Howida Moustafa

RA3

-Our new understandings of brain physiology give us vital information concerning how
we should teach people.
Caine, R. (1990). Understanding a brain-based approach to learning and
teaching. Educational Leadership, 48(2), 66. (Agree)

This article suggests that educators who understand how the brain learns will find new
and different ideas about teaching. When educators understand the principles of a brain based
approach to learning, they will be able re-conceptualize teaching. Instead of traditional teaching,
teachers can use these principles to guide them in choosing appropriate teaching programs and
teaching methods. The article lists twelve principles, discusses the implications of each principle
for teaching, and the advantages of using each principle. For example, the first principle states
the brain operates in parallel. When educators understand this principle they should also
understand that good teaching orchestrate[s] all the dimension[s] of brain parallel processing.
They would also know that good teaching must use theoretical methodology and methods and
understand that teaching involves more than one method or one theory.
Davis, A. (2004). The Credentials of Brain-Based Learning. Journal of Philosophy of
Education, 38(1), 21-36.
(Disagree)
This paper argues that research in brain science cannot provide any authority about learning,
although some seek to use that research to defend changes in teaching. The heart of the paper
tries to show how brain science can contribute to our understanding of learning, but the research
is limited in principle. This author believes that brain based approach does not explain learning.
The article suggests that different learning theories should help educators explore different ways
of explaining how students learn.
Which do I trust?
From my reading of research articles, I conclude that understanding brain function may help
educators design instruction that will not only help learning take place but also fully use a
students learning capacity. I think brain-based schooling might help educators apply more

effective teaching methods. I think the brain-based approach will inform any effective
instruction. Understanding and exploring different approaches to learning is important, with
different approaches focusing on other aspects of learning. I think understanding the brain-based
approach highlights one important aspect of learning.
B-The greater number of times the target information is processed by the learner the
greater the chance the learner has of recalling the information.
Dahlin, B., & Watkins, D. (2000). The role of repetition in the processes of memorising and understanding: A
comparison of the views of German and Chinese secondary school students in Hong Kong. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 70(1), 65-84.

This study explores and describes the how repetition affects the processes of memorizing
and understanding in two different groups of students (German and Chinese). Both groups are
encouraged to recite by their parents, but the Chinese students are more often asked by their
primary teachers to recite.
The HKC students focused on the value of the content of these early memories, while the
German students focused on the value of the activity itself. Thus, German students tended to
downplay the role of repetition in the process of understanding. However, the HKC students
sometimes emphasized repetition combined with 'attentive effort'. In the effort, they attempted
to discover new ideas in the materials they studied to deepen their understanding of the meaning.
The study indicates that the intention to both memorize and understand, found in earlier
research into the study habits of Chinese students, may arise from being aware of two
simultaneous possibilities inherent in repetition: creating a deep impression on the mind and
discovering new.
Thomas J. Shuell (1986). Cognitive Conceptions of Learning. Review of Educational
Research, American Educational Research Association Vol. 56, No. , pp. 411-436.
In exploring cognitive approaches to learning, specifically the information processing theory,
we notice that advocates of information processing see learning as a complex cognitive skill, so
for learners to become proficient, learning must include sub skills. These sub skills involve
predicting, integrating, organizing, and automatizing information. Automatizing is the
development of a skill through routine practice. McLaughlin clarifies automatizing, by

suggesting that memory consists of many nodes that become connected to each other, activated
in sequences through the learning process (controlled process). Specific nodes are activated
during the automatizing process, as well as when a certain input is presented. When this
automatizing processing takes place, controlled processes become available to operate higher
levels of processing.
Which do I trust?
All the articles support the role of repetition or frequency effects on learning. As I have
stated, repetition helps learners to automatize information or knowledge. Reading all the studies
helped explain the relationship between frequency effects and learning. I assume that any
effective instruction should consider the role of repetition on memory and how repetition and the
frequency effect help students to automatize knowledge.
Learner modality preference has a huge impact on learning
Tarver, S. M. (1978). Modality Preference and the Teaching of Reading: A Review. Journal
of Learning Disabilities, 11(1), 17-29. (Disagree)
This paper explicates the interaction between perceptual modality preference and teaching
reading. The study found that the modality preference does not affect reading achievement while,
at the same time, that methods of teaching greatly affect reading achievement. The study
indicates modality preference and method of teaching do not interact significantly when we give
more consideration to the actual method of teaching reading.
Do Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Learners Need Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic
Instruction? http://www.readingrockets.org/article/12446/
By: Daniel T. Willingham
This article suggests we have little evidence to support the impact of modality preference on
learning and that teachers should focus on the best modality for content, not for the student. The
article maintains that content modality is the key to teaching reading.
Which do I trust? I trust the first study.
Although modality theory seems correct, as stated in the first article, the theory does not affect
the learning process greatly while method of teaching does affect the learning process. Using
different methods of teaching is important in designing instruction.

The more positively motivated a human is to learn something the more likely it is that he
will learn
These two articles support the above statement:
Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, Learning, and Motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3/4),
299 http://www.education.com/reference/article/motivation-affects-learning-behavior/
The first article suggests that interest and motivation are important for learning. Highly
interested students achieve more than students with no interest or motivation. The study indicates
that self-interest and motivation increase the quality of learning and confirms that motivation and
interest lead students to adapt tasks and learn more.
The second article provided several effects of motivation on student learning and behavior.
1. Motivation directs behavior toward particular goals.
2. Motivation leads to increased effort and energy.
3. Motivation increases initiation of and persistence in activities
4. Motivation affects cognitive processes.
5. Motivation affects what learners pay attention to and how effectively they process it.
6. Motivation determines which consequences are reinforcing and punishing.
Which do I trust?
The study of motivation is long and deep, as John M. Keller stated in his book Motivational
Design for Learning and Performance. I think motivation is an important aspect of learning and
has several effects on learning and directing learner behavior toward goals. I think any
instructional designer should consider strategies that encourage motivation. John Kellers model
of motivational design suggests motivation is a sequence of events that may include attention,
relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.
If learners process target information deeply, they are more likely to remember it.
Several articles support this statement on the advantages of deep learning.

Warburton, K. (2003). Deep learning and education for sustainability. International

Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 4(1), 44-56. Retrieved
at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=839800&show=abstract
The article states that deep learning is a key strategy by which students extract meaning and
understanding from course materials and experiences. Using such strategies helps maximize
learning opportunities. This paper reviews the influences on deep learning like the influences of
environment and economics. The paper discusses some ways in which educators can encourage
students to use deep learning strategies.
Thomas J. Shuell (1986). Cognitive Conceptions of Learning. Review of Educational
Research, American Educational Research Association Vol. 56, No. , pp. 411-436
In the cognitive approach to learning, the ACT model of learning hypothesizes that our brain
consists of three types of memory: working memory, which has minimal capacity and two kinds
of long term memory, declarative and procedural. Declarative refers to basic knowledge about
why something must be done but doesnt provide the means to do it. Procedural involves
knowing how to do something perfectly and successfully. Andersons model of learning
postulates moving from declarative to procedural knowledge occurs in three stages: cognitive,
which refers to explaining what is learned and produced; associative, which refers techniques for
performing skills successfully; and finally, autonomous, in which responses become quick and
automatized.
Nakatani, Y. (2005). The Effects of Awareness-Raising Training on Oral Communication
Strategy Use. Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 76-91. doi:10.1111/j.00267902.2005.00266.x
Raising student consciousness is another strategy to promote deep learning. This study examines
the use of current patterns of oral communication strategy and their effect on learning. The study
explored how much of these strategies can be explicitly taught. The study also examined to what
the extent strategy use can lead to improving oral communication. The results showed that
learners who participate in strategy training groups significantly improved their oral proficiency
test scores, whereas participants in a control group showed no significant improvement.
Which do I trust?

These articles highlight the advantages of deep learning and understanding, and it became clear
to me that deep learning and understanding helps maximize student learning opportunities. Deep
learning helps students understand and experience the course materials. This information is very
informative and would be useful in designing instruction. In particular, we should design
instruction using tools to help raise student consciousness.
People remember more of what they do than what they see and more of what they see
than what they hear.
Two articles supported this statement, and both of them highlighted the advantages of visual
learning and hands on activity.
Chun, M. M., & Jiang, Y. (1998). Contextual cueing: Implicit learning and memory of
visual context guides spatial attention. Cognitive psychology, 36(1), 28-71.
This study demonstrated that a strong memory for visual context exists to guide spatial attention.
The study indicated that implicit learning and memory of visual context can guide spatial
attention towards task-relevant aspects of a scene.
http://www.etsu.edu/uged/etsu1000/documents/Dales_Cone_of_Experience.pdf
This article also supports the statement. The article shows that learning information is more
effective using visual learning and most effective through hands on experience. The article
suggests that learning through activities results in up to 90% retention.
Which do I trust?
Both articles support the statement. Learning through experience draws on student strengths and
provides deep learning and understanding of materials or knowledge. I think this aspect of
learning through experience should be a tool in designing effective instruction.
We do not understand clearly how people learn.
Bridglall, B. L. (2001). Research and Practice on How People Learn. Pedagogical Inquiry
and Praxi

The article highlights the ways people learn, especially three findings with implications for
education practice. The article suggested how to apply research on how people learn, helping
teachers and examining the links between research on learning and actual education practice.
Using research to understand how people learn not only helps create a bridge to good educational
practice but also enables us as instructional designers to create deep foundations for knowledge
and skills. Understanding these phenomena allows us as educators to develop student learning
habits and skills.

References:
Caine, R. (1990). Understanding a brain-based approach to learning and teaching. Educational
Leadership, 48(2), 66.
Chun, M. M., & Jiang, Y. (1998). Contextual cueing: Implicit learning and memory of visual
context guides spatial attention. Cognitive psychology, 36(1), 28-71.
Dahlin, B., & Watkins, D. (2000). The role of repetition in the processes of memorising and understanding: A
comparison of the views of German and Chinese secondary school students in Hong Kong. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 70(1), 65-84.

Davis, A. (2004). The Credentials of Brain-Based Learning. Journal of Philosophy of

Education, 38(1), 21-36

Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.). (1999). How people
learn: Bridging research and practice. National Academies Press.
Tarver, S. M. (1978). Modality Preference and the Teaching of Reading: A Review. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 11(1), 17-29.
Thomas J. Shuell( 1986). Cognitive Conceptions of Learning. Review of Educational Research,
American Educational Research Association Vol. 56, No. , pp. 411-436
Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1170340

state.edu/docview/305410426?accountid=11789. (305410426).

Nakatani, Y. (2005). The Effects of Awareness-Raising Training on Oral Communication

Strategy Use. Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 76-91. doi:10.1111/j.0026-7902.2005.00266.x
Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, Learning, and Motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3/4), 299.
ttp://www.education.com/reference/article/motivation-affects-learning-behavior/
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/12446/
Warburton, K. (2003). Deep learning and education for sustainability. International Journal of
Sustainability in Higher Education, 4(1), 44-56. Retrieved
at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=839800&show=abstract
http://www.etsu.edu/uged/etsu1000/documents/Dales_Cone_of_Experience.pdf