4.

1 evolutio, biological communities, & species interactions

Adaptation
- environment builds the species
- acquisition of traits that allows a species to survive in its environment
- Charles Darwin = evolution/adaptation
o Evolution a trait must be inherited
Genetically for it to evolve
Mutation: change in DNA
Sexual reproduction mixes genes fitness (ive got ood
genes, I survive, I reproduce
Natural selection: environment selecting certain traits
o Individuals with BEST traits survive
Limitations on where an organism can live
- environmental factors can determine where an organism can live include
physiological stress due to inappropriate levels of moisture,
temp, pH, light, nutrients
competition with other species
predation, parasititsm, disease
luck right place at right time
Critical Limits
- Von Liebig idea that single fcter in shortest supply relative demand is critical
factor (limiting)
- Each enviro factor has BOTH minimum and maximum levels of tolerance
limits = species cannot survive or is unable to reproduce beyond limits
o Interaction of several things, not just one limiting factore, determines
biogeographical location
Tolerance limit may affect the distribution of young differently
than adults
o Tolerance can be useful indicators of specific environmental
characteristics
Ex) trout need clean O2, water dirty/lack O2, trout gone
indicates O2 lack in water
o Habitat: place where live
o Ecological niche: describes either the role played by a species in a
biological community or the total set of environmental factors
determine species distribution
Generalist: has BROAD niche
Ex) rat
Specialist: has a NARROW niche
Ex) giant panda
Ecological niche is a species role & environment
- endemic species occur only in one area ( or one type of environment)
- most organisms = genetic traits & instinctive behaviors restrict ecological
niche

some species have complex social structure = expand resources and

environment
o ex) elephants chimpanzee, dolphin = learn from social group new
ways to do things when resources and land mass expand
- principle of competition exclusion: no two species can occup the same
ecological niche for long (species more efficient excludes other specie)
- resource partioning: allow several species to use diff parts of same
resource & coexist within single habitat
o ex) woodland warblers- similar species forages same trees, they
avoided competition by specializing different levels of forest canopy
o resources partitioned in time as well as space
Species maintain species diversity
- speciation: development of a new species
o ex) Galapagos Island Finches 13 species derive from OG that probs
blew to island from mainland, speciation occurres from geographic
isolation (islands far apart tht pop were genetically isolated; couldnt
inbreed with pop on other islands)
- allopatric speciation: speciation occurs when pop geographically separated
- sympatric speciation: occurs within one geographical area
Taxonomy descrives relationships among species
- taxonomy: study of organisms & their relationships
- binomials: most specific levels of te tree, genius & species to compose names
4.2 Species interactions shape biological communites
Competition leads to resource allocation
- comp: antagonist relationship within bio community
- organisms compete for limites resources: energy, matter, living space,
specific sites
- INTRAspecific competition: competition among members of SAME species
- INTERspecific competition: competition btwn members of DIFFERENT
species
- Competition shapes a species population & biological community by causing
shift of focus from one resource to another
Predation affects species relationships
- Predator: any organism that feeds directly on another LIVING organism
(whether or not it kills prey)
o Parasite & pathogen considered predator
o Affects:
All stages of life cycle of predator & prey species
Many specialized food obtaining mechanisms
Evolutionary adjustments in behavior & body characteristics
- Predator mediated competition: a superior competitor in a habitat builds
up larger pop than the competing species; predators take note & increase
their hunting pressure on the superior species, reducings its abundance &
allowing weaker competitor to increase its numbers

Come adaptations help avoid predation

- Coevolution: response of predator to prey, over tens of thousands of years,
produces physical & behavioral changes in process
o Can be mutually benefical (ex: plants & pollinations)
o Ex: fruit bats pollinate & disperse seeds of tropical plants
- Batesian mimicry: species that are harmless but resemble poisonous or
distasteful ones, gaining protection against predators who remember a bad
experience with actual toxic organism
- Mullerian mimicry: involves two unpalatable or dangerous species who
look alike
o Predators learn to avoid either species both benefit
Symbiosis involves intimate relations among species
- Symbiosis: two or more species live intimately together, with their fates
linked
o Often enhance survival of one or both partners
- Mutualism: cooperative, mutualistic relationships may be more important in
evolution
- Commensalism: one member clearly benefits & other apparently is neither
benefited nor harmed
- Parasitism: form of predation, may be considered symbiosis b/c of the
dependency of parasite on its host
Keystone species have disproportionable influence
- Keystone species: play critical role in a biological community that is out of
proportion to its abundance
o Clear that the effect of keystone species on communities often ripple
across trophic levels
4.3 community properties affect species and populations
Productivity is a measure of biological activity
- Primary productivity: rate of biomass production, an indication of the rate
of solar energy conversion to chemical energy
- Net primary production: energy left after respiration
Abundance & diversity measures the #/ variety of organisms
- Abundance: expression of the total # of organisms in a biological community
- Diversity: measure of the # of diff species, ecological niches or genetic
variation present
o Productivity related to abundance & productivity
o Abundance of particular species = b/c total diversity of that
community
o General rule! = diversity decreases but abundance increases
o Climate & history important factors
Community structures is a special distribution or organisms
- Ecological structure: patterns of special distribution of individuals &
populations within a community
o Ordered patterns: may be determined by the physical environment ->
more often result of biological competition

o Clustered patterns: protection, mutual assistance, reproduction or

access to a particular environmental resource
Ex) dense school of fish
Complexity & connectedness are important eco factors
- Complexity: refers to the # of species @ each trophic level & the # of trophic
levels in that community
o Ex: diverse community not that complex, if all species clustered only
in a few trophic levels
o Complex highly interconnected community might have many trophic
levels (form elaborate food web)
Resilience & stability make communities resistant to disturbance
- Identify 3 kinds of stability in ecosystems:
o Constancy: lack of fluctuations in comp or functions
o Inertia: resistance to preturbations
o Renewal: ability to repair damage after disturbance
- In diverse & highly specialized ecosystem = removal of a few keystone
species can eliminate many other associated species
- Diversity widely considered important
Edges & boundaries are the interfaces between adjacent communities
- Edge effects: boundary btwn one habitat & its neighbors
- Ectones: boundaries btwn adjacent communities
- Open communities: gradual or indistinct boundaries
4.4 communites are dynamic & change over time
Nature of communities debated
- Climax community: species replace each other in predictable groups & in
fixed regular order
o Maximum complexity & stability that was possible
Ecological succession is the history of community development
- Primary succession: land that is bare of soil is colonized by living organisms
where none lived before
o Ex: sanbar, mudslide, rockface, volcanic flow
- Secondary succession: existing community is disturbed, new one develops
from the biological legacy of the old
o Permits new species to colonize = ecological development
- Pioneer species: in primary succession on land, 1st colonists are hardly that
can withstand harsh enviro w/ few resources
Appropriate disturbances can benefit communitier
- Disturbance: any force that disrupts the established patterns of species
diversity & abundance, community structure or community properties
-