT , k),
:

= e

H
T

Z = tr .

, , . ,

( ). ,

, .
4.8.2. *
, .
,

, ()
. ,
( ) , ,
:


1 = tr2 ,
1 (x; x ) = (x, y; x , y) dy.
(4.63)

112

. , ,

| = A1 |1 |1  + A2 |2 |2 .
|1  |2  , |1 
|2  (),

A1 = ei1 p1 A2 = ei2 p2 (1 , 2 , p1 , p2 R+ , |A1 |2 + |A2 |2 = p1 +

+ p2 = 1) .

= || = A1 A1 |1 |1 1 |1 | + A2 A2 |2 |2 2 |2 | +
+ A1 A2 |1 |1 2 |2 | + A2 A1 |2 |2 1 |1 |.
( ), p1 , p2
(1 2 ).
, , tr2 i , i :
1 = tr2 || = A1 A1 tr2 |1 |1 1 |1 | + A2 A2 tr2 |2 |2 2 |2 | +
+ A1 A2 tr2 |1 |1 2 |2 | + A2 A1 tr2 |2 |2 1 |1 | =
= A1 A1 tr2 |1 1 |1 1 | + A2 A2 tr2 |2 2 |2 2 | +
+ A1 A2 tr2 |1 2 |1 2 | + A2 A1 tr2 |2 1 |2 1 | =
= p1 |1 1 | + p2 |2 2 |.
i .
,

2 = tr1 || = p1 |1 1 | + p2 |2 2 |.
, , - i 1 2
. , , . .
(. ).
, . (Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) -

4.8.

113

,

1 (Q1 , P1 ) = (Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) dQ2 dP2 ,

2 (Q2 , P2 ) =

(Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) dQ1 dP1 .

(Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) (  Q1 , P1
Q2 , P2 ) 1 (Q1 , P1 ) 2 (Q2 , P2 ),
.
(
) .
,
(Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) = (Q1 Q01 )(Q2 Q02 )(P1 P10 )(P2 P20 ),

1 (Q1 , P1 ) = (Q1 Q01 )(P1 P10 ),

2 (Q2 , P2 ) = (Q2 Q02 )(P2 P20 ),

(Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) = 1 (Q1 , P1 )2 (Q2 , P2 ).
, ,
.
.
,
.
= 1 2 .
1 = || 1, 1 2,
.
1 = tr2 (
1 2 ) = 1 (tr2 2 ),
  
=1

2 = tr1 (
1 2 ) = (tr1 1 ) 2 .
  
=1

114

4.9. *
() ,
.
.
.
.
4.9.1. *
, , .
, ,
,
. , , ,
.
A : H
H = P H,
. ( .) A
P :

P , V R,
A = A =


1,
P =

P = P ,

P P = P .

A|
=
P |



= |A|

|P | =
p ,
A
=

4.9. *

115

p = |P |

, A .

(. 5.3.1 **).
, :
cA c R;
A B;

A + B
=
A B

B
+B
A

A
2

B}
q=
{A,

1
i
h [A, B]

, , ,
. . , :
{B,
C}
q }q + {B,
{C,
A}
q }q + {C,
{A,
B}
q }q = 0.
{A,
, ( ), ,
.
.
, , ,
.

,
15 .
4.9.2. **
( ) F (Q, P ).
15

.

116

F ,
(Q0 , P0 ) ( ),
F (Q0 , P0 ).
, (Q, P ) ( ),

F  = dQ dP (Q, P ) F (Q, P ).
, :
cF c R;
F + G F G;
F G = F (Q, P )G(Q, P ) ;

  F G
G F
{F, G} = k Q

Qk Pk .
k Pk
.
, ,
, ,
.
, , (Q, P ),
.
4.9.3. ***
, ,
.

. , , , . .
.
.

4.9. *

117

, ,
.
,
13 , .
, ,
:
. 4.5. = 1,

= 2,

= 3.

,
, .

( ),
2 (). , . .
.
, -
, , ( ) ,
.
, , ,
, R, - .
,
, ,
.


.
-
F (Q, P ), F , V :
F : (Q, P )  F (Q, P ) V.
,
.

( -

118

):
{P }V ,

1,
P =

P = P ,

P P = P .

, :
p = |P |.
V  C ,
. ,
.
, V - , , .
.
- . , . ( ) . , ,
, , .
, , . , z ,

:
1
1
2
2
(1 + 2 )
(1 + 2 )
(1 + 2 )
(1 + 2 )

1 + ,
1 + < 2,
1 + 2, 1 +  2,
2 + ,
2 + < 2,
2 + 2, 2 +  2,
(1 + 2 ) + 2,
(1 + 2 ) + 2 < 2,
(1 + 2 ) + 2 2, 4 > (1 + 2 ) + 2  2,
(1 + 2 ) + 2 4, 6 > (1 + 2 ) + 2  4,
(1 + 2 ) + 2 6, (1 + 2 ) + 2  6.

4.10.

119

( ) .
,
?
, . ( , 5.2
() .)
(
), :
( );
( ).
( ), :
;
( ).
, , {P }V
V , (
), P ( ).
, ()
, .

4.10.
, ,
, . . . ,
L2 (R).

120

( )
, :
x0 (x) = x |x0  = (x x0 ).
:
i

p0 (x) = x |p0  =

1
2
h

e h

p0 x

( )
p0 (p) = p |p0  = (p p0 ).
:
x0 (p) = p |x0  = x0 |p  =

1
2
h

i
px

h 0.

, , (. 4.6.3).
(. 4.7.3 ). . (, !)

x
(x) = x (x),
p (x) = ih x
(x);
p (p) = p (p),

x
(p) = +ih p
(p).

p x
:
[
x, p] = ih.
(4.64)
(4.64)
.
(**) , [
x, p]
,

4.11.

121

x. L2 (R).
, [
x, p]
. a,
, (0) = (a) = 0.
L2 ([0, a]), ( )
.

:

[
x, p] = x
p px
= x(ih x
) + ih

hx + ih.
x x = i
  x

1

4.11.
|
. , ,
(
):

|H|
E0 = min
.
(4.65)
=0 |
, , () , ,
().
4.11.1. **
(4.65) (
, )

E0 = min |H|
|
=1

122




+ E(1 |) .
E0 = min |H|
=0



E[|,|
]

E[|, |] = |H|

+ E(1 |),
(x) ,

+ E(1 (|)),
E1 [] = (|H|)
(x) ,
.
|, | E,

 


|E | + E (1 |) .
E = | H|
E| + |H





 



. .

. . . .

,
1.16

.
E = p2 + U (x) (
H
p = ih)
2m

 
h2 

E[ (x), (x)] =

+ U (x) + E(1 ) dx =
2m

 2

=
( ) () + U (x) + E(1 ) dx
2m
(4.66)
, , . .
16 , ! ,
, , . ,
, .

4.11.

123

,

t1 


S[(t)|, |(t)] =
(t)|H|(t)
(t)|ih t |(t) dt.
t0

 2

S[ (x), (x)] =
( ) () + U (x) ih t dx dt.
2m
(4.67)
| |,
t1
S =
t0

!

 


(t)| H|(t) ih t |(t) + (t)|H + ih t (t)| |(t) dt.


 



.

. .

, ,
( ,
) .
4.11.2.
, (4.65).
() , ,
. , ,
, :
E0 min

()|H|()
.
()|()

,
:
E0 

|H|
.
|

(4.68)

124

, ,
( !), .
4.11.3. *
,
,
, :
E1 =

|H|
.
=0,0 |
=0 |
min

(4.69)

:
En =

|H|
.
=0,k |
|k<n =0 |
min

(4.70)

, , , , ,
k ||k<n = 0,
k ,
k .

5.1.
(2.3.1 . . . ) .
: , .
.
, (, , )

( 7.4.2 ). (
) (. .
)
.
, (). 11 -1 ( ) .
5.1.1.
,
, t1 ( ) (t1 ) (t0 )
t0 . ,
. ., ,
(t0 )|(t0 ) = (t1 )|(t1 ) = 1.

(5.1)

126

, , . . (t0 ) = (t0 ) + (t0 ),

(t1 ) = (t1 ) + (t1 ) . ,
, t1 , , t0 ,
(t1 , t0 ), U
:
(t1 , t0 )(t0 ),
(t1 ) = U

(t1 , t0 )(t0 )
(t1 ) = U

. .

,
:
(t0 , t0 ) =
1,
U
(t1 , t0 ) = U
(t2 , t0 ),
(t2 , t1 )U
U

t 2  t1  t0 .

(5.1)
(t1 , t0 )U
(t1 , t0 )|(t0 ) = 1.
(t1 )|(t1 ) = (t0 )|U

(5.2)

(5.2) (t0 ),
(t1 , t0 ) =
(t1 , t0 )U
1.
U

(5.3)

(5.3) , .
, 1 .
,
:
1 A,
A
A
=
1,
A
=
A
1. n , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , .
A|
n  = |n+1 .
A
n  = m,n+1 .
Am,n = m |A|
A
|m  =
: An,m = n |A
A

= n+1,m = Am,n . A :
|0  = 0. A
A
|n  = |n1 , n = 1, 2, . . . , A
A
A

A
n  = |n , .
A|
, A
A
0 = 0, . . A
A
=
A
|n  = |n  n = 0, A
1 |0 0 |.
A

5.1.

127

(t1 , t0 ).
U
, ,
U
=
U
=
1. U
1 U
.
U
=
U
1.
1 .
U

1
.
=
=U
U
1 U
U
, t1
(t1 , t0 ) - U
t0 ( , ).
, .
, ,
: , ,
. , .

, t1  t0
.

(t0 , t1 ) = U
1 (t1 , t0 ) = U
(t1 , t0 ),
U

(t2 , t1 )U
(t1 , t0 ) = U
(t2 , t0 )
U
t0 , t1 , t2 .
, . . ,
,
, . .
:
(t1 , t0 ) = U
t t .
U
1
0

t. // /

128

/ :
t +t ,
t = U
t U
U
1
2
1
2
1

Ut = Ut ,
0 =
1.
U

(5.4)
(5.5)
(5.6)

, t R, 2 t/ Z.
5.1.2. *

. (4.59)


|k pk k |.
=
k

,
(t1 , t0 )|k (t0 ),
|k (t1 ) = U

(t1 , t0 ),
k (t1 )| = k (t0 )|U

(t1 , t0 )
(t1 , t0 ).
(t1 ) = U
(t0 )U

,
:
(t1 , t0 )
(t1 , t0 )] = tr[
(t1 , t0 )U
(t1 , t0 )] = tr (t0 ).
tr (t1 ) = tr[U
(t0 )U
(t0 ) U




5.1.3. () *****
, (5.3) ().
, ,
.
2
.
,
,
, .

5.1.

129

, , , , , , . , , .
t = 0 , t = 0 H . t ,

t , . .
U
t H0 H0 = H.
Ht = U

Ht  H0 , . . -
At Ht = H.
At , t
. U
t = At U
t .
U
, , , , ,
.
, ,
( ). - ,
, (, ).

130

5.1.4.
(, , ) ,
(t).
(t + ) = U
(5.7)
, . . t R, , , (5.7) , 0,


d (t) = dU
(t).
(5.8)

dt
d 
=0

(5.8)
 (

U
). dd

=0

H
i
h.



dU

H = ih

d 

(5.9)

=0

, 3 .
:
.
U

H .
ih

, .
:
(t + , t)(t),
(t + ) = U

(t + , t) 
d (t) = dU

(t) = 1 H(t)(t),


dt
d
ih
=0



d
U
(t
+
,
t)


.
H(t)
= ih


d
=0

- : . ,
Hamiltonian .

5.1.

131

U (t + dt, t) = 1 + dt
1 dt H + o(dt),
+ o(dt) =
(5.10)
ih
ih
1 (t + dt, t) =
(t + dt, t) = U
U

=H
.
=
1 + dt H + o(dt)
=
1 dt H + o(dt) H
ih
ih
,
, , :
d U
(t1 , t0 ),
(t0 , t0 ) = 1.
(t1 , t0 ) = 1 H(t
1 )U
U
(5.11)
dt1
ih
,
,
i

t t = e h H(t1 t0 ) .
(t1 , t0 ) = U
(5.12)
U
1
0
( )
.

. , , .
(. . ,
) , . . .
5.2.7 *.
11.3.2 .
5.1.5. ,

H(t)
= ih d (t)
dt
.

132

E = EE .
H

.

,
E (t) = EE (t),
ih d E (t) = H
dt

E (t) = e

i
Et

h
E (0).

i
h
Et .
E = E

h e

i

E (t) = e h Et E (0)|A|e
h Et E (0) =
At = E (t)|A|
+

= E (0)|e

i
i
Et
h Et |E (0)

h
Ae

E (0) = A0 .
= E (0)|A|

,
. . , , ,
4 . ,
 = H
+ E0
H
1,
(5.13)
 H
, E0 . ,
. . ,
4 , - , ( , ),
, ,
, ,
.

5.2.

133

,
5.
,
, . , . , ,
. :

1 (t) + 2 (t) = 1 (0)e

=

i
E1 t
e h
(1 (0)

i
E t

h 1

+ 2

+ 2 (0)e

i
E t

h 2

i
(E1 E2 )t
(0)e h
).

( ) ,
i
e h E1 t (
).

5.2. ()

()
(t1 , t0 ) (. U
5.1.1). 11 -1 ( )
, , ().
5.2.1. : *
,
:
, . . ,
;
, . . , ,
.
5 ( ), , ,
.

134

. , ,
,
, .
5.2.2. *
H
t
Ht ,
:

;

, :
;
()
, :
,
;
;
() , ,
.
, .
, , .
5.2.3. ,
: (

5.2.

135

).
,
t A(t)
:

t A(t)
U
t |(0).
t = (t)|A(t)|(t)
= (0)|U
|A|

(5.14)

, ,
.
,
A(t)
, . .


t |(0)
t (0)U
t ,
| (t) = |(t) = U
(t) = U

A (t) = A(t)
.
5.1.1 5.1.4,
.
,
( ) , . .
|  = |(0) = | (0)
(

t A(t)
t A (t)U
t
U
t = U
A (t) = U

= (0) = (0)),

.
-, , :
t )A(t)(

t |(0)) =
 (t)|A (t)| (t) = ((0)|U
U
t A(t)
U
t )|(0) =  |A (t)| .
= (0)|(U
, ,
, .
,

136

(
):
(0) |  = U
(0) U
t | ,
| (t) = U
t
t
(t) =
A (t) =

t(0) (t)U
t(0) = U
t(0) U
t U
t U
t(0) ,
U
(0) A (t)U
(0) = U
(0) U
t U
t A (t)U
(0) .
U
t
t
t
t

(5.15)
[]

(5.16)
(5.17)

(0) = 1
U
.
(0) = U
, U
, (0) , U
t
0 . , - H

() , Ut , 0 H

V , :
=H
0 + V .
H

,
, ().
, , . ,
(. ).
5.2.4.
:
AU
.
A U

. , ,
, . ( ) ,

5.2.

137

, :
=U
t (A + bB)
U
t = U
t AU
t B
,
t + bU
U
t = A + bB
(A + bB)
=U
t (AB)
U
t = (U
t AU
t B
t )(U
U
t ) = A B
.
(AB)
,
(
/ ):
B]
= (AB
B
A)
= A B
A = [A , B
],
B
[A,

t eA U
t = eUt AUt = eA .
(eA ) = U

5.2.5.
, , . .

H(t).
t = e hi H t , U
:
U
t ] = 0.
[H,
, (
) :
i

= e h H t He
h H t = e h H t e h H t H
=H
.
H
5.2.6.
, ,
,
, :
t A U
t ,
A = U
t

dU
dA
t A dUt + U
t + U
t dA U
t .
=
A U
dt
dt
dt
dt

138

(5.11), :
t
dU

H,
= i U
dt
h t



dA
d
A
d
A

i
i
A ]U
t + U
t
[H,
t = [H
, A ] +
.
= U
U
dt
h t
dt
h
dt
t
dU
U
t ,
=i H
dt
h

(5.18)

(5.18)
:


dA
dA
.
,
dt
dt

,
( ).

A
ddt
, . .
.
: A
,
:
"
#
dA = d A.

(5.19)
dt
dt
,
( ),
.

A,
, . . 0 (. . U

H
1). .


.

dA
dA = dA ,
A
=
.
dt
dt
t
dt

5.2.

139

:
dA = A + i [H,
A].

(5.20)
dt
t
h
, , .

,
. A
,

A = 0,
t

A]
=0
[H,

dA = 0.
dt

( ) eiaA . 11.3 .
*

dAB
= A dB + dA B
dt
dt
dt
:
C]
= [A,
C]
B
+ A[
B,
C].

[AB,

(5.21)

, .
, .
. (5.21), , 6
B],
C]
= [AB,
C]
[B
A,
C]
= [[A,
C],
B]
+ [A,
[B,
C]].

[[A,

(5.22)

6 , :
.

140

!
!
B]

d[A,
dB
+ dA , B
= A,
.
dt
dt
dt

(5.22) :
B],
C]
+ [[B,
C],
A]
+ [[C,
A],
B]
= 0.
[[A,

(5.23)

,
,
. ,
.
:
H p ( ,

, p = i x
)
( ):
2
= p .
H
2m
,
(
, ):
$
$
%
%
p2
p2
d
p
p
d
x
i
i
p, x
] p) = m .
, p = 0,
,x
= i (
=
=
p [
p, x
] + [
dt
h 2m
dt
h 2m
2mh      
i
h

i
h

(5.21).
.
:
d
p
= 0,
dt

p (0) = p ;

p
d
x
= m,
dt

x
(0) = x
.

5.2.

141

:
p (0)
p
(0) + t m .
x
(t) = x
+ t m = x

p (t) = p = p (0);

( ) ,
:

pt = 
p 0 ;


p 0

xt = 
x0 + t m .

(5.24)

x
2 p2 :

2

p2
p
t (
p x
p2 (t) = p2 ;
x
2 (t) = x
+ t m
=x
2 + t2 2 + m
+ x
p ).
m
:
p2 t 
p2t = p2 0 ;
p2 t = 

(5.25)

t (
px
+x
p0 2
x2 t = 
x2 t 
x2t = t 2 p2 0 + m
x0 
p0 ) + x2 0 .
m
x2 t
, t 2

x2 t p2 t  h . 4
,
,
.
5.2.7. *
, ,
( ), . .

F (Q, P, t).
(5.26)
(
)

dF = F +  F dQa + F dPa .
dt
t
Qa dt
Pa dt
a

142

:
dQa
= H ,
dt
Pa

dPa
= H .
dt
Qa

H(Q, P ) , . . , . , .
, F :

dF = F +  F H F H = F + {F, H}.
dt
t
Qa Pa
Pa Qa
t
a



{F,H}

a {F, H}.
(5.20),
, :
dF = F + {F, H}
dt
t

dA = A + 1 [A,
H],

dt
t
ih

{, } 1 [, ].
ih

,
:
1 [
qa , pb ] = ab ,
ih

{Qa , Pa } = ab .

. , ,
(. . ). 5.2.6 : ,

5.2.

143

.
.

1925 , .
5.2.8. *

,
, , , .
, , (5.26),

(Q, P, t),
(Q, P, t) > 0,
dQ dP (Q, P, t) = 1,
(5.27)
.
. ,
, .


, F  = dQ dP F (Q, P, t) (Q, P, t),
(5.28)
, .

, . .
.

F S = {F C |n, m N, xn F (m) 0, x },
 S  = {|F S  : F  , F  }.
, ,
( )
,
.

144

:
Q0 P0 (Q, P ) = (Q Q0 ) (P P0 ),
Q0 P0 , F  = F (Q0 , P0 ).
,
. . (, ), .
- ()
.
,
.
5.2.9.
**
,
( ), ( ):7

. 5.1. (18051865). W

d
dF
F
= { , H},
=
,
dt
dt
t
d
dF
F
= 0,
=
+ {F , H}.
dt
dt
t

,
( ). {, } i1h [, ]
.
7 ,
. , , ,
:

.

5.2.

145

, F t
:

, F t = dQ dP F (Q, P, t)  (Q, P, t) =

= dQ dP F (Q(Q0 , P0 , t), P (Q0 , P0 , t), t)



F (Q0 ,P0 ,t)

 (Q(Q0 , P0 , t), P (Q0 , P0 , t), t) =




 (Q0 ,P0 )


dQ0 dP0

(Q, P )
F (Q0 , P0 , t)  (Q0 , P0 ) =
(Q0 , P0 )
  
=1


=

dQ dP F (Q, P, t)  (Q, P ).

Q(Q0 , P0 , t) P (Q0 , P0 , t)
t Q0 , P0 t:
Q(Q0 , P0 , 0) = Q0 ,

P (Q0 , P0 , 0) = P0 .

J=

(Q, P )
=1
(Q0 , P0 )

. 5.2.
(18091882). W

. , .
. , dJ
dt = 0
.
Qi (t) = Qi0 + Hi t + o(t),
P

P i (t) = P0i Hi t + o(t),

Q

2 H t
2 H t
i

+
j P i Qj

(Q(t), P (t))
P i P j
+ o(t) =
= det
2
2

H
(Q0 , P0 )
i j t ji

t
i
j
Q Q

Q P

146

2H
2H
i
j
P Q
P i P j
t + o(t) =
= 1 + tr
2
2

H
i j i j
Q Q
Q P

=1+

%
2H 2H
+ o(t) = 1 + o(t).
P i Qi
Qi P i

,
J(0) = 1,

dJ = 0
dt

J 1.

5.2.10. *
(5.17) A =
(0) A U
(0) , , =U
t
t
(5.18):



dA
d
A
i
(0)
, A ] +
.
(5.29)
= [H
dt
h
dt

(0) | (t)
(5.15) | (t) = U
t

(0)
d | (t) = dUt |  + U
t(0) d |  =

dt
dt
dt
(0) (0)
i
(0) i

= Ut H |  + U
H
t

h
h

|  =

(0) +V )
(H

=i U
h t

(0) |  = i V | .
(0) V U
V |  = i U
h  t  t 
h


(0)

t(0) |

, , , :
ih d | (t) = V | .
dt

(5.30)

5.3.

147

(0) | (t) = U
(0) U
t |(0).
t |(0) = U
| (t) = U
t
 t  

U
t

(5.30),
= U
t(0) U
t
U
t
t ,
= V U
ih d U
dt t

0 = 1.
U

(5.31)

, V , =H
(0) + V .
(0) H
H
(0)

, [H , V ] = 0.

5.3.

, .
,
. :
(),
.

.
( ). , , .
, .
5.3.1.
, (. 3.1.4 -

148

, 3.1.5 , 4.5.1 ).
,
.
, , ,

= P P
P = P

H H. ( *)
:
|  = P |  H .

= P P H H
,

H H .

[]

, ,
:
p = P  =  |P |  =  |  =  | .
2
P ) = tr(
P
) = tr(P P ) = tr(
).
p = P  = tr(

[]

, (
).
P ,
1 P ,
P =
( ). H , H .
H :
| =
1| = (P + P )| = P | + P | = |  + | .
P P . .

/ .

5.3.

149

,
A . . .
k = k , k = k ,

k  = k |k ,
A|

k .
k ,
, . .
k |k  = kk ,

|k k | =
1.

(5.32)
(5.33)

, . . k ,
A,
:
Pk = |k k | k ;
, (-
k ) Pk Pk = Pk kk ;
pk = |Pk | = |k k | ,
k , ,
(. (4.29));
Pk , A k (=1, =0)?,
, A k ?8 ;


1 = k Pk ;
, k :



| =
1| =
|k  k | =
k | |k ;
Pk | =
  
k

8
Pk , Pk
0 1, ,
:
1 ( ), 0 ( ).

150

k k | , ;
Pk
k 4.5.2:
Pk | = |k  k | = k | |k  = k ;
  

A =


k

k Pk .

,
, . .
kc  = k |kc ,
A|

k = k , k = k .

c = 1, . . . , nk , k .
kc , , . .
kc |k c  = kk cc ,

|kc kc | =
1.
k

(5.34)
(5.35)

.
k:
A,

Pk =
|kc kc |,
tr Pk = nk .
c

Pk
k
nk , {|kc }nc=1
.
c Uk , , c

5.3.

151

:
kc |k c  = kk (c c ),

|kc kc |dc = 1,
k U
k

(5.36)
(5.37)

Pk =

|kc kc |dc.

(5.38)

Uk

-, -. :
 = | ,
A|
 |  = ( ),

1.
|  | d =
| 
H.9
p = |  |, H ,
| , . . H. p :
A,
() = |
p |.
() , , :
b

b

P[a,b] = () d = | |  | d | = |P[a,b] |.
a
9

|   H, |  D (4.37).
(| D, D H)
 |. : () =  |
| H . (), | | . ()
( L2 (R)), L2 (R)
.

152

p - (. 3.1.4
):
b
P[a,b] =

b
|  | d.

p d =
a

P[a,b] ,
, [a, b],
(3.9) (,
() =  |).
P (a) = P(,a] .
, :
P(a,b] = P (b) P (a).
,
( ) ,
, .
,
A ,
:

A = |  | d.
(5.39)
**
(5.39) , , :
k+1


k
|  | d =
k (P (k+1 ) P (k )).
k

, , :


f (x) (dx) = lim
f (xk )(M (xk+1 ) M (xk )).
x0

5.3.

153

(dx) = M (x + dx) M (x) .

((a, b]) = M (b)M (a). -
M :


f (x) (dx) = f (x) M  (x) dx,
M .
, - - M
, ({a}) = M (a+)
M (a). : xk



f (x) (dx) = f (x) M  (x) dx +
f (xk ) ({xk }).
xk

, , , .
- P ().
,
, : P ()H
P ()H, > . :
P ()P () = P ()P () = P (min(, )).
M , P , :
P ({k }) = P (k +) P (k ) = 0.
,
:



A = (k) PA (dk) =
|  | d +
|  |.
U

PA ( A ,
)
. H
.

154

5.3.2. *
,
,
(2.3.2 . . . ).
5.3.1 , ,
,
. .
, . .
, .
, , ,
,
.
, ,
.
k ( )
k = Pk Pk Hk Hk ,

tr k = pk .

( )
:

. . =
tr . . = 1.
(5.40)
Pk Pk ,
k

, , , . . k .
, - , k, , .
:

 





1
=
= 1
Pk
Pk  =
Pk Pk .
k

k

k,k 

5.3.

155

Pk Pk ,

k = k ,

(5.40). ,
, , , .
()
( ).
, , , .
(*) . ,
(. .
, ) ( )
(5.40) .
5.3.3.

(). P , |,
, :
P = ||.
P : 0, 1 ( ,  = 1).
|.
,
, ,
.

.
, , .

156

( , ).
, , |||2 , .
,
. .

1 . ,
.
.

U (x), :
2
= p + U (
H
x),
2m

2
2
= h + U (x).
H
2m x2

(6.1)

6.1.
6.1.1. ?
(6.1)

h
 (x)+U (x) (x) = E  (x)+ 2m
(E U (x)) (x) = 0. (6.2)
2m

h2
2

. 2 XIX (18371841 .).

U (x) -.
1 .
L2 (R) .
C2 12 , .
2 , .

158

E

. ,
1 ( ),
- ( ).
, ,
. 6.1. E
(18031855). W
2, 1, 0 (
).
( - 1) .
6.1.2.
U (x) , (x) (6.2) ( !)
(x),

Re (x) =

(x) + (x)
,
2

Im (x) =

(x) (x)
2i

. , (x)
, Re Im , .

.
6.1.3.
U (x) :
U = lim U (x),
x

U+ = lim U (x).
x+

:
U0 = min U (x),
U1 = max U (x).
xR
xR

6.1.

159

, , U  U+ ,
:
U0  U  U+  U1 .
x
 (x) +

2m
(E

h2

U ) (x) = 0.

(6.3)

E > U , E < U :
eikx ,


k = 1 2m(E U ) ;
h


= 1 2m(U E).
h

ex ,

, .
, E > U
1, .
E  U+ , .
, E
, .
U+ > E > U + . ex , e+x .
+
(x) c ex + c+ e+x , x +,
: c+ = 0. (6.2) .
, . , U+ > E > U
.
E < U
:
(x) c ex + c+ e+x , x +;
(x) d ex + d+ e+x ,

x .

:
c+ = 0,

d = 0.

160

. 6.2. .

,
(6.2) .
,
. x
, ||2 ,
.
, .
c+ = 0, d = 0
, E < U .
( )?
E  U0 .
( , 6.1.2 ), , 
:
 (x) =

2m

h

(U E) (x).


0

(x ) > 0 (
), x > 0,  > 0 ( ex )  > 0. ,
, .

6.1.

161

, x + > 0  > 0.
ex ( +).
U > E > U0 , .
(. 13.5.4 )
, :


N= 1
2m(U U (x)) dx > 0.
(6.4)
h
U(x)<U

, .

, .
U1 = U+ = U > U0

(6.5)

.
, , .
6.1.4.
a
V :
&
0, |x|  a ,
2
(6.6)
U (x) =
V, |x| < a .
2

.
, 0 > E > V .
U (x) =
= U (x), ,

I = IH.

I (I(x)
= (x)), . . H
,
I (. 4.2 ()), . .
.
,
,

162

E > 0. E < 0 , ,
.
.
(
E > U (x)) ( E < U (x)).

. ,
,
:
( a2 + 0) = ( a2 0),
( a2 + 0) = ( a2 0),

 ( a2 + 0) =  ( a2 0);

 ( a2 + 0) =  ( a2 0).

, (, a2 ), .
,
+ .
, , .

(x) = e (xa/2) ,  (x) = e (xa/2) ,

= 1 2mE , x  a .
2
h

(a/2 + 0) = 1,

(a/2 + 0) = .

:
(x) = (x),

x  a.
2

, . . :
+ (x) = A+ cos(k+ x), (x) = A sin(k x),

k = 1 2m(E + V ), x [ a2 , a2 ],
h

6.1.

+
(x) = A+ k+ sin(k+ x),

163

(x) = A k cos(k x).

+ ( a2 0) = A+ cos(k+ a2 ),

 a
( 2 0) = A+ k+ sin(k+ a2 ),
+

( a2 0) = A sin(k a2 ),

 a

( 2 0) = A k cos(k a2 ).

( a2 + 0) = ( a2 0),

 a
 a

( 2 + 0) =
( 2 0)

A
:


A+ cos(k+ a2 ) = 1,
A sin(k a2 ) = 1,
a
A+ k+ sin(k+ 2 ) = + ,
A k cos(k a2 ) = .
A . ,

k+ tg(k+ a2 ) = + ;

k ctg(k a2 ) = .

.
, a2 . K+ = k+ a2 K = k a2 .
R:
'
(

2
a
2 =
2,
= a2 =
2m(E + V ) = mV 2a K
R 2 K
2h
2h
'
2
R = mV 2a .
2h



K ctg K = R2 K 2 .
K+ tg K+ = R2 K+ 2 ;
K+ K , .

164

10

. 6.3. K . K tg K, K ctg K
( R = 10). K > 0, > 0.

R2 K 2

R.
,
n n + 2 .
.
R
.

, 2 n, [0, R].3
3

R=

n, .

6.1.

165

,
.

%
$
!
2mV
a
N = 2R
+ 1 = [N ] + 1,
+1=
h
. ,
(6.4) 1.
*

( = R2 K 2  1) K 2 n,
. . K tg K K ctg K ,
n
. K = ka
2 2
, ( )
. , ( a =  1)
2
.
*
,
, . .

2R = 2mV a < 1.

h
R , . .

2R = 2mV a 1,

:


K tg K = R2 K 2 K 2 R2 K 2 .
K 2
K 4 + K 2 R2 0,

K2

1+

1 + 4R2
R2 .
2

166

0 ,
:
mV a
0 = 2
a = h2 ,

2 2
2 2
h2 20
E0 = h
= mV 2a .
2m
2m
2h

- *
, , -:
a 0,

V ,

aV = const.

'
2

R = mV 2a = const a 0.
2h
0
0 = mV2 a ,
h
.
h2 20
E0 =
.
(6.7)
2m

-:
2
wlim U (x) = V a (x) = h
m 0 (x).
a0

, - ! , - . , - :
+

(x) 
dx = 
1
.

1

6.1.

167

6.1.5. -
- . .
-:

h
 (x)
2m
2

h2
m

0 (x) (x) = E (x).

(6.8)

x = 0 (x) = 0, .
0.
, -, . ,
:
2

h
2m

+
 (x) dx

h2
m

+
+
(x) (x) dx = E
(x) dx.

+


h2
2m
 (x)

h2
m

+
0 (0) = E
(x) dx.

(x) 0
:
+0
1 

(6.9)
2 (x) 0 + 0 (0) = 0.
, . .   (x),
.
(+0) = (0).
(x) = (x), . . -
(6.8) .

:
(0) = 0  (+0) =  (0).
-. ,
-
U (x) 0. .

168

.
(x) = Ce|x| ,

2 2

E = h .
2m

. . (6.9).
h2 20
.
2m
, (6.7), .
= 0

E0 =

: -**
L2 (R)
(6.8). (6.9). (6.9) .
,
? (6.9), , , L2 (R) ?
6.1.6.
U (x)
U1 = U = U+ > U0 . ,
U1 > E > U0 . ,
(. . 6.2),
.
(4.68)
, U1 .
. , . . U0
(. . 6.2).
, , , U (x):

U1 , x  (a, b),
U (x) =
x R, U (x)  U (x).
U1 V, x (a, b),

6.2.

169

, U1 > E > U1
V > U0

2
 =  | p + U (x)|  =
E0 <  |H|
2m
p2
+ U (x)|  +  | U (x) U (x) |  < E < U1 .
=  |
2m






<0x
E



<0

, , (6.5),
E0 , U1 > E > E0 > U0 .

6.2.

,
.
( (6.1))
: , , , .
. (
)
( ).
,
, 0. , n- n, . ,
0, . . .

n- n.
n ( ) n + 1.

170

. ( ),

.
6.2.1. *
,
. , .
.
[0, a]
(0) = (a),

 (0) =  (a),

(6.10)

( )
( :
, ):
h2 kn2
0 (x) = 1 ; En =
, akn = 2n, n = 1, 2, . . . ,
2m
a
(
(
n+ (x) = a2 cos(kn x), n (x) = a2 sin(kn x).
(6.11)

E0 = 0,

[0, a]
(0) = (a),

 (0) =  (a),

:
En =

h2 kn2
,
2m

akn = (2n + 1),

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

(6.11).
(0+ ) a2 .
[0, a] ,

(0) = i(a),  (0) = i  (a),

6.2.

171

, ( ) .
, ,
.
, , .
6.2.2. *
, , . .
.
0 (0  = 1) . E0 . (. 4.11.2)
.
,
E0 :
0  = 1 |H|
1 ,
E0 = 0 |H|
i

1 = e 0 ,

0 |0  = 1 |1  = 1

R.

, 1 (x) = |0 (x)| = 0 (x) sgn(0 (x)),

:4


2
1  = 1 (x) h 1 (x) + U (x)1 (x) dx =
1 |H|
2m

= 0 (x) sgn(0 (x))


2 )
*
h 0 (x) sgn(0 (x)) + 0 (x) sgn (0 (x)) + U (x)0 (x)sgn(0 (x)) dx =
2m


2
0  = E0 .
= 0 (x) h 0 (x) + U (x)0 (x) dx = 0 |H|
2m

, - (sgn ), , . .
0 (x) 0 .
, , 1 0
4

, . . .

172

, 0
.
**
(6.10),
.
, , 1 E0 ,
.
E0 , 0 1 ,
+ (x) =

0 + 1
0 1
= 0 (x) (0 (x)), (x) =
= 0 (x) (0 (x)).
2
2

(x) = sgnx+1
. + 0 2
() .
, - (x0 ) =  (x0 ) = 0,
5 ,
0 1 ,

.
, . . , (
), .
6.2.3. (*)
. 6.4.
(17761853). [1897 . Felix Valloton. W]

(
), .

5
(. 6.2.1 *).

6.2.

173

,
:


 
W [1 , 2 ] =  1 2  = 1 2 2 1 .
(6.12)
1 2
x, ,
x . ,
x, . , 1 2
, ( , , , )
W [1 , 2 ](x) = 0, 1 2 .
, , :
W  [1 , 2 ] = 1 2 2 1 =
2
1
(U2 (x) E2 )2 2 2m
(U1 (x) E1 )1 =
= 1 2m

h2

h2

= 1 2

h2

[m2 (U2 (x) E2 ) m1 (U1 (x) E1 )].

m1 = m2 = m U1 (x) = U2 (x), :
W  [1 , 2 ] = 1 2

2m

h2

[E1 E2 ].

(6.13)

(6.13),
x1
W [1 , 2 ](x1 ) W [1 , 2 ](x0 ) =

2m

h2

[E1 E2 ]

1 (x)2 (x) dx. (6.14)

x0

6.2.4. *
(6.14) x0 < x1 1 E1 . 2
E2 > E1 .

174

1 (x) 2 (x) ,
, 1 (x) > 0 x (x0 , x1 ).
0

0

  
  
  
  
[1 (x1 ) 2 (x1 ) 2 (x1 ) 1 (x1 )] [1 (x0 ) 2 (x0 ) 2 (x0 ) 1 (x0 )] =


 


W [1 ,2 ](x1 )
0

W [1 ,2 ](x0 )
0


 x1   
  
   


2m
= 2 (x1 ) (1 (x1 )) + 2 (x0 ) 1 (x0 ) = h2 [E1 E2 ] 1 (x) 2 (x) dx.
<0

>0

x0

, 2 (x)
(x0 , x1 ) .
, 1 (x) ( )
2 (x). , 2 (x), , ,
1 (x).
(*) 1 2
. x0 x1 , .
, , .
6.2.5. *
,
( , ),
, (6.1) n En ,
n , n1 , n1.
xk , k = 1, . . . n, n . x0 xn+1
. :
 x0 < x1 < . . . < xn < xn+1  +.




x n+1 (xk , xk+1 ) (k = 0, . . . , n),

xk (k = 1, . . . , n) , n + 1

6.2.

175

,

nk (x) = I(xk ,xk+1 ) (x) n (x),

k = 0, . . . , n

( (3.10)),
n , , . . n ,
, .
, (. 4.11.2),
. k
, nk , , . .
(xk , xk1 ), nk (x) 0. , . nk (x)
, . . , , .
.
,
, .
( x0 = , xn+1 =
= +) , x1 , xn ,
. .
.
n1 , , n ,
xk , (x1 , xn ) yk
(k = 1, . . . , n1), n
. n1,k (k = 0, . . . , n 1)
:
n1 (x) =

n1


cn1,k n1,k (x).

k=0

n1,k (x) (yk , yk+1 )

, cn1,k ,

yk n1
.

176

, n1 ,
n , .
,
, .
:
0) .
yk (0) = xk+1 (k = 1, . . . , n 1).
1) k (k = 1, . . . , n 1) k ,
.
yk (1), k
k = 0, . . . , n 2,
, En1,n2 (1) = En1,n1 (1) < En .
2) 1) .
3) yk (k = 1, . . . , n1). , . . , , x1 ,
. . , x1 , , En1,0 > En , .
6.2.6. *
, n , , n 1 .
, ,
( )
.
, , ,
.
n+1 n , . .
n , n + 1.
, .

6.3.
6.3.1.
, , , -

6.3.

177

,
.
ikx

U(x), E

ik'x

de
re

ikx

U1
U+
U
x

U0
. 6.5.
.

, , ,
.
(, ) :
 +

2m
(E

h2

(x)

U (x)) = 0,
ikx

e


(x)

ik x
d e 

(6.15)
ikx

r e 

k=

x ,

x +,

2m(E U ),

k =


2m(E U+ ).

(6.15) r
d. , 1. ()
. () |r|2 |d|2 .

178

+hk hk.
+hk . (, )
, , ( ) . (
) (, ).
() R D
:

R = |r|2 ,
D = k |d|2 .
(6.16)
k

(. . ), R + D = 1 ( ).
6.3.2. :
:

0, x  0,
U (x) =
V, x > 0.
(6.15)
:



(x) = eikx + reikx ,  (x) = ik eikx reikx , x  0, k = h1 2mE,



(x) = deik x ,  (x) = ik deik x , x  0, k = h1 2m(E V ).
, :
(0) = 1 + r = (+0) = d,

 (0) = ik(1 r) =  (+0) = ik d.

1 + r = d,

1 r = kk d

d =

2k ,
k + k


r = k k .
k+k



 k k 2


 ,
D = kk |d|2 = 4kk  2 .
R = |r|2 = 

k+k
|k + k |

(6.17)

6.3.

179

:
R + D = 1 ;
V = 0 ( ) k = k , : R = 0, D = 1;
E +
R 0, D 1;

k
k

1, :

V > E k , : R = 1, D , () x > 0, . . D
D = 0;6
, , , V V , E E V , . . k k , R D
( D R 6.3.5
**).

.
6.3.3. : -
-:
2
U (x) = h
m 0 (x).

, (6.15)
:


(x) = eikx + reikx ,  (x) = ik eikx reikx , x  0,

(x) = deikx ,  (x) = ikdeikx , x  0, k = h1 2mE.

-
,
-:
(0) = 1+r = (+0) = d,

 |+0
0 = ikdik(1r) = 20 (0) = 20 d.

6 D ,
.

180

1 + r = d,
d + r 1 = 2i k0 d

d =

k ,
k i0

r = i0 .
k i0

(6.18)

R = |r|2 =

20
,
k + 20
2

D = |d|2 =

k2 .
k + 20
2

:
R + D = 1 ;
0 = 0 ( ) : R = 0, D = 1;
E +
R 0, D 1;

0
k

0, :

0 - -,
0 ,
: R 1, D 0;

.
6.3.4.

k k , E . + (. .

eik x x +) .
(eikx x +)
. , r d
.
k , k , E
. +

6.3.

181

e|k |x , , d = 0.7 ,

. ,
. x , |r| = 1, . . .
r (,
).
*
(R + D = 1)
. .
(x) x j(x) 8

p
i
h
2

(x) = |(x)| ,
j=
( + ) = Re (x) m (x) .
2m
9

+ div j = 0,
t

j
+
= 0.
t
x

j .


t = 0. , ,
7 , ,

, eik x
d,

D = kk |d|2 ,


, eik x , , +,
d = 0.
8 C. 13.6 ,
, ,
, . .
9 ,
, j.
j(x) = const .

182

:
j(x) = ih (  +  ).
2m

j(x) = const,

j(x) +,
(6.15) :
k ,
j(+) = |d|2 hm

j() = (1 |r|2 ) hmk .


1 |r|2 = k |d|2 .
k

  
R

j() = j(+)

6.3.5. **
,
(6.15),
U (x) , :
o +

2m
(E

h2

U (x)) = 0,
ik x

o (x)

e  

ikx

o (x)

do e
,
  

(6.19)
ik x

r e
o  

Ro = |ro |2 ,

x +,

x ,


2m(E U ),
k=
1

k =

Do = k |do |2 .
k


2m(E U+ ),
(6.20)

U (x) E > U+ , (x) o (x)

.
,
(x) o (x).


. , .

6.3.

183

, (6.12)
(. 6.2.3 (*)). , , (6.13)!
(x), (x),
o (x), o (x), r, d, ro , do , k, k .
i W [, ] = k |d|2 = k(1 |r|2 )
2
  
  
x+

j (x).
.
i W [o , o ] = k (1 |ro |2 ) = k|do |2
2


   
x+

j o (x).
k d = kdo ( k k
i W [, o ] = 
2

x+

),

D = k |d|2 = k |do |2 = Do .
k
k

( ) !
i W [, o ] = k dro = kdo r .
2
  
  
x+

6.3.6.

. , , . . ,
,
.
,
, .
(

184

) ,
( ).
, , , : , |(x)|2 , ,
.

, U (x) =
= const. x ,
.
(5.2.6 ).

, :

(x) = 1
(6.21)
eikx f (k k0 ) dk.
2
, ,
f (k k0 ), , k k0 ,
.
eik0 x , (x) f(x), f (k )
:


(x) = eik0 x 1
(6.22)
eik x f (k ) dk = f(x) eik0 x .
2



f(x)

k, f ,
k0 .
(x) ,
1
k0 , x k
.
k
(k):
ei(kx(k) t) .

6.3.

185

,
(k) =

2
E(k)
= hk .
2m
h


(6.23)
ei(kx(k) t) f (k k0 ) dk =
(x, t) = 1
2



= ei(k0 x(k0 ) t) 1
ei(k x[(k0 +k )(k0 )] t) f (k ) dk .
2
, f (k )
, :


d

 k = v(k0 ) k .
(k0 + k ) (k0 )
dk k0
  
0

d 
dk k0

,
v0 = v(k0 ) =
(
p
v(k) = hmk = m
)


eik (xv0 t) f (k ) dk =
(x, t) ei(k0 x0 t) 1
2



(6.24)
f(xv0 t)

= f(x v0 t) ei(k0 x0 t) .
, , 10 , v0 = v(k0 ).
*
(6.21), , f (k k0 )
, 10 , (k + k  ) (k )
0
0
k , (
) .

186

:

(x) = 1
k (x) f (k k0 ) dk,
2
k (x) +

2m
(E(k)

h2
ikx

k (x) e

U (x))k (x) = 0,

+ r(k) eikx ,


k (x) d(k) eik (k)x ,

2 2

(6.25)

x ,

x +,


k (k) = h1 2m(E(k) U+ ) =

E(k) = h k ,
2m


|f (k)|2 dk = |f(x)|2 dx = 1.

'
k2

2mU+
h2

,
E(k) ei(k) t , (k) =
(x, t) = 1
2

E(k)
,
h

k (x) ei(k) t f (k k0 ) dk.

(6.26)

(x, t) x .
:
r(k) = |r(k)| ei(k) |r(k)| ei(0 +1 (kk0 )) r0 ei1 (kk0 ) ,
d(k) = |d(k)| ei(k) |d(k)| ei(0 +1 (kk0 )) d0 ei1 (kk0 ) .
, k k0 .11
x , ,
(6.24),
x ,
(x, t) 1
2

(6.27)
(eikx + r(k) eikx ) ei(k) t f (k k0 ) dk =

11 |r| |d| k,
R(k) D(k) |f (k k0 )|2 .

6.3.

= 1
2

187


ei(kx(k) t) f (k k0 ) dk +


1
+
r0 ei(kx(k) t+1 (kk0 )) f (k k0 ) dk =
2
= f(x v0 t) ei(k0 x0 t) + r0 f(1 x v0 t) ei(k0 x0 t) .


 



, x,
, ,
f(x v0 t), x =
= v0 t.
.
1:
0


|(x, t )|2 dx =


|(x, t)|2 dx =

|f(x)|2 dx = 1.

, f(x
v0 t + 1 ), x



x = 1 v0 t = v0 t v 1 .
0
|r0 |2 , . .
() :
0


|(x, t +)| dx =
2

|r0 f(x)|2 dx =


= |r0 |2

|f (k k0 )|2 dk = |r02 | = R0 .

k (k) k k0 :


k (k) = k (k0 ) + dk 
(k k0 ) = k1 + Ck2 ,
   dk k=k0   
  
k1
k2
C




k
= k 
= 0.
C = dk 
dk k=k0
k1
k k=k0

188

x + ,
x +,
(x, t) 1
2
e

i(k1 x0 t)

(6.28)


d(k) eik (k) x ei(k) t f (k k0 ) dk


d0 ei(C(kk0 ) x[(k)0 ] t+1 (kk0 )) f (k k0 ) dk


ei(k1 x0 t) 1
d0 eik2 (C xv(k0 ) t+1 ) f (k2 ) dk2 =
2
= d0 f(Cx v(k0 ) t + 1 ) ei(k1 x0 t) =




k0

(x v1 t) + 1 ei(k1 x0 t) ,
= d0 f
k1

d 


v(k0 )
dk 
d

v1 =
=
.
=


C
dk k =k1
dk 
 
dk 

(6.29)

k =k1

,


k0

f k1 (x v1 t) + 1 , , f, kk01 , x

1 k1
1
k1
= v1 t v .
x = v1 t 1
= v1 t
0
k0
v1 k0
|d|2
. . () :
+


|(x, t +)|2 dx =

k1
k0 ,

2



d0 f k0 x  dx = |d0 |2 k1 = D0 .


k1
k0

, ,
.

6.3.

189

, , x = 0
, v01 v01 .
1 (v0 v1 ) + 2v1 1 = 0, , ,
x,
.
, , , .

( )
.
1 (k) = Im

1 d r(k),
r (k) dk

1 (k) = Im

1 d d(k).
d (k) dk

x , . . v0 = hmk .
-.
: , *
. (6.17)
d=

2k ,
k + k

r=

k k
,
k + k

E > V,

k, k R.

, . .
.
d ,
r :
k k
k i
=
, E < V, k, R,

k + i
k+k
'
(

2mV
1
2
= h 2m(V E) =
k = 21 k2 ,
h2

d = 0,
k=

2mE,

r=

190


k i 21 k2
r(k) =
,

k + i 21 k2

r = 1r ,

21 = 2mV
,
h2

4 + 421 k2 4k4
.
1 (k) = Im 1 dr = Im r dr = 2 1
r dk
dk
41
50
40
30
20
10
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

. 6.6. 1 (k) , .
11 .

(1  k)
2.
1 (k)
.
: , -*
-. (6.18)
d=

1 = 0

k ,
k i0

20 3k2
,
(k2 + 20 )2

r=

i0
.
k i0

1 = 0

k2 320
.
(k2 + 20 )2

6.3.

191

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

. 6.7. , ( )
( ) -. 10 .

(|0 |  k) -:
1 1 ,
0

1 3 .
0

(|0 | k) , :

1 20 .
1 3 20 ,
k
k
6.3.7. *
, ( )
.
( )
.
( ) .
, :
.
E (x0 , x0 +
+ a) a Ua k =
= h1 2m(E Ua ). -

192

a (x) = A cos(kx) + B sin(kx).
,
A B
:
n Z,

ka = 2n,

a (x0 ) = a (x0 + a),

a (x0 ) = a (x0 + a).

, (x0 , x0 + a) ,
(, x0 ) (x0 + a, +). . ,
.
,
A B
:
n Z,

ka = (2n+1),

a (x0 ) = a (x0 +a),

a (x0 ) = a (x0 +a).

, (x0 , x0 + a) ,
(, x0 ) (x0 + a, +),
. , .
.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

. 6.8. R(E) a = 30, h = m = V = 1.

,
.

6.3.

193

, , (6.6) ( ( a2 , + a2 ) )
:

k a = a 2m(E + V ) = n, n N.
h
, 12 ,

R=

(k2 k2 )2 sin2 (k a)

(2k k)2 cos2 (k a) + (k2 + k2 )2 sin2 (k a)
2mV sin2 (k  a)
h2

(2k k)2 cos2 (k a) + (k2 + k2 )2 sin2 (k a)

() R = 0.
k a (n + 12 ) , , .
- .

12

.
W

7.1. () (*)
, ( ) . ,
,
, .

, ,
. 7.1.
(19031987). W
. .
, . . 1933
1 ,
( , , ) .
1 , , . .
, , . ,
.

7.1. ( )

( *)

195

, . , , .
,
2 .
7.1.1. **

(, , P ),
, - , ,
, ;

A, B : A B, A B ,
/
Ak , k N :
Ak ;
kN
() P :
P : [0, 1],

P () = 1,

P () = 0.

A, B , A B = :

P (A B) = P (A) + P (B),

/

Ak , k N, k =
 k N, Ak Ak = : P
Ak =
P (Ak ).
kN
kN
7.1.2. *
.
, ,
,
.
.
2 ,
, . . 2.5.2 ().

196

, , , . (, )
. , . .
P .
0 1, ( ) ( ) .
7.1.3. () *

A : R.
P
,

:
A = A() P (d).

( ), P (d) ()
:


P (d) = P (, + d] .
( )
() :



A() P (d) =
A() P ({}) + A() () d.

, ,
1 2 . ,
, 1 .
7.1.4. (*)

. ( ),

A.

7.2.

197

,
, . ( ) R.
, . ( )
, P (. 5.3.1), L
L.
P ( !) P
( ):
P (L) = |P (L)|

P (L) = tr(P (L) ).

( ) :



|A| = P (d) = |P (d)|,

= tr(A ) =
A


tr(P (d) ).

P (d) =

, , , .
,
.

7.2.
7.2.1. ()
,
,
A B,
. . , .

A B.

198

.
:
2 (B
B)
2 .
X = (A)2 (B)2  = (A A)
| .
| :

A0 = A |A|,

0 = B
|B|.

([, ]) ([, ]+ )
:
B]
= iC = 0,
[A,
C = C ,
0 ] = A0 B
0 A0 = [A,
B]
= iC,

0 B
[A0 , B
0 ]+ = A0 B
0 A0 = D
0,
B]
+ = AB
+B
A = D,

0 + B
[A0 , B
[A,
0 | = |D|

|D
2|A||
B|.
X , :3
2 | = A0 |A0 B
0 |B
0  
X = |A20 ||B
0
0 |2 = ||A0 B
0 ||2 .
 |A0 |B
:
0 ] + [A0 B

0 = 1 ([A0 , B
0 ]+ ) = 1 (D
+ iC),
A0 B
2
2 0


1 |D
0 + iC)|

0 | = | 1 (D
0 | + i|C|
|A0 B
=
.
2
2
0 , :
C D

2
0 | + i|C|
 =
0 ||2 = 1 |D
X  ||A0 B
4


1
2
2 .

=
|D0 | + |C|
4
3 , |||   ,
, .

7.2.

199



2 ,
0 |2 + |C|
X  1 |D
4
2
0 ]+ 2 + 1 i[A,
B]
2,
. . (A) (B)2   1 [A0 , B
4
4

(7.1)

.

2,
X  1 |C|
4

. .

B]
2.
(A)2 (B)2   1 i[A,
4

(7.2)

[
x, p] = ih,
(x)2 (p)2  

1
4

h2 .

(7.1)
1 [A , B ] 
0
0 +
2

r=
=
(A)2 (B)2 

1 [A, B]  AB
+
2

.

(A)2 (B)2 

r, , 1930 :
B]
2
i[A,
(A)2 (B)2   1
.
4 1 r2

(7.3)

7.2.2. ? ()
? ?
-, , ,
2.7.3 .
A B.
, , - .

200

-, , ,
.
,
. ,
.
( .
) A B
,
,
(, ).
A B

, ( ) ,
( ) .
7.2.3.
*
, (7.1) (7.2)
.
, (7.1)
, ,

2
0 |B
0  = A0 |B
0  ,
A0 |A0 B
0 |
, A0 | B
.
, :
0 )| = 0
(A0 + B

(A + B)|
= Z|

Z C.

(7.4)

(7.4) B.

A,

7.2.

201

,
, (7.4)
:
0 ]+ | = 0,
|[A0 , B
0 )| = 0 (A0 + B
0 )2 | = 0
(A0 + B
0 ]+ | = 0.
02 + [A0 , B
|2 A20 + 2 B
, :
02  = [A0 , B
0 ]+  = 0.
2 A20  + 2 B
02  , ,
A20  B
2
2 =  B0  .
2
A20 
, :
0
1 2

= i = i1
2  B0  ,
0

A20 

0 R.

(7.4), (
0 , )
0
1 2

1 B

(i0 A0 + B0 )| = 0, 0 = 2 0 .
(7.5)
A20 


0 )|,
| = (i A0 + B

R.

0 )(i A0 +B
0 )| = | 2 A20 i[A0 , B
0 ]+B
02 |.
0  | = |(i A0 +B

202

,
+ B
2   0.
2 A20  + C
0
:
(
C
2 4A2 A2 
C
0
B
1,2 =
.
2A20 
, , ,
, , , . . :
2 4A20 A2B   0.
C
, .
0 )| = 0, , = 1 =
(i A0 + B
4
= 2 , . . :
0 )| = 0
(i A0 + B

(i A + B)|
= Z|, Z C, R. (7.6)

(7.6)
B.
A,

i A + B.
. ,
.
7.2.4. -
. . . , .
. ,

, - , -
. , - -.
4

0 .

7.2.

203

, ,
4- , 4- .
() . ,
, ( ),
. ( ), (
).
. , (.
).
, ( ), ,
.
5
d
=1
dt

= ih.
[
, H]

(7.7)

(7.7) , :
d

= ih.
= 1 [
, H]
(7.8)
dt
5 , . .

= i
H
h t
,
,

= i
h t
] = i
h
: H
h t . [t, i
( -) . = +i
[
, H]
h? ,
.
p = L
. 4- q

pi = (E, px , py , pz ) . , - -
, ( ) : pi = (E, px , py , pz ) = i
hi . , .

204

-H
(7.2):
2
( )2 (E)2   h .
4

(7.9)

, -.
? ()
, , , , .
-
( ), :
?
, ,
H
,
H

H0 V :
0 + V ,
+ H
=H
H

] = ih,
[
, H

0 ] = 0,
[
, H

[
, V ] = 0.

,
.
, - (7.9)
, , ,
.
()
, .

. A

"
#2
2

d
A
dA = 1 [A,
1

h
2
2
2

H],

. (7.10)
(A) (E)   i[A, H] =
4
4
dt
ih
dt

7.2.

205

dt

 dA ,
2
(t)2 (E)2   h .
4
  

(7.11)

(A)2 
"
#
2
dA
dt

.
()
(7.9)
.
,
(. 13.5.6 ).
: (
), ( ) . .

t


n = n0 e

,
(7.12)
n
, 0
. n0 = 1.
(7.12):
t0  = 1
0

te

dt = 0 ,

t20 

= 1
0

t2 e

,
t20 

t20 

dt = 202 .

t0  =
2

02

2
E   h 2 =
40

h
20

E0 = h .
20

h
20

2
.

(7.13)

206

,
.
, . .
: ,
.
( )
, . ,
.
:

n = 1, = 0;

n = 0,

= 0 .

, ,
t


 = 0 (1 e
d


).

= e 0 , . . (7.8)
,
dt
0, 0 .
n0 . n

( 0 n0 1), ,
ln n0 .
()

- .
.
8.2 *.
(*) () 0 , H
.
, H
( )
. t0 V0 .
t0 ).
V = V0 (

7.3.

207

t. E.
, E.
t.
, .

.
, ,
- (7.9)
, , ( )
.
,
. , ,
(. 9.3.2 ()).

7.3. *
.
W

,
, , ,
( ). , . 3.1.4 (.
. 3.4).
, ,
( ) ,
. , , .
,
6 .
6 - , ,
,

208

, , .
-
,
. , ( ,
, ), , ,
, , .
, , . :
, ;
,
.
, , , . .
. .
,
7 .
( ) , .
: () , ( ), , ,
. , ,
- ( ),
( ),
, , ,
. , ,
, , , . (
.)
, , .
7 ,
, .
, ,
, :
.

7.3.

209

7.3.1 (*),
7.4 ( )**
, .
7.3.1. (*)
,
,
. :
,
, , .
, , .
. 7.2, ( 12 ) ,
:8
1- 0
12 (1 + i2 ), ;
2- , 12 (i3 4 );

2-
a , .

a b .
,
. , , ,
a , b .
, , ,
.
,
.
8 i. ,
, (
), .

210

a
4
. 7.2. .

.
. 7.3 . -:
, a .

. 7.3. -.

,
( 2-4).
, ,
( 1-3) . . 7.4.
, . , , .
, , :

7.3.

. 7.4. ,
.

1
2

211

. 7.5. , 12
.
, .

12 , ;
14 , ( a ) ;
14 , ( b ) , , .
, , ,
, .
,

212

, , :
, .
,
 1 n1 
( )
= 3 ,
n=1 4
23 . , 12 .
:
;
;
, ,
1.

7.4. (
)**

, .
.
;
.
, ,
:
,
.
. .

7.4.1. ?
, ,
. ,
. , .
9 , , ,
9 , (Z
) . 490 . 430 . .
: .
(, = .) ,

7.4.

213

( ).
, .
,
, .

:
- /, , .
, , , . 7.6.
,
- (http://elementy.ru/trefil/zeno_paradox)
: - .
- ,
,
, .
, , ,
. ,
, , ,
(. .
)10 .
,
( ) ,
.
, , (, , ).
, , ( )
(. . 7.6), .
10 0 (p) = 1

p0

=
H

2m

2
p2
2p

.
p
2 t

t = ei 2mh t U

214

1958 11 . 1978 .

1989 12 .
.

= E

h . ,
E , . ( , , ,
.)
, , , t
(t) = cos( t) + sin( t).
,
?, cos2 ( t), sin2 ( t). t 1
2

( t)2
2
1 ( t)2 ,
p = cos ( t) 1
2
p = sin2 ( t) ( t)2 .
2

t 0 (p) =
(p, t) = U

p2
1
e 2p0
p0

p2
0t
1+i m
h

t 0

1/2
p2
0t
. P0 (t) = |0 |(t)|2 =
0 |(t) = 1 + i 2m
h

1/2
p4 t 2
t 2 p4
1 8m2 h0 2 . T N
= 1 + 4m02 h2
t = T /N , 0
2

p4

P. (T, N ) N (1 P0 (T /N )) = TN 8m20h2 . , P. (T, N ) 0 N ,

. . , , .
11 . . // . 1957. . 115. . 277; . 1958. . 33. . 1371;
: . . ... . .-. .
, 1960.
12 Science. November 1989. Vol. 246. P. 888.

7.4.

215

, p . ,
t n ,
t = nt ,

2

(t)2
n .
P n p n nt
= n 0,
,
?,
, .
13 , .
,
. ,
1, ,
.
. , , , . . , , 14 . , , ,
. 7.7 (
x y).
, .
( ).
, , , ,
, 15 .
13 t > 0 p > 0
n,
0
t , 1 p0 .
14
.
15 , , . .

216

F
Y cos(wdt) + F sin(wdt)
wdt

Y cos(wdt)

. 7.7. (, )
.

,
, ( ).

(t)? (t) ( (t) ). , (t) ,
, , (t). ,

(
). .

, , .
( ) . , ,
, ,
, ,
.
7.4.2.

, . . -

7.4.

217

H
, | |d = i
h dt |.
|0  (0 |0  = 1), dt

| = |0  + |d = |0  + H dt |0 .
ih
| H,
dt:
| = 0 |(1

H
i
h

dt)(1 +

H
i
h

2
2 .
dt)|0  = 1 + dt2 H
h

dt , ,
|0 . , |0 , ,
|d, |d , |0 :
H)|

1 |0 0 |)|d = dt (H
|d  = (
0 .
ih
|d  , , , , |0 , ( dt ) 1 |.
, p , |0 

2
2  H
2 ).
p (dt) = d |d  = |d  = dt2 (H
h
t0
, , dt = N
|0  t0 , N
dt, :
2
2
2  H
2 ) = t0 (H
2  H
2 ) 0,
P (t0 ) = N dt2 (H
h
N h2

N .

,
,
2  H
2.
(E)2 = H

218

7.5. ()
,
.
, , . , .
, .
7.5.1. (*)
() .

: x1
x2
(x1 , x2 ),

H1 H2 .

:
(x1 , x2 ; x1 , x2 ),

H1 H2 H1 H2 .

, .
(x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 ),

(x1 , x2 ; x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ; x1 ) 2 (x2 ; x2 ).
,
. : , , .
entangled states.
(. . ), .
:
,

;

7.5. ( )

219

,
;
,
( ) .
, .
( ) .

,
(. 4.8.2 *).
, ,
.
7.5.2. (*)
,
, A1 H1 H1 , , A1+2 = A1 12 ,

12 H2 H2 ,
. , , :
P1+2 = P1
12 .
, | = |1 |2 , :
(P1
12 )|1 |2  = (P1 |1 )(
12 |2 ) = (P1 |1 )|2 .
, ,
,
.
, , , -

220

. , , |1 |2  +
+ |1 |2 ,
12 )(|1 |2  + |1 |2 ) = (P1
12 )|1 |2  + (P1 12 )|1 |2  =
(P1
= (P1 |1 )|2  + (P1 |  )|  .
1

P1 |1  P1 |1  (, P1
P1 = |1 1 |),
P1 |1  = c|1 ,

c = 1 |1 ,

P1 |1  = c |1 ,

c = 1 |1 .

:
12 )(|1 |2  + |1 |2 ) = |1 (c|2  + c |2 ).
(P1
c c , |2  |2  , , |1 
-1. |1  , -1. -1 , .

-2. .

. 7.8. (
, ).

, , 0:
| |  | | 
| |  | | 
=
,
2
2

7.5. ( )

221

|  =

|  + | 
,

|  =

|  | 
,

(7.14)

1- | 
| , |  |  2-
. -1
- ( |  | ), - ( |  | ),
.
-1 ,

, , , ,
, , , (.
. 7.8).

+

,
2
2

=
=
+
2
2
(. (7.14)).
, - .
, 1 2
, . . (.
.)

7.5.3. (*)
, , -1
, . , . . , -2,
. -2 -2,
-1,

-2.

222

, , -1
-2, -1
-2 :

1 = tr2 , 1 (x1 ; x2 ) = dy (x1 , y; x2 , y).
y .
a(y) ( ( ) y -2)
(x1 , y1 ; x2 , y2 ), a(y1 ) = a(y2 ):
(x1 , y1 ; x2 , y2 ) = (x1 , y1 ; x2 , y2 ) a(y1 ),a(y2 ) .
y ,
-1.
A -2 ,

y , A,
a(y).
, ,
-2, ( )
-1 . .
, ,

.
7.5.4. (*)
,
,
.
, ,
(x, y), x y .

7.5. ( )

223

 ( ),
:
(x, y) = 1 (x) 2 (y).
-2 , y W (W ),

(. (3.10)) W :
 (x, y) = (x, y) IW (y).
y, , y = y0 ,
-:
 (x, y) = (x, y) (y y0 ).
(. .
-1 (x, y0 ) -2 (y y0 )).
-1 -2. ,

1 (x) = dy (x, y),
(7.15)

1 (x) = (x, y0 )


1 (x) =

dy (x, y).
W

, , -2,
-1.
-1 ,
-2 ,
y, ,
, (7.15). ,
, .

224

,
:
( , . 7.8).

.
7.5.5. (*)
, ,
: , ,
. , ( )

(x, y),
x y -1 -2.
-1, , -2 y = y0 ,
:
y0 (x) = (x, y0 ).

(7.16)

,
. III , -1, ,
-2 .
( )
(x, y),
x y ( 1 2)
-1 -2.
(
) -1,
, -2 y = y0 .
:
y0 (x) = (x, y0 ).

(7.17)

7.5. ( )

225

-1, , -2
, y = y0 .
, : -1, y = y0
-2. -2 ,
(. .
16 ). , (x, y; t), y = y0 (t) (-2),
-1:
y0 (t) (x; t) = (x, y0 (t); t).
(-2)
, /. .
,
(-1), (. 9.3.9 (*)).
(7.17) y = y0 -2:
Py0 =
11 |y0 y0 |.

(7.18)

11 -1, |y0 y0 |
y = y0 -2:
|y0  |y0  = Py0 |

|y 
 0 
-1

y0





(7.19)

-2 1+2

, , |y0  -2, |
1 2, y0 | , -1.
16 Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics,
Hygh Everett, III, Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 29, N. 3, 1957 . , . . ,
.

226

(7.19) | , . . , . (7.19) ( ) |
-2:
|0  |0  = (
11 |0 0 |) |




|0  = 0 |.

(7.20)

P0

|0  -1,
|0  -2 | . ,
(9.3.7 ()).

(8.2 *).
,
, . (
). ( =).
7.5.6. (**)
, .
!
W

1964 , 1935 .

7.5. ( )

227

. 7.9. (19281990).
http://www.s9.com/Biography/Bell-John-Stewart

,

.
- . , , 1964 .
. . ,
, n
. . 1962 .
, ,
.

a, b, c, 1. a, b, c ,
.

. 7.10. (18151864). W

. 7.11. (19251995). [http://emi.nw.ru]

228

,
P (d)
(
, ):

A = A() P (d).

, , a2 1,

ab |  1 ac = 1 ac.
|ab bc| = |(a c) b| = |(1 ac) 
  
  
0

a2

,
|ab bc|  1 ac.

(7.21)

c c ()
:
|ab + bc|  1 + ac.
(7.22)

, : , , L , 0  P (L)  1.
,
a(),
b(), c(), 1.

. ,
, (, , , , ) ( ,
, ), ,
- ( ).
P ,
ab, bc, ac, .

7.5. ( )

229

,
- ,
(, ). ,
8 a, b c.


P (a, b, c)  0,
P (a, b, c) = 1.
a,b,c{1,+1}

, ,

ab =
P (+, +, c) + P (, , c) P (+, , c) P (, +, c).
c{1,+1}

, , 8 P (a, b, c),
: , , ,
, 17 .


, , . .
.
,
, .
, , , ( ,
), , .
( )
.
,
, ,
, ,
,
.
17

!? :)

230

,
. ,
( , , ) ,
. , , ,
, , ,
,
.
,
, , ( ) ( ) . , ,
.
*
12 .
12 , :
| =

| |  | | 
.

|  |  .
.
-.

.
.
( 1,
).

7.5. ( )

231

(
) z ( , . . !), 12
12 .
, .
,
, : ,
.

, , . z,
x,

1
0
|1+  = |  =
,
|1  = |  =
;
0
1

cos 2
,
|2+  =
sin 2

|2  =

sin 2

cos 2

,
, , 1, 1
:
P (+, +, ) = 12 |1+ |2+ |2 =
P (+, , ) = 12 |1+ |2 |2 =
P (, +, ) = 12 |1 |2+ |2 =
P (, , ) = 12 |1 |2 |2 =

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2

cos2 2 ,
sin2 2 ,
sin2 2 ,
cos2 2 .

,
ab = P (+, +, ) P (, +, ) P (+, , ) + P (, , ) =
= cos2

sin2

= cos .

:
( , n)( , n ) = (n, n ) = cos(nn ),

|n| = |n | = 1.

(7.23)

232

, ,
, , (7.23) (7.22).
, a, b c,
2
3 .

1
ab = bc = ac = cos 2
3 = 2.
(7.22) :
| ab + bc |  1 + ac

 
12

12

1  1.
2

12

, , , . ,
, / , .
,
(
), . 3,
4 . , a , b , c
,
.


. 1982 .
,
, . . 18 .
, . , 2 1, /, : 0, .
18 . .
2.

1
,
2

1,

7.6.

**

233

, ,
, .
,
.
, ,
. 7.12. .
.

7.6.
**
, ,
, .
, ,
,
- .

.
.
,
( |0  )
|0  = ||0 
,

K.

, K
:
|0  |, ,
|1  = |||1  , ,
, .

234

1 2 , , 1 + 2

K.
1 2
1 |0  = |1 |1 |1 ,
K|
2 |0  = |2 |2 |2 .
K|

1 + 2 K
1 + 2 |0  = |1 |1 |1  + |2 |2 |2  + |1 |2 0 + |2 |1 0.
K|
, 1 + 2
K:
1 + 2 |0  = |1 + 2 |1 + 2 |1+2  =
K|
= |1 |1 |1+2  + |2 |2 |1+2  + |1 |2 |1+2  + |2 |1 |1+2 .
1 2

|1 |1 ,

|2 |2 ,

|1 |2 ,

|2 |1 .

1 + 2 |0 , , , K|
:
|1+2  =
|1+2  =
|1+2  =
|1+2  =

|1 ,
|2 ,
0,
0.

,
,
K
1 2 .
,
( ).
,
, ,
( ) ,
.

7.6.

**

235

, . ,

( , . .).
7.6.1. (*)
,
, () ? ( )
. , ,
.
, - , :
, ,
, ,
.
n, (
)
, . .
pn = |n |2 .
, . .
|n |, arg(n ). ,
,
.
(*)
19 .
( ).
19
. ,
x +
+ p, 12
. .

236

.
,
, . . ( ) .
, , , , - .
: ,
. , ,
.
, ( ), , . , , |0 |1 |0+|1.
,
.

)

, . . .

, .
( )
.
(*)
,
. ?
! .
()
|I =

| |  | | 
| |  | | 
=
.

2
2

: -
-. -

7.6.

:
|  =

**

|  + | 
,

|  =

237

|  | 
.

, . -
-.
, :
": |I | |  | | ,
: |I | |  | | .
, .
|  | , , -. |  | , ,
-. ,
, , ,
, , (- 1, - 0).
, , .
,
, . , , . ,
20 , , . ,
. , ,
(. 7.5.3 (*)) ,
.
(*)


20 . 8.3.2
(),
9.3.9 (*).

238

, . 7.6 **
. :
, .

, , .

7.7. **
. ,
, , , ,
.
,
.
, q- , ,
12 ( ), ( ), ( ) -
. .

1
0
|0 =
,
|1 =
.
0
1
(1-), (2-) (3-), , , ,
( ),
.

|0  = |0 + |1 =
,
||2 + ||2 = 1.

7.7.

**

239

-
|1  =

|1|0 |0|1
.

1- , 2- . ,
|0  = |0 |1  = 1 (|0 + |1)(|1|0 |0|1).
2
.
, 1- 2- , 3- . 2- 3-
(- ). , ( , 1-
|0 ) 2, 3 2- .
.
,
4

A =
n |n n |,
n=1

|n  ( |1  ):
|1  =

|1|0 |0|1
,

|2  =

|1|0 + |0|1
,

|3  =

|1|1 |0|0
,

|4  =

|1|1 + |0|0
,

n |m  = nm .

240

A . , , ,

A12 = A
1.

A12 A,
.
A12
A12 |n  = n|n ,

|n  = |n |,

n {1, 2, 3, 4},

| .
A12 , n {1, 2, 3, 4},
|n :
|0  = |0 |1  = 1 (|0 + |1)(|1|0 |0|1) =
2
1
= (|0|1|0 |0|0|1 + |1|1|0 |1|0|1) =
2

|2  |1 
|4  |3 
1

=
|0
|1 +

2
2
2

|2  + |1 
|4  + |3 
|0
|1 =
+

2
2
= 1 (|1 [|0 |1] + |2 [|0 |1] +
2
+ |3 [|0 + |1] + |4 [|0 |1]).
, |0 
A12 :
|0  =

4

1 | | .
2 n n

n=1

|1  = |0 |1 =

7.7.

**

241

|2  = |0 |1 =
,

,
|3  = |0 + |1 =

.
|4  = |0 |1 =

A12 1 2

1
4

 2
=

1
2

|n , 3 |n . |n  ,
|0 
:
n |n ,
|0  = U

1 0
1 0

= E, U2 =
=
z ,
0 1
0 1

4 = 0 1 = i
3 = 0 1 =
x , U
y .
U
10
1 0

1 =
U

.
,
n .
U
12 , ,
n n {2, 3, 4} , U
z, x y .
, . n = 1
|0  .
, , , , 3- , 1- . ,
, .

242

( )
14 : ,
( |1 ) , . ,
n = 1.

7 9 (*),
. , ,
. , ,
, ,
.

.

.

, .

8.1. ()
8.1.1. ()
2.3 , ,
.
7 ,

, .
:
.
, , . .

244

,
( ), ,
. ,
, 1 .
8.1.2.
, , ,
, /
, .

(, ,
, );

(,
, ):
(
) ,
,
,
:
() ( ) , (, , , ),
( ) ( ) : (),
.. (, , ).
,
1
.
,
, .

8.1.

( )

245

,
.

, , .
, . , .
.
8.1.3. ()
? ,
,
.
7, , :
( : , ),
(, , ),
(
).
8.1.4. ()
, ,
. ,
.
.
, , ,
. :

246

?
?
?
,
?

8.2. *
, ,
.
( ), . , , ,
.
,
: ,
( ).
, ,
, .
.
, -
(
).
, , 9
(*).
8.2.1. **
. , ,
(m) , (M ) .

8.2.

247

q,
Q.
2
2
= p + P +
H
q P .
2m 2M

, , .
. , (|t<0 = 0),
T (|t[0,T ] = 1 ),
(|t>0 = 0).

Q.
, m M , T
( )
.

iT

T
q
Q

T = e h qP = e
U

, T q, q.2
0 (q, Q) =
= 0 (q) 0 (Q),
T 0 (q, Q) = 0 (q, Q
1 (q, Q) = U

q) = 0 (q) 0 (Q

q).

Q0 (. . (Q Q0 ))
1 (q) = 0 (q) 0 (Q0

q),

2 (q, Q) = PQ0 1 = 0 (q) 0 (Q

q) (Q Q0 ),

2
T

qP
T = e iTh

: U
=
P

p , T P , =e

248

( , . . 2 )
w1 (Q0 ) = 2 |1  =

*
)
= dq dQ 0 (q) 0 (Q T q) (Q Q0 ) 0 (q) 0 (Q

2

= dq 0 (q) 0 (Q0 T q) = 1 |1 .

q) =

(w0 (Q) = |(Q)|2 )

,
0 (Q0 T q) ,
q,
q0 = Q0 .
T
, wlim 0 (Q) = (Q), .

1 (Q) = f (Q0 Q).

|1 1 |1 ,

|2f  = 1 |1 .

, |1  (. (7.20) 7.5.5 (*)).

1 , 1 ,
, :

2f (q) = dQ f (Q0 Q) 0 (q) 0 (Q T q) =
!


T
=
dQ f (Q0 Q) 0 (Q q) 0 (q).

2f (q) = F (q) 0 (q),
F (q) = dQ f (Q0 Q) 0 (Q T q). (8.1)

8.2.

249

, 3 0 ( T q) f .
,
Q2

Q2

1 e 2a2 ,
a =
4
a2

1 e 2b2
a =
4
b2

a b c = a2 + b2 :
'
4

'
4a2 b2 =
c
a2 + b2

2ab e
2
a + b2

'

Q2
2

2(a +b )

4a2 b2
1
e

2
2 4
a +b
(a2 + b2 )

Q2
2(a2 +b2 )

f ,

1, |Q Q0 |  Q,
1
f (Q Q0 ) =
2 Q 0, |Q Q0 | > Q,
0
Q2

1 e 2a2 ,
0 =
4
a2

2 Q (a ), Q0 :
F (q) = 1
2 Q

+Q


0
1 e (QQ2a
2

4
2
a

q)2

dQ.

( (3.9) 3.1.4 ) , ( ), ,
, . , ,
3

(f g) f g

(f g)(t) = f ( ) g(t ) d.
R

250

, ,
4 .
, . ( ).
, .
, ,

, . ,
, . ,
,
. -
.

8.3. ? ()
,
:
;
( ).
.
.
, .
(. 8.3.1 (*)).
.
.
,
4 R [0, 1]
, (fuzzy set),
/ , . ,

, () ,
, .

8.3.

? ( )

251

(. (8.1) 8.2.1 **), . ( - .)

:
,
.
8.3.1. (*)
, , ( , ), ( ) .
. . , ,
.
.
p =

|||2
||
,
=
2
2
||
 

(8.2)

, :
p [0, 1] | |,
;
;
;
p = 1;
1, . . |i  ( ),
1:

pi = 1;
i

3.

252

.
|,
|i ,
, |,
. , ,

, . . |

= ||
|.

|
, p = p ,
. .
|


||
2
|
)=g
.
p = g(||
||



2 ) = 1 = 
2=
2 .
g(|i ||
|i ||
  
i

|
2)
g0 (||

|
2 ) = ||
|
2 .
, g0 (||
, g(0) = 0, . ., |1  = |,

g(0).
1 = 
1 +
g(1)

i =1

, g .
|i  , |
, |1  |2 . ,
g(x) + g(1 x) = 1,

x = |1 ||2 [0, 1].

g( 21 ) = 12 .
|i  , |
, |1 , |2  |3 . |3 ||2 = 12 .
,
g(x) + g( 21 x) + 1 = 1,
2

x = |1 ||2 [0, 12 ].

g( 41 ) = 14 :
g( 14 ) + g( 34 ) = 1

1/
4

g( 34 ) = 3 .
4

8.3.

? ( )

253

|3 ||2 , ,
 
g 2kn = 2kn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , k = 0, 1, . . . , 2n .
[0, 1]. g
, g(x) = x, x [0, 1].

, . , . .
,
, ,
,
.
. , , ,
. , ,
- , ,
( ).
, - .
8.3.2. ()
(., , 9.3.9 (*)) ,
|n |2 ?
(),
|0 |1,

, .
, :
|0|0 + |1|1
| =
.
(8.3)

254

, .
|0, |1.
, :
| |0|0 |1|1.
, ,
,
.
,
, - ,
! , - , ,
, , |0 |1. , ,
,
, .

,
. (
). 8.3.3.
8.3.3. (*)
8.3.2 ()
,
(8.3)

.
, , , .
, ( )
:
, , ,
(), .

8.3.

? ( )

255

,
( ),
| H. A,
, Pn Hn .
n: pn , pn . P+
H+ :

3
H+ =
Hn = P+ H,
Pn ,
P+ =
n:pn >pn

n:pn >pn

1 P+ ,
H = P H.
P =
p+ p+ , :


pn ,
p+ = 1 p =
pn .
p+ = 1 p =
n:pn >pn

n:pn >pn

| :
| = |+  + | ,

|+  = P+ |,

|  = P |.

:
| = |+ |1 + | |0.
, .
A
|1 p+ |0 p .
1 0, ()
.
, 1 0 p+ p .
|, . 1 0 , ( p+ 1)
( p+ > p+ 1).
, ( ), ( )

256

A |.
:
,
.
8.3.4. ()

.
, ,

, ,
t, ,
, (
t = e hi Ht
) U
.
: ,
.
, , ,
.
.
.
t,n = e hi H n t , n . U
, - . , - .

.
(. 8.2 *),
, ,
, ( ) . .5
5

, , .

8.4. ( )

257

8.4. ()
(). ,
, (++) ( ), +
( ).
.
, , , , , (
). , . ,
. . .

,
, ,
(
)
.
,
. (
),
.
( ) . ,
++ , ,
( ).
, ,
.
-

258

(9.3.7 ()),

, . ,
.

(*)

,
. ,

, , . ,
,
,
. ,
/ ,
,
. . .
. .

. , , ,
:
( ) .
,
, , . .

9.1. (*)
! .
, .
,

, .

260

, , ,
.
9.1.1. (*)
-! . ?
.
,

, , , ( , . 9.3.2).
. , -
, ?!
.
, ,
:
, . .
. (
.) (, ,
.)

, , , . , , .
. ,
.
. ()
, . (

.)
, - ( )
, , - .

9.1.

( *)

261

(
), . .
. ( .)
9.1.2. (*)
, ,
() . , , , : , ,
, .
.
1 , . 2 , , .
9.1.3 (*)
.

. 9.1. .

, ,
(

1 Schr
odinger E. Die gegenwartige Situation in der Quantenmechanik // Naturwissenschaften, 48,
807, 49, 823, 50, 844 (November 1935).
2 -: Verschr
ankung, -: entanglement.

262

). , , -.
, - . ,
(, , - ), ,
.
, . ( , .)
1. , ( |).
. ( |0 ),
( |). (
|0 )
||0 | = |0 .

. 9.2. . . . .

2. , |0  |1 , , .
-.
|0  + |1 
|0 |.

2
.
|0  |1  ,

9.1.

( *)

263

. 9.3. .

, ( )
|2 ,
, . .
. 9.3.
3. |1  , ( |1 ). |0  . :
|0 |0  + |1 |1 
|.

2
4. ( |1 ) (
|). ( |0 ) . , :
1
(|0 |0 | + |1 |1 |) =
2


= 1 | + | .
2
5. . , ,
, . , ( , )
. ,
, ?

264

. 9.4. ?

6. ( )
, .
12 :
| = |0 |0 |,

| = |1 |1 |.

, ,
.

. 9.5. | ( ).

, , ,
?
, , , , - - ?
,
. ?

9.1.

( *)

265

. 9.6. | ( ).

. , . .
, , ,
. . , | | |  (
).
,
| . , , , ,
, -
, ( ), .
, 3 .
9.1.3. (*)
, , .
, , ,
.
3 ,
, .
, , ,
, .

266

, ,
?
- ?
, , .
, , ,
.
, , .
:
||0 .

|0  12 (| + |), ( )

| + |
| 
.

2
, , | 
|,
, ,
|.
,

1 
+ ||

.
(9.1)
||
2
(), , 12 :4
||

||.

, |,
|.

,
, . , (
).
4 (9.1) ,
.

9.2.

? ( )

267

:
1) :
| 2 | 1 |0 ;
2) :
| 2 | 1  1 (| + |);
2
3) ,
:
| 2  1 (|
1 |);
1 | + |
2
4) , , :
1 |
2 |
1 |).
(|
2 1 | + |
2
,
|
2 |
1 , |
2 |
1 , . .
, .

9.2. ?
()
,
.
W

,
. - , , , .

268

, .
, ,
.
9.2.1. ()
( )
, . - ,
. , ,
.
, : . , , ,
. . .

:

, 3N- ;

:
;
( );
, ,
;
( ) .
,
(). -

9.2.

? ( )

269

, (
). , () .
. , ,
. , , , - . , ( ) , - , , , .
9.2.2. ()
, .
. W
, - .
. W

/ ,
.
(
) , -
, , , , ,
.
, ,
, ,
, , .

, , ,

270

, ,
. , , -
, .
()
, ,
, . ( ,
) , ,
.

,
.
, 1978 ,
5 6 .
, .
()
2001
. . : ,
,
, . ,
7 .
5 Wheeler J. A. In Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics / Edited by A. R. Marlow.
N.Y.: Academic Press, 1978. P. 948. . . , 2 ,
6 Hellmuth T., Walter H., Zajonc A. and Schleich W. Delayed-choice experiments in quantum
interference // Phys. Rev. A. 1987. Vol. 35. P. 25322541.
Alley C. O., Jakubowicz O., Steggerda C. A. and Wickes W. C. A delayed random choice
quantummechamic experiment with light quanta // Proceedings of the International Symposium on
the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics / Edited by S. Kamefuchi. Tokyo: Physics Society of
Japan, 1983. P. 158164.
7 . . // , . 7, 4.
. 441444. ,
. . . .

9.2.

? ( )

271

,
, ,
.
.
, . ( ), ( ). ,
, ,
.
9.2.3. ()
,
, ;
, ,
, (, ,
. .) ,
.
, ,
,
.
. . , , V

1935 8 . :
, , (. . ,
) , , .
8 Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be considered complete? Einstein A.,
Podolsky B., Rosen N. // Phys. Rev. 1935. 47. P. 777780. :
. . .: , 1966.

272

,
, , ()
.
,
( )
.
(. . ,
) .
, , , : , , ,
, ,
( ), .
(. 7.5.6 (**).)
- , ,
. .
? , . , ,
- (
) , . ,
(,
, ).
: , , -

9.2.

? ( )

273

. 9.7. 1930 .
() . [ . . . W]

(, , .) .
,
,
.
,
. , , , :

;
. .
, . , , -

274

(. . , ) ,
, .
, ,
,
, , . , ,
, ,
.
. , . , . ,
?
. , , ,
. -.
,
. 1964 . 1982
.
,
( ).

9.3. ()
9.3.1. ()
,
.
:

, . . . , -

9.3.

( )

275

. .
(. ),
. , . 9
.

.
, , ,
, .
( , ) .
.
, , .
, , . 1 . ,
,
.

(. 9.3.7). (
, ),
,
. , ,
.
9

. . .: , 1978. . 1. . 57.

276

-
. .
9.3.2. . ()
, ,
.
,
,
,
( , ). , (,
, ,
) .
()
, ,
, :
,
;
, .
( ), .
(
), , .
:
( ,
);

9.3.

( )

277

, .
, ,
:
( )
;
( )
,
, , .

:
, ,
( ) ;
( ) , .
()
, . ,
. ,
.
( )
,
, .
, , , , . (. 8.3 ?
().)
, (
. .) ,

278

( ), .
, :
, ( ,
).
, ,
:
( )
, . . ;
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.
,
10 .
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. ,
, ,
,
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.
10 , ,
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, , .

9.3.

( )

279

,
. ,
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( ).
, - . 9.8.
- (19171992). W
,
, .
: - . 9.9.
. .
.
. : ( ) (
), = .
, .
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.
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( -),
.
. . , . (

280

) , (
) .
. , ( ).

. , , , , .
9.3.4. ()
1927 .
:

;
(), , ;
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;
.
, , :
,
;

;
, ;
.

9.3.

( )

281

:
:

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);
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);
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. 9.10. .
,
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282

,
/ , 11 .
( ) :
(
);
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);
.
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, .

. ,
?
,
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. . 9.11. - ?
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) - ?
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?
. [Codex
,
Vindobonensis, 1250 . W]
. - .
11 ., ., .
. : , 2008. 4 .

9.3.

( )

283

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?
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.
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(. 9.3.7).
12 ,
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, .

284

9.3.6. ()
,
,
,
. . .

, . 1992

8.2 *, -.
, .
,
. 9.12.
- 13 .
(1992).
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.
, . 9.13. 14 .
(19031957)
-.
,
, .
: ( ) .
( ),
, . 13

, . .: , 1964.
, ,
, .
14 ,

9.3.

( )

285

, , , , ( ) .
, , , , ,
-.
9.3.7. ()
, ,
, : , , , .
,
, . ,
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, . .
,
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) . : ,
. 9.14. III
, 1964 . (19301982).
, [http://space.mit.edu/]
. .
, .
( ),
.
, ,
( ) .

286

,
, ,
.
(
) , . : , ,
, ,
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.

|0  (7.5.5 (*)),
, |0 .
|0 , |0 .
.

, . ,
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(*)),
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, .
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(8.4 ()) , ,
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15

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9.3.

( )

287

() ()
.
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.
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. 16 , , , .

: ,
.
,
(. 8.3.1 (*)).
, . . 8.4 ().
16 . . .: , 2001.

288

()
,
.
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,
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.

9.3.

( )

289

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.

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,

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,
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9.3.8. ()
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290

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9.3.

( )

291

. ( , .)
, , . (
) . ( . , 1953 .). (., , . .

18 , ).
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-, , -, ( ), , , , 19 .
- . . 20 .
, ..
, ,
.
. , (, ),
, , .
, , ,
(
,
18 Khrennikov A. Yu. The Quantum-Like Brain on Cognitive and Subcognitive Time Scales //
Journal of Consciousness Studies. 2008. Vol. 15, No. 7. P. 3977.
19
, . ,
.
20 . . . , 2007.

292

)
,
( ). ,
( )
,
, . ,
,
.
( ) ,
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- , : . . , a
, , (). ,
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9.3.9. (*)
,
, . . ,

(, ).
, . 9.16. . . [http://ufn.ru/]

, -

9.3.

( )

293

(, , . .). ( , )
( ). . . , . . :
21 . , , : , ,
, . .
, - .
, ,
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. (. 8.3.2 ()).
,
,
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, - .
,
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), ,
.
.

21 . ., . . : . .:
, 1995.

 10

**
, ,
. , (, 1) (, 0),
.

, ,
, , ,
.
. ,
,
.

10.1. **
,
.
, , , , - .
10.1.1. ()
, , ()

10.1.

**

295

() ( 0 1), , .
, : (0, 1), (1, 0) 1,
(0, 0), (1, 1) 0.

0
1
1

1
0
1

1
1
0

0
0
0

0
1
1

0
1
1

...
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...

1
0
1

0
0
0

1
1
0

, ,
.
,
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( , ).
.
, ,
.
10.1.2.

, , , , .

.

1984 . . 1 .
84.
1 C. G. Bennett and G. Brassard, Quantum cryptography: Public key distribution and coin tossing,
in: Proc. of the IEEE Inst. Conf on Computers, Systems, and Signal Processing, Bangalore, India
(IEEE, New York, 1984), p. 175.

296

10

4 , 0-1
:
|0 + |1
|0 |1
|0, |1,
|+ =
, | =
.

2
2
1. |0, |1, |+ |.
2. ,
0-1 , .
3. ,
( ,
).
4. , ( ).
5. ,
(
).
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( ), .
7. , , .
, , , , .
. , , , , . ,
, , .
, .
6.

, ,
, .

10.2.

( )

297

10.1.3.
, .
, (7.7 **). ,
, .

10.2. ()
, ( ),
( ). , .
, - (
).
1981
2 .
, , . , , . .
.

10.3. ()
,
. , ,
. . H , . . H = CN ,
N (, , ).
2 Feynman R. P. Simulating physics with computers // Int. J. Theor. Phys. 1982. Vol. 21,
Nos. 6/7. P. 467488.

298

10

,
. , -
. , , ,
( ).
,
,
.

10.4.
, . , , 1985 3 .
(1985)
4 :
M
Y
, M (Y), M Y . , (Y) M ,
Y.
.
, . .
( )
, , , .

:
3 Deutsch D., Quantum Theory, the Church-Turing Principle and the Universal Quantum
Computer // Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 1985. A 400. P. 97117; . . .
4 Perfect simulation.

10.5.

299

, L ,

L
HL = C2 .
(1985) , ,
.

10.5.

- .
L 2L . 2L ,
,
|0 + |1 |0 + |1
|0 + |1

2
2
2



L

1
2L/2

|0 |0|0 + |0 |0|1 + |0 |1|0 + |0 |1|1 + + |1 |1|1.


 

 

 









2L

,
00 02 = 0 11 12 = 2L 1.
  
  
L


|X =

|0 + |1

L
=

1
2L/2

L
1
2

|n.

n=0


f : {0, . . . , 2L 1} {0, . . . , 2L 1},

f , U
2L

300

10
L+L

HL+L = C2

:
f | n ; 0  = | n ; f (n) .
U
 
 
L L

L L

f
U
, L+L
, . .
f |X; 0 =
U

1
2L/2

L
1
2

f |n; 0 =
U

n=0

1
2L/2

L
1
2

|n; f (n).

n=0

, |X; 0 f 0 2L 1.
5
, 2L , , , f
. L -
L .
,
.

10.6.
10.6.1.
( ):
(0 1, , ),
. .
5 , , . . , ,
(
).

10.6.

301

(), , (), . .
( ), , :
. , , .
,
. ( ) ,
.
, , , ,
, :
00
01
:
10
11

0
0
,
0
1

00
01
:
10
11

0
1
,
1
1

01
.
10

,
-:
00
01
-:
10
11

1
1
,
1
0

-(, ) = ((, )).

10.6.2.

, . , .
, . ,

302

10

, , ,
.
, , , , .
, , ,
: ,
.
() ,
.
10.6.3.
, , .
, , .
L - () ( 2L ) .
2L 2L ,
, . ( ),
L
HL = C2 (. . 10.1).
10.6.4.
(
A
, ). . 10.1. - , - ( l ,
().
2l ) ,

10.6.

303

2l
l .

(. 10.1) : , ( ) ( ). ,
(. 4.4.4 *), , ,

.
, .
, , :
00
01
:
10
11

00
01
.
11
10

,
.

, . ( 0
1 ) .
( ) . , . .
.
.
10.6.5.

.

304

10

eix ,

eiy ,

eiz ,

1
1

2
2
H= 1
.
1

2
2

, , ,
( L ) .
10.6.6.
- , , ,
, ,
.
:
|, 0 . . . 0, 0 . . . 0  = |, , .
U
     




,
|, 0 . . . 0, 0 . . . 0  = |, , 0 . . . 0.
U
     

, . . , U
,
.
,
, , ,
0 (, , . .).
, ,
, . , , -
0, , .

10.6.

305

, - , 0
1. .
0, , , . ,
.

 11

-1 ( )
, , .
(5.1 )
, (). , , , , .
. 11.1.
,
(18821935). W
. ,
, (, ),
(, ).

11.1.
,
1 .
2 . 1

(5.13)
iE0 t

, (t) (t)e h
, H
 = H
+ E0
H
1.
2 . ,
, ,

11.1.

307

,
.
:
= ;
( , ) = , ;
=
( ).
,
,
. U

= U , U .
, :
E = EE .
H
U

, U E :
U
)E = H(
U
E ) = E(U
E ) = U
(H
E ) = (U
H)
E.
(H
, :
U
U
H)
E = 0.
(H
E . , U
] = H
U
U
H,

[H,
:
U
] = H
U
U
H
= 0.
[H,

(11.1)

(11.1)

, U

H.
, , , .

308

11

(11.1) , H

U , . . ,
. , , , (
, ).

11.2.
, . :
: , ,
,
:
,
U

AU
,
A U

|A|
| U
 U A U
   | = |A|.

: , ,
:
,
U
,

A A,

AU
,
A U

AU
|,
|A|
|U

AU
|.
|A|
|U

, .
, .
.
,

11.3.

309

.
. ,
,
.
11.2.1.
A :
U
AU
,
A A = U

= eiB .
U

A ,
A B:
dA
AU
= i[B,
A ].
+ U
(iB)
U
AU
= (iB)
d

(11.2)

= 0, (
):
B]
= 0.
[A,

11.3.
, , . - (
), . )
H(Q, P ) Qi , H(Q,P
= 0,
Qi
H(Q,P )

= Pi Pi
Qi
.
. H

310

11

R:
U
+ ,
= U
U
1
2
1
2
1
,
=U
U

0 = 1,

(11.3)

U
] = 0.
[H,

(11.6)

(11.4)
(11.5)

(5.4)(5.6) .
t , U
( , , ),
U
.
(11.6) , :

%
$




U
[H,

U
]
= 0.
= H,




=0
=0




U
A = ih



= e h A
U

(11.7)

=0

( (5.9) ). (5.10)

A + o(d) =
=
1

d
1 + d A + o(d),
(11.8)
U
d
ih
ih

A + o(d)
1 =
= U
1

d
= 1 + d A + o(d),
U
d
d
ih
ih

A=A .

, A,

A]
= 0.
[H,

(11.9)

A .
H
(11.9) (11.1), ,

11.3.

311

.
, A,
.
.
11.3.1.
,
e = ei , R, |e | = 1. e e = e 1 U (1).
,

e 
1 = i
, =0
, , ,
3.
11.3.2.
Qi a. Ta
:
Ta (Qi , q) = (Qi + a, q) = (Qi , q) + a (Qi , q) + +
Qi

n
(Qi , q) + .
+1 a
n!
Qi

(11.10)

,
Qi q, Qi .
a. Ta (Qi , q) ,
1+a + + 1
Ta =
Qi
n!

i
i
a i
h
a
aPi

Qi

h
Qi
a
+ = e
=e
= e h .
Qi
(11.11)

3 ,
.

312

11

Qi


Ta 

= ih
.
(11.12)
Pi = ih

Qi
a 
a=0

.
.
(11.12) Qi

i

p (Qi , q) = c(q) e h

pQi

(11.13)

Qi R, , p p R. Qi [0, Qmax ] (, Qi - , Qmax =

= 2, Pi ),
max
Z. Qmax ,
Pi , pQ
2
h
.
P ]:4
[Q,

[Q, P ] = (QP P Q) = Q ih
ih
(Q) = ih,
Q
Q
P ] = ih.
[Q,
(11.14)
(11.14) , Q, , Q, P , Q

,
P = ih Q
4
P ]
. [Q,
P ,
, Q,
i
h H. , P ] ,
[Q,
.
. , ,
.

11.3.

313

( ).
,
- , . , ,
. a.
, . , :
Ta (Q1i , Q2i , q) = (Q1i + a, Q2i + a, q) =



(Q1i , Q2i , q) +
= (Q1i , Q2i , q) + a
+
Q1i
Q2i

n
1

n
+ a
+
(Q1i , Q2i , q) + .
n!
Q1i
Q2i



a

Ta = e

+
Q1i Q2i

=e




i
a i
h
i
h

h
Q1i
Q2i

= e h



Ta 
1
2

Pi = Pi + Pi = ih

a 

aPi

= e h

(11.15)

a(Pi1 +Pi2 )

.
(11.16)

(11.17)

a=0

Pi1 = ih 1 ,
Qi
Pi2 = ih 2 .
Qi
, , Qi .

314

11

,
, ()


i
Pi a
Ta 

Pi = ih

Ta = e h .
(11.18)

a 
a=0

(11.18)
, , , (
) (11.10), (11.15), - 5 .
11.3.3. *
P ] = ih (11.14) [Q,
( ) .

P ,

Q
P Q,
6 .
, , ,
= ih .
P = P,
Q
P
,
i

Qb
b
Sb = e h = e P

b:
Sb (P ) = (P + b).
, Sb = e h Qb , . ,
i

5 , (11.18)
(
).
6 , , .

11.3.

315

Sb i
(Q) e h Qb . ,
,
Sb p0 (Q) = p0 b (Q) .

  
  
i

i
1
bQ
e h
p0 Q
eh
2

i
1
(p0 b)Q
eh
2

p0 , , b Q
.
(Q) ,
U

.
, a
:
(Q) =
U

+


un

2n
i
Q
e a

n=

+


un S

n=

2
h .
a n

, a

h
2
a . ,
(Q) U
, ,
h
q = P + 2
a n,

n Z,

h
q [0, 2
a ),

. .
(11.4.3
*).

:

(Q) =
U

i
pQ
u(p) e h


dp =

u(p) Sp dp, u(p) =

1
2h

U (Q) e

i
pQ

dQ.

316

11

()
, . , , ( ).
(Q), U
,


(Q)(P ) = u(p) Sp (P ) dp = u(p) (P p) dp.
U
u(p) (P ).

p u(p).
(Q)
, U
(Q) U (Q).

11.4.

, , ( ), .
: , .

, U
( ),
A,
, .
, U

U , ,
A.

, A,
. ,
U
,
).
( U

11.4.

317

, ,
, U
U

A, . / .
, U
A , :
= ei0 A ,
U

0 R.

(11.19)

:
= U ,
= eiA , 0 , R.
U
U
0
A,
U
k,
uk = eiak .
, ak 2,
eiak = ei(ak +2n) , n Z, uk = um ,
ak = am , ( 11.4.3,
,
).
11.4.1.

I,
, :
II = I2 =
1

I = I1 .

, , , . .
I I =
1,
:
I = I1 = I .

(11.20)

318

11

, , ( x):
I.x (x) = (x).
. . , ,
, 1.7

1 + I
1 I
P+ =
,
P =
2
2
, +1 1 (!):
P+ 2 = P+ , P 2 = P , P+ P = P P+ = 0,
P ) = 1 (P+ ).
P+ ) = +1 (P+ ), I(
I(
(11.1)
I H,
I]
= 0,
[H,

(11.21)

, I ,
.
, (11.21) (11.9).

I , eiI :

eiI =


(i)k
k=0

k!

Ik =


(i)2l
l=0

(2l)!

I2l +


(i)2l+1 2l+1
I
.
(2l + 1)!
l=0

,
I2l =
1, I2l+1 = I,

eiI =
1


(1)l 2l
l=0

(2l)!

+ iI


(1)l 2l+1
l=0

(2l + 1)!

=
1 cos + I i sin . (11.22)

7 , , ,
, -:
1.

11.4.

319

, ( )
I :
i

ei0I =
1,

I
2

= iI.

i = ei 2 , , I
:

ei eiI = ei(I1) .

(11.23)

1,
ei0(I1) =

(I1)
2

= eiP = I.

11.4.2. *
, , , ? ,
? , ,
? , . . .
,

I.x , , . +1 ,
1 .
8 .

P = I.x I.y I.z ,
9 .
(. . )
P , . . . ,
(P = ), (P =
= ),
.
8
, . , (11.20). ,
(1 +1), .
9
.

320

11

, P (. 11.1).
, , ( ,
, . . ),
( ), :
, , , .
1927 , , ,
. , -, , - , 10 ( ).
11.4.3. *
a x. , ,
11 .
Ta , , px :
i

apx
Ta = e h .

, 11.3.2, . , 11.4, , ,
.
Ta ? x +,
|u| = 1.
i

u = ei = ei(+2n) = uq = e h

aq

= e h

2
h
a(q+ a n)
,

, q R,

n Z.

10
. ,
, ( ,
).
11 , .

11.4.

321

u q,
. q . ,
h
2
a . . ,
h h
(
a , a ]. , Ta
, ,
, q uq .
Ta (x) = (x+a),
Ta u = uu . ,

u (x + a) = uu (x).

(11.24)

, Ta ,
Ta . (11.24) a
, , , .
|u| = 1
x0

x0 +a

|u (x)| dx = |u|
2

|u (x)|2 dx

x0 a

x0

x0 . x R, u ,
, u .
x R x [x0 , x0 + N a]
.
,
uN = 1

N aq
Z.
2h

N ( N - ). |u |2 x [x0 , x0 + N a] , . N , .

322

11

(11.24),
|u| = 1. , |u| > 1, |u| < 1.
a, a. u |u| = 1
, , ,
. . 11.2. , , (19051983).
.
(11.24) q a:
i

u (x) = e h

xq

(x),

(x) = (x + a).

(11.25)

(11.25) . , (11.24) (11.25).

11.5. **
11.5.1. *

Ta Sb
i

aP
Ta = e h ,

bQ
Sb = e h .

Ta (Q) = (Q + a),

bQ
Sb (Q) = e h (Q).

aP
Ta (P ) = e h (P ),

Sb (P ) = (P + b).

11.5.

**

323

(4.64)
P Q
P ] = ih,
[Q,
Ta Sb .

[a, b] = ab ba = ic ( )
a b c.
, . . .

.
ABA1 B 1 .
Ta Sb
i

bQ
b(Qa)
(Q a)) =
Ta Sb Ta Sb (Q) = Ta Sb Ta (e h (Q)) = Ta Sb (e h
i

b(Qa)
bQ
ba
ba
(Q a)) = Ta (e h (Q a)) = e h (Q).
= Ta (e h e h

( )
i

ab
Ta Sb Ta Sb = e h .

(11.26)

( ) P , Q,

ab

P , Q e h , ( )
ab, (Q, P ).
() ,
. . , (Q, P )

T = e

i
S()

h
,

(11.27)

S(),
(
).

324

11

(11.26) :
i

ab
Ta Sb = e h Sb Ta .

(11.28)

, .
i

(aP bQ)
Ta
e h
Sb

a b S = ab
2

Sb Ta

(aP bQ)
e h

i ab
e h 2 .

(11.29)

,
:
i

e h

(aP bQ)

i ab
2 T
a Sb

= e h

=e

i ab
b Ta .

h 2 S

(11.30)

11.5.2. **
, . , ( ) ,
:
 i
 i

(aP bQ)
(aP bQ)

h
F (Q, P ) = e
F (b, a) da db,
F = e h
F (b, a) da db.

F (b, a) =

1
(2h)2

(11.31)

i
(aP bQ)

h
F (Q, P ) dQ dP.

(11.32)

F (Q, P )
F (b, a) = F (b, a), F .
F (b, a) F
.

i

e h

(aP bQ)

(Q) = e

i
b(Q+a/2)

h
(Q

+ a).

11.5.

**

325

Q2 |e h

(aP bQ)

|Q1  = e

:

 
i

tr e h

(aP bQ)


=

tr

(aP bQ)
e h

Q1 |e h

i
b(Q2 +a/2)

h
(Q2

(aP bQ)

Q1 + a).

|Q1  dQ1 =

i
b(Q1 +a/2)

h
(a) dQ1

= 2h (b) (a),


= 2h (b) (a) = tr(Ta Sb ) = tr(Sb Ta ).

, ( Q P )
i

e h

(a2 P b2 Q)

e h

(a1 P b1 Q)

= e h

([a1 +a2 ]P [b1 +b2 ]Q)

i
S

h ,

S , (a1 , b1 ) (a2 , b2 ):


a a 
S = 1  1 2  = 1 (a2 b1 a1 b2 ).
2 b1 b2
2



tr e

(a P b2 Q)

h 2

e h

(a1 P b1 Q)

= 2h (a1 a2 ) (b1 b2 ).

F ( )


i

(a2 P b2 Q)
1
F .
(11.33)
F (b, a) =
tr e h
2h
(11.31), (11.32), (11.33)

- .

326

11

11.5.3. ****
,

. (11.27)
i

S()

T = e h
, .. U (1). , U (1).
, . .
.
U (1) - .
:
. ,
U (1). : 12 .
X K .

L ] = ihJ KL ,
K, X
[X

{X K , X L } = J KL .

J KL
U (1).

i

X Q = Qi ,

X Pj = Pj ,

JQ

Pj

= J Pj Q = ji ,

JQ

Qj

= J Pi Pj = 0.

P p
, . (
) x I (
J, )
xpj = pj = Pj ec Aj (Q),
L ] = ihI KL , {xK , xL } = I KL ,
[
xK , x
i

xq = q i = Qi ,

12 Isidro J. M., de Gosson M. A. A gauge theory of quantum mechanics// Mod. Phys. Lett. A.
2007. Vol. 22, Pp. 191200.

11.5.

Iq

pj

= I pj q = ji ,

Iq

**

i j

327

I pi pj = ec Fij = ec (i Aj j Ai ).

= 0,

I,
M
.. KL I LM = K
.
qi pj = pj qi = ji ,

qi qj = ec Fij ,

pi pj = 0.

(
),
, Fij (Fxy = Hz , ).
.
:
H=

 (Pa ec A(Qa ))2

a

2ma

 p2a
.
2ma
a

a , . ,
A(Qa ) (H = rot A), , (
J) . pa , I.
, , , t p0 = E
.
, , ,
,
, , .

 12

( ) , , .
.
, , . ,
( ), (. 12.11).
. , ,
:
,
, ,
().
. , , ,
, , ( ,
).
,
.
 k, = k/m:
2
2
2 .
x2 = p + m 2 x
= p + k
H
2m
2
2m
2

(12.1)

12.1.

329

12.1.
, : ( ) ( ). ,
, . .
.
m ( ) ,
h, . () = () ()2 /() =
= () () = () (). h
, ,


2
p2
m
x

.
(12.2)
H = h
+
2hm
2h
, .
P , Q
:


2
2
Q
P

,
(12.3)
H = h
+
2
2
4
p
p
,

P =
Q=x
m = xx
(12.4)
=p ,
0
0
h
hm
4

h ,
p0 x0 = h
p0 = hm,
x0 = m
(12.5)
, (,
, h). , h
.
[
x, p] = ih
, ( -

330

12

):
% 4
$ 4
[
x, p]
p

m
P ] = x
= m 1 [
[Q,

x, p] =
,
= i.
h
h
h
hm
hm
P ] = i.
[Q,

(12.6)

, ,
, ,
[, ]/(ih) {, }.

12.2.
12.2.1.
Q, P
.

. 12.1.
(Q, P ).

z = const (Q + iP ).
: z(t) = eit z(0).

12.2.

331

eit , :
a
=

+ iP
Q
,

a
=

iP
Q
.

(12.7)

P a
Q
a
.
( ,
, , . . ):
%
$


+ iP Q
iP
Q

Q]
i[Q,
P ] + i[P , Q]
+ [P , P ] =
[
a, a
]=
= 1 [Q,
,

2
2
2
= 1 (0 i i + i(i) + 0) = 1.
2

[
a, a
] = 1

a
a
= a
a
+ 1.

(12.8)

a
a
, 2
(A B)(A + B) = A B 2 1

2 + P 2 ).
H = 1 (Q
2
h
:


+ iP
iP Q
Q
Q
+ iQ
P iP Q
+ P P =
=1 Q

2
2
2


P ] + P 2 .
2 + i[Q,
= 1 Q
2

=
a
a

:
N



=a
2 1 + P 2 ,
N
a
= 1 Q
2

1
1

= h N +
.
+
H = h a
a
2
2

(12.9)

(12.10)

1 , [A, B] = AB BA = 0,
(A B)(A + B) = A2 B 2 + AB BA = A2 B 2 + [A, B].

332

12

=a
a
.
2 N
,
12 . ,
P (
Q
) , .
a
a
.
, ( [AB,
C]
= A[
B,
C]
+ [A,
C]
B
N
[A, B] = [B , A ]):
, a
[N
] = [
a a
, a
] = a
[
a, a
] + [
a , a
]
a =
a,

a , N ] =
a .
[N , a
] = [
:
, a
a ,
[N
] =

a
+ = a
,

a
= a
.

(12.11)

:
|n  N
|n  = n|n .
N

(12.12)

a
,
|n  a

|n  N :
a
|n  a
a
+ [N
, a
a
N
|n  = (
aN
])|n  = (
aN
)|n  =
1)|n  = a
=a
(N
(n 1)|n ,
a
+ [N
, a
+a
N
|n  = (
a N
a N
])|n  = (
)|n  =
+ 1)|n  = a
=a
(N
(n + 1)|n ,
(
N
a |n ) = (n 1)(
a |n ).

(12.13)

(12.13) , |n , (12.12), a |n  , n 1, .
a+ = a , a =
= a .
2

: N
= (
.
N
a a
) = a
a
= a
a
=N

12.2.

333

:
N
| = |
|N
a a
| = 
a|
a  0.

(12.14)

|n  = n | n |n  = nn |n   0
n |N


n  0.

(12.15)

:
a
|n ,

a
2 |n ,

a
k |n ,

a
N
, . , ,
, N

|n0  = const a
k |n 
(12.16)
a
:
a
|n0  = 0

|n  = n0 |n  = 0
a
a
|n0  = N
0
0

n0 = 0.

, N
:
a
|0  = 0.
(12.17)
E0 = h2 ,
.
, |
a
:
+ 1|  | > 0.

a |
a  = |
aa
| = |N

(12.18)

, |0 
a
, , . :
|0i , (12.17)? . ,
. .

334

12

|0i 
N
a
? (. ).
? .
N
|n  ,
n,
. ( ) (12.16), a
k |n  = 0, a
k+1 |n  = 0, ,
k
,
a
|n  N
0 = n k, . . n = k .
,
N
|0i  ?

. N
|ni  = cn (
a )n |0i . , |n  , |ni  n . n > 0, . . |n 
{|0i }i . n .
|n  a
, |n 1  = n1 a
|n  ( a
|n  = 0, . . n > 0).
|n  = |n .
, a
|n 1  = 1 a
a
|n  = 1 N

|n  |n 1 
a
. |n 1  |(n 1)i ,
n , , |n 
|n i .
|ni , ? (
n N
n ?) ,
n = 0 (. ), . . n . n > 0. a
|ni  (. . n
> 0)
(. .
,
.
.
|ni  = 0,
i ci a



i ci a
|ni  = i ci a
a
|ni  = i ci n|ni , . . 0 = a
0 = a
). , n.
n a
|ni 



(. .
,
.
.
c
a

|ni  = 0,
i
i



|ni  = i ci a
a
|ni  = i ci (n + 1)|ni , . .
0 = a
0 = a
i ci a
). , n.

12.2.

335

12.2.2.
, n. ,
N
, ,
:
|n  = |n.

(12.19)

, . . , , .
( , ),
k|n = kn .

(12.20)

:
a
|0 = 0,
(12.21)
a
|n = cn |n 1,

cn C,

n > 0.

cn ?
, :
n|
a = n 1|cn ,
|n = n 1|cn cn |n 1,
n|
a a

|n = n|N|n
= n|n|n = nn|n = n,
n|
a a
n 1|cn cn |n 1 = cn cn n 1|n 1 = cn cn = |cn |2 .

|cn |2 = n

cn = ein n.
, , cn . . ,
:
|n = ein |n,
cn = ei(n n1 ) cn .
cn , . cn .

336

12

(|n = ei0 |n, cn = n

):

a
|n = n |n 1.
(12.22)
a
. a
:

k|
a|n = n k,n1 n|
a |k = n k,n1 = k + 1 k+1,n .
(12.23)

0 1 0 0 . . .
0 0 0 0 ...
0 0 2 0 ...
1 0 0 0 ...

0 0 0

3
.
.
.

, a
a
=
(12.24)
= 0 2 0 0 . . . .

3 0 ...
0 0
0 0 0 0 ..

.. .. .. . . . .
.. .. .. .. . .
. .
. . .
.
. . . .
, .
, a

a
|n = n + 1 |n + 1.
(12.25)
(12.25) |n |0:
(
a )n
|n = |0.
(12.26)
n!
, (12.22) (12.25) . , (12.22) . (12.25),
,
, , (12.25) (12.22).
, (12.10) N
:

1
En = h n +
,
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
(12.27)
2

12.3.

337

n h, 12 h. n ,
{|n}
n=0 .

12.3.

. ,
,
. ,
, .

x
= x,

p = ih ,
x

(x) = x|.

:
1 = i , (Q) = Q| = x (x)|

0
x=Qx0 .
Q
(Qx0 ) p0
(12.28)

x0 ,
, Q:



|(Q)|2 dQ = |(x = Q x0 )|2 d(x0 Q) = |(x)|2 dx = 1.
= Q, P = ih
Q

:
Q+
Q
a
=
,
2

Q
Q
a
=
.
2

(12.29)

(12.21),

a
|0 = 0

Q+
Q
0 (Q) = 0.

(12.30)

338

12

( Q, ), , , ,
( ). , :
d0
=0
dQ

d0
= Q dQ
0

Q0 +

ln 0 =

Q2
+ const
2

0 = const e

Q2
2

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
4

. 12.2. : 0 (Q)
|0 (Q)|2 .
.

.
, 0 (Q) ,
1 e
0 (Q) =
4

Q2
2

(12.31)

, , . . .
, , ,

12.3.

339

0.6
0.4
0.2
4

0
0.2

0
Q

0.4
0.6
. 12.3. : 1 (Q)
|1 (Q)|2 .

(Q, m), Q
, m , K (, , K = 2s + 1), K-
. ( , , m.)
0.6
0.4
0.2
4

0
0.2 Q

0.4
. 12.4. : 2 (Q)
|2 (Q)|2 .

(12.31)
a
(12.26). -

340

12

, (12.29):
(
a ) n
n (Q) = 0 (Q) =
n!
n

Q
Q2

Q 1

=
e 2 =
2 4
n!

n Q2

Q
e 2 .
Q

= ( 2n n!)1/2
Q2

2
Q e

Q2
2

= Q e
, , n-
2

n (Q) = ( 2n n!)1/2 Hn (Q) e 2 ,

Hn (Q) n, .
, Q, Q , , a
a

. 0 (Q) , n (Q) Hn (Q) n.
6 :
H0 = 1,
H1 = 2Q,
4
H4 = 16Q 48Q2 + 12,

H2 = 4Q2 2,
H3 = 8Q3 12Q,
H5 = 32Q5 160Q3 + 120Q.

n-
Hn (Q) =

Q2
e 2

n Q2

Q
e 2 .
Q

,
e

Q2
2

Q2
2

Q2
2

12.3.

341

0.6
0.4
0.2
4

0
0.2

0
Q

0.4
0.6
. 12.5. : 3 (Q) |3 (Q)|2 .

Q2
2

Q
Q

F (Q) =

Q2

e 2 F (Q).
Q

n

2

Q2
Hn (Q) = e

eQ .
Q

0.4
0.2
10

00
0.2 Q

10

. 12.6. 50- : 50 (Q)

|50 (Q)|2 .

342

12

12.4.
*
, , - |n. , , P 2 Q
, , Q
5
P 2 Q|n

= n Q(i/Q)2 Qn dQ, n (Q) n|Q

.
, ,
:
+a

a
a

=a
Q
P = .
(12.32)
,
2
i 2


2

a
+a

+
a

2
P Q|n

n|Q
= n|
|n =

2
i 2
2
( , a
a
!), (12.22), (12.25) (12.20).
, , , a
a
,
()
, ,
, . ,
=

1 n| a
a
a

a
a

a
a
+ 
a
a

a
a
+
a
4

+1)
(N

a
a

a
a

a
a
a
a
a
a
|n =
+ 
a
a

+1)
(N

+1) (N
+1)
(N

6
4 .
( P ) .
|n . , N
,

12.5.

343

, , :

1
=
)(
aa
|n) n2 + n(n + 1) +(n + 1)n (n + 1)2
(n|
a a
4








aa
n |
aa
n

+n


(n|
aa
)(
a a
|n) =






n1


a a
n |
a a
n

a
|n =

: a

= n 1 n|n 2, a
a
|n = n + 2 n + 1|n + 2. ,
= 1 (+(n 1)n + 1 + (n + 2)(n + 1)) = 1 (2n2 + 2n + 3).
4
4

12.5.
12.5.1.

, I.
, , , . . . I,

( ), , .
0 (12.31), , . a
= 12 (Q Q
)
, . .
. ,
, . . :
n = (1)n n .
I
12.5.2. -
**
2 + P 2 )
= 1 h(Q
H
2
, .

344

12

, . F , :

1

(F )(P ) =
eiP Q (Q) dQ.
2
R
P Q
(12.6), , ,
P , P Q.
,
Q
3 :
P = F Q
F 1 ,
Q
= F P F 1 ,
P Q
a
F a
F 1 =

P + iQ
= i
a,

P iQ
a
F a
F 1 =
= i
a .

(12.33)
(12.34)
(12.35)
(12.36)



2

1
2

2 +Q .
H. = F H. F =
2
Q
. = H
. F .
F H
.
, -, ,
, F , f ,
F .
(t)|F |(t) .
, 4- , . . F 4 =
1. , :
F = f , =
1 = F 4 = f 4 f 4 = 1, f {1, i, 1, i}.
3

(12.33)(12.36).

12.5.

345

. . F 2 = I.
: (F 2 )(Q) = (Q) = (I)(Q),
,
f = 1, f = i. , ,
.

:

1
f (P ) =
eiP Q (Q) dQ.
2
R
(Q) (P ) ,
.
, n (Q)
F , ,
. 0 (12.31) f = 1, 0 :

(F 0 )(P ) =
R

Q2
2

e
1
dQ =
eiP Q
4

2

=
R

P2
2

= e
4

1
1

2 4

R


R

1 e 2 (Q2 +2iP Q) dQ =
1

2 4

((Q+iP )2 +P 2 )

2
e

(Q+iP )2
2

dQ =

P2

2
= 0 (P ).
dQ = e
4

, f a
. :
1. , (12.36) a

F . F a
F 1 = i
a F a
= i
a F ,
, :
F a
= i
a F = i
a .
a f = (if )

346

12

2. , 4 . Q P
, Q
, :


1 Q
1
(Q) dQ =
(F a
)(P ) =
eiP Q
Q
2
2
R


1
= 1 i iP
eiP Q (Q) dQ =
2 P
2
R
a )(P ).
a f )(P ) = (if )(
= (i
a F )(P ) = (i
, f
i,
F n = (i)n n .

:

i n
i
F n = (i)n n = e 2 n = e 2

n = e

a
a

2
n

=e

h
i
(H
)
2 2 .

h
n

n ,

2
, . . 14 T0 = 2
, ,
E0 = h2 :

i
F = e 2

a
a

=e

T0
i
(HE0 )
4

=e

H
2e
h 2

1+i
= U
.
2 2

e 2 . ,
( , E0 ).
4 , (12.36), . . ,
3. , .

12.6.

347

12.5.3.
- 2 .
. 12.1 , , . - , ,
-, .
: , U

. , , .

12.6.
12.6.1.
, . a
, (5.20),
d
a = i [H,
a
] = i
a.
dt
h

(12.37)

, , ( )
&
d
a
= i
a ,
a
(t) = eit a
.
(12.38)
dt

a
(0) = a
, , . 12.1,
.
a
(t)

348

12

:


(t) + a
(t)
(t) = a
Q
it
=
= 1 eit a

+e a
2
2



1
it Q + iP
it Q iP
e
=
=
+e

2
2
2
+ sin(t) P .
= cos(t) Q
, a
a
t:

1 dQ
+ cos(t) P .
Q
] = sin(t) Q
P (t) =
= i [H,
dt
h
,
(0) + sin(t) P (0),
(t) = cos(t) Q
Q
(0) + cos(t) P (0).
P (t) = sin(t) Q

(, ),
(. . , ) :
Q (t) = cos(t) Q (0) + sin(t) P (0),
P (t) = sin(t) Q (0) + cos(t) P (0).

(12.39)

12.6.2. *
,
.
, ,
 |A | t =  |A | t .

n 1|
a|n. -

12.7.

349

|n (t) = e h En t |n (0). ,
i

a |n t =
n 1|
a (t)|n = (n 1) |
i

=e

En En1

n 1|
a |n0 = eit n 1|
a |n0 .

a
(t) eit ,

a
(t) = eit a
.
,
a
, . .
, a

h.

12.7.
*
, B
(7.6).
A,

i A + B.
a
a
,
-.
, a
5 .
,
a
|z  = z|z ,

z C,

(12.40)

. z
|0
(. (12.21)).
+ iP
, a
= Q
,
2
z=

+ i
,
2

, R.

5 , , a
| = Z|, |
|n. ( n
?)

350

12

(12.40)
+ iP
+ i
Q
|z  = |z 

2
2

) + i(P )]|z  = 0.
[(Q

, |z  z C
|0 .

1 eiQ
z (Q) =
4

(Q)2
2

,
(12.40). , Q
P ( , a
a
).
|z .
a
a
,

a
a
( [
a, a
] =
= 1 (12.8), ):6
z  = z | h (
z |H|
+ 12 )|z .
a a
2
a
, a
, (12.40) :
a
|z  = z|z ,

z |
a = z |z ,

z  = z | h (z z + 1 )|z  = h (|z|2 + 1 ).
z |H|
2
2
2
2
12.7.1. *
:
t |z ,
|z (t) = U
t a
t z|z  = z|z (t).
a
|z  = z|z  U
|z  = U
6

12.7.

351

it
1 a

, a
(t) = U
a
,
t Ut = e

t a
1 U
t |z  = a
t a
|z  = U
U
(t)|z (t) = eit a
|z (t).
U
  t    
a
(t)

|z (t)

,
|z (t) = z|z (t) a
|z (t) = eit z|z (t).
eit a
, |z  t
|z (t), a
,
z(t) = eit z.

( 2 z)
, ,
, . .
, .
.
,
.
12.7.2. **

, (12.40) ,
|n 7 . ( ).

(
a )n

|n =

n!

|0:

(
a ) n
cn |n =
cn |0 =
| =
n!
n=0
n=0


cn
a ) n
(
n!
n=0


|0 = f (
a )|0.

,
|0 f a
.
7

352

12

f :
f (x) =


cn
xn .
n!
n=0

, f (x) |. , f (x) ,

. ,
f (x), :



 dn f (0) 2




1
2
2
 =
|cn | =
 .

n!  dxn 
n=0

n=0

.
a
, f (x)
8
x, a
x
.
,
(12.40) :9
a
|z  = z|z 

df
= zf.
dx

, :
f (x) = c ezx

|z  = c eza |0 = c

|z  = c eza |0.



z n (
zn
a )n |0 = c
|n.
n!
n!
n=0
n=0


(z z)n
2
z  = |c|
= |c|2 e|z| .
n!
2

n=0

|z  = e

|z|2
2

eza |0.

(12.41)

8 . , (12.8), :
[
a, (
a )n ] = n(
a )n1 . a
= a .
. 13.2.4 .
9
, a
| = z|, x f (x) = z f (x).

12.8.

**

353

, :
t e
|z (t) = U

|z|2
2

z
a

|0 = e

|z|2
2

t |0 = e
t eza U
1 U
U
t

|z|2
a (t)
2 ez
|0

t.

,
, a
(t) = eit a

|z (t) = e

|z|2
it
a

2 eze

t
2 |0

=e

t
2 |
z(t) ,

z(t) = zeit .
(12.42)

12.8. **
z C
.
, | = f (
a )|0
|z .

dn2 f 
2
|z|



dxn2 x=0
n1

z | =
n1 |e 2 z
|n2  =

n1 ! n2 =0
n2 !
n1 =0

=e

|z|2
2


dn f 
zn ,
dxn x=0 n!

n=0

z | = e

|z|2
2

f (z)

(12.43)

, z . ,
f (z) .
z z , a
:
z=

Q iP
,

a
=

iP
Q
.

354

12

|f  = f (
a )|0.
, :

7
6
n2  n1
z
z
= n2 n1 .
n2 |n1  =

n2 !  n1 !
f
:

2
1
f2 |f1  =
f2 (z) f1 (z) e|z| dz dz .
(12.44)
C

, z

F (z) = 1 e

|z|2
2

f (z) (x) = x|f (

a )|0 L2 (R)

-
.

F (z) = F

Q iP

: , .
a
= z a
= d :
F2 |
a |F1  =
1
F2 |
a|F1  =


C

dz

F2 (z) z F1 (z) dz dz .

ezz f2 (z) d f1 (z) dz dz =

dz

F2 (z) z F1 (z) dz dz .

z , ,
zz

df2
= 0, de
= z ezz .
dz
dz

a
a
, : a
, a


F2 |
an2 a
n1 |F1  = F2 (z) z n2 z n1 F1 (z) dz dz .
C

12.8.

**

355

A(
a, a
) 10

F2 |A(
a, a
)|F1  = F2 (z) A(z , z) F1 (z) dz dz .
C

( )
, |F (z)|2
z, . .

Q = 2Re z P = 2Im z:


F |A(
a, a
)|F  = |F (z)|2 A(z , z) dz dz .
C

|F (z)|2 , .
(x), F (z) .
(x)

x, F (z) ,
, 11 .
(x) , F (z) .
(x), R.
F (z),
. F (z) f (z).
10 A(
a, a
) a
a
.
5
11 , ..
|z z | dz dz =
z
C

= const
1 =
1. .
15
2 |1  = 2 |z z |1  dz dz , (12.44).
C

356

12

|F (z)|2
z, . , z , . . ,
.

12.9. **
, 12.7, - (. 7.2.3).
-

(
x + i p)|z  = z|z ,
z C > 0 .

1
= xp00 = m
(. (12.5)).
( ) .
,
, . 12 .

( ) (
,
x0 p0 = h).
,
. x
ln |x|. ,
:
0 = ih
G

= ihx = x
p.
x
ln |x|

(12.45)

12 ,
(), .

12.9.

**

357

, , , ,
i

e h

0
kG

e h

0
kG

(x) = (ek x)

. , ek
x 2 .
0
, G
, :

=x
p ih = 1 [
G = ih x
x, p]+ =
+
2
2
x 2
a
2 (
a ) 2
xp + px
) = ih
. (12.46)
= 1 (
2
2
:
i

k = e h kG = e 2 (a
D

(
a )2 )

k (x) = e 2 (ek x).

D

(12.47)

, ?
k |,
|k  = D
t |k  = U
t D
t D
k ) (t)|(t),
k | = U
kU
1 U
t | = (D
|k (t) = U
t
k

k ) (t) = e 2
(D

(a2 (t)(a (t))2 )

ke

=e

2it

= e2

(e2it a2 e2it (a )2 )

(a2 e4it (a )2 )

, 14 k,
. . ( ) ( ).
,
, (12.39).
, ,
-,
(t) = cos(t) Q
sin(t) P ,
Q
+ cos(t) P .
P (t) = sin(t) Q

358

12

12.10. *
? ,

, (12.39).
?
Q(t) = P (t) = 0, Q2 (t) = P 2 (t) = n + 12 , E = En =
= h(n + 12 ).
h
(n ) 12
.
(n = 0) , :
,


Q2 (t) = P 2 (t), . -
.
: = t. - (2.2)
-:

t E = E  h
2

n  1 .
2

(12.48)

, , .

,
Q2 (t) = P 2 (t) = 12 .
,
.

12.11. (*)

, . ( -
) .

12.11.

( *)

359

,
, .
, .
,
, , , ,
.
(. . ) , Lx Ly Lz .
( )
K, .
, ,
:



2
2
2
=
k , k =
H
N ,
N ,
N ,
H
Lx x Ly y Lz z
k,

Nx , Ny , Nz Z,

= 1, . . . , K.

, , .
k, , H
. (,
)
k, = hk, 1 ( P 2 + Q
2k, ) = hk, (
H
ak, a
k, + 12 ).
2 k,
k,
a
k, a
( , )
k (. . pk = hk), k, = hk,
k, = a
. N
k, a
k,
k,
k . N

360

12

,

k ,
=
N
N
k,

=
H

k + 1 ) =
k (N
2

k,

k + 1 ),
hk (N
2

k,

p
=

k .
pk N

k,

( )

E0 = 1
hk ,
2
k,

(
). , , ,
( ).
,

k, =
H
hk, a
k, a
k, .
k,

,
,
( ) . , . E0
(. . ).

, .
k,
H
0 ( )

12.11.

( *)

361

0 + hk, ( ). .
,
, .
, , ,
, 2
.
a , a
, . .
, .
, () ()
. , .
, , , , , ( ) (
) .
12.11.1. (*)
, ,
(12.48),
:
n  1 .
2
,
.
( ) , . ,
, , , . ,
, ,
.

, (

362

12

1 ) , .
()
0 1. , , .

 13

(2.4 ())
, . .
.
,
, , , . h 0 . ,
, .
, , , ,
- .

:
, , .

13.1. .
1923 ,
, :
k=

p
,
h

= E.
h

364

13

h , , . , ,
, .
1927
.

ei(krt) .
v = k .
. ,
. , E = p2 c2 + m2 c4 :

2
p 2 c2 + m 2 c4
v =
= vc > c.
p

: .
, . . , :1
v = .
k
,
, .

( h),
H(x, p)
v = E ,
.
v = x =
p
p
, ,
.
1 6.3.6 .

13.2.

365

.
, , , , ,
.
. , , , .
, -
.

( ), (. 2.5.1 ()).

13.2. ?
, .
: ,
.
:
F :

RN

.

R


: ,
( ),
( ),
,
, .
, , (
), , , .

366

13

, () , .
13.2.1.
, , .
. ( ), ,
() .
, , ,
K(
p) =

p2
,
2m

U (
x) ( U (x)
),
i

a
p

b
q

t
H

,
( ),

a
(p +p0
lz )

h z

13.2.2.
, . Ak , 2 .
2 . , [
x + i
y , px + i
py ] = 0, x
+ i
y px + i
py
. ,
.

13.2.

367

.
H Ak :
3
Hi
H=
i

( i , ).
Hi Ak :
Hi ,
Ak = ki .
,
Ak .
- F (Ak ) , Hi , , Ak
F :
F (Ak ) = F (ki ).
(13.1)
Hi
,
(), , , , , - ().

(, . .). , Ak F (Ak ),
.

, (5.3.1 **).
(11.4.3 *).
13.2.3.
. ,

368

13

. , , , (
) , .
, ,
. ,
a
b + b
a
a
b =
,
(13.2)
2
. : , . . ,
a
(b c) = (
a b) c,

(13.3)

, .

, ,
, ( 13.2.1 13.2.2).
13.2.4.
, , , , . .
.
,
, , , (
). , , -
F (Ak ), Ak . , (
), .
, , .

13.2.

369

,
:
dpi
= {pi , H} = H ,
dt
qi

dqi
= {qi , H} = + H ,
dt
pi

(13.4)

{qi , pj } = ij , {qi , qj } = {pi , pj } = 0.

, :
{, } i1h [, ].
, :
d
pi
=
dt 

H ,
qi

  

1
=
pi , H]
i
h [



d
qi
=
dt 

+ H ,
pi

  

1
=
qi , H]
i
h [



1
qi , pj ]
i
h [

= ij ,

(13.5)

[
qi , qj ] = [
pi , pj ] = 0.

,
= K(
H
p) + U (
q ),
,
( ).
, , ,

= [
+ [

[
x, A + B]
x, A]
x, B]
( !)
(5.21):
= [
B
+ A[
x, B].

[
x, AB]
x, A]
l , , Ak B


l ] = ck kl ,
[Ak , B

k , B
l ] = 0,
[Ak , Al ] = [B

l )
F = F (Ak , B
:
l )
F (Ak , B
=
Ak

1
ck [F , Bk ],

l )
F (Ak , B
=
k
B

ck [Ak , F ].

(13.6)

370

13

(A + B)
= A + B ,
x
x
x

AB
= A B
+ A B
x

x
i
= ij .
x
j
,

( !)
x
n = n
xn1 .
x

F (Ak )
Ak , ,
: () xk () F (x):
Fk (x) =

F (x)
.
xk

( )
:

F (A)

= Fk (A).
Ak
, , ( ).
. ,

[
ai , a
j ] = ij ,

[
ai , a
j ] = [
ai , a
j ] = 0,

13.3.

F (
a, a
)
= [F , a
i ],

ai

F (
a, a
)

ai

= [
ai , F ].

371

(13.7)

,
, , ,
, I2 = 1, I = 1 (, . .). :
=
F (I)
1 = I2 .
, :

F (I)

= 1 = 0,

I
I

2
F (I)
= I = 2I = 0.
I
I

13.3.
(13.6) , :

d
pi
= H ,
dt
qi

d
qi
= + H .
dt
pi

(13.8)

(13.5)

, - . 13.1.
, (18801933).
- W
( )
.
,
(13.8) . ,

372

13

(5.19) , :
d
pi 
=
dt

#
"

H
,

qi

d
qi 
=
dt

#
"

H
.
+
pi

(13.9)

, ,
, .
( 5.2.6) (5.24) (5.25)
. ,
(12.39).
, ,

d
pi 
q , 
p),
= H (
dt
qi

d
qi 
q , 
p).
= + H (
dt
pi

(13.10)

(
).
F (
q, p) = F (
q , 
p).
(13.10) , H
H
qi pi . ,
.
13.3.1. *
,
, , . . , , ( ),
(
).

13.4.

373

dpi
= H ,
dt
qi

dqi
= + H
dt
pi

(13.11)

(
), (
, ):
#
#
"
"
dpi 
dqi 
H
H
,
.
(13.12)
=
= +
dt
qi
dt
pi
, (
)
F (q, p) = F (q, p).

dpi 
= H (q, p),
dt
qi

dqi 
= + H (q, p)
dt
pi

(13.13)

, .
, ,
,
( ) ,
( , ) .
. 13.2. , .
,
.

13.4.

( ).

374

13

A()
(, )
. a() |():

A()|()
= a()|(),

()|() = 1.

(13.14)

,
, . , , , - , ,
. , , , ( ) .
(13.14) :
A | + A | = a | + a | .

(13.15)

- ()|, :
|

|
| A | + |A
= | a | + |a
.

  

(13.16)

|a

,
: (13.14)

| A | = a .

(13.17)

(13.17) ,
, .
,
F (A),

A,

A2 , A3 . ., F (A)
:

F (A)
F (a)
|
| =
.
(13.18)

13.5.

375

( ), .

13.5.
() .
,
.
, , ,
- ,
.

,
.
,
, . , .
( ) .
13.5.1.

, , . .
i

(x) C e h

p(x) x

(13.19)

x . , , x,



 
 
 


  1.
(13.20)

 x  ||
 x 

376

13

(x) = 2h ,
p(x)

p(x) =

2m(E U (x)).

.
(13.19) C x, :
i

(x + x) (x) e h

p(x) x

(13.21)

,
i

(x1 ) (x0 ) e h

p(x0 ) x

(x0 ) exp i
h

(x0 ) exp i
h

e h

p(x0 +x) x

x1 x0
x

n=0

x1

e h

p(x1 x) x

p(x0 + nx) x

p(x) dx.

x0

, px

p(x)


p(x) dx:

(x) C exp

i
h

p(x) dx .

(13.22)

(13.22), ,
.
, , (13.22)
, |(x)|2 = |C|2 = const. ?
x, E > U (x),
x,
dx
dx
dx v(x)
= m p(x)
, v(x)
. ( .) dx,

13.5.

377

, ,
, ,
. , 1
, |(x)|2 p(x)
.


p(x) dx .
(13.23)
(x)  C
exp i
h
p(x)
x
. ,
(13.23) .
( ,
), :


C+
(x) 
p(x) dx +
exp i
h
p(x)


C
+
p(x) dx . (13.24)
exp i
h
p(x)
,
, .
(13.24) , ,
,
: 1) ; 2)
.
,
E > U (x), ,
p(x), . . E < U (x).
13.5.2.

, .

i

(x) = e h

S(x)

(13.25)

378

13

, :
1 (S  )2 ihS   = E U (x),
2m

S =


2m(E U ) + ihS  .

(13.26)

(13.27)

, S(x).
, .
, . .
.
()
, , () , . . .
S(x)
:
S = S0 ihS1 + (ih)2 S2 + . . . .

(13.28)

, , ,
.
(13.28) (13.27) , :


S0 (x) = 2m(E U (x)) = p(x) S0 (x) = p(x) dx.
p(x) x.
:
(
(S0 ihS1 ) = 2m(E U ) + ihS0 + o(h) =

ihp (x)
,
p2 + ihp + o(h) = p(x) +
2 p(x)


 


p
(x)
.
S1 (x) =
= ln p(x)
S1 (x) = ln C
2 p(x)
p(x)
=

13.5.

379

(13.28) (13.25) , , (13.23):

(x) = C e
p(x)

i 5
p(x) dx

h
.

, ? , , ,
, S(x)
. , ,
(13.20)
 
 
  1.
 x 
,

E > U (x), p(x) R, E < U (x) ,
,

.
,
p(x) 0
| (x)| 1 . E U (x) (p(x) 0)
.
13.5.3.
,
(13.24).
( ), . . ,
, . ( )
, . .

x
(x) =  C
p(X)dX + 0 .
sin 1
(13.29)
h
p(x)
x0

380

13

2
1
2

1
2
. 13.3. .

, , a (a) = 0

x
(x) =  C
p(X)dX .
(13.30)
sin 1
h
p(x)
a

2
1
2

1
2
. 13.4. .

a (
), U (a) = E ( U (a 0) > E > U (a + 0)),
a

x
(x) =  C
p(X)dX + 0 .
sin 1
(13.31)
h
p(x)
a

, 0 , (13.31)
( a).

13.5.

381

(, p(a) = 0), , ,
a,
. 0 .

, , 0 > 0 ( , ).
, a, , , a
0 , . . .
, (, ) ,
(. )
0 = ,
4
. . 14 .
,
12 .
*
(13.31) 0 , a, ,
: - x < a
, - x < a ,
.
, a , , ,
, , , .
,
( p(x) )

a
C
(x) = 
|p(X)|dX , x a,
(13.32)
exp 1
h
2 |p(x)|
x

382

13

x
C+
1
p(X)dX + 0 , x  a,
(x) = 
sin
(13.33)
h
p(x)
a

:
 +

2m
F (x

h2

a) = 0,

F = U  (a),

x a.

(13.34)

C+ C (
), 0 .
:
0 = ,
C+ = C .
4
:
(13.34)
(
) (13.32) (13.33) ( ).
x ( sin ) x = a
( ).
x a ( , )
(13.32) (13.33)
0 , C .
.
|p(x)| ( )
|x a|. |p(a )| = p(a + ) = p0  h . . 13.4:

C
(x) exp 1 p0 (a x) ,
(13.35)
h
2 p0

13.5.

C+
+ (x) sin
p0

1 p (x a) + .
0
0
h

383

(13.36)

a:
+  (a)
 (a)
p0
p0
=
=
=
tg 0

h
h
(a)
+ (a)

0 = .
4

13.5.4.

p(x), ( p(x)
). , . .
,
[a, b].

b
1
p(X) dX
h
a

a b.
a b ( ). ,
, ,

1
h

b

p(X) dX + = n,
2

n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .

, .
, :

x
C
(x) =  a sin 1
p(X) dX + =
4
h
p(x)
a

384

13

x

C
=  b sin 1
p(X) dX
h
p(x)
b

b
C
=  a sin 1
p(X) dX +
h
p(x)

=
4
1
h

x

p(X)dX + .
4

(13.37)

Ca = Cb ,
:
1
h

b

p(X) dX + = (n + 1),
2

n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

(x, p) a b
,
(x(t), p(t)). a b , ,
,
p(x).

8
p(X) dX = 2h(n + 12 ), n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(13.38)
()
. .
,
8
p(X) dX = h(2n + 2[ a b ]), n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(13.39)
a b (0 (13.31)).
13.5.5.
.

13.5.

385

dx p

8
8
8 
1
,
J[E, x(l)] = pdx = |p||dx| =
2m(E U (x)) dl = 2h n +
2





dl

|p|

J[E, x(l)] , .
:
8
J x(l) dl = 2h n.
J[E, x(l)] = J E +
E
x(l)




=0 . x(l)

.
8
J
2m(E U (x)) dl =
J[E, x(l)] =
E = E
E
E

8
m
dl.
= E

2m(E U (x))



m 1
=
|p| v

v =

|p|
m

= dl .
dt

8
J[E, x(l)] = E

dl = E
v

8
dt = E T = 2hn,

T = 2
.
n = 1, ,
E :
E T = E 2
= 2h

E = h.

386

13

, E:
(E) = 1 = 1 .
E
h
E ,
, , , .
,
. , . .
,
.
13.5.6.
(13.38)
(13.39), , .
, (.
. 13.5).
U(x), E

. 13.5. () () .

.
, ,

.

13.5.

387

,
(D, 13.5.7 ) (T ). D1 1 D2 1, T
D = D1 + D2 . ,
( 0 )
D
1
0 = T

0 = T  T.
D

(7.9),
(7.13)
E0 = h .
20
,
, , ()
0 :3

(t) = 0 e

t
i
E t

h 0 e 20

= 0 e

h
(E0 i
)t
20 .

,
:
E = E0 i 2h0 = E0 i E0 .

( ).
.
:
. , (
) , .
3 , .

388

13

, , . .
.
, , -. 13.5.8 **.
13.5.7.

. ,
(S(x)
h) (13.23)


(x) C
p(x) dx
exp i
h
p(x)
, .
, (E > U (x)) (S(x) h) .
E, .
,
a b (E = U (a) = U (b)).
:
l(x) =

h .
|p(x)|

l(x) , , , () :
b
L=
a

dX = 1
h
l(X)
  

b
|p(X)| dX  1.
a

dX

L a b, l(x)
( ).

13.5.

389

, 1,
. .
sin, (13.33). , , .
eL .
,

D0 = e2L .
1 .
p(x)

(13.5.1 ),
, , . ,

.

1:
D = D0 Da Db ,

Da , Db 1.

,
, ,
,
Db = 1 .
Da

D = D0 = e2L = exp 2
h

b

|p(X)| dX .

(13.40)

, (13.40) , .

, .

390

13

13.5.8. **
:
2
h

b
a

|p(x)| dx = i 2
h

b 
b 
2
2m(E U (x)) dx =
2m(E + U (x)) dx.
h
a

h1
 a b
p (x) = 2m(E + U (x)):
1
h

p (x) dx = 2 1
h

b
p (x) dx.
a

p (x)
:
E E,
U (x) U (x).
( ) .
a b , .
, , S, (3.17)
i

e h ,
,
( ) ( ,
), :


b 
 i S 2
 h 
2
D = e  ,
S=
2m(E U (x)) dx.


h
a

13.6.

391

, , , ,
, , -. .
, , ,
.

13.6.
(5.1.1
), .
( ) .
.
, .
, ,
(Q) . Q Qn ( ).
,

2
(Q) = |(Q)| ,
(Q) dQ = 1 = const
.


+ div j = 0,
t

(13.41)

 jn
div j = n Q
n
j, .
j , (13.41).

392

13

13.6.1.
, .

j(Q) = (Q) v(Q),
v(Q) .

p = p = mv .
, v :
p(Q) mv(Q) (Q).
(Q),
(Q) p(Q) mv (Q) (Q) = mv (Q).
,
1 (Q) p(Q).
j(Q) = (Q) v(Q) = m
, (Q)
p(Q)
. . :
1 Re (Q)
j(Q) = m
p(Q) = 1 ( (Q) p(Q) + (Q)(
p(Q)) ).
2m
,
2
= p + U (Q). , p =
H
2m
= ih, :
j = ih ( + ).
2m

(13.42)

(x) = |(x)2 | (x) = arg (x),



h
(x),
(13.43)
(x) = (x) ei(x) j = (x) m
  

13.6.

393

,
h
(x), m
(x),
(x). , .
13.6.2.
:
2
= 1 (M 1 )nk pn pk + U (Q) = h (M 1 )nk n k + U (Q).
H
2
2

(13.44)

(M 1 )nk . n k 4





( )

H

H

=
+
=
=
+
=
t
t
t
t
ih
ih

2
h (M 1 )nk n k + U (Q) +
= 1
2
ih

2
+ 1 h (M 1 )nk n k + U (Q) =
2
ih

2
2

h
1
1 nk

1
1 nk
(M ) n k +
(M ) n k =
=
2
2
ih
ih
= ih (M 1 )nk (n k n k ) =
2
!
i
h
1 nk

= n
(M ) (k k ) = n j n .
2
, (13.41) , :
j n = ih (M 1 )nk (k k ) = 1 (M 1 )nk ( (
pk ) + pk ).
2
2
(13.45)
4 , .
(M 1 )nk Mnk . pn , vk = pn (M 1 )nk
,
(M 1 )nk . T = 12 (M 1 )nk pn pk = 12 Mnk vn vk
v
, p.

394

13
n

Q
vn = ddt
= (M 1 )nk pk , , , ,
= ||2 = arg :

v n ) .
j n = 1 ( (
v n ) + vn ) = Re( vn ) = (i
2
  

(13.46)

13.6.3. *

, ,
. , , , .
a
ea (ra ). , p
a
e
p
a ca A(ra ):
=
H

2
 1 

e
p
a ca A(ra ) + U (Q) +
ea (ra ).
2ma
a

(13.47)

,
(13.46),
v
a =



d
ra
e
a ca A(ra ) .
= m1 p
a
dt

.

:
e
p
a p
a ca A(ra ),

a A
a = a

iea
A(ra ),
ch

.
.

13.7.

**

395

13.6.4. ?**

?
-, , , ,
,
, .
-, , .

,
, .
, , , ,
U (Q).



(p p ) (p ) dp .
U (Q)(p)
= U
,
( )
.
, ( ),


n

N

n U 
U ih
=
i
h
.
p
Qn Q=0
p
n=0

,
N 1.
N =
(
).

13.7. **

2N - (q, p),

396

13

.

|q2 ,
(q1 , q2 ) = q1 |

(p1 , p2 ) = p1 |
|p2 

, . .
, , , , , .

:

W (q, p) =

1
(2
h)N

(q x/2, q + x/2) e h

px

dN x.

(13.48)

. , , . .
x .
(!):

(q, q) = W (p, q) dN p,

. 13.6.
(p, p) = W (p, q) dN q.
(19021995).
,
.
. 13.7. - (q, p) .
,

, . .
(2h)N .

13.7.

**

397

p):
q, p A(q,

p) =
A(q,

1
(2
h)N

|q + x/2e h

px

q x/2| dN x,

q |q = q |q,
q|q   = N (q q  ),
p) = tr(A(q,
p) ).
W (q, p) = A(q,

(13.49)

, q p, , q, p
.

w(X, , ) = W (q, p) dN (q + p),
(13.50)

N N , , rank(, ) = N . X
p =
q + p :
, p ] = ih ,
[X

, = 1, . . . , N.

(13.50) W (q, p) w(X, , ) , w(X, , )

.
, , . . .
:
.
. .
.

 14

-2*
( )

11 -1 . ,
. ,
- (
), ,
( ).
. ,
, .

14.1. ()
( 11 -1), ,
.
.
:
? , 1 U
2 :
U

U2 U1 = ?
?

, U
= ?
: U

14.2. ( )

399

. 14.2 ().
( : ). 14.4 ().

14.2. ()
14.2.1. ()
G , :
() E G;
: GG G, . . g2 g1 = g3 , g1 , g2 , g3 G.
g, g1 , g2 , g3 G :
E g = g E = g,

(g3 g2 ) g1 = g3 (g2 g1 );

()1 : G G, . . g G
g 1 G.
g 1 g = g g 1 = E.
() .
, :
;
g1 g2 , g3 , . g3
g1 g2 (!!!): g3 =
= g2 g1 . :
E g = g E = g,

(g3 g2 ) g1 = g3 (g2 g1 );

g
g 1 . , ,
, g G,
g 1 G.
g 1 g = g g 1 = E.

400

14

,
?

: A.
A

, B

B A, , , . ,
. ,
.
, , , , .
:
g ( )
g:GG
g : h  g h,
g, h G.
(14.1)
f : G H
G H, , . .
f (g11 ) = f (g1 )1 .
(14.2)
( ).
, , .
, , ,

, , .
,
, G H
(). : G  H.
() - . ,
, . , , ,

. .
f (EG ) = EH ,

g1 , g2 G,

f (g1 )f (g2 ) = f (g1 g2 ),

14.2. ( )

401

14.2.2. ()
() , :
g1 , g2 G g1 g2 = g2 g1 .
,
, , .
, ,
g1 g2 g11 g21 .
, E. [g1 , g2 ] = g1 g2 g2 g1 , . .
.
() : , .
, .
14.2.3. ()
H G , G, . .
g, h H G,

E, g 1 , g h H.

, H G , , G.
()
, , , - . , (),
. ,
, . SO(3)
SO(2) SO(3).

402

14

H G
:
g0 G

[g0 ] = g0 H = {g G|g = g0 h, h H},

[g0 ] = Hg0 = {g G|g = h g0 , h H},

g0 [g0 ], .
G/H
H \ G H
.
,
g G g 1 Hg = H
.
, .
.
,
H \ G = G/H.
:
EG/H = [E],

[g]1 = [g 1 ],

[g1 ] [g2 ] = [g1 g2 ].

, . G H G/H.
G , , :
G , {E} ( ). ,
.
(14.2) f : G L,
, L,
:
f 1 (EL ) = {g G|f (g) = EL }.
, f 1 (EL ) G.

14.2. ( )

403

1 : f : G L,
L
L  G/f 1 (EL ).

, . ((): ,
.) ,
: (1) ( ) (2)
( ).
14.2.4. ()
G |G| |G| . ,
.
, , N , SN , |SN | = N !
() SN N ( ) , , ()
, .
N N ,
, . 1. . , SN
AN , +1, |AN | = 12 N ! ( N > 1).
1

:
!
, ,

!

404

14

() AN N ( ) , ,
()
, ,
( ) , .
() , . .
. 1, ,
, , , . , (det = + 1),
,
(det = 1).
()
, . .
. ,
. , , ,
.
( )
:
{g0n |n Z}
. , Z (():
). N N

, N :
ZN = Z/N Z.
ZN N .

14.2. ( )

405

14.2.5. ()
(det M = 0) N N , GL(C, N ), GL (General) (Linear) . ( , ) .

:
S Special det M = 1,
U Unitary M = M 1 ,
O Orthoganal M T = M 1 ,
L Linear ,
G General ,
.
:
();
(
), ( O, , );
, ( C R)

C ( ),
R ( ),
Q ,
Z ,
N .

:
GL(R, N ) , , N N ;
SL(N ) , det M = 1, N N ;

406

14

O(1, 3) M diag(+1, 1, 1, 1) M T
=
= diag(+1, 1, 1, 1) , ( 1 3 );
O(3) 3 3 M M T = E
;
SO(3) 3 3, det M = 1
( );
U(N ) N N ;
SU(2) 2 2, det M = 1
( 2 1);
O(N, N ) = SN N ;
SO(N, N ) = AN N .
GL(C, N ) N - , N .

14.3. -1 -2. ?*
11 -1 (
)
, .
14.3.1. *
, 11 -1
.
R A,

= exp(iA).
U

U
+ ,
1 = U
,
0 = 1.
= U
U
U
U

, , :
( x);

14.3. -1

-2.

?*

407

, , = exp(i( + 2)A).

, exp(iA)
, , 2 ( z).
, :
R(+) ,
SO(2) . , . . .
14.3.2. *
, , exp(iAk ) ( R, Ak = Ak ), ,
, .
, Ak , ([Ak , Al ] = 0),
(
z, Jz :
exp(iJz )). ,
, (
). Jz J2 =
= Jx2 + Jy2 + Jz2 .

D- , D
, , (
) .

SO(3).
, ( ),

408

14

, D-

 D


= exp i
U
k Ak .
k=1

U
. D - Ak .
,
, . , SO(3)
, SU(2) ,
() , so(3) su(2).
.
.
, .
- () . , ,
N ,
.
,
. ,
() , , .
, SO(3) , - j .

.

, . . :
[Ak , Al ] = i

D

m=1

m
Ckl
Am .

14.4.

( )

409

m
Ckl
. , .

.

[j , j ] = i

3


e j .

=1

,
, . , , SO(3) O(3) 3 3 ( , )
( ).
, SO(3) SU(2), 2 1
4 . SU(2)
.

14.4. ()
f G f (G) M, (14.2), . ,
, .

(), .
M, .
.
M , f (G) , f
. dim M .

410

14

() , H, . , H ,
( ),
.
14.4.1. *
, G
(14.1).
.
,
, M = CG .
, :2
g, h G,

g : eh egh .

() G:

. : , () , . ,

,
.
14.4.2. ()
H f G H(1) H,
:
g G,

f (g)H(1) = H(1)

g G, H(1) ,

f (g) H(1) .

: {0} H.
2
.

14.4.

( )

411

, f .
() (. .
) .
, . .
, .
f ,
H(1) f(1) (), f , f (G) H(1) .
() ,
,
. ,
, ,
.
14.4.3. ()
f , f(1) , :
> dim H > dim H(1) > 0.

:
> dim H > dim H(1) > . . . > dim H(n) > 0,
H = H(0) H(1) . . . H(n) {0}.
, f .
f(n) , H(n) , . , .
,
H. ,
H(n)
H(n) -

412

14

. : f f(n) ,

, H(n)
,
f(n)

dim H(n) < dim H. f(n) ( ), , .

H, f , Hn , f , :
H = H1 H2 . . . Hk ,
dim H = dim H1 + dim H2 + . . . + dim Hk ,
f = f1 f2 . . . fk .
.
Hn (1 < n < k), H
. H
dim Hn , , , f (g)
(g G) - ,
dim Hn dim Hn :

1
f1 (g)1
2
f2 (g)2

= . = 1 2 . . . k H,
f (g) =
,
..

..  

.
H1

f (g) =

H2

Hk

fk (g)k

f1 (g) 0 0 0
0 f2 (g) 0 0

= f1 (g) f2 (g) . . . fk (g).

..
.
0
0
0
0
0 0 fk

(**) Hn ,
.
()
.
,

14.4.

( )

413

.
3 , ,
. ,
, : (. . , , ),
.
14.4.4. (*)
.
:
[f1 (g) f2 (g)]( 1 2 ) = (f1 (g)1 ) (f2 (g)2 ) .
 
     
H1

H2

H1

H2

,
.
()
, . ,
, f1 f2 , .
f1 f2 . ,
, (
). , ,
( 3
{1, +1} L2 (R) I ( )
1.

414

14

) . , (. 15.5 *)
SU(2).


: .
()
, ,
.
.

 15

14 -2
. -2, .
.

15.1.
, , .
.
, .
15.1.1. ()
()
,
:
x = Rx,

x R3 ,

(x , x ) = (x )T x = xT RT Rx = xT x = (x, x).

x R3 , R:
RT R = E.

(15.1)

.
33 O(3), .

416

15

(15.1),
(det R)2 = 1

det R = 1.

R , . +1
. SO(3), O(3) . , , . , det R = 1, ,
, , . . R , det R, +1 = det E 1.
.
()
O(3) : SO(3) , P SO(3) (, P 11.4.2 , ,
P = E) ( , . . (1)2 =
= +1 ).
O(3) SO(3) :
.
SO(3) ( ),
. [0, ].
n n
, .
, ,
.
, SO(3) , () .
O(3) , SO(3).

15.1.

417

()
.
, , , , .
x
:


x
1
0
0
x
x = y  = 0 cos sin y = Rx () x = ei jx x.
0 sin cos
z
z


   
Rx ()

hjx x. (.
11.3.2), ( )
. x. , jx , h ( h).
! , ! , , ,
! .
ijx , Rx ()


0 0 0
dRx 
ijx =
= 0 0 1 .
d =0
0 1 0
, ijx
, ,
jx3 = jx

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

jx2n+2 = jx2 = jx0 = E,

jx2n+1 = jx .
(15.2)
33!
(. 15.4 1.)
( )

0 0 1
0 10
ijy = 0 0 0 , ijz = 1 0 0 .
10 0
0 00

418

15

Rn ()
, n :
Rn () = eijn .
jn = (j, n) = nx jx + ny jy + nz jz , j (jx , jy , jz ).

, 3 3:
[jx , jy ] = ijz x, y, z.

(15.3)
[j , j ] = ie j , , , = 1, 2, 3.

0, , , ,
= +1, (, , ) (1, 2, 3),
1, (, , ) (1, 2, 3).

(15.3) , , ( , ) .
, . e
SO(3).
, , j 2 = jx2 + jy2 + jz2
:
[j 2 , j ] = 0.
(15.4)

( ,

j ).
15.1.2. **
,
,
SO(3), ,
( so(3)).

15.1.

419

, .
, , ( ), ,
, . . , ,
.
,
, , ,
.
, ,

( ), . (
, , .)
,
( SO(3)),
R(l) E, Rn ():
R() : [0, 1] SO(3),

R(0) = E,

R(1) = Rn ().

, , , Rn (),
R(l).
, , , R(l).
, , , .
, ,
.
: R(l). ,
: ,

420

15

R(l) ( R(l)
E) ,
SO(3), . . ( ) SO(3).
, R(l). SO(3) . SO(3)
( ), .
R(l)
, , , , () E E, . ,
. ,
R(l) , , , E
E, R(1).
( SO(3) )
.
, ,
,
( , , ). , , E ( ),
.
( ,
) . , , ,
, ,
.
SO(3) ( ) : Z2 = {+1, 1}. 1
, (. 15.1.1 ()).
, 2 , , , 4 .

15.2.

421

2 P . 4
2, . . P 2 , 4
, . . .
P 2 = 1,

P = 1.

P = +1 SO(3). P = 1
, 2
4. , 12 ,
SU(2).

15.2.
, ,
, . . , , . . .
15.2.1.
, .

ypz zpy
L = [r p] = zpx xpz .
zpy ypz
L ,
, . ,
, , h (
):
l = 1 e x
p = i e x ,
h
lx = 1 (
y pz zpy ) = i(yz zy ),
h
ly = 1 (
pz ) = i(zx xz ),
z px x
h

422

15

lz = 1 (
xpy ypx ) = i(xy yx ).
h
l
, = .
x

l :
[lx , ly ] = 12 [
y pz zpy , zpx x
pz ] =
h
= 12 ([
y pz , zpx ] [
y pz , x
pz ] [
z py , zpx ] +[
z py , x
pz ]) =
     
h
0

y [
pz , z] px + x
[
z , pz ] py ) = i 1 (
= 12 (
xpy ypx ) = ilz .
h
  
  
h
(i
h)

i
h

x, y, z
, (15.3):
[l , l ] = i e l .

l
1
lx = i(0, z, y),
ly = i(z, 0, x),
lz = i(y, x, 0).
i 1 , , . .
- : v = v a a .

a = x
a ( ). , .
, , , - dxa ,
.

15.2.

423

. l
il .
, l
l . , , r.
r, ( , ,
z), ( xz,
z ):
x = r sin cos ,
y = r sin sin ,
z = r cos .
, . xa dxa ea dxa ( ,
, a ).
er = (sin cos , sin sin , cos ),
e = (r cos cos , r cos sin , r sin ),
e = (r sin sin , r sin cos , 0),

|er |2 = 1,
|e |2 = r 2 ,
|e |2 = r 2 sin2 .

ea ,
,
:

1 0
0
. (15.5)
0
dl2 = dr 2 + r 2 (d 2 + sin2 d2 ) gab = 0 r 2
0 0 r 2 sin2
l

(l ,
ea )

e2a :

lx = i ( sin ctg cos ),

ly = i (cos ctg sin ),
lz = i .

424

15

, hlz ( ) ().
l2 ( ) :
$

%
2

1
l2 =
sin
=  .
+
sin

sin2 2
15.2.2.
jz
, (
). z.
z .
m jz
jz m = mm .
2 m
, (15.1.2 **):

ei2jz m = ei2m m = m .
, m ,
m Z,

m+

1
2

Z.

m
, . .
2 1.
jz lz . ():

eilz (r, , ) = (r, , + ).

2-
m Z,

m (r, , ) = Cm (r, ) eim .

15.2.

425

15.2.3.
j

j = jx ijy = j
.

l = lx ily = ei ( + i ctg ).
j jx jy , , a
, a
P , Q
(12.7). +, z
, x, y z.
, a
a
, j 2 j
jz :
j j+ = jx2 + jy2 + i[jx , jy ] = jx2 + jy2 jz ,
j+ j = jx2 + jy2 i[jx , jy ] = jx2 + jy2 + jz .
,
[j+ , j ] = 2jz ,
2

j =

j j+ + jz2

+ jz =

j+ j + jz2

(15.6)
jz .

(15.7)

(15.3) (15.4),
[jz , j ] = j ,
[j 2 , j ] = 0.

(15.8)
(15.9)

, a
a
(12.13), j
jz :
jz (j m ) = (j jz + [jz , j ])m = (j m j )m = (m 1)(j m ).
(15.10)
(12.13), ,
j m , , (m 1).

426

15

15.2.4.
jz ,
j2
jz
(15.2.2 jz ), -
. , j 2 ,
jz :
jz m = m m ,

j 2 m = m .

j 2 = jx2 + jy2 + jz2 , , > |m|2 .

, m
.
j m , (. (15.10),
(15.7))
jz j = j j ,
j+ j = 0,
j 2 j = (j j+ + jz2 + jz )j = (0 + j 2 + j)j = j .
, = j(j + 1). , ,
m j:
jz j = j j ,
j j = 0,
j 2 j = (j+ j + jz2 jz )j = (0 + j 2 (j))j = j .
j ,
= j(j + 1), j. m j
|j, m:
jz |j, m = m|j, m,
j 2 |j, m = j(j + 1)|j, m,
j1 , m1 |j2 , m2  = j1 j2 m1 m2 ,
2j N {0}, m {j, j + 1, . . . , +j}.
(15.10)
j |j, m = C |j, m 1.

15.2.

427

C (15.7):
j+ |j, m = C+ |j, m + 1,
j, m| j = j, m + 1| C+ ,
j, m| j j+ |j, m = j, m + 1|C+ C+ |j, m + 1 = |C+ |2 ,
j, m| j j+ |j, m = j, m| j 2 jz2 jz |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1).

, |C+ | = j(j + 1) m(m + 1), , . .
,
C+ . (12.22) .
C+ , . C+ .
,
, C+ .
C+,j,m
C,j,m :
j+ |j, m = C+,j,m |j, m + 1,
j, m + 1|j+ |j, m = C+,j,m ,

j, m + 1|j+ |j, m = C+,j,m

,

j, m + 1|j+ |j, m = j, m|j |j, m + 1 = C,j,m+1 ,

C,j,m+1 = C+,j,m
.

, C :

j+ |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1) |j, m + 1 =

= (j m)(j + m + 1) |j, m + 1,

j |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m 1) |j, m 1 =

= (j + m)(j m + 1) |j, m 1.
, m .

428

15

j

j  , m |j+ |j, m = (j m)(j + m + 1) jj  m,m 1




j, m|j |j , m  = (j m)(j + m + 1) jj  m,m 1 .
j (2j + 1) (2j + 1):


0 (2j)1  0
0
...
0

0
(2j 1)2
0
...
0
0


.
.
,
j+ = 0
(2j 2)3 . . .
0
0
.

.
..
..
..
.. 
..
.
1(2j)
.
.
.
0
0
0
0
...
0

0
0
... 0
0
(2j)1
0
... 0
 0

(2j 1)2  0
... 0
0

j =
.

(2j 2)3 . . . 0
0
0

..
..
..
.
..
..

.
.
.
.

1(2j) 0
0
0
...
, +j j
.

j
jx = j+ +2 j jy = j+ 2i
.
2
jz j , , , ( ) jz , ,
j 2 = j(j + 1)E.
:

j 0 ... 0
0 j 1 ... 0

jz = . . .
. .
. . ... .
. .
0 0 . . . j
(*) (2j + 1)-
. j , SO(3) SU(2) , j ,
SU(2).

15.2.

429

15.2.5.
la
(a ) .
, eilan
, . ,
.
,
( L
)

N


n
lan
i
l1n i
l2n
i
lN n
i a
i L
lan .

e
e
...e
=e
=e
,
Ln =
a=1

, , . . ,
(15.3), , L
] = i e L
.
[L
, ,
. , , , () s .
,
, , . .
( ), , ,
.
.
s2 = s2x + s2y + s2z s(s + 1), s .
, , ,
s +s 1.
, ,
. , .
s (2s + 1) (2s + 1).

430

15

15.2.6.
, , - , ,
(11.2):



dA. 
i
j 

= d eij Ae
= i[j , A].


d 
d
=0
=0

,
.
(
, . 11.2 ).

, (,
) j :
=0
[j , A]

A .

j 2 .

, ,
, . . (
,
.) e
:
A A e A + O(2 ).
, , , 15.1.1 ()2
i[j , A ] =

dA
= e A .
d

2 ,
, , , l2 ] = i
x3 .
, [
x1 ,

15.2.

431

, :
[j , A ] = [A , j ] = i e A .

(15.11)

(15.3), , A j . , , , .
(15.11) :
[Az , j ] = [jz , A ] = A ,
[A+ , j ] = [j+ , A ] = 2Az .

(15.12)
(15.13)

, [jz , A ] = A (15.12) ,
A z
1 ( (15.10)), j .
[A , j 2 ] = i e (j A + A j ),
[A , j 2 ] = (Az j + j Az A jz jz A ).
A j 2 , m 1,
j. ,
( l2 lz ) l
l2 , x
lz , l2 ,
.
j
,
, . . A , , , [
p , l ] =

= [l , p ] = ie p .
, ,
[
s , l ] = [
s , x
] = 0.

432

15

15.2.7. a

j **
a
j . ,

.

. 15.1. n1 n2 j m.

H
H1 H2 ,

H = H1 H2 ,

1,
1 = a
,
a

2 = 1a

1 = N
1=a
a

1,
N
=
2 =
1N
1a
a
.
N
H :
|n1  |n2 ,
n1 , n2 {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.

15.2.

433

2
j = n1 +n
2
n1 n2
m = 2 (. . 15.1):

9
|j, m = |j+m|jm, j 0, 1 , 1, 3 , 2, . . . , m {+j, +j 1, . . . , j} .
2
2

, :

jz = N1 N2 ,
2

j+ = a
a
,
j = a
a
.
j j:

j = N1 + N2 ,
2
j 2 = j(j + 1).
,
:
 n + n2 n1 n2
= |j, m:
,
|n1  |n2  =  1
2

jz |n1  |n2  = n1 n2 |n1  |n2  = m |n1  |n2 ,

2


j+ |n1  |n2  = a
a
|n1  |n2  = (n1 + 1)n2 |n1 + 1 |n2 1 =

= (j m)(j + m + 1) |j, m + 1,

j |n1  |n2  = a
a
|n1  |n2  = n1 (n2 + 1) |n1 1 |n2 + 1 =

= (j + m)(j m + 1) |j, m 1.
(2j + 1) j:
3
H=
C2j+1 = C1 C2 C3 C4 .
3
1
j=0, ,1, ,2, . . .
2
2

j.
-

434

15

SU(2). SU(2) .

15.3.

1
2

12
(r, ) r R3 (
z) { 12 , + 12 }. , . ,
r, , :

(r, + 1 )
2 = (r).
(r, ) =
(r, 1 )
2

, , .
, , ( )
. ,
.
, , ( , ) ,
, .

=H
r
s,
H
1s +
1r H
r ,
s ,
(r, ) = (r) (),

ih

r ,
=H
t

ih

s ,
=H
t

(r) , () .

15.3.

1
2

435

, (15.2.4
jz , j 2 ),
12 :

01
00
s+ =
, s = s+ =
,
00
10

s+ + s 1 0 1
s+ + s
0 i
+1 0
, sy =
, sz = 1
.
sx =
=
= 1
0 1
2
2 10
2 i 0
2
2i
( z)
-:

#

1 1
1
 ,+
 2 2 = 0 = |  = |1,

#

1 1
0
 ,
 2 2 = 1 = |  = |0.
|0 |1 , ().
15.3.1.
2 2 : , .
2 2 , , s ,
12 E.
s 12 ,
: .
s - , 2. -
0 E:
 = (x , y , z ),
= 2
s , {1, 2, 3},
0 = E,

10
01
0 i
+1 0
, x =
, y =
, z =
.
0 =
01
10
i 0
0 1
12 ,
( ) ,
. . . 2 2

436

15

, 2 2
. , .
22, -,
, :
2- x y
z
1- : x E iz iy
y iz E ix
z iy ix E
:
= E + i e ,

, , {1, 2, 3}.

(15.14)

2 2 (, , , . . ):

Az A
Ax iAy
Az
(A,  ) = A =
=
.
Ax + iAy Az
A+ Az
( (15.14)) , :
(A,  )(B,  ) = (A, B) + i([A B],  ).

(15.15)

n , (n,  )2 = (n, n)E = E =

= (n,  )2k , k = 0, 1, 2 . . . , . .
. (n,  )2k+1 = (n,  ) = n .
,
:
i

Rn () = eisn = e
=E

2 n

2k


(i/2)k

k=0

k!

nk =

(i/2)
(i/2)2k+1
+n
,
(2k)!
(2k + 1)!
k=0
k=0






cos

i sin

15.3.


Rn () = E cos + in sin =
2
2

1
2

437

cos + nz i sin

n i sin

n+ i sin

cos nz i sin

, 12 2
E.
Rn () 2 2, ( ,
i) ,
Rn () SU(2).
15.3.2. **
, , - , (15.15), .
,
2 2 :
E
ix
iy
iz

1,
i,
j,
k.

- :
2-
1- : 1
i
j
k

1 i j k
1 i j k
i 1 k j
j k 1 i
k j i 1

:
A = A0 + Ax i + Ay j + Ax k = A0 + A.
A0 , A = Ax i + Ay j +
+ Ax k .

438

15

,
. , ,
. ,
, , , .
, , ( ). ,
, :
( ) ( ).
,
, :
A = A0 A = 1 (A + iAi + jAj + kAk),
2
2
2
2

|A| = A0 + A = AA,

A1 = A 2 .
|A|
, , , -
(. . ).
, ,
,
, 3 .
( ),
, .
, . . , 2 2,
.
2 2, , 3 . . 16 1843
. i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = 1
.

15.3.

1
2

439

in n,
( ) :

Rn () = e

n
2

= cos 2 n sin 2 ,

|Rn ()| = 1.

15.3.3. **
, , ( ) C2 ,
, . , ,
| ,
| = |  + | ,

C.

|  .

. 15.2.

12
C ,

C.
,
.
= x + iy (x, y),
.

440

15

. 15.3. ( )
.

, (x, y) ,
. , . . (0, 0, 1).
- ( ) () 4 C (

). C
.
, , P =   :
x  =

Re ,
1 + ||2

y  =

Im ,
1 + ||2

z  =

1 ||2
.
1 + ||2

P
z.
P , 1 , P , P
+ 12 . , P .
15.3.4. **
12 (
) 2 2.
4 , .
2, . . 2
.

15.3.

1
2

441

, ( )
( 1).
(15.3.1 ), 2 2
.
,
=

E + (P ,  )
,
2

P = (Px , Py , Pz ) R3 ,

|P |  1.

12 tr = 1.
1. ,
(P ,  ).
(P ,  ) |P |,
p =

1 |P |
 0.
2

, |P |  1.
, , .
1 (
), . .
, (15.3.3 12 ).
P ,
  :
  = tr( ) =

1
2

tr( + P ) =

1
2

tr( EP ) = P

1
2

tr E = P .

(15.14) - ,
- 0.
, P

P =   = tr( ).
( )
, .

442

15

15.4. 1
, 15.3 12 , 1,
, .
1
(r, ) r R3 (
z) {+1, 0, 1}:

(r, +1)
(r, ) = (r, 0) = (r).
(r, 1)
,
3 3.
, (15.2.4
jz , j 2 ),
1

0 0 0
0 2 0

s+ = 0 0
2 , s = s+ = 2 0 0 ,
0 0 0
20
0

2
2
0

0 2 0
0 i 2
+1 0 0

2 , s =
2
2 , s = 0 0 0 ,
sx =
y
z
0 i
2 0 2
i 2
2

0 0 1

2
2
0
0
0 i
0
2
2

Ax iAy
A
+A
0
+A
0

z
z

2
2

Ax + iAy

Ax iAy
A+
A

.
0
0

(A, s) =
= 2
2
2
2

A+
Ax + iAy
0
A

0
A

z
z
2

sn = (n, s)
+1, 0, 1, - - 5 .
5 - , , 1
2
= 2
s ,
. .

15.4. 1

443

( z)
-:



0
0
1
|1, +1 = 0 , |1, 0 = 1 , |1, 1 = 0 .
1
0
0
15.4.1. 1
1, ,

Rn () = eisn .
sn +1, 0, 1, ,
-, . ,
s3n = sn

n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,

s2n+2
= s2n = s0n = E,
n

s2n+1
= sn .
n
(15.16)
, (15.2). 1.
, :
Rn () = eisn =




(i
sn ) n
(i)2n+1
(i)2n
+
s2n
,
= E + sn
n!
(2n + 1)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
n=1



  
i sin

Rn () = E + sn i sin +

s2n

n
+nz
0

n+
n


0 ,
sn =
2
2

n+
0 nz
2

(cos 1)

(cos 1),

n 2
1 + n2z nz n

2
2
2

nz n+
nz n
2
2

sn =
2 1 n z
2

n+ 2 nz n+ 1 + n2z

2
2
2

(. 15.1.1 ()) .
, - ?

444

15

{|1, m}+1
m=1
{e }3=1 ,
j , ,
s 1:
|1, +1 =

ex =

ex iey
e+
= ,

2
2
|1, +1 + |1, 1
,

|1, 0 = ez ,

ey =

|1, 1 =

i|1, +1 + i|1, 1

,

ex iey
e
= .

2
2
(15.17)
ez = |1, 0.

(15.18)
, 1
,
, R3 .
15.4.2.
. 12.11 (*),
, k , ,
.
k .
? , , , (. . ), .
e . (15.17), (15.18),
1. 1.
1 3 , 2. ?
. k ( hk) z. (15.18) :

15.5.

445

e ie

x
y

|1, +1 =
2
( k
);

e ie

|1, 1 = x2 y
( k );
|1, 0 = ez
( ).
. E, , A,
A
. ( ):
, ( ).
( ) :
: ( +s)
( s). ,
,
( ), , SU(2).
.

15.5. *
,
; ;
j1 j2 .
(j1 (j1 + 1) j2 (j2 +
+ 1) ). ,

|m1 |m2  = |j1 , m1 |j1 , m2 .
( |m1 |m2  j1
j2 .)
,
j12 , j1z , j22 , j2z .
;
;
J2 = (j1 + j2 )2 Jz = j1z + j2z .

446

15

(*) ,
SU(2), j1 j2 ,
.
Jz . |m1 |m2 
:
Jz |m1 |m2  = (j1z + j2z )|m1 |m2  = (m1 + m2 ) |m1 |m2  = M |m1 |m2 .
  
M

m1 m2 ,
M , (. . 15.4). , M 1
(j1 + j2 ) j1 + j2 . M ( ,
M . 15.4) 1 ( M = (j1 +
+ j2 )) 2j1 + 1, j1 .
M = m1 + m2

m1
j1 + j2

2
1

j1
1

0 1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2 -1
-3
-2
-4
-5
-6

j2
2

m2

(j1 + j2)

. 15.4. M m1 m2 .

.
: |j1 |j2 . J+ = j1+ +
+ j2+
J+ |j1 |j2  = (j1+ + j2+ )|j1 |j2  = (j1+ |j1 ) |j2  + |j1  (j2+ |j2 ) = 0,
  
  
0

15.5.

447

:
| j1 + j2 , j1 + j2  = |j1 |j2 .
     
J

2(j1 +j2 ) |j1 +j2 , j1 +j2  J = j1 + j2 , ,

J = j1 + j2 , M J +J 1. ((*) , j1 + j2 .)
:

J |j1 + j2 , j1 + j2  = 2(j1 + j2 )|j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1 =
= (j1 + j2 )|j1 |j2  = (j1 |j1 )|j2  + |j1 (j2 |j2 ) =


= 2j1 |j1 1|j2  + 2j2 |j1 |j2 1,

j1 |j1 1|j2  + j2 |j1 |j2 1

.
| j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1 =

     
j1 + j2
J

, M =
= j1 + j2 1 (. . 15.4). , |j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1,

j2 |j1 1|j2  j1 |j1 |j2 1

.
| j1 + j2 1, j1 + j2 1 =

     
j1 + j2
J

, J = M ,
:




J+ ( j2 |j1 1|j2  j1 |j1 |j2 1) = 2j1 j2 |j1 |j2  2j1 j2 |j1 |j2  = 0.

 



j1+ | . . .

j2+ | . . .

|j1 + j2 1, j1 + j2 1
J J = j1 + j2 1 M .
, |J, J J = j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1, . . . , |j1 j2 |.
J |J, M , M < J.

448

15

, :
j
1 +j2

(2J + 1) = (j1 + j2 |j1 j2 | + 1) (j1 + j2 + |j1 j2 | + 1) =







J=|j1 j2 |

= (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1).

(*) , , j1 j2 , , j1 +j2 , j1 +j2 1, . . . , |j1
j2 |.

m1 , m2 |J, M 

, , . . .
,
.
15.5.1.

1
2

1
2

12 .
,
:
|1, 1 = |+|+,

S |1, 1 = 2|1, 0 = (
s1 + s2 )|+|+ =
= (
s1 |+) |+ + |+ (
s2 |+) = ||+ + |+|,
  
  
|

|1, 0 =
S |1, 0 =

||+ + |+|
,

2|1, 1 = (
s1 + s2 )

||+ + |+|
=

s1 |+)|
|(
s2 |+) + (

15.5.

449

|1, 1 = ||.
|0, 0 |+|
||+ ( ), |1, 0:
||+ |+|
|0, 0 =
.

2
1 , , 0 .
(,
. . 12 ), ( )
:
(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (r2 , 2 ; r1 , 1 ).
,
:
(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (r1 , r2 ) (1 , 2 ).

(r1 , r2 ) (1 , 2 ) = (r2 , r1 ) (2 , 1 ).
,

(1 , 2 ) = (2 , 1 )

(+ 1, 0),
(r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r1 ).

(+ 0, 1).
15.5.2.
s1 = s2 = s.
Ps :
Ps |m1 |m2  = |m2 |m1 .

450

15

, . .
Ps = Ps1 . , Ps = Ps1 ,
, . 1.
,
:
|2s, 2s = |s|s.
S = s1 + s2 ,
, . . S :
[S , Ps ] = 0.
,
|2s, M ,

M = s, . . . , +s

.
2s 1

|s 1|s + |s|s 1
|2s, 2s 1 =
,

2
. .
|s 1|s |s|s 1
|2s 1, 2s 1 =
.

2
, |2s 1, 2s 1 .
S ,
|2s 1, M ,

M = s + 1, . . . , +s 1,

.
, , S , , (
).
,
.
, K (2s 2s K +
+ 1) ( K = 1 )
Ps |2s k, M  = (1)k |2s k, M ,

k = 0, . . . , K 1.

15.5.

451

HK (K = 0, . . . , 2s) (K + 1)-
, M = 2s K.
|2s K, 2s K
|S, 2s K (S = 2s, . . . , 0).
1. , |2s K, 2s K :
S, 2s K|Ps |2s K, 2s K = S, 2s K|2s K, 2s K = 0,
S = 2s, . . . , 2s K + 1.
Ps |2sK, 2sK K K +1,

|2s K, 2s K, . . .
+
2. HK

HK . HK K + 1 |m1 |m2  (m1 + m2 = M = 2s K).

|m1 |m2  + Ps |m1 |m2  = |m1 |m2  + |m2 |m1 
. , m1 m2 , ,
!
K
+
+ 1,
dim HK =
2
.

HK
HK
!

dim HK
=K K .
2
3. ,
|2s K,)2s *K (1)K .
)
*
K1
+
1

K 1 K1
2
2

, S

HK1
. HK
, , |2s K, 2s K . K
, . K ,
.
, S , ,
|2s K, M  (1)K .

452

15

s ,
(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (1)2s (r2 , 2 ; r1 , 1 ).
,
:
(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (r1 , r2 ) (1 , 2 ).
,
s:
(1 , 2 ) = (1)K (2 , 1 ) = (1)2sS (2 , 1 ).
,
:
(r1 , r2 ) = (1)S (r2 , r1 ).
15.5.3. j +

1
2

j 12
J = j 1,
2
1
1
|j + 2 , j + 2  = |j|+.
J = j + s ,


2j + 1|j + 12 , j 12  = 2j|j 1|+ + |j|,

2j|j 1|+ + |j|

1
1
|j + 2 , j 2  =
.

2j + 1

|j

1
2, j

1
2

|j 1|+ 2j|j|
.
=

2j + 1

J N
|j + 12 , j + 12  |j 12 , j 12 . 12
s 2 = 0, :
J N = (j + s )N = j N + N j N 1 s = (j + N s )j N 1 ,

15.5.

453

C|j + 12 , j + 12 N  = J N |j + 12 , j + 12  = (j + N s )j N 1 |j|+ =
= C  (j + N s )|j N + 1|+

= C  ( (2j N + 1)N |j N |+ + N |j N + 1|).
( , C, C  > 0),

2j N + 1|j N |+ + N |j N + 1|

1
1
|j + 2 , j + 2 N  =
.

  
2j + 1
M

( )

N |j N |+ 2j N + 1|j N + 1|

1
1
|j 2 , j + 2 N  =
.

  
2j + 1
M

15.5.4. 1 + 1
2, 1, 0. 2 0 , 1 .
. , 1

j : j |m = 2|m 1 m =
= 1, 0.
, ( )
:
|2, 2 = |1|1,
|2, 1 =

|0|1 + |1|0
,

|2, 0 =

| 1|1 + 2|0|0 + |1| 1

,

| 1|0 + |0| 1
,

2
|2, 2 = | 1| 1,
|2, 1 =

|1, 1 =

|0|1 |1|0
,

454

15

|1, 0 =

| 1|1 |1| 1
,

|1, 1 =

| 1|0 |0| 1
,

|0, 0 =

| 1|1 |0|0 + |1| 1

.

 16

, . ,
U (|r1 r2 |), |r1 r2 |. :
21
p
2
= p
H
+ 1 + U (|r1 r2 |).
2m1
2m1

(16.1)

,
2
U (|r1 r2 |) = |r1Ze
r2 | ,
( ,
).
, ,
,
,
, .

16.1.
,
.
,
.
, .
,
.

456

16

,
.
2|
(U (|r1 r2 |) = k|r1 r
2
2
, U (|r1 r2 |) = |r1Ze

r2 |
) ,
( )1 .
, (16.1),
- , .
,
. .

.
+1 (
) 1 (
) .
2

16.2.
, , () .
, .
, - :
=p
P
1 + p
2 ,

M = m1 + m 2 ,

R=

r 1 m1 + r2 m2
.
m1 + m2

, -:
v1

v2

 
p
1
p
2  m1 m2
2 m1
p
1 m2 p
m1 m 2
p
= m m
=
, =
, r = r1 r2 .
1
2
m1 + m2
m1 + m2
m1 + m2


   
v.

1 () .
( ).

16.2.

457

,
:
, P ] = ih , [
r , p ] = ih ,
[R

[R , p ] = [
r , P ] = [R , r ] = [
p , P ] = 0.
, (r1 , r2 , p1 , p2 ) (r, R, p, P) .
x-:



1
1 
D(rx , Rx )

m2
=  m1
 = 1,
D(r1x , r2x )  m1 + m2 m1 + m2 


 m2
m1 
D(px , Px )

 m +m m +m
= 1
2
1
2  = 1.

D(p1x , p2x ) 
1
1
, ,
.
(16.1) (, , ):
2
2
= p
H
(16.2)
+ U (|r|) + P .
2
2M




1
H

0
H

0
, H

, H1
. , : .
.
(r1 , r2 ) = (r, R) = 1 (r) 0 (R),

1 + H
0 ) 1 0 = (H
1 1 ) 0 + 1 (H
0 0 ),
(H
  

458

16

, :
ih

1
1 1 ,
=H
t

ih

0
0 0 .
=H
t

:
M
.
U (|r|)
.
,
1 H
0:
H
1 0 = (E1 + E0 )1 0 ,
H

1 1 = E1 1 ,
H

0 0 = E0 0 .
H

( ) , , :
2 2
E0k = h k .
2M

0k = eikr ,

U (|r|)
.

16.3.

2
1 = p
H
+ U (|r|).
(16.3)
2

l = 1 [
rp
].
h
,
, :
l2 ,

lz ,

1.
H

16.3.

459

,
, 1
r . H

2

1 = h  + U (|r|).
H
2

 
 = 1
|g| g ab b ,
a
x
|g| ab x
g ab ( dl):



1, a = c
ab
a
g gbc = c =
,
dl2 =
gab dxa dxb ,
0, a = c
b

ab

|g|d3 x ,
:
g = det(gab ).
(15.5). l2 :
$

%
2

1
1

1
2
sin
= 2
+
.
r
+
r r 2 sin2 2
sin

r r



 =
l2

,
2
L 2 :

2r

2
1 = h 1 r 2 +
H
2 r 2 r
r

h2 l2
2r 2
  
. .

+ U (r).

460

16

1 . l2 H
2

l ,

1 (r) = 1 (r, , ) = R(r) Yl (, ),
Yl l2 :
l2 Yl = l(l + 1)Yl .
Yl lz (
) , Yl Ylm ,
lz Ylm = mYlm ,

l2 Ylm = l(l + 1)Ylm .

Yl l. , Ylm , ( m = l, l 1, . . . , 0, . . . , l)
2l + 1 .
Yl ,
1 (RYl ) = E1 (RYl )
H
  
  
1

%
2
h2 l(l + 1)

1
2

+ U (r) R(r) = E1 R(r).

r
+
2 r 2 r
r
2r 2

(16.4)

1
H
2

, l l(l + 1).
() ,

h2 l(l+1)
2mr 2

h2
l2
2r 2

.
,
.

h2 1
2
() 2
r 2 r r r .
, , r, , .

16.3.

461

, , , ( )
r12 , 1r .
:
R(r) = 1r (r),

1 (r, , ) = 1r (r) Yl (, ).

dP dr, d, d:
dP = |1 |2 d3 r = |R(r)Yl (, )|2 r 2 sin dr d d =




= |(r)Yl (, )| sin dr d d.
2

dP (r) r2 , r
,
.
:
1 r 2 (r) = 1 r 2
r r
r 2 r
r 2 r


r r2


= 12 (r ) = r .
r r

R = r (16.4)
1r , , :
$
%
2
2
h2 l(l + 1)

+
+ U (r) (r) = E1 (r).
(16.5)
2 r 2
2r 2



r
H

r () H
= h2 22 ,
K
2 r
2
;2

l(l+1)
L
U (r) h 2r
= 2r
2
2 . , ,
.

462

16

,
r 0  r < ,
R = r ,

(0) = 0.

(16.6)

16.3.1. r 0
(16.5)
r 0:
%
$
2
2
l(l
+
1)

h
(0) = 0. (16.7)
+ U (r) E1 (r) = 0,

 (r) +
2
2r 2
r 0 ,
U (r).
, r 0 U (r) ,
:
r0
r 2 U (r) 0.
r
2

h  (r) +
2

h2 l(l + 1)
(r)  0,
2r 2

r2  (r) = l(l + 1) (r),

r 0,

(0) = 0,

(0) = 0.

,
r:
r l+1 , 1l .
r
(0) = 0 ,

(r) r l+1 , r 0

1 (r, , ) r l Yl (, ), r 0.
1
r2 ,

(16.8)

,

(16.8) : r l r l , l
( , ).

16.3.

463

() ,
- L2 (R+ ), . . (r)
r , 1r . , . .
.
const
r 2 .
16.3.2. r
r ,
U (r), E1 .
( ) , ,
.

:
2

h  (r)  E1 (r),
2

r ,

(0) = 0.

(16.9)

, (0) = 0 (
) , . (0) = 0
jr (0) .
:
(r) jr (r)
+
= 0.
t
r
= 0
, (r)
t
:
jr (r)
= 0,
r

jr (0) = 0

jr (r) 0.

(16.10)

. (16.7) (r) E1 . (0) = 0 (16.7) E1

464

16

, (r), Re(r), Im(r)

.
,
(r), . . (16.7)
.
(16.10) E1 < 0 ( )

2E1
(r) er , =
, r .
(16.11)
h
( )

2E1
(r) sin(kr + ), k =
, R, r .
h

(16.12)

r. , U (r) a, (a) = 0, l = 0
(r) = C sin(k r ka),


r  a.

, U (r )
.


r

U (r)
, . . ,
, .

, . . :
(0) = 0,
.
U (r ). ,
2 2
U (r) = r
2

16.4.

465

(. 12 )

(r) e

r2
2x20

4
,

x0 =

h
,

r .

16.4.
U (r) =
=
( , 2
Z) U (r) = Zer . , , (16.3),

2
2
1 = p
H
(16.13)
Ze ,
2
|r|
2
er ,

(16.5),
(16.6)
%
$
2
h2 l(l + 1) Ze2

h


(0) = 0. (16.14)
r E1 (r) = 0,
(r) +
2
2r 2
16.4.1.

. (). ,
,
.
Z e. , ,
( )

= 1,

h = 1,

Ze2 = 1.

, .
( 2 103 ),

.
 (1 0,5 103 ) me .

466

16

= me , Z = 1
me = 9,109 1028 = 1,

h = 1,055 1027 = 1,

e = 4,803 1010 . = 1.
:
[me ] = M,

[h] = ET = M L2 T 1 ,

[e2 ] = EL = M L3 T 2 .

. ,
, .
1/100 :
e2 = 2,187 108 / 102 c,
h

c = 2,997 924 58 1010 /.

, , . -
1
= 1

1 + 2,5 105
2
4
1 (v/c)
1 0,5 10

105 .
, ,
= 1010 = 108 )
(1 A

a = h 2 = 0,529 108 = 0,529 A.

me
( )
, , , :
3
ta = h 4 = 2,419 1017 .
me

(Ry). ,
1 :
4
2
0 = 2Ry = me2 = ea = 27,1 = 4,34 1018 = 4,34 1011 .
h

16.4.

467

16.4.2.

1  () +
2

!
l(l + 1) 1
1 () = 0,
+

2n2
22


(0) = 0.

(16.15)

 = E01 = 2n1 2 (n
r ), = ar
.
, . .
 < 0.

() l+1 , 0,

1 = 2.
() e/n , , n

:
() = l+1 e/n u().
u() ,
, l+1 ,
e/n :

%
$

l(l + 1) 2(l + 1)
1
1

l+1
/n

 l+1
() = e
u + 2u
n + 2 .
n +u
2
n
:

u + u l + 1 1 + u n l 1 = 0,

n
2



nl1
u + 2u l + 1 n + 2u
= 0.
n
u() :
u() =


k=0

C k k ,

(16.16)

468

16

u () =

(k + 1)Ck+1 k ,

u () =

k=0

(k + 2)(k + 1)Ck+2 k ,

k=0


)
(k + 2)(k + 1)Ck+2 k+1 + 2(l + 1)(k + 1)Ck+1 k
k=0

%
2(n l 1)
2(k + 1)
k+1
k
+

Ck+1
Ck = 0,
n
n


k=0

%
2(n

1)
Ck k = 0,
(k + 1)kCk+1 + 2(l + 1)(k + 1)Ck+1 2k
n Ck +
n
$
%


2(n l 1 k)
Ck k = 0.
(2l + k + 2)(k + 1)Ck+1 +
n
k=0

:
Ck+1 = Ck

2(n l 1 k)
.
n(2l + k + 2)(k + 1)

(16.17)

k
2 )k
(n
Ck+1 Ck 2 const
nk
k!

u() const e2/n , .

e/n e+/n ,
, , . . .

, , . .
K = 0, 1, 2, . . . , CK = 0,
2(n l 1 K)
=0
CK+1 = CK
 n(2l + K + 2)(K + 1)

n = l + 1 + K N.

=0

, n, , :

k
K

(2l + 1)!(n l 1)!
2
u() = C0
.
n
(2l + 2 + k)!(n l 2 k)!k!
k=0

16.4.

469

k
2
n
K

u() = const
(2l + 2 + k)!(K 1 k)!k!
k=0
K = n l 1.
16.4.3. *
, , .
. . . 1961 .*
* . ., . ., . . . : . 2 . . 2. /
. . . . .: , 2001.

,
. 1913 ,
,
: L = pR = nh.
R2
'
2
2
2
2
p
U = e ,
= U = e
K=

p = e m,
2m
2
R
2R
R
'
2
p 2R = n2h p = nh = e m
R
R
1 = e2 m
R
n2 h2

4
E = U = e 2m2 .
2
2n h

,
,

L = pR = nh
2 ,

K = 12 U , . . E = U
.
2

470

16

0, . . . , (n 1)h,
.
0 < L  nh. L = 0 , .

 17

.
()

,
- ,
. . .

17.1.

. - , . , ,
.

17.2.
17.2.1.

. , ,
,
.
- . 17.1. : - . [ ]
,

472

17

, . .
.

( ).
, , . . , , , ( )
.

, ,
, ,
, ( ) ( ).

, ()
. 17.2.
( ) () .
1965 . (19201992). W
, .
. . . . . ( ). ( )
, , XX . , . . , ( ) . .
, -, (19511988 .),
(1955 .), (1964 .).
17.2.2.
, -

17.2.

473

.
.
, ( ), , .
, . . , - ,
,
.
, ,
. , ,
.

: ?
,
. ? . 17.3.
? . [ cc W]
?
. . (, , ,
) , , , (- ) , , ,
. . . , (?).
,
.

474

17

, .
- ,
?
. . , : ,
.
, . -.
( )
(
) 1 .
, , , ,
, , , ,
. , ,
, ( ).
17.2.3.

. (), , -
, , .

:
, .
() ()
. , 1 , -, , .

17.2.

475

, , . , / , , , ,
, .
, () , .
()
( ),
, ( ).
(, ) , , .
-
( ), ( ), , . , , ,
( ,
), .
, ,
, .
( ) ,
.
, .
, , , /
.

476

17

17.3.
17.3.1.

. ,
2025 2 ,

.
, ,
- :
.


. , ,
, . (),
.
. 17.4.

.
(19282012). W
17.3.2.
,
. () (
) .
() , . . . , ()
2 . . ,
.
. .: , 1999.

17.4. - -

477

N,
20000

N?

10000

1000
1
100
2

10
2000

5
1000

P.X.

6
1000

7 83
2000

4
3000 r,

. 17.5.
2000 . [. 2]

, () (
).

17.4. --
/
. ,
, :

;
;
;
( ).

, , .

478

17

(. . ) :
() .

,
. , , () , . ,
.
, .

, , . . .
17.4.1.
, .
, ,
. ,
. , . , ,
() .
,
. , ( )
, ,

17.4. - -

479

. ( )
, , ,
, , ,
( ).
, ? , , .
(
). () (
):
- () [].
: , .
() []
, . : XX .
[] . :
, , , .
[]. : , .
() []. : .
[]3 . : .
,
, .
, . ,
3 , , , .

480

17

, - .
17.4.2.
,
, . , . ,
.
, ,
( )
.
, , ,
. ,
, , , ,
, .
( ) , , ,
, , ,

( ).
,
? ,
,
, . ( ). () ( ):
() []. :
, .

17.4. - -

481

() [ ()]. : .
[]. : .
[]. : , , -
.
() []. : , , .
() []. : - .

, .
, ,
.
.
, (
)
.
17.4.3.
. , ,
.
, , .
, () (), .

482

17

, : , ,
- .
,
.
3 6 (,
) ( ),
.
, ,
:
, .
,
, . , , , ( ) ,
.
() :

.
.
( )
()
. , , , ,
,

( ).
. ()
, (
).

17.5.

483

6 , . - .

1
2
3
4
5
6

()

. ,
.

. , ( )
. , .

17.5.
,
, . ,
-
.
. .
, 4 ,
(/,
).
. 17.6.
.
.
4 : . ., . . // .
2008. 9. . 7277. : http://theorphys.fizteh.ru/mezhpr/metod/sch.html.

484

17

,
: ,
, ( ) ( , , ?
. 2:21). , ,
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