Chapter 21

Evolution of Populations
1) Population
a. a group of individuals of one species
living in the same area
b. a population is the smallest unit that can
evolve
2) Species
a) individuals that can interbreed in nature.
3) Population genetics definitions
a. gene pool
i. this is the total aggregate of genes in a
population at any one time
b. Genetic structure
i. the distribution of alleles in a population
ii. need to know the allele frequency
(%) of each particular gene
(1) % of dominant alleles (A)
(2) % of recessive alleles (a)
(3) these 2 should = 100%
iii. Also need to know the genotype
frequencies
(1) % of homozygous dominants (AA)
(2) % of homozygous recessives (aa)
(3) % of heterozygotes (Aa)
(4) these 3 numbers should also = 100%
4. Hardy-Weinberg theorem
a. the numbers above describe:
i. a single population (with a reference
to a particular gene)
ii. At a particular moment in time
(for one generation)
b. these numbers will remain the same
as long as the population is not evolving
c. this can be expressed as an equation,
the Hardy-Weinberg theorem:

P
2
+ 2pq + q
2
=1

where:
p= frequency of A
q= frequency of a
p
2
= frequency of AA
q
2
= frequency of aa
2pq= frequency of Aa
d. Remember:
i. p + q should = 1
ii. P
2
+ q
2
+ 2pq should also = 1
e. If allele frequencies are given, the formula can
be used to solve for the predicted genotype
frequencies
f. example: a flower color gene where
dominant allele (A) p= .8
recessive allele (a) q = .2
p
2
+ 2pq + q
2
=1
(.8)
2
+ 2(.8 X.2) + (.2)
2
= 1
.64 + .32 + .04 = 1

64% homozygous dominants
32 % heterozygotes
4% homozygous recessives
g. There is a second way to use Hardy-Weinberg
to describe a non-evolving population
h. a Punnett square can be used to find the same
information






AA
p
2 =
= .64



Aa
pq= .16


Aa
pq= .16

aa
q
2
= .04
A
p= .8
a
q= .2
A
p= .8
a
q= .2
i. Working the Hardy-Weinberg equation gives
us a prediction of the genotype frequencies
for a gene, if the population is not evolving

j. if evolutionary factors are operating on
a population, then the actual frequencies
(as determined by observing the population),
will be different from the prediction
5. Requirements for a population to be in Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium
a. a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
is (by definition) not evolving.
b. such a population must meet these five
criteria.
i. the population size must be large
ii. There can be no movement into or out of
the population
iii. There can be no net mutations
iv. Mating must be random
v. there can be no natural selection




c. If any of the above 5 conditions is violated,
then:
i. predicted values (obtained by using the
equation and the 1
st
generation number
ii. will not match the observed values (seen in
the 2
nd
generation)
d. Such a generation-to-generation change in a
populations allele or genotype frequencies
is called microevolution
Microevolutionary Changes

1) Each condition for Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium produces a type of
microevolutionary change

2) Population size
a. a small population cannot stay in Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium
b. a small sample size has an increased chance
that the 2
nd
generation will deviate from the
1
st

c. This causes a sampling error:
i. a non-representative sample
reproduces
ii. The next generation will perpetuate
the sampling error
iii. The genetic structure of the original
population will not be seen in
succeeding generations
iv. This effect is called genetic drift

d. A small population can be created when a
larger population is drastically reduced by
a disaster of some sort
i. the remaining population may not be
representative of the genetic structure
of the original population
ii. when a population passes though this type
of a disaster, it is called a bottleneck effect

e. Another situation that can generate a small,
non-representative population occurs when
a small group colonizes a new habitat-this
is called the founder effect
3. Movement into or out of a population
a. such movement will add alleles or remove
from the gene pool, changing the genetic
structure
b. this is called gene flow
4. Mutations
a. mutations can directly change the allele
frequencies by altering the DNA
b. mutations do not have a large effect
on a population in a single generation
c. mutation rates are only about one in
every 10
9
base pairs
d. in the long term, mutation is important
when combines with natural selection
5. non-random mating
a. behavior of individuals can select for certain
alleles
b. nonrandom mating often leads to a decline
in heterozygotes and an increase in
homozygous recessives (inbreeding)
6. Sexual selection
i. this behavior can result in distinctions
between males and females sexual
characteristics
ii. This is called sexual dimorphism

7. Natural selection
a. for a population to remain in Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium, all individuals
need to be equally likely to survive and
reproduce
b. selective pressure from the environment
can cause one genotype to be more or
less likely to survive to produce offspring
c. favorable genotypes are maintained and
accumulated, unfavorable are reduced or
eliminated
d. Stabilizing selection
i. in this situation, conditions favor the more
common, intermediate genotype
ii. a reduction in variation is seen, and the
status quo is maintained
iii. Example: human baby birth weights
(1) babies that are too large; are
difficult to deliver
(2) babies that are too small are; not as
healthy and are less likely to survive
E. Directional Selection
i. In this situation, conditions favor a genotype
which may initially have been relatively rare
ii. This is most commonly occurs when the
environment changes or the population
moves to a new environment

iii. The new environment selects for a
characteristic which may have been rare in
the initial population
iv. Example: peppered moths (see lab)
f. Diversifying selection
i. in this situation, environmental conditions
favor genotypes on both extremes
ii. This is a fairly rare situation