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Unit 1
Introduction to Mechatronics Systems
Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of Mechanical engineering, Electronic
engineering, Computer engineering, Control engineering, and Systems Design engineering in order
to design, and manufacture useful products. The term mechatronics is defined as a multidisciplinary
engineering system design, that is to say it rejects splitting engineering into separate disciplines.
A mechatronics engineer unites the principles of mechanics, electronics, and computing to
generate a simpler, more economical and reliable system. Mechatronics is centered on mechanics,
electronics, computing, control engineering, molecular engineering (from nanochemistry and
biology), and optical engineering, which, combined, make possible the generation of simpler, more
economical, reliable and versatile systems. The portmanteau "mechatronics" was coined by Tetsuro
Mori, the senior engineer of the Japanese company Yaskawa in 1969. An industrial robot is a prime
example of a mechatronics system; it includes aspects of electronics, mechanics, and computing to
do its day-to-day jobs.

The development of mechatronics has gone through three stages: The first stage corresponds
to
the
years
around
the
introduction
of
word
mechatronics.
During this stage, technologies used in mechatronics systems developed rather independently of
each other and individually.With start of eighties a synergic integration of different technologies
started taking place.A notable example is opto-electronics, an integration of optics and electronics.
The concept of hardware/software co-design also started in this year.
The third stage, which is considered as start of Mechatronics Age, starts with the early
nineties. The most notable aspect of this stage are more and more integration of different engineering
disciplinesand increased use of computational intelligence in the mechatronics products and
systems.Another important development in the third stage is the concept of micromechatronis, i.e.,
start of miniaturization the components such as microactuators and microsensors.Design of such
products and processes, therefore, has to be the outcome of a multi-disciplinary activity rather than
an
interdisciplinary
one.
Hence mechatronics challenges the traditional engineering thinking, because the way it is operating,
is crossing the boundaries between the traditional engineering disciplines.
SENSORS
A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal. A sensor's sensitivity indicates
how much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity changes. For instance, if the
mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 C, the sensitivity is

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1 cm/C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming a linear characteristic). Sensors that measure very
small changes must have very high sensitivities.

A good sensor obeys the following rules:

Is sensitive to the measured property


Is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application
Does not influence the measured property

Characteristics of sensor

The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity
error, but the sensor is still linear.
Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach
a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range
defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an offset or
bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity.
Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full
range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.
If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there is a
dynamic error. Often, this behaviour is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error
and phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as
drift (telecommunication).
Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long period
of time.
Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there is
some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one
direction than in the other.
If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured
property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.
If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a
dynamic error, or if the variable or added noise noise changes periodically at a frequency
near a multiple of the sampling rate may induce aliasing errors.
The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.
DISPLACEMENT AND POSITION SENSORS
Displacement Measurement
Measurement of displacement is the basis of measuring:
Position
Velocity
Acceleration
Stress
Force

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Pressure
Proximity
Thickness
Displacement Sensors types

Potentiometers displacement sensors

Inductive displacement sensors

Capacitive displacement sensors

Eddy current displacement sensors

Piezoelectric displacement sensors

Ultrasonic displacement sensors

Magnetostrictive displacement sensors

Optical encoder displacement sensors

Strain Gages displacement sensors

Resistive displacement sensors: An electrically conductive wiper that slides against a fixed
resistive element. To measure displacement, a potentiometer is typically wired in a voltage divider
configuration.

A known voltage is applied to the resistor ends. The contact is attached to the moving
object of interest The output voltage at the contact is proportional to the displacement.

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Inductive displacement sensors


The coil acts as a source of magnetomotive force that drives the flux through the magnetic
circuit and the air gap. The presence of the air gap causes a large increase in circuit reluctance and a
corresponding decrease in the flux. Hence, a small variation in the air gap results in a
measurable change in inductance.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)


Motion of a magnetic core changes the mutual inductance of two secondary coils relative to a
primary coil Primary coil voltage: VSsin(wt)
Secondary coil induced emf:
V1=k1sin(wt) and V2=k2sin(wt)
k1 and k2 depend on the amount of coupling between the primary and the secondary coils,
which is proportional to the position of the coil.
When the coil is in the central position,
k1=k2; VOUT=V1-V2=0
When the coil is is displaced x units,
k1 not equal to k2 ;
VOUT=(k1-k2)sin(wt)
Positive or negative displacements are determined from the phase
of VOUT.

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The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical transformer used for
measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three solenoidal coils placed end-to-end around
a tube. The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A cylindrical
ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis of
the tube.
An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be induced in each
secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary. The frequency is usually in the
range 1 to 10 kHz.
As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced in the secondaries
to change. The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the output voltage is the difference
(hence "differential") between the two secondary voltages. When the core is in its central position,

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equidistant between the two secondaries, equal but opposite voltages are induced in these two coils,
so the output voltage is zero.
When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases as the other decreases,
causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum. This voltage is in phase with the
primary voltage. When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also increases from
zero to a maximum, but its phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude of the output
voltage is proportional to the distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which is why the
device is described as "linear". The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of the displacement.
Because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, it can move without friction, making
the LVDT a highly reliable device. The absence of any sliding or rotating contacts allows the LVDT
to be completely sealed against the environment.
LVDTs are commonly used for position feedback in servomechanisms, and for automated
measurement in machine tools and many ot her industrial and scientific applications.

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field, or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal.
The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity
sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be
suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor requires a metal target.
The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range". Some sensors have
adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection distance.
Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of
mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.
Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in distance
between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines, compressors, and
motors that use sleeve-type bearings.

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A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a
temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for
measurement and control[1] and can also be used to convert heat into electric power. They are
inexpensive[2] and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can measure a
wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less than one degree
Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.[3]
Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.
Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which have
a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used
for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be important
when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the measuring
instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are less costly than
the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually standardized against a reference
temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction
compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic instruments
can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the
precision and accuracy of measurements.
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or resistive thermal
devices (RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance
of some materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they
are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are slowly replacing the use of
thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and
repeatability.[1]
There are many categories; carbon resistors, film, and wire-wound types are the most widely used.

Carbon resistors are widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very reproducible
results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable form at extremely low temperatures.
They generally do not suffer from significant hysteresis or strain gauge effects. Carbon
resistors have been used for many years because of their advantages.

Film thermometers have a layer of platinum on a substrate; the layer may be extremely thin,
perhaps one micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively low cost (the high cost of
platinum being offset by the tiny amount required) and fast response. Such devices have
improved performance although the different expansion rates of the substrate and platinum
give "strain gauge" effects and stability problems.

Wire-wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature ranges. The
coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the
wire to minimize strain and consequential drift.

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ME1402 MECHATRONICS
(Common to Mechanical and Production- VI Semester)
OBJECTIVE
To understand the interdisciplinary applications of Electronics, Electrical, Mechanical and
Computer Systems for the Control of Mechanical and Electronic Systems.
1.MECHATRONICS, SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS 9
Introduction to Mechatronics Systems Measurement Systems Control Systems Microprocessor
based Controllers. Sensors and Transducers Performance Terminology Sensors for
Displacement, Position and Proximity; Velocity, Motion, Force, Fluid Pressure, Liquid Flow, Liquid
Level, Temperature, Light Sensors Selection of Sensors
2.ACTUATION SYSTEMS 9
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems Directional Control Valves Rotary Actuators. Mechanical
Actuation Systems Cams Gear Trains Ratchet and pawl Belt and Chain Drives Bearings.
Electrical Actuation Systems Mechanical Switches Solid State Switches Solenoids D.C
Motors A.C Motors Stepper Motors.
3.SYSTEM MODELS AND CONTROLLERS 9
Building blocks of Mechanical, Electrical, Fluid and Thermal Systems, Rotational Transnational
Systems, Electromechanical Systems Hydraulic Mechanical Systems. Continuous and discrete
process Controllers Control Mode Two Step mode Proportional Mode Derivative Mode
Integral Mode PID Controllers Digital Controllers Velocity Control Adaptive Control
Digital Logic Control Micro Processors Control.
4. PROGRAMMING LOGIC CONTROLLERS 9
Programmable Logic Controllers Basic Structure Input / Output Processing Programming
Mnemonics Timers, Internal relays and counters Shift Registers Master and Jump Controls
Data Handling Analogs Input / Output Selection of a PLC Problem.
5.DESIGN OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEM 9
Stages in designing Mechatronics Systems Traditional and Mechatronic Design - Possible Design
Solutions Case Studies of Mechatronics Systems, Pick and place robot automatic Car Park
Systems Engine Management Systems.
TOTAL : 45
TEXT BOOKS
W. Bolton, Mechatronics, Pearson Education, Second Edition, 1999.
REFERENCES
Michael B. Histand and David G. Alciatore, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement
Systems, McGraw-Hill International Editions, 2000.
Bradley D. A., Dawson D., Buru N.C. and. Loader A.J, Mechatronics, Chapman and Hall, 1993.
Dan Necsulesu, Mechatronics, Pearson Education Asia, 2002 (Indian Reprint).
Lawrence J. Kamm, Understanding Electro Mechanical Engineering, An Introduction to
Mechatronics, Prentice Hall of India Pvt., Ltd., 2000.
Nitaigour Premchand Mahadik, Mechatronics, Tata McGraw-Hill publishing Company Ltd, 2003

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Unit 1

Unit 2 ACTUATION SYSTEMS


Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems Directional Control Valves Rotary Actuators. Mechanical
Actuation Systems Cams Gear Trains Ratchet and pawl Belt and Chain Drives Bearings.
Electrical Actuation Systems Mechanical Switches Solid State Switches Solenoids D.C
Motors A.C Motors Stepper Motors.

Pneumatic systems
Pneumatics is a branch of technology, which deals with the study and application of use of
pressurized gas to affect mechanical motion.
Pneumatic systems are extensively used in industry, where factories are commonly plumbed with
compressed air or other compressed inert gases. This is because a centrally-located and electricallypowered compressor that powers cylinders and other pneumatic devices through solenoid valves is
often able to provide motive power in a cheaper, safer, more flexible, and more reliable way than a
large number of electric motors and actuators.
Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.

Gases used in pneumatic systems


Pneumatic systems in fixed installations such as factories use compressed air because a sustainable
supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air. The air usually has moisture removed and a
small quantity of oil added at the compressor, to avoid corrosion of mechanical components and to
lubricate them.
Factory-plumbed, pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakages as the gas is
commonly just air. Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases which are an
asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen - often referred to as OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen), when
supplied in cylinders.
Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard - including nitrogen, which makes up
approximately 80% of air. Compressed oxygen (approx. 20% of air) would not asphyxiate, but it
would be an extreme fire hazard, so is never used in pneumatically powered devices.
Portable pneumatic tools and small vehicles such as Robot Wars machines and other hobbyist
applications are often powered by compressed carbon dioxide because containers designed to hold it
such as soda stream canisters and fire extinguishers are readily available, and the phase change
between liquid and gas makes it possible to obtain a larger volume of compressed gas from a lighter
container than compressed air would allow. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can also be a
freezing hazard when vented inappropriately.
Advantages of pneumatics

Simplicity of Design And Control

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o

Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders & other components. Control
is as easy as it is simple ON - OFF type control.
Reliability
o Pneumatic systems tend to have long operating lives and require very little
maintenance.
o Because gas is compressible, the equipment is less likely to be damaged by shock.
The gas in pneumatics absorbs excessive force, whereas the fluid of hydraulics
directly transfers force.
Storage
o Compressed Gas can be stored, allowing the use of machines when electrical power is
lost.
Safety
o Very low chance of fire (compared to hydraulic oil).
o Machines can be designed to be overload safe.

Hydraulic systems
Hydraulic machinery are machines and tools which use fluid power to do simple work. Heavy
equipment is a common example.
In this type of machine, high-pressure liquid called hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout
the machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders. The fluid is controlled directly or
automatically by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes.
The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power that can be
transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide array of
actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering medium

Advantages of hydraulics

Liquid (as a gas is also a 'fluid') does not absorb any of the supplied energy.
Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher forces due to the
incompressibility.

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The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring


action. When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the
pressure on the load; there is no need to "bleed off" pressurized air to release the pressure on
the load.

Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic machinery. They
allow fluid flow into different paths from one or more sources. They usually consist of a piston
inside a cylinder which is electrically controlled. The movement of the cylinder restricts or permits
the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow.
Directional control valves are mainly two types:

Hydraulic and
Pneumatic.

Hydraulic directional control valves are for a liquid working fluid (e.g. water, hydraulic oil) and
pneumatic directional control valves are for a gaseous (usually air) working fluid.
Control valves

Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a spool
inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the housing, intersecting
grooves and channels route the fluid based on the spool's position.
The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the supply fluid is
blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the hydraulic fluid to an actuator
and provides a return path from the actuator to tank. When the spool is moved to the opposite
direction the supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is allowed to return to neutral
(center) position the actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position.
Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each hydraulic
cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.
Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking, spools typically
have a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25 m). The valve block will
be mounted to the machine's frame with a three point pattern to avoid distorting the valve block and
jamming the valve's sensitive components.
The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure, or solenoids
which push the spool left or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude outside the housing,
where it is accessible to the actuator.
The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen by flow
capacity and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate proportional to
valve position), while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of the most expensive
and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.

Pressure relief valves are used in several places in hydraulic machinery; on the return circuit
to maintain a small amount of pressure for brakes, pilot lines, etc... On hydraulic cylinders, to

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prevent overloading and hydraulic line/seal rupture. On the hydraulic reservoir, to maintain a
small positive pressure which excludes moisture and contamination.
Pressure regulators reduce the supply pressure of hydraulic fluids as needed for various
circuits.
Sequence valves control the sequence of hydraulic circuits; to ensure that one hydraulic
cylinder is fully extended before another starts its stroke, for example.
Shuttle valves provide a logical or function.
Check valves are one-way valves, allowing an accumulator to charge and maintain its
pressure after the machine is turned off, for example.
Pilot controlled Check valves are one-way valve that can be opened (for both directions) by
a foreign pressure signal. For instance if the load should not be hold by the check valve
anymore. Often the foreign pressure comes from the other pipe that is connected to the motor
or cylinder.
Counterbalance valves are in fact a special type of pilot controlled check valve. Whereas
the check valve is open or closed, the counterbalance valve acts a bit like a pilot controlled
flow control.
Cartridge valves are in fact the inner part of a check valve; they are off the shelf components
with a standardized envelope, making them easy to populate a proprietary valve block. They
are available in many configurations; on/off, proportional, pressure relief, etc. They generally
screw into a valve block and are electrically controlled to provide logic and automated
functions.
Hydraulic fuses are in-line safety devices designed to automatically seal off a hydraulic line
if pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes too high.
Auxiliary valves in complex hydraulic systems may have auxiliary valve blocks to handle
various duties unseen to the operator, such as accumulator charging, cooling fan operation,
air conditioning power, etc. They are usually custom valves designed for the particular
machine, and may consist of a metal block with ports and channels drilled. Cartridge valves
are threaded into the ports and may be electrically controlled by switches or a microprocessor
to route fluid power as needed.

Hydraulic rotary actuators


The hydraulic rotary actuator is a device which transform hydraulic power (pressure and flow) in
rotational mechanical power (torque and speed).
It is used for alternative movements with a limited rotation angle (max 280).The simplicity of
construction allows to obtain very high mechanical efficiency values, close to 95%.

Mechanical actuation systems

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Mechanical linear actuators operate by conversion of rotary motion into linear motion. Conversion is
commonly made via a few simple types of mechanism:

Screw: Screw jack, ball screw and roller screw actuators all operate on the principle of the
simple machine known as the screw. By rotating the actuator's nut, the screw shaft moves in
a line.
Wheel and axle: Hoist, winch, rack and pinion, chain drive, belt drive, rigid chain and rigid
belt actuators operate on the principle of the wheel and axle. By rotating a wheel/axle (e.g.
drum, gear, pulley or shaft) a linear member (e.g. cable, rack, chain or belt) moves.[1]
Cam: Cam actuators function on a principle similar to that of the wedge, but provide
relatively limited travel. As a wheel-like cam rotates, its eccentric shape provides thrust at the
base of a shaft.

Some mechanical linear actuators only pull (e.g. hoist, chain drive and belt drive) and others only
push (e.g. cam actuator).

Cams
A linear actuator is an actuator that, when driven by a non-linear motion, creates linear motion (as
opposed to rotary motion, e.g. of an electric motor). Mechanical and hydraulic actuation are the most
common methods of achieving the linear motion.
A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in transforming rotary
motion into linear motion or vice-versa.[1][2] It is often a part of a rotating wheel (e.g. an eccentric
wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder with an irregular shape) that strikes a lever at one or more points on
its circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to deliver pulses of power to a steam
hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating (back
and forth) motion in the follower, which is a lever making contact with the cam.

Gear train
A gear train is a set or system of gears arranged to transfer rotational torque from one part of a
mechanical system to another.
Gear trains may consist of:

Driving gears - attached to the input shaft

Driven gears/Motor gears - attached to the output shaft

Idler gears - interposed between the driving and driven gear in order to maintain the direction
of the output shaft the same as the input shaft or to increase the distance between the drive
and driven gears. A compound gear train refers to two or more gears used to transmit motion.

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Types of gear trains include:

Simple gear train


Compound gear train
Epicyclic gear train
Reverted gear train

A gear train is two or more gear working together by meshing their teeth and turning each other in a
system to generate power and speed. It reduces speed and increases torque. To create large gear
ratio, gears are connected together to form gear trains. They often consist of multiple gears in the
train. The smaller gears are one-fifth of the size of the larger gear. Electric motors are used with the
gear systems to reduce the speed and increase the torque. Electric motor is connected to the driving
end of each train and is mounted on the test platform. The output end output end of the gear train is
connected to a large magnetic particle brake that is used to measure the output torque.
Types of Gear Trains

Simple Gear Train - The most common of the gear train is the gear pair connecting parallel
shafts. The teeth of this type can be spur, helical or herringbone. The angular velocity is
simply the reverse of the tooth ratio. The main limitation of a simple gear train is that the
maximum speed change ratio is 10:1. For larger ratio, large size of gear trains are required.
The sprockets and chain in the bicycle is an example of simple gear train. When the paddle is
pushed, the front gear is turned and that meshes with the links in the chain. The chain moves
and meshes with the links in the rear gear that is attached to the rear wheel. This enables the
bicycle to move.

Compound Gear Train - For large velocities, compound arrangement is preferred. Two
keys are keyed to a single shaft. A double reduction train can be arranged to have its input
and output shafts in a line, by choosing equal center distance for gears and pinions.

Epicyclic Gear Train - It is the system of epicyclic gears in which at least one wheel axis
itself revolves around another fixed axis.

Planetary Gear Train - It is made of few components, a small gear at the center called the
sun, several medium sized gears called the planets and a large external gear called the ring
gear. The planet gear rolls and revolves about the sun gear and the ring gear rolls on the
planet gear. Planetary gear trains have several advantages. They have higher gear ratios.
They are popular for automatic transmissions in automobiles. They are also used in bicycles
for controlling power of pedaling automatically or manually. They are also used for power
train between internal combustion engine and an electric motor.
Applications
Gear trains are used in representing the phases of moon on a watch or clock dial. It is also
used for driving a conventional two-disk lunar phase display off the day-of-the-week shaft of
the calendar.

Ratchet & pawl

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A ratchet is a device that allows continuous linear or rotary motion in only one direction while
preventing motion in the opposite direction. Because most socket wrenches today use ratcheting
handles, the term "ratchet" alone is often used to refer to a ratcheting wrench, and the terms "ratchet"
and "socket" are closely associated in many users' minds.
A ratchet consists of a round gear (see Figure 1) or linear rack with teeth, and a pivoting,
springloaded finger called a pawl (or click[1]) that engages the teeth. The teeth are uniform but
asymmetrical, with each tooth having a moderate slope on one edge and a much steeper slope on the
other edge.
When the teeth are moving in the unrestricted (i.e., forward) direction (see Figure 2), the pawl easily
slides up and over the gently sloped edges of the teeth, with a spring forcing it (often with an audible
'click') into the depression between the teeth as it passes the tip of each tooth. When the teeth move
in the opposite (backward) direction, however, the pawl will catch against the steeply sloped edge of
the first tooth it encounters, thereby locking it against the tooth and preventing any further motion in
that direction.

Backlash
Because the ratchet can only stop backward motion at discrete points (i.e., at tooth boundaries), a
ratchet does allow a limited amount of backward motion. This backward motionwhich is limited
to a maximum distance equal to the spacing between the teethis called backlash. In cases where
backlash must be minimized, a smooth, toothless ratchet with a high friction surface such as rubber
is sometimes used. The pawl bears against the surface at an angle so that any backward motion will
cause the pawl to jam against the surface and thus prevent any further backward motion. Since the
backward travel distance is primarily a function of the compressibility of the high friction surface,
this mechanism can result in significantly reduced backlash.

Belt drives
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically. Belts may
be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative movement. Belts are
looped over pulleys. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys in the same
direction, or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the shafts is opposite. As a source of
motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to continually carry a load
between two points.

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Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially aligned.
Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The demands on a belt drive
transmission system are large and this has led to many variations on the theme. They run smoothly
and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes, albeit with less strength
than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in systems that
only formerly allowed chains or gears.
Pros and cons

Belt drive, moreover, is simple, inexpensive, and does not require axially aligned shafts. It helps
protect the machinery from overload and jam, and damps and isolates noise and vibration. Load
fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance.
They have high efficiency (90-98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are
inexpensive if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension. Different
speeds can be obtained by step or tapered pulleys.
The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley diameters, due to slip
and stretch. However, this problem has been largely solved by the use of toothed belts. Temperatures
ranges from 31 F (35 C) to 185 F (85 C). Adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler
pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch.
Flat belts

The drive belt: used to transfer power from the engine's flywheel. Here shown driving a threshing
machine.
Flat belts were used early in line shafting to transmit power in factories.[1] It is a simple system of
power transmission that was well suited for its day. It delivered high power for high speeds (500 hp
for 10,000 ft/min), in cases of wide belts and large pulleys. These drives are bulky, requiring high
tension leading to high loads, so vee belts have mainly replaced the flat-belts except when high
speed is needed over power. The Industrial Revolution soon demanded more from the system, and
flat belt pulleys needed to be carefully aligned to prevent the belt from slipping off. Because flat
belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with a slightly convex or
"crowned" surface (rather than flat) to keep the belts centered. Flat belts also tend to slip on the
pulley face when heavy loads are applied and many proprietary dressings were available that could
be applied to the belts to increase friction, and so power transmission. Grip was better if the belt was
assembled with the hair (i.e. outer) side of the leather against the pulley although belts were also
often given a half-twist before joining the ends (forming a Mbius strip), so that wear was evenly
distributed on both sides of the belt (DB). Belts were joined by lacing the ends together with leather
thonging,[2][3] or later by steel comb fasteners.[4] A good modern use for a flat belt is with smaller
pulleys and large central distances. They can connect inside and outside pulleys, and can come in
both endless and jointed construction.

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Round belts

Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a circular (or near
circular) groove. They are for use in low torque situations and may be purchased in various lengths
or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, gluing or welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early
sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to a great effect.
Vee belts

Belts on a Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine.

A multiple-V-belt drive on an air compressor.


Vee belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is
now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed of
movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. The V-belt was developed in 1917 by John
Gates of the Gates Rubber Company. They are generally endless, and their general cross-section
shape is trapezoidal. The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave),
with the result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load
increases the greater the load, the greater the wedging action improving torque transmission
and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts
trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center
distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of both pulleys.
Optimal speed range is 10007000 ft/min. V-belts need larger pulleys for their larger thickness than
flat belts. They can be supplied at various fixed lengths or as a segmented section, where the
segments are linked (spliced) to form a belt of the required length. For high-power requirements, two
or more vee belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on
matching multi-groove sheaves. The strength of these belts is obtained by reinforcements with fibers
like steel, polyester or aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar). This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or

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sometimes a "classical V-belt drive"). When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link Vbelts may be employed. However they are weaker and only usable at speeds up to 4000 ft/min. A
link v-belt is a number of rubberized fabric links held together by metal fasteners. They are length
adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed.
Multi-groove belts

A multi-groove or polygroove belt [5] is made up of usually 5 or 6 "V" shapes along side each other.
This gives a thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus is more flexible, although often wider. The
added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as less energy is wasted in the internal friction of
continually bending the belt. In practice this gain of efficiency is overshadowed by the reduced
heating effect on the belt, as a cooler-running belt lasts longer in service.
A further advantage of the polygroove belt, and the reason they have become so popular, stems from
the ability to be run over pulleys on the ungrooved back of the belt. Although this is sometimes done
with vee belts and a single idler pulley for tensioning, a polygroove belt may be wrapped around a
pulley on its back tightly enough to change its direction, or even to provide a light driving force. [6]
Any vee belt's ability to drive pulleys depends on wrapping the belt around a sufficient angle of the
pulley to provide grip. Where a single-vee belt is limited to a simple convex shape, it can adequately
wrap at most three or possibly four pulleys, so can drive at most three accessories. Where more must
be driven, such as for modern cars with power steering and air conditioning, multiple belts are
required. As the polygroove belt can be bent into concave paths by external idlers, it can wrap any
number of driven pulleys, limited only by the power capacity of the belt. [6]
This ability to bend the belt at the designer's whim allows it to take a complex or "serpentine" path.
This can assist the design of a compact engine layout, where the accessories are mounted more
closely to the engine block and without the need to provide movable tensioning adjustments. The
entire belt may be tensioned by a single idler pulley.
Ribbed belt

A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates from contact
between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley. Its single-piece structure it reported to
offer an even distribution of tension across the width of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a
power range up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off the back of
the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration. The ribbed
belt may be fitted on various applications : compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural machinery, food
mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc.[7]
Film belts

Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist of a very thin
belt (0.5-15 millimeters or 100-4000 micrometres) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber. They are
generally intended for low-power (10 hp or 7 kW), high-speed uses, allowing high efficiency (up to
98%) and long life. These are seen in business machines, printers, tape recorders, and other lightduty operations.

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Timing belts

Timing belt

Belt-drive cog on a belt-driven bicycle


Timing belts, (also known as Toothed, Notch, Cog, or Synchronous belts) are a positive transfer
belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed pulley.
When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often used to
transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their name). They are often used in
lieu of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary. Camshafts of
automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts. Timing belts
need the least tension of all belts, and are among the most efficient. They can bear up to 200 hp
(150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min.
Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical offset tooth design forms a
chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage progressively. The chevron pattern design is selfaligning. The chevron pattern design does not make the noise that some timing belts make at
idiosyncratic speeds, and is more efficient at transferring power (up to 98%).
Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially fabricated toothed
pulleys, less protection from overloading and jamming, and the lack of clutch action.

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Specialty belts

Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However, designs for continuously
variable transmissions exist that use belts that are a series of solid metal blocks, linked together as in
a chain, transmitting power on the compression side of the loop.
Rolling roads

Belts used for rolling roads for wind tunnels can be capable of 250 km/h.[8]
Flying rope

For transmission of mechanical power over distance without electrical energy, a flying rope can be
used[9]. A wire or manila rope can be used to transmit mechanical energy from a steam engine or
water wheel to a factory or pump which is located a considerable distance (10 to 100s of meters or
more) from the power source. A flying rope way could be supported on poles and pulleys similar to
the cable on a chair lift or aerial tramway. Transmission efficiency is generally high.

Chain drives
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used to
convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a
wide variety of machines besides vehicles.
Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain or transmission
chain,[1] passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing with the holes in the links
of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain putting mechanical force into the system.
Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or drag
objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by attaching shafts or
hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops, they can also go around corners
by placing more than two gears along the chain; gears that do not put power into the system or
transmit it out are generally known as idler-wheels. By varying the diameter of the input and output
gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be altered, so that, for example, the pedals of a
bicycle can spin all the way around more than once for every rotation of the gear that drives the
wheels.

Chains versus belts


Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts are often rubber, plastic, or other substances.
Although well-made chains may prove stronger than belts, their greater mass increases drive train
inertia.
Drive belts can often slip (unless they have teeth) which means that the output side may not rotate at
a precise speed, and some work gets lost to the friction of the belt against its rollers. Teeth on
toothed drive belts generally wear faster than links on chains, but wear on rubber or plastic belts and

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their teeth is often easier to observe; you can often tell a belt is wearing out and about to break more
easily than a chain.
Chains are often narrower than belts, and this can make it easier to shift them to larger or smaller
gears in order to vary the gear ratio. Multi-speed bicycles with derailleurs make use of this. Also, the
more positive meshing of a chain can make it easier to build gears that can increase or shrink in
diameter, again altering the gear ratio.
Both can be used to move objects by attaching pockets, buckets, or frames to them; chains are often
used to move things vertically by holding them in frames, as in industrial toasters, while belts are
good at moving things horizontally in the form of conveyor belts. It is not unusual for the systems to
be used in combination; for example the rollers that drive conveyor belts are themselves often driven
by drive chains.
Drive shafts are another common method used to move mechanical power around that is sometimes
evaluated in comparison to chain drive; in particular shaft drive versus chain drive is a key design
decision for most motorcycles. Drive shafts te

Bearing
A bearing is a device to allow constrained relative motion between two or more parts, typically
rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be classified broadly according to the motions they allow
and according to their principle of operation as well as by the directions of applied loads they can
handle.

Plain bearings use surfaces in rubbing contact, often with a lubricant such as oil or graphite. A plain
bearing may or may not be a discrete device. It may be nothing more than the bearing surface of a
hole with a shaft passing through it, or of a planar surface that bears another (in these cases, not a
discrete device); or it may be a layer of bearing metal either fused to the substrate (semi-discrete) or
in the form of a separable sleeve (discrete). With suitable lubrication, plain bearings often give
entirely acceptable accuracy, life, and friction at minimal cost. Therefore, they are very widely used.
However, there are many applications where a more suitable bearing can improve efficiency,
accuracy, service intervals, reliability, speed of operation, size, weight, and costs of purchasing and
operating machinery.

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Thus, there are many types of bearings, with varying shape, material, lubrication, principal of
operation, and so on. For example, rolling-element bearings use spheres or drums rolling between
the parts to reduce friction; reduced friction allows tighter tolerances and thus higher precision than a
plain bearing, and reduced wear extends the time over which the machine stays accurate. Plain
bearings are commonly made of varying types of metal or plastic depending on the load, how
corrosive or dirty the environment is, and so on. In addition, bearing friction and life may be altered
dramatically by the type and application of lubricants. For example, a lubricant may improve bearing
friction and life, but for food processing a bearing may be lubricated by an inferior food-safe
lubricant to avoid food contamination; in other situations a bearing may be run without lubricant
because continuous lubrication is not feasible, and lubricants attract dirt that damages the bearings.

Principles of operation
There are at least six common principles of operation:

plain bearing, also known by the specific styles: bushings, journal bearings, sleeve bearings,
rifle bearings
rolling-element bearings such as ball bearings and roller bearings
jewel bearings, in which the load is carried by rolling the axle slightly off-center
fluid bearings, in which the load is carried by a gas or liquid
magnetic bearings, in which the load is carried by a magnetic field
flexure bearings, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends.
angular contact bearing

Motions
Common motions permitted by bearings are:

Axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation


Linear motion e.g. drawer
spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint
hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee

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electrical actuators
Relay
A solid state relay (SSR) is an electronic switching device in which a small control signal controls a
larger load current or voltage. It comprises a voltage or current sensor which responds to an
appropriate input (control signal), a solid-state electronic switching device of some kind which
switches power to the load circuitry either on or off, and some coupling mechanism to enable the
control signal to activate this switch without mechanical parts. The relay may be designed to switch
either AC or DC to the load. It serves the same function as an electromechanical relay, but has no
moving parts.

Operation
An SSR based on a single MOSFET, or multiple MOSFETs in a paralleled array, works well for DC
loads.
There is an inherent substrate diode in all MOSFETs that conducts in the reverse direction. This
means that a single MOSFET cannot block current in both directions. For AC (bi-directional)
operation two MOSFETs are arranged back to back with their source pins tied together. Their drain
pins are connected to either side of the output. The substrate diodes then are alternately reverse
biased in order to block current when the relay is off. When the relay is on, the common source is
always riding on the instantaneous signal level and both gates are biased positive relative to the
source by the photo-diode.
It is common to provide access to the common source so that multiple MOSFETs can be wired in
parallel if switching a DC load. There is also commonly some circuitry to discharge the gate when
the LED is turned off, speeding the relay's turn-off.

Advantages over mechanical relays


Most of the relative advantages of solid state and electromechanical relays are common to all solidstate as against electromechanical devices.

SSRs are faster than electromechanical relays; their switching time is dependent on the time
needed to power the LED on and off, of the order of microseconds to milliseconds
Lower (if any) minimum output current (latching current) required
Increased lifetime, particularly if activated many times, as there are no moving parts to wear
o Output resistance remains constant regardless of amount of use
Clean, bounceless operation
Decreased electrical noise when switching
No sparking, allowing use in explosive environments where it is critical that no spark is
generated during switching
Totally silent operation
Inherently smaller than a mechanical relay of similar specification (if desired may have the
same "casing" form factor for interchangeability).
Much less sensitive to storage and operating environment. For example much less sensitive
to mechanical shock and vibration, humidity.

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Solenoid
solenoid[nb 1] is a coil wound into a tightly packed helix. In physics, the term solenoid refers
to a long, thin loop of wire, often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a
magnetic field when an electric current is passed through it. Solenoids are important because
they can create controlled magnetic fields and can be used as electromagnets. The term
solenoid refers specifically to a magnet designed to produce a uniform magnetic field in a
volume of space (where some experiment might be carried out).
In engineering, the term solenoid may also refer to a variety of transducer devices
that convert energy into linear motion. The term is also often used to refer to a solenoid
valve, which is an integrated device containing an electromechanical solenoid which actuates
either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a solenoid switch, which is a specific type of relay
that internally uses an electromechanical solenoid to operate an electrical switch; for
example, an automobile starter solenoid, or a linear solenoid, which is an electromechanical
solenoid.

AC motor
An AC motor is an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current. It consists of two
basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with alternating current to
produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given
a torque by the rotating field. (There are examples, such as some Papst motors, which have the
stator on the inside and the rotor on the outside to increase the inertia and cooling. They were
common on high quality tape and film machines where speed stability is important.)
There are two types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used (not including eddy
current motors also AC/DC mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent
on voltage and winding connection). The first is the synchronous motor, which rotates
exactly at the supply frequency or a submultiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field
on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent
magnet. The second type is the induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply
frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an induced current.

Squirrel-cage rotors
Most common AC motors use the squirrel cage rotor, which will be found in virtually all domestic
and light industrial alternating current motors. The squirrel cage refers to the rotating exercise cage
for pet animals. The motor takes its name from the shape of its rotor "windings"- a ring at either end
of the rotor, with bars connecting the rings running the length of the rotor. It is typically cast
aluminum or copper poured between the iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings
will be visible. The vast majority of the rotor currents will flow through the bars rather than the
higher-resistance and usually varnished laminates. Very low voltages at very high currents are
typical in the bars and end rings; high efficiency motors will often use cast copper to reduce the
resistance in the rotor.
In operation, the squirrel cage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating secondary.
When the rotor is not rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor currents are induced; the
large rotor currents magnetize the rotor and interact with the stator's magnetic fields to bring the

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rotor almost into synchronization with the stator's field. An unloaded squirrel cage motor at rated noload speed will consume electrical power only to maintain rotor speed against friction and resistance
losses. As the mechanical load increases, so will the electrical load - the electrical load is inherently
related to the mechanical load. This is similar to a transformer, where the primary's electrical load is
related to the secondary's electrical load.
This is why a squirrel cage blower motor may cause household lights to dim upon starting, but
doesn't dim the lights on startup when its fan belt (and therefore mechanical load) is removed.
Furthermore, a stalled squirrel cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will consume current
limited only by circuit resistance as it attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current (or
cuts it off completely) overheating and destruction of the winding insulation is the likely outcome.
To prevent the currents induced in the squirrel cage from superimposing itself back onto the supply,
the squirrel cage is generally constructed with a prime number of bars, or at least a small multiple of
a prime number (rarely more than 2). There is an optimum number of bars in any design, and
increasing the number of bars beyond that point merely serves to increase the losses of the motor
particularly when starting.
Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant
of a squirrel cage motor.
Calecon Effect

If the rotor of a squirrel runs at the true synchronous speed, the flux in the rotor at any given place on
the rotor would not change, and no current would be created in the squirrel cage. For this reason,
ordinary squirrel-cage motors run at some tens of rpm slower than synchronous speed, even at no
load. Because the rotating field (or equivalent pulsating field) actually or effectively rotates faster
than the rotor, it could be said to slip past the surface of the rotor. The difference between
synchronous speed and actual speed is called slip, and loading the motor increases the amount of slip
as the motor slows down slightly.
Two-phase AC servo motors

A typical two-phase AC servo-motor has a squirrel cage rotor and a field consisting of two windings:
1. a constant-voltage (AC) main winding.
2. a control-voltage (AC) winding in quadrature (i.e., 90 degrees phase shifted) with the main
winding so as to produce a rotating magnetic field. Reversing phase makes the motor reverse.
An AC servo amplifier, a linear power amplifier, feeds the control winding. The electrical resistance
of the rotor is made high intentionally so that the speed/torque curve is fairly linear. Two-phase
servo motors are inherently high-speed, low-torque devices, heavily geared down to drive the load.
Single-phase AC induction motors

Three-phase motors produce a rotating magnetic field. However, when only single-phase power is
available, the rotating magnetic field must be produced using other means. Several methods are
commonly used:

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Shaded-pole motor

A common single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor and is used in devices requiring low starting
torque, such as electric fans or the drain pump of washing machines and dishwashers or in other
small household appliances. In this motor, small single-turn copper "shading coils" create the
moving magnetic field. Part of each pole is encircled by a copper coil or strap; the induced current in
the strap opposes the change of flux through the coil. This causes a time lag in the flux passing
through the shading coil, so that the maximum field intensity moves across the pole face on each
cycle. This produces a low level rotating magnetic field which is large enough to turn both the rotor
and its attached load. As the rotor picks up speed the torque builds up to its full level as the principal
magnetic field is rotating relative to the rotating rotor.
A reversible shaded-pole motor was made by Barber-Colman several decades ago. It had a single
field coil, and two principal poles, each split halfway to create two pairs of poles. Each of these four
"half-poles" carried a coil, and the coils of diagonally-opposite half-poles were connected to a pair of
terminals. One terminal of each pair was common, so only three terminals were needed in all.
The motor would not start with the terminals open; connecting the common to one other made the
motor run one way, and connecting common to the other made it run the other way. These motors
were used in industrial and scientific devices.
An unusual, adjustable-speed, low-torque shaded-pole motor could be found in traffic-light and
advertising-lighting controllers. The pole faces were parallel and relatively close to each other, with
the disc centred between them, something like the disc in a watthour meter. Each pole face was split,
and had a shading coil on one part; the shading coils were on the parts that faced each other. Both
shading coils were probably closer to the main coil; they could have both been farther away, without
affecting the operating principle, just the direction of rotation.
Applying AC to the coil created a field that progressed in the gap between the poles. The plane of
the stator core was approximately tangential to an imaginary circle on the disc, so the travelling
magnetic field dragged the disc and made it rotate.
The stator was mounted on a pivot so it could be positioned for the desired speed and then clamped
in position. Keeping in mind that the effective speed of the travelling magnetic field in the gap was
constant, placing the poles nearer to the centre of the disc made it run relatively faster, and toward
the edge, slower.
It is possible that these motors are still in use in some older installations.
Split-phase induction motor

Another common single-phase AC motor is the split-phase induction motor,[5] commonly used in
major appliances such as washing machines and clothes dryers. Compared to the shaded pole motor,
these motors can generally provide much greater starting torque by using a special startup winding in
conjunction with a centrifugal switch.
In the split-phase motor, the startup winding is designed with a higher resistance than the running
winding. This creates an LR circuit which slightly shifts the phase of the current in the startup
winding. When the motor is starting, the startup winding is connected to the power source via a set
of spring-loaded contacts pressed upon by the stationary centrifugal switch. The starting winding is

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wound with fewer turns of smaller wire than the main winding, so it has a lower inductance (L) and
higher resistance (R). The lower L/R ratio creates a small phase shift, not more than about 30
degrees, between the flux due to the main winding and the flux of the starting winding. The starting
direction of rotation may be reversed simply by exchanging the connections of the startup winding
relative to the running winding.
The phase of the magnetic field in this startup winding is shifted from the phase of the mains power,
allowing the creation of a moving magnetic field which starts the motor. Once the motor reaches
near design operating speed, the centrifugal switch activates, opening the contacts and disconnecting
the startup winding from the power source. The motor then operates solely on the running winding.
The starting winding must be disconnected since it would increase the losses in the motor.
Capacitor start motor

Schematic of a capacitor start motor.


A capacitor start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starting capacitor inserted in series
with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit which is capable of a much greater phase shift (and
so, a much greater starting torque). The capacitor naturally adds expense to such motors.
Resistance start motor

A resistance start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starter inserted in series with the
startup winding, creating capacitance. This added starter provides assistance in the starting and
initial direction of rotation.
Permanent-split capacitor motor

Another variation is the permanent-split capacitor (PSC) motor (also known as a capacitor start and
run motor).[6] This motor operates similarly to the capacitor-start motor described above, but there is
no centrifugal starting switch,[6] and what correspond to the start windings (second windings) are
permanently connected to the power source (through a capacitor), along with the run windings. [6]
PSC motors are frequently used in air handlers, blowers, and fans (including ceiling fans) and other
cases where a variable speed is desired.
A capacitor ranging from 3 to 25 microfarads is connected in series with the "start" windings and
remains in the circuit during the run cycle. [6] The "start" windings and run windings are identical in
this motor,[6] and reverse motion can be achieved by reversing the wiring of the 2 windings, [6] with
the capacitor connected to the other windings as "start" windings. By changing taps on the running
winding but keeping the load constant, the motor can be made to run at different speeds. Also,
provided all 6 winding connections are available separately, a 3 phase motor can be converted to a

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capacitor start and run motor by commoning two of the windings and connecting the third via a
capacitor to act as a start winding.

Wound rotors
An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the
rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip
rings on the shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to an external controller such as a variable
resistor that allows changing the motor's slip rate. In certain high-power variable speed wound-rotor
drives, the slip-frequency energy is captured, rectified and returned to the power supply through an
inverter. With bidirectionally controlled power, the wound-rotor becomes an active participant in the
energy conversion process with the wound-rotor doubly-fed configuration showing twice the power
density.
Compared to squirrel cage rotors and without considering brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed
technology, wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the slip rings and brushes,
but they were the standard form for variable speed control before the advent of compact power
electronic devices. Transistorized inverters with variable-frequency drive can now be used for speed
control, and wound rotor motors are becoming less common.
Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used. Where the large inrush current and high
starting torque can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by applying full line
voltage to the terminals (direct-on-line, DOL). Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush
current (where the motor is large compared with the short-circuit capacity of the supply), reduced
voltage starting using either series inductors, an autotransformer, thyristors, or other devices are
used. A technique sometimes used is (star-delta, Y) starting, where the motor coils are initially
connected in star for acceleration of the load, then switched to delta when the load is up to speed.
This technique is more common in Europe than in North America. Transistorized drives can directly
vary the applied voltage as required by the starting characteristics of the motor and load.
This type of motor is becoming more common in traction applications such as locomotives, where it
is known as the asynchronous traction motor.
The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply and the
number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:
Ns = 120F / p
where
Ns = Synchronous speed, in revolutions per minute
F = AC power frequency
p = Number of poles per phase winding
Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this calculated synchronous speed by an
amount known as slip, that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the speed will be very
close to synchronous. When loaded, standard motors have between 2-3% slip, special motors may
have up to 7% slip, and a class of motors known as torque motors are rated to operate at 100% slip
(0 RPM/full stall).

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The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:
S = (Ns Nr) / Ns
where
Nr = Rotational speed, in revolutions per minute.
S = Normalised Slip, 0 to 1.
As an example, a typical four-pole motor running on 60 Hz might have a nameplate rating of 1725
RPM at full load, while its calculated speed is 1800 RPM.
The speed in this type of motor has traditionally been altered by having additional sets of coils or
poles in the motor that can be switched on and off to change the speed of magnetic field rotation.
However, developments in power electronics mean that the frequency of the power supply can also
now be varied to provide a smoother control of the motor speed.
Three-phase AC synchronous motors

If connections to the rotor coils of a three-phase motor are taken out on slip-rings and fed a separate
field current to create a continuous magnetic field (or if the rotor consists of a permanent magnet),
the result is called a synchronous motor because the rotor will rotate synchronously with the rotating
magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical supply.
The synchronous motor can also be used as an alternator.
Nowadays, synchronous motors are frequently driven by transistorized variable-frequency drives.
This greatly eases the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large synchronous motor. They may
also be started as induction motors using a squirrel-cage winding that shares the common rotor: once
the motor reaches synchronous speed, no current is induced in the squirrel-cage winding so it has
little effect on the synchronous operation of the motor, aside from stabilizing the motor speed on
load changes.
Synchronous motors are occasionally used as traction motors; the TGV may be the best-known
example of such use.
One use for this type of motor is its use in a power factor correction scheme. They are referred to as
synchronous condensers. This exploits a feature of the machine where it consumes power at a
leading power factor when its rotor is over excited. It thus appears to the supply to be a capacitor,
and could thus be used to correct the lagging power factor that is usually presented to the electric
supply by inductive loads. The excitation is adjusted until a near unity power factor is obtained
(often automatically). Machines used for this purpose are easily identified as they have no shaft
extensions. Synchronous motors are valued in any case because their power factor is much better
than that of induction motors, making them preferred for very high power applications.
Some of the largest AC motors are pumped-storage hydroelectricity generators that are operated as
synchronous motors to pump water to a reservoir at a higher elevation for later use to generate
electricity using the same machinery. Six 350-megawatt generators are installed in the Bath County
Pumped Storage Station in Virginia, USA. When pumping, each unit can produce 563,400
horsepower (420 megawatts).[7]

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Universal motors and series wound motors

AC motors can also have brushes. The universal motor is widely used in small home appliances and
power tools.
Repulsion motor

Repulsion motors are wound-rotor single-phase AC motors that are similar to universal motors. In a
repulsion motor, the armature brushes are shorted together rather than connected in series with the
field. By transformer action ,the stator induces currents in the rotor, which create torque by repulsion
instead of attraction as in other motors.
DC MOTOR
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.

Stepper motor
A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full
rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely without any
feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the
application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping
motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.)

Fundamentals of operation
Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to
their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed"
electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn,
first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the
electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are
slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first
is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is
repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step", with an integer number of steps making a
full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.

Unit 3.SYSTEM MODELS AND CONTROLLERS


Building blocks of Mechanical, Electrical, Fluid and Thermal Systems, Rotational
Transnational Systems, Electromechanical Systems Hydraulic Mechanical Systems.
Continuous and discrete process Controllers Control Mode Two Step mode
Proportional Mode Derivative Mode Integral Mode PID Controllers Digital Controllers

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Velocity Control Adaptive Control Digital Logic Control Micro Processors Control.

Control loop basics


A familiar example of a control loop is the action taken when adjusting hot and cold faucet valves to
maintain the faucet water at the desired temperature. This typically involves the mixing of two
process streams, the hot and cold water. The person touches the water to sense or measure its
temperature. Based on this feedback they perform a control action to adjust the hot and cold water
valves until the process temperature stabilizes at the desired value.
Sensing water temperature is analogous to taking a measurement of the process value or process
variable (PV). The desired temperature is called the setpoint (SP). The input to the process (the water
valve position) is called the manipulated variable (MV). The difference between the temperature
measurement and the setpoint is the error (e) and quantifies whether the water is too hot or too cold
and by how much.
After measuring the temperature (PV), and then calculating the error, the controller decides when to
change the tap position (MV) and by how much. When the controller first turns the valve on, it may
turn the hot valve only slightly if warm water is desired, or it may open the valve all the way if very
hot water is desired. This is an example of a simple proportional control. In the event that hot water
does not arrive quickly, the controller may try to speed-up the process by opening up the hot water
valve more-and-more as time goes by. This is an example of an integral control.
Making a change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller and
will lead to overshoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make changes that were too large and
repeatedly overshoot the target, the output would oscillate around the setpoint in either a constant,
growing, or decaying sinusoid. If the oscillations increase with time then the system is unstable,
whereas if they decrease the system is stable. If the oscillations remain at a constant magnitude the
system is marginally stable.
In the interest of achieving a gradual convergence at the desired temperature (SP), the controller may
wish to damp the anticipated future oscillations. So in order to compensate for this effect, the
controller may elect to temper their adjustments. This can be thought of as a derivative control
method.
If a controller starts from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the controller
will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process that impact on
the process, and hence on the PV. Variables that impact on the process other than the MV are known
as disturbances. Generally controllers are used to reject disturbances and/or implement setpoint
changes. Changes in feedwater temperature constitute a disturbance to the faucet temperature control
process.
In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a measurable output (PV), a
known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that will affect the relevant
PV. Controllers are used in industry to regulate temperature, pressure, flow rate, chemical
composition, speed and practically every other variable for which a measurement exists.

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Proportional control

The fly-ball governor is a classic example of proportional control.


A proportional control system is a type of linear feedback control system. Two classic mechanical
examples are the toilet bowl float proportioning valve and the fly-ball governor.
The proportional control system is more complex than an on-off control system like a bi-metallic
domestic thermostat, but simpler than a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control system used in
something like an automobile cruise control. On-off control will work where the overall system has a
relatively long response time, but will result in instability if the system being controlled has a rapid
response time. Proportional control overcomes this by modulating the output to the controlling
device, such as a continuously variable valve.
An analogy to on-off control is driving a car by applying either full power or no power and varying
the duty cycle, to control speed. The power would be on until the target speed is reached, and then
the power would be removed, so the car reduces speed. When the speed falls below the target, with a
certain hysteresis, full power would again be applied. It can be seen that this looks like pulse-width
modulation, but would obviously result in poor control and large variations in speed. The more
powerful the engine, the greater the instability; the heavier the car, the greater the stability. Stability
may be expressed as correlating to the power-to-weight ratio of the vehicle.
Proportional control is how most drivers control the speed of a car. If the car is at target speed and
the speed increases slightly, the power is reduced slightly, or in proportion to the error (the actual
versus target speed), so that the car reduces speed gradually and reaches the target point with very
little, if any, "overshoot", so the result is much smoother control than on-off control.
Further refinements like PID control would help compensate for additional variables like hills, where
the amount of power needed for a given speed change would vary, which would be accounted for by
the integral function of the PID control.

Proportional Control Theory


In the proportional control algorithm, the controller output is proportional to the error signal, which
is the difference between the set point and the process variable. In other words, the output of a
proportional controller is the multiplication product of the error signal and the proportional gain.
This can be mathematically expressed as

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where

Pout: Output of the proportional controller


Kp: Proportional gain
e(t): Instantaneous process error at time t. e(t) = SP PV
SP: Set point
PV: Process variable

PID controller

A proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop feedback


mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems a PID is the most commonly used
feedback controller. A PID controller calculates an "error" value as the difference between a
measured process variable and a desired setpoint. The controller attempts to minimize the error by
adjusting the process control inputs.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters, and is accordingly
sometimes called three-term control: the proportional, the integral and derivative values, denoted
P, I, and D. Heuristically, these values can be interpreted in terms of time: P depends on the present
error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of future errors, based on current
rate of change.[1] The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control
element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element.
In the absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller is the best controller. [2] By
tuning the three constants in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide control action
designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms
of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the
setpoint and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does
not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the appropriate system
control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired control outputs to zero. A PID controller
will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI
controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the
absence of an integral value may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control
action.

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PID controller theory


The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the
manipulated variable (MV). Hence:

Where Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID controller from each of the
three terms, as defined below.

The proportional term (sometimes called gain) makes a change to the output that is proportional to
the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a
constant Kp, called the proportional gain.
The proportional term is given by:

where
Pout: Proportional term of output
Kp: Proportional gain, a tuning parameter
SP: Setpoint, the desired value
PV: Process value (or process variable), the measured value
e: Error = SP PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the
proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (see the section on loop tuning). In
contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive
(or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when
responding to system disturbances.
Droop

A pure proportional controller will not always settle at its target value, but may retain a steady-state
error. Specifically, the process gain - drift in the absence of control, such as cooling of a furnace

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towards room temperature, biases a pure proportional controller. If the process gain is down, as in
cooling, then the bias will be below the set point, hence the term "droop".
Droop is proportional to process gain and inversely proportional to proportional gain. Specifically
the steady-state error is given by:
e = G / Kp
Droop is an inherent defect of purely proportional control. Droop may be mitigated by adding a
compensating bias term (setting the setpoint above the true desired value), or corrected by adding an
integration term (in a PI or PID controller), which effectively computes a bias adaptively.
Despite droop, both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term that
should contribute the bulk of the output change.
Integral term

The contribution from the integral term (sometimes called reset) is proportional to both the
magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time
(integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The
accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output. The
magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined by the
integral gain, Ki.
The integral term is given by:

where
Iout: Integral term of output
Ki: Integral gain, a tuning parameter
SP: Setpoint, the desired value
PV: Process value (or process variable), the measured value

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e: Error = SP PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
: a dummy integration variable
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of the process
towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a proportional only
controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated errors from the past, it can
cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (cross over the setpoint and then create a
deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding integral gain tuning and controller
stability, see the section on loop tuning.
Derivative term

The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time
(i.e., its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative
gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term (sometimes called rate) to the
overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd.
The derivative term is given by:

where
Dout: Derivative term of output
Kd: Derivative gain, a tuning parameter
SP: Setpoint, the desired value
PV: Process value (or process variable), the measured value
e: Error = SP PV
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is most
noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative control is used to reduce the magnitude
of the overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-process
stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is

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highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise
and the derivative gain are sufficiently large. Hence an approximation to a differentiator with a
limited bandwidth is more commonly used. Such a circuit is known as a Phase-Lead compensator.
Summary

The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID
controller. Defining u(t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:

where the tuning parameters are:


Proportional gain, Kp
Larger values typically mean faster response since the larger the error, the larger the
proportional term compensation. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to process
instability and oscillation.
Integral gain, Ki
Larger values imply steady state errors are eliminated more quickly. The trade-off is larger
overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated away
by positive error before reaching steady state.
Derivative gain, Kd
Larger values decrease overshoot, but slow down transient response and may lead to
instability due to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error.

Motion control
Motion control is a sub-field of automation, in which the position and/or velocity of machines are
controlled using some type of device such as a hydraulic pump, linear actuator, or an electric motor,
generally a servo. Motion control is an important part of robotics and CNC machine tools, however
it is more complex than in the use of specialized machines, where the kinematics are usually simpler.
The latter is often called General Motion Control (GMC). Motion control is widely used in the
packaging, printing, textile, semiconductor production, and assembly industries.
The basic architecture of a motion control system contains:

A motion controller to generate set points (the desired output or motion profile) and close a
position and/or velocity feedback loop.
A drive or amplifier to transform the control signal from the motion controller into a higher
power electrical current or voltage that is presented to the actuator. Newer "intelligent" drives
can close the position and velocity loops internally, resulting in much more accurate control.
An actuator such as a hydraulic pump, air cylinder, linear actuator, or electric motor for
output motion.
One or more feedback sensors such as optical encoders, resolvers or Hall effect devices to
return the position and/or velocity of the actuator to the motion controller in order to close
the position and/or velocity control loops.
Mechanical components to transform the motion of the actuator into the desired motion,
including: gears, shafting, ball screw, belts, linkages, and linear and rotational bearings.

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The interface between the motion controller and drives it controls is very critical when coordinated
motion is required, as it must provide tight synchronization. Historically the only open interface was
an analog signal, until open interfaces were developed that satisfied the requirements of coordinated
motion control, the first being SERCOS in 1991 which is now enhanced to SERCOS III. Later
interfaces capable of motion control include Profinet IRT, Ethernet Powerlink, and EtherCAT.
Common control functions include:

Velocity control.
Position (point-to-point) control: There are several methods for computing a motion
trajectory. These are often based on the velocity profiles of a move such as a triangular
profile, trapezoidal profile, or an S-curve profile.
Pressure or Force control.
Trans-mutational vector mapping.
Electronic gearing (or cam profiling): The position of a slave axis is mathematically linked to
the position of a master axis. A good example of this would be in a system where two
rotating drums turn at a given ratio to each other. A more advanced case of electronic gearing
is electronic camming. With electronic camming, a slave axis follows a profile that is a
function of the master position. This profile need not be salted, but it must be an animated
function.

Adaptive control
Adaptive control involves modifying the control law used by a controller to cope with the fact that
the parameters of the system being controlled are slowly time-varying or uncertain. For example, as
an aircraft flies, its mass will slowly decrease as a result of fuel consumption; we need a control law
that adapts itself to such changing conditions. Adaptive control is different from robust control in the
sense that it does not need a priori information about the bounds on these uncertain or time-varying
parameters; robust control guarantees that if the changes are within given bounds the control law
need not be changed, while adaptive control is precisely concerned with control law changes.

Classification of adaptive control techniques


In general one should distinguish between:
1. Feedforward Adaptive Control
2. Feedback Adaptive Control

Applications
When designing adaptive control systems, special consideration is necessary of convergence and
robustness issues.
Typical applications of adaptive control are (in general):

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Self-tuning of subsequently fixed linear controllers during the implementation phase for one
operating point;
Self-tuning of subsequently fixed robust controllers during the implementation phase for
whole range of operating points;
Self-tuning of fixed controllers on request if the process behaviour changes due to ageing,
drift, wear etc.;
Adaptive control of linear controllers for nonlinear or time-varying processes;
Adaptive control or self-tuning control of nonlinear controllers for nonlinear processes;
Adaptive control or self-tuning control of multivariable controllers for multivariable
processes (MIMO systems);

Usually these methods adapt the controllers to both the process statics and dynamics. In special cases
the adaptation can be limited to the static behavior alone, leading to adaptive control based on
characteristic curves for the steady-states or to extremum value control, optimizing the steady state.
Hence, there are several ways to apply adaptive control algorithms.

BOOLEAN VARIABLES & TRUTH TABLES


BOOLEAN ALGEBRA DIFFERS IN A MAJOR WAY FROM ORDINARY ALGEBRA IN
THAT BOOLEAN CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES ARE ALLOWED TO HAVE ONLY
TWO
POSSIBLE
VALUES,
0
OR
1.
BOOLEAN 0 AND 1 DO NOT REPRESENT ACTUAL NUMBERS BUT INSTEAD
REPRESENT THE STATE OF A VOLTAGE VARIABLE, OR WHAT IS CALLED ITS
LOGIC LEVEL.
SOME COMMON REPRESENTATION OF 0 AND 1 IS SHOWN IN THE FOLLOWING
DIAGRAM.
IN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA, THERE ARE THREE BASIC LOGIC OPERATIONS: AND
,OR,
AND
NOT.
THESE LOGIC GATES ARE DIGITAL CIRCUITS CONSTRUCTED FROM DIODES,
TRANSISTORS, AND RESISTORS CONNECTED IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE
CIRCUIT OUTPUT IS THE RESULT OF A BASIC LOGIC OPERATION (OR, AND,
NOT) PERFORMED ON THE INPUTS.
TRUTH TABLE
A TRUTH TABLE IS A MEANS FOR DESCRIBING HOW A LOGIC CIRCUIT'S
OUTPUT DEPENDS ON THE LOGIC LEVELS PRESENT AT THE CIRCUIT'S INPUTS.
IN THE FOLLOWING TWO-INPUT LOGIC CIRCUIT, THE TABLE LISTS ALL
POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF LOGIC LEVELS PRESENT AT INPUTS A AND B
ALONG WITH THE CORRESPONDING OUTPUT LEVEL X.

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WHEN EITHER INPUT A OR B IS 1, THE OUTPUT X IS 1. THEREFORE THE "?" IN


THE BOX IS AN OR GATE.

OR OPERATION
THE EXPRESSION X = A + B READS AS "X EQUALS A OR B". THE + SIGN STANDS
FOR THE OR OPERATION, NOT FOR ORDINARY ADDITION.
THE OR OPERATION PRODUCES A RESULT OF 1 WHEN ANY OF THE INPUT
VARIABLE IS 1.
THE OR OPERATION PRODUCES A RESULT OF 0 ONLY WHEN ALL THE INPUT
VARIABLES ARE 0.

An example of three input OR gate and its truth table is as follows:

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With the OR operation, 1 + 1 = 1, 1+ 1 + 1 = 1 and so on.


AND Operation
The expression X = A * B reads as "X equals A AND B".
The multiplication sign stands for the AND operation, same for ordinary multiplication of 1s
and 0s.The AND operation produces a result of 1 occurs only for the single case when all of
the input variables are 1.The output is 0 for any case where one or more inputs are 0

An example of three input AND gate and its truth table is as follows:

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With the AND operation, 1*1 = 1, 1*1*1 = 1 and so on.


NOT Operation
The NOT operation is unlike the OR and AND operations in that it can be performed on a
single input variable. For example, if the variable A is subjected to the NOT operation, the
result x can be expressed as x = A' where the prime (') represents the NOT operation. This
expression is read as:
x equals NOT A
x equals the inverse of A
x equals the complement of A
Each of these is in common usage and all indicate that the logic value of x = A' is o
pposite to the logic value of A. The truth table of the NOT operation is as follows:

1'=0
0' = 1

because
because NOT 0 is 1

NOT

is

The NOT operation is also referred to as inversion or complementation, and these terms are
used interchangeably.
NOR Operation

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NOR and NAND gates are used extensively in digital circuitry. These gates combine the
basic operations AND, OR and NOT, which make it relatively easy to describe then using
Boolean algebra.
NOR gate symbol is the same as the OR gate symbol except that it has a small circle on the
output. This small circle represents the inversion operation. Therefore the output expression
of the two input NOR gate is:
X = (A + B)'

An example of three inputs OR gate can be constructed by a NOR gate plus a NOT gate:

NAND Operation
NAND gate symbol is the same as the AND gate symbol except that it has a small circle on
the output. This small circle represents the inversion operation. Therefore the output
expression of the two input NAND gate is:
X = (AB)'

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Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically


Any logic circuit, no matter how complex, may be completely described using the Boolean
operations, because the OR gate, AND gate, and NOT circuit are the basic building blocks of
digital systems.
This is an example of the circuit using Boolean expression:

If an expression contains both AND and OR operations, the AND operations are performed
first (X=AB+C: AB is performed first), unless there are parentheses in the expression, in
which case the operation inside the parentheses is to be performed first (X= (A+B) +C: A+B
is performed first).
Circuits containing Inverters
Whenever an INVERTER is present in a logic-circuit diagram, its output expression is
simply equal to the input expression with a prime (') over it.

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Evaluating Logic Circuit Outputs


Once the Boolean expression for a circuit output has been obtained, the output logic level can
be determined for any set of input levels.
These are two examples of the evaluating logic circuit output:
Let A=0, B=1, C=1, D=1
X

= A'BC (A+D)'
= 0'*1*1* (0+1)'
= 1 *1*1* (1)'
= 1 *1*1* 0
=0

Let A=0, B=0, C=1, D=1, E=1


X

= [D+ ((A+B)C)'] * E
= [1 + ((0+0)1 )'] * 1
= [1 + (0*1)'] * 1
= [1+ 0'] *1
= [1+ 1 ] * 1
=1

In general, the following rules must always be followed when evaluating a Boolean
expression:
1. First, perform all inversions of single terms; that is, 0 = 1 or 1 = 0.
2.
Then
perform
all
operations
within
parentheses.
3. Perform an AND operation before an OR operation unless parentheses indicate otherwise.
4. If an expression has a bar over it, perform the operations of the expression first and then
invert the result.
Determining Output Level from a Diagram
The output logic level for given input levels can also be determined directly from the circuit
diagram without using the Boolean expression.

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Implementing Circuits from Boolean Expression


If the operation of a circuit is defined by a Boolean expression, a logic-circuit diagram can he
implemented directly from that expression.
Suppose that we wanted to construct a circuit whose output is y = AC+BC' + A'BC. This
Boolean expression contains three terms (AC, BC', A'BC), which are ORed together. This
tells us that a three-input OR gate is required with inputs that are equal to AC, BC', and
A'BC, respectively.
Each OR-gate input is an AND product term, which means that an AND gate with
appropriate inputs can be used to generate each of these terms. Note the use of INVERTERs
to produce the A' and C' terms required in the expression.

Boolean Theorems

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Investigating the various Boolean theorems (rules) can help us to simplify logic expressions
and logic circuits.

Multivariable Theorems
The theorems presented below involve more than one variable:
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13a)
(13b)
(14)
(15)

x + y = y + x (commutative law)
x * y = y * x (commutative law)
x+ (y+z) = (x+y) +z = x+y+z (associative law)
x (yz) = (xy) z = xyz (associative law)
x (y+z) = xy + xz
(w+x)(y+z) = wy + xy + wz + xz
x + xy = x [proof see below]
x + x'y = x + y

Proof of (14)
x + xy

DeMorgan's Theorem

= x (1+y)
= x * 1 [using theorem (6)]
= x [using theorem (2)]

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DeMorgan's theorems are extremely useful in simplifying expressions in which a product or
sum of variables is inverted. The two theorems are:
(16) (x+y)' = x' * y'
Theorem (16) says that when the OR sum of two variables is inverted, this is
the same as inverting each variable individually and then ANDing these
inverted variables.

(17) (x*y)' = x' + y'


Theorem (17) says that when the AND product of two variables is inverted, this is the
same as inverting each variable individually and then ORing them.

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Example
X

= [(A'+C) * (B+D')]'
= (A'+C)' + (B+D')' [by theorem (17)]
= (A''*C') + (B'+D'') [by theorem (16)]
= AC' + B'D

Three Variables DeMorgan's Theorem


(18) (x+y+z)' = x' * y' * z'
(19) (xyz)' = x' + y' + z'

Universality of NAND & NOR Gates


It is possible to implement any logic expression using only NAND gates and no other type of
gate. This is because NAND gates, in the proper combination, can be used to perform each of
the Boolean operations OR, AND, and INVERT.

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In a similar manner, it can be shown that NOR gates can be arranged to implement any of the
Boolean operations.

Alternate Logic Gate Representations


The left side of the illustration shows the standard symbol for each logic gate, and the right
side shows the alternate symbol. The alternate symbol for each gate is obtained from the
standard symbol by doing the following:
1. Invert each input and output of the standard symbol. This is done by adding
bubbles (small circles) on input and output lines that do not have bubbles, and by
removing bubbles that are already there.
2. Change the operation symbol from AND to OR, or from OR to AND. (In the
special case of the INVERTER, the operation symbol is not changed.)

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Several points should be stressed regarding the logic symbol equivalences:


1. The equivalences are valid for gates with any number of inputs.
2. None of the standard symbols have bubbles on their inputs, and all the alternate
symbols do.
3. The standard and alternate symbols for each gate represent the same physical
circuit: there is no difference in the circuits represented by the two symbols.
4. NAND and NOR gates are inverting gates, and so both the standard and alternate
symbols for each will have a bubble on either the input or the output. AND and OR
gates are noninverting gates, and so the alternate symbols for each will have bubbles
on both inputs and output.
Concept of Active Logic Levels:
When an input or output line on a logic circuit symbol has no bubble on it, that line is said to
be active-HIGH. When an input or output line does have a bubble on it, that line is said to be
active-LOW. The presence or absence of a bubble, then, determines the active-HIGH/activeLOW status of a circuit's inputs and output, and is used to interpret the circuit operation.

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Boolean Function
A Boolean function is an algebraic expression consists of binary variables, the
constants 0 & 1, and the Boolean operators.For a set of given values of the variables,
the function is evaluated to either 0 or 1
e.g. f = x y + x z
The Boolean function f has 3 binaryvariables x, y and z
The function is 1 if x and y are both 1 or if x is 1 and z is 0. Otherwise, f = 0
Operator Precedence
The operator precedence is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
e.g. f = x y + x z
Precedence: z, x y, x z, x y + x z
e.g. f = (a +b) (c+d)
Precedence: a+b, d, c+d, (a +b) (c+d)
The parentheses precedence is the same as in normal algebra
Boolean Function Truth Table
Boolean function can be represented by truth table as well.If the function has n variables, its
truth table will have 2n rows
e.g. f = x y + x z
f has 3 variables so 23 combinations

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f is 1 when the expression is evaluated to 1 otherwise it is 0.

Minterm
In a Boolean function, a binary variable (x) may appear either in its normal form (x) or in its
complement form (x).Consider 2 binary variables x and y and an AND operation, there are 4
and only 4 possible combinations: xy, xy, xy & xy
Each of the 4 product terms is called a MINTERM or STANDARD PRODUCT
By definition, a Minterm is a product which consists of all the variables in the normal form
or the complement form but NOT BOTH.
e.g. for a function with 2 variables x and y:
xy is a minterm but x is NOT a minterm
e.g. for a function with 3 variables x, y andz:
xyz is a minterm but xy is NOT a minterm
Maxterm
Consider 2 binary variables x and y and an OR operation, there are 4 and only 4
possible combinations: x+y, x+y, x+y, x+y.Each of the 4 sum terms is called a
MAXTERM or STANDARD SUM.By definition, a Maxterm is a sum in which each
variable appears once and only once either in its normal form or its complement
form but NOT BOTH.
Minterms and Maxterms for 3 Variables

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Minterm Boolean Expression


Boolean functions can be expressed with minterms,
e.g.f1(x,y,z) = m1 + m4 + m6 = m(1, 4, 6)
f2(x,y,z) = m2 + m4 + m6+ m7
= m(2, 4, 6, 7)

Maxterm Boolean Expression


Boolean functions can also be expressed with maxterms,
e.g.f1 = xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz
f1 = (xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz)
= (x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)
= M0M2M3M5M7
= M(0, 2, 3, 5, 7)
f2 = M0M1M3M5
= M(0, 1, 3, 5)

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Literal
A Literal is a variable in a product or sum term
xy is a 2-literal product term
xyz has 3 literals
x + xy + xyz is an expression of sum of products with 3 product terms.The 3
product terms have 1, 2 and 3 literals respectively
x(x+y)(x+y+z) is an expression of product of sums.The 3 sum terms have 1, 2 and
3 literals
Express Boolean Functions in Minterms
If product terms in a Boolean function are not minterms, they can be converted to minterms
e.g. f(a,b,c) = a + bc + abc
Function f has 3 variables, therefore, each minterm must have 3 literals
Neither a nor bc are minterms.They can be converted to minterm.abc is a minterm
Conversion to Minterms
e.g. f(a,b,c) = a + bc + abc
To convert a to a minterm, the 2 variables (b, c) must be added, without changing its
functionality .Since a=a1 & 1 = b+b, a= a(b + b) = ab + ab
Similarly, ab = ab(c + c) = abc + abc and ab = ab(c+c) = abc + abc
bc = bc(a+a) = abc + abc
f = abc+abc+abc+abc+abc+abc+abc
Express Boolean Functions in Maxterms
By using the Distribution Law: x+yz = (x+y)(x+z), a Boolean function can
be converted to an expression in product of maxterms
e.g. f(a,b,c) = a+bc
= (a+b)(a+c) {not maxterms}
= (a+b+cc)(a+c+bb) {cc=0}
= (a+b+c)(a+b+c)(a+c+b)(a+c+b)
= (a+b+c)(a+b+c)(a+c+b)
Boolean Function Manipulation

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Boolean functions can be manipulated with Boolean algebra.Manipulation can transform
logic expressions, but still keep the same logic functionality.Manipulation can reduce the
complexity, hence, easier to be implemented in hardware, i.e. fewer logic gates
Boolean Function Manipulation Example
f = xy + xyz + xz
= x(y + yz) + xz {common factor}
= x[(y+y)(y+z)] + xz {Distribution law}
= x(y+z) + xz {y + y = 1}
= xy + xz + xz {Distribution law}
= xy + (x + x)z {common factor}
= xy + z {x + x = 1}
Simplify f1=abc+ab+abc and f2=(a+b)(a+b) to the minimum literals
f1 = abc+ab+abc = ab(c+c) + ab = ab + ab = (a+a)b = b
f2 =(a+b)(a+b) = ab(a+b) {DeMorgan}
= aba+abb
= ab + ab = ab
QUINE-McCLUSKEY MINIMIZATION
Quine-McCluskey minimization method uses the same theorem to produce the solution as the
K-map method, namely X(Y+Y')=X
Minimization Technique

The expression is represented in the canonical SOP form if not already in that form.
The function is converted into numeric notation.
The numbers are converted into binary form.
The minterms are arranged in a column divided into groups.
Begin with the minimization procedure.
Each minterm of one group is compared with each minterm in the group immediately below.
Each time a number is found in one group which is the same as a number in the group below
except for one digit, the numbers pair is ticked and a new composite is created.
This composite number has the same number of digits as the numbers in the pair except the
digit different which is replaced by an "x".
The above procedure is repeated on the second column to generate a third column.
The next step is to identify the essential prime implicants, which can be done using a prime
implicant chart.
Where a prime implicant covers a minterm, the intersection of the corresponding row and
column is marked with a cross.
Those columns with only one cross identify the essential prime implicants. -> These prime
implicants must be in the final answer.
The single crosses on a column are circled and all the crosses on the same row are also
circled, indicating that these crosses are covered by the prime implicants selected.
Once one cross on a column is circled, all the crosses on that column can be circled since the
minterm is now covered.
If any non-essential prime implicant has all its crosses circled, the prime implicant is
redundant and need not be considered further.

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Next, a selection must be made from the remaining nonessential prime implicants, by
considering how the non-circled crosses can be covered best.
One generally would take those prime implicants which cover the greatest number of crosses
on their row.
If all the crosses in one row also occur on another row which includes further crosses, then
the latter is said to dominate the former and can be selected.
The dominated prime implicant can then be deleted.

Example
Find the minimal sum of products for the Boolean expression,
f=

(1,2,3,7,8,9,10,11,14,15), using Quine-McCluskey method.

Firstly these minterms are represented in the binary form as shown in the table below. The
above binary representations are grouped into a number of sections in terms of the number of
1's as shown in the table below.
Binary representation of minterms
Minterms

1
2
3
7
8
9
10
11
14
15

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1

0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1

1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Group of minterms for different number of 1's


No of 1's
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3

Minterms
1
2
8
3
9
10
7
11
14

U
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1

V
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1

W
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1

X
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0

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4

15

Any two numbers in these groups which differ from each other by only one variable can be
chosen and combined, to get 2-cell combination, as shown in the table below.
2-Cell combinations
Combinations
(1,3)
(1,9)
(2,3)
(2,10)
(8,9)
(8,10)
(3,7)
(3,11)
(9,11)
(10,11)
(10,14)
(7,15)
(11,15)
(14,15)

U
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1

V
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1

W
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

X
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
-

From the 2-cell combinations, one variable and dash in the same position can be combined to
form 4-cell combinations as shown in the figure below.
Combinations
(1,3,9,11)
(2,3,10,11)
(8,9,10,11)
(3,7,11,15)
(10,11,14,15)

U
1
1

V
0
0
0
-

W
1
1
1

X
1
1
-

The cells (1,3) and (9,11) form the same 4-cell combination as the cells (1,9) and (3,11). The
order in which the cells are placed in a combination does not have any effect. Thus the
(1,3,9,11) combination could be written as (1,9,3,11).
From above 4-cell combination table, the prime implicants table can be plotted as shown in
table below.
Prime Implicants Table
Prime

10

11

14

15

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Implicants
(1,3,9,11)
(2,3,10,11)
(8,9,10,11)
(3,7,11,15)
-

X
X

X
X

X
X
-

X
X

X
X
-

X
X
X
-

X
X
X
X
-

X
X

X
-

The columns having only one cross mark correspond to essential prime implicants. A yellow
cross is used against every essential prime implicant. The prime implicants sum gives the
function in its minimal SOP form.
Y = V'X + V'W + UV' + WX + UW
Logic

Combinational logic blocks have the outputs depending on the combinations of the current
inputs. Sequential logic blocks have the outputs depending on the current inputs as well as
any previous inputs.
Binary Adder

Binary Adder is for binary number addition

Logic Circuit to be discussed:


Half Adder
Full Adder
Ripple Adder
Carry Look Ahead Adder

Half Adder
o
o
o
o

Half adder is for addition of 2 single bits


It has two 1-bit inputs and two 1-bit outputs
The inputs are the 2 bits to be added (a, b)
The outputs are 1-bit sum (s) & 1-bit carry (c)

The logic is:

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Binary Addition
The half adder adds 2 single-bit inputs
It cannot complete a full addition

To complete a full addition, the adder needs to take in 3 inputs: a, b and the carry from the
previous bit.
Full Adder
To carry the addition, an adder with 3 inputs is required. A Full Adder takes in 3 inputs (a, b
and ci) and produces 2 outputs (s, co) a & b are the 2 bits to be added, ci is the carry input
(carry over from the previous bit) and co is the carry output (to the next bit)

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Logic for Full Adder


Logic equations derived from the truth table:

s = a b ci
co = ab + bci + aci
Full Adder
The below implementation shows implementing the full adder with AND-OR gates, instead
of using XOR gates. The basis of the circuit below is from the above Kmap.
Circuit-SUM

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Circuit-CARRY

Full adder can be built from 2 half adders


s = a b ci
co = ab+bci+aci
= ab+(abci+abci)+(abci+abci)
= ab + abci + ci (ab+ab) = ab + ci (a b)

n-bit Ripple Adder


To perform an addition of 2 n-bit numbers An-1A1A0 & Bn-1B1B0, where An-1 &
Bn-1 are theMSB & A0B0 are the LSB, we need a n-bit adder,which can be built from n
fulladders

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Ripple Adder: Carry ripples through the chain

Carry-Look-Ahead Adder
The delay generated by an N-bit adder is proportional to the length N of the two numbers X
and Y that are added because the carry signals have to propagate from one full-adder to the
next. For large values of N, the delay becomes unacceptably large so that a special solution
needs to be adopted to accelerate the calculation of the carry bits. This solution involves a
"look-ahead carry generator" which is a block that simultaneously calculates all the carry bits
involved. Once these bits are available to the rest of the circuit, each individual three-bit
addition (Xi+Yi+carry-ini) is implemented by a simple 3-input XOR gate. The design of the
look-ahead carry generator involves two Boolean functions named Generate and Propagate.
For each input bits pair these functions are defined as:
Gi = Xi . Yi
Pi = Xi + Yi
The carry bit c-out(i) generated when adding two bits Xi and Yi is '1' if the corresponding
function Gi is '1' or if the c-out(i-1)='1' and the function Pi = '1' simultaneously. In the first
case, the carry bit is activated by the local conditions (the values of Xi and Yi). In the second,
the carry bit is received from the less significant elementary addition and is propagated
further to the more significant elementary addition. Therefore, the carry_out bit
corresponding to a pair of bits Xi and Yi is calculated according to the equation:
carry_out(i) = Gi + Pi.carry_in(i-1)
For a four-bit adder the carry-outs are calculated as follows
carry_out0 = G0 + P0 . carry_in0
carry_out1 = G1 + P1 . carry_out0 = G1 + P1G0 + P1P0 . carry_in0
carry_out2 = G2 + P2G1 + P2P1G0 + P2P1P0 . carry_in0
carry_out3 = G3 + P3G2 + P3P2G1 + P3P2P1G0 + P3P2P1 . carry_in0
The set of equations above are implemented by the circuit below and a complete adder with a
look-ahead carry generator is next. The input signals need to propagate through a maximum
of 4 logic gate in such an adder as opposed to 8 and 12 logic gates in its counterparts
illustrated earlier.

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Pi is called Carry Propagate


Gi is called Carry Generate
With Pi and Gi, we obtain the sum & carry for the full adder:

Ci+1= Gi + PiCi
C1 = G0 + P0C0
C2 = G1 + P1C1
= G1 + P1(G0 + P0C0)
= G1 + P1G0 + P1P0C0
C3 = G2 + P2C2
= G2 + P2(G1 + P1G0 + P1P0C0)
= G2 + P2G1 + P2P1G0 + P2P1P0C0
Carry no longer depend on its previous stage
Look-Ahead Carry Generator

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Speed: 2 gate delays for all carry


Cost: more gates

Sums can be calculated from the following equations, where carryout is taken from the carry
calculated in the above circuit.
sum_out0 = X 0

Y0

carry_out0

sum_out1 = X 1

Y1

carry_out1

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sum_out2 = X 2

Y2

carry_out2

sum_out3 = X 3

Y3

carry_out3

MSI Adder
Adders are available in Medium Scale Integration (MSI) devices
Both TTL and CMOS are available, e.g.
74183: TTL 1-bit Full Adder
7482: TTL 4-bit Carry-Look-Ahead Adder
4008: CMOS 4-bit Carry-Look-Ahead Adder
74182: 4-bit Look-Ahead Carry Generator
4-bit Addition

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To add 2 4-bit numbers: Z = X + Y

8-bit Addition
To add 2 8-bit numbers: Z = X + Y

Subtractor
Subtractor circuits take two binary numbers as input and subtract one binary number input
from the other binary number input. Similar to adders, it gives out two outputs, difference
and borrow (carry-in the case of Adder). There are two types of subtractors.

Half Subtractor
Full Subtractor

Half Subtractor

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The half-subtractor is a combinational circuit which is used to perform subtraction of two
bits. It has two inputs, X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend) and two outputs D (difference) and B
(borrow). The logic symbol and truth table are shown below.
Symbol

Truth Table
X
0
0
1
1

Y
0
1
0
1

D
0
1
1
0

B
0
1
0
0

From the above table we can draw the Kmap as shown below for "difference" and "
borrow". The boolean expression for the difference and Borrow can be written.

From the equation we can draw the half-subtractor as shown in the figure below.

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Full Subtractor
A full subtractor is a combinational circuit that performs subtraction involving three bits,
namely minuend, subtrahend, and borrow-in. The logic symbol and truth table are shown
below.
Symbol

Truth Table
X
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

Y
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

Bin
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

D
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

Bout
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1

From above table we can draw the Kmap as shown below for "difference" and "borrow".

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The boolean expression for difference and borrow can be written as


D = X'Y'Bin + X'YBin' + XY'Bin' + XYBin
= (X'Y' + XY)Bin + (X'Y + XY')Bin'
= (X
=X

Y)'Bin + (X
Y

Y)Bin'

Bin

Bout = X'.Y + X'.Bin + Y.Bin


From the equation we can draw the full-subtractor as shown in figure below.

Full-subtractor circuit is more or less same as a full-adder with slight modification.

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Parallel Binary Subtractor


Parallel binary subtractor can be implemented by cascading several full-subtractors.
Implementation and associated problems are those of a parallel binary adder, seen before in
parallel binary adder section.
Below is the block level representation of a 4-bit parallel binary subtractor, which subtracts
4-bit Y3Y2Y1Y0 from 4-bit X3X2X1X0. It has 4-bit difference output D3D2D1D0 with
borrow output Bout.

A serial subtractor can be obtained by converting the serial adder using the 2's complement
system. The subtrahend is stored in the Y register and must be 2's complemented before it is
added to the minuend stored in the X register.
The circuit for a 4-bit serial subtractor using full-adder is shown in the figure below.

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Comparator
Comparator compares binary numbers.
Logic comparing 2 bits: a and b

Magnitude Comparator
Comparator compares binary numbers
4-bit Magnitude Comparator:
Inputs: A3A2A1A0 & B3B2B1B0
Outputs: Y A>B, Y A<B, Y A=B
For each bit, let:
Si = AiBi + AiBi = (AiBi + AiBi)
Si is true when Ai = Bi
For A = B, we must have:
A3=B3 and A2=B2 and A1=B1 and A0=B0
Hence, Y A=B = S3S2S1S0 136
Logic For A > B
For A > B, there are 4 cases:
1. A3B3 is 10 and A2 A1 A0 & B2B1B0 can be anything:
A=1xxx, B=0xxx
2. A3=B3 and A2B2 is 10 and A1 A0 & B1B0 can be
anything: A=11xx, B=10xx or A=01xx, B=00xx
3. A3=B3 and A2=B2 and A1B1=10 and A0B0 is xx: e.g.
A=011x, B=010x
4. A3=B3 and A2=B2 and A1=B1 and A0B0 is 10: e.g.

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A=1011, B=1010
Y A>B=A3B3+S3A2B2+S3S2A1B1+S3S2S1A0B0
Logic For A < B
For A < B, there are also 4 cases:
1) A3B3 is 01 and A2A1A0 & B2B1B0 can be anything:
1. A=0xxx, B=1xxx
2) A3=B3 and A2B2 is 01 and A1 A0 & B1B0 can be
1. anything: A=10xx, B=11xx or A=00xx, B=01xx
3) A3=B3 and A2=B2 and A1B1=01 and A0B0 is xx: e.g.
1. A=110x, B=111x
4) A3=B3 and A2=B2 and A1=B1 and A0B0 is 01: e.g.
1. A=1000, B=1001
Y A<B=A3 B3+S3A2 B2+S3S2A1 B1+S3S2S1A0 B0
4-bit Comparator Logic Circuit

MSI: 7485 4-bit Magnitude Comparator

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Comparison of 4-bit Numbers

Comparison of 8 - bit Numbers

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Decoder
A decoder is a multiple-input, multiple-output logic circuit that converts coded inputs into
coded outputs, where the input and output codes are different.Binary Decoder has n inputs
and 2noutputs also called as n-to-2n decoder.
Inputs have all the 2n combinations and
the corresponding output will be activated for each input combinations.Decoding is necessary
in applications such as data multiplexing, 7 segment display and memory address decoding.
Enable inputs must be on for the decoder to function, otherwise its outputs assume a single
"disabled" output code word. Figure below shows the pseudo block of a decoder.

A binary decoder has n inputs and 2 n outputs. Only one output is active at any one time,
corresponding to the input value. Figure below shows a representation of Binary n-to-2n
decoder

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e.g. 3-to-8 decoder has 3 inputs and 8 outputs

3-to-8 Decoder
Function Table

3-to-8 Decoder Logic Circuit

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2-to-4 Decoder with Output Enable

Implement Logic Function with Decoder

Any n-variable logic function, in canonical sum-of-minterms form can be implemented using
a single n-to-2n decoder to generate the minterms, and an OR gate to form the sum.
The output lines of the decoder corresponding to the minterms of the function are used as
inputs to the or gate.
Any combinational circuit with n inputs and m outputs can be implemented with an n-to-2n
decoder with m OR gates.
Suitable when a circuit has many outputs, and each output function is expressed with few
minterms.

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(Ex) Full adder using decoder


S(x, y, z) =

(1,2,4,7)

C(x, y, z) =

(3,5,6,7)

Truth Table

X
0
0
0
0
1
1

Y
0
0
1
1
0
0

Z
0
1
0
1
0
1

C
0
0
0
1
0
1

From
the truth
table we
know
the
values
for
1
1
0
1
which
the sum 1
1
1
1
(s) is
active and also the carry (c) is active. Thus we have the equation as shown above and a
circuit can be drawn as shown below from the equation derived.

Use a 3-to-8 decoder to implement:


f = xyz + xyz + xyz
(m1 + m5 + m7)

S
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

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MSI Decoders
1. 2-to-4 Decoder
2. 3-to-8 Decoder
3. 4-to-16 Decoder
4. BCD-to-Decimal Decoder
5. BCD-to-Seven-Segment Decoder
e.g. Low Power Schottky TTL:
74LS138 3-to-8 Decoder where G1, G2A and G2B are enable pins
Logic Symbol

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74LS138 3-to-8 Decoder

Implement Logic Function with74LS138


Use a 3-to-8 decoder to implement:
f = xyz + xyz + xyz
(m1 + m5 + m7)

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4-to-16 Decoder
Use 2 3-to-8 decoders
Inputs: D, C, B, A
Outputs: Y0 Y15
When D = 0, top decoder is enabled
When D = 1,bottom decoderis enabled
En is enable

Binary Encoders

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An encoder is a combinational circuit that performs the inverse operation of a decoder. If a
device output code has fewer bits than the input code has, the device is usually called an
encoder. e.g. 2n-to-n, priority encoders.
The simplest encoder is a 2n-to-n binary encoder, where it has only one of 2n inputs = 1 and
the output is the n-bit binary number corresponding to the active input. It can be built from
OR gates

e.g. 4-to-2 Encoder

Octal-to-Binary Encoder
Octal-to-Binary take 8 inputs and provides 3 outputs, thus doing the opposite of what the 3to-8 decoder does. At any one time, only one input line has a value of 1. The figure below
shows the truth table of an Octal-to-binary encoder.
Truth Table
I0
1
0
0
0
0

I1
0
1
0
0
0

I2
0
0
1
0
0

I3
0
0
0
1
0

I4
0
0
0
0
1

I5
0
0
0
0
0

I6
0
0
0
0
0

I7
0
0
0
0
0

Y2
0
0
0
0
1

Y1
0
0
1
1
0

Y0
0
1
0
1
0

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0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

1
0
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

1
1
1

0
1
1

1
0
1

For an 8-to-3 binary encoder with inputs I0-I7 the logic expressions of the outputs Y0-Y2
are:
Y0 = I1 + I3 + I5 + I7
Y1= I2 + I3 + I6 + I7
Y2 = I4 + I5 + I6 +I7
Based on the above equations, we can draw the circuit as shown below

Priority Encoder

If more then two inputs are active simultaneously, the output is unpredictable or rather it is
not what we expect it to be.This ambiguity is resolved if priority is established so that only
one input is encoded, no matter how many inputs are active at a given point of time. The
priority encoder includes a priority function. The operation of the priority encoder is such
that if two or more inputs are active at the same time, the input having the highest priority
will take precedence.

e.g. 4-to-2 PriorityEncoder


A3 has the highest priority
A0 has the lower priority

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74148 8-to-3 Priority Encoder

16-to-4 Priority Encoder


Cascade two 74148 8-to-3 priority encoders. The Input 15 has highest priority

Multiplexer
A multiplexer (MUX) is a digital switch which connects data from one of n sources to the
output. A number of select inputs determine which data source is connected to the output.
The block diagram of MUX with n data sources of b bits wide and s bits wide select line is
shown in below figure.

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MUX acts like a digitally controlled multi-position switch where the binary code applied to
the select inputs controls the input source that will be switched on to the output as shown in
the figure below. At any given point of time only one input gets selected and is connected to
output, based on the select input signal.

The operation of a multiplexer can be better explained using a mechanical switch as shown in
the figure below. This rotary switch can touch any of the inputs, which is connected to the
output. As you can see at any given point of time only one input gets transferred to output.

2x1 MUX

A 2 to 1 line multiplexer is shown in figure below, each 2 input lines A to B is applied to one
input of an AND gate. Selection lines S are decoded to select a particular AND gate. The
truth table for the 2:1 mux is given in the table below.

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Design of a 2:1 Mux


To derive the gate level implementation of 2:1 mux we need to have truth table as s
hown in figure. And once we have the truth table, we can draw the K-map as shown
in figure for all the cases when Y is equal to '1'.
Combining the two 1' as shown in figure, we can drive the output y as shown below
Y = A.S + B.S
Truth Table
B
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
Kmap

A
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

S
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Y
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
1

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Circuit

MSI MUX
74150: 16-to-1
74153: Dual 4-to-1
74157: Quad 2-to-1
74151: 8-to-1

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16-to-1 MUX
Use two 74151
D = 0 enables top MUX
D = 1 enables bottom MUX
W = Y
= (Y1+Y2)
= (W1+W2)
= W1W2

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Larger Multiplexers
Larger multiplexers can be constructed from smaller ones. An 8-to-1 multiplexer can be
constructed from smaller multiplexers as shown below.
8-to-1 multiplexer from Smaller MUX

16-to-1 multiplexer from 4:1 mux

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Quadruple 2-to-1 MUX


It is 2-to-1 MUX with 4 bits for each input
There is 1 output of 4 bits
There is 1 select signal
When 1 input is selected, the whole group of 4 bits goes to the output

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Quad 2-to-1 MUX

Implementing Functions Multiplexers


Any n-variable logic function can be implemented using a smaller 2 n-1-to-1 multiplexer and a
single inverter (e.g 4-to-1 mux to implement 3 variable functions) as follows.
Express function in canonical sum-of-minterms form. Choose n-1 variables as inputs to mux
select lines. Construct the truth table for the function, but grouping inputs by selection line
values (i.e select lines as most significant inputs).

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Determine multiplexer input line i values by comparing the remaining input variable and the
function F for the corresponding selection lines value i.
We have four possible mux input line i values:

Connect to 0 if the function is 0 for both values of remaining variable.


Connect to 1 if the function is 1 for both values of remaining variable.
Connect to remaining variable if function is equal to the remaining variable.
Connect to the inverted remaining variable if the function is equal to the remaining
variable inverted

3-variable Function Using 8-to-1 mux


Implement the function F(X,Y,Z) = S(1,3,5,6) using an 8-to-1 mux. Connect the input
variables X, Y, Z to mux select lines. Mux data input lines 1, 3, 5, 6 that correspond to the
function minterms are connected to 1. The remaining mux data input lines 0, 2, 4, 7 are
connected to 0.

3-variable Function Using 4-to-1 mux


Implement the function F(X,Y,Z) = S(0,1,3,6) using a single 4-to-1 mux and an inverter. We
choose the two most significant inputs X, Y as mux select lines.
Truth Table

Select i
0
0
1
1
2

X
0
0
0
0
1

Y
0
0
1
1
0

Z
0
1
0
1
0

F
1
1
0
1
0

Mux Input i
1
1
Z
Z
0

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2
3
3

1
1
1

0
1
1

1
0
1

0
1
0

0
Z'
Z'

We determine multiplexer input line i values by comparing the remaining


Z and the function F for the corresponding selection lines value i

input variable

when XY=00 the function F is 1 (for both Z=0, Z=1) thus mux input0 = 1
when XY=01 the function F is Z thus mux input1 = Z
when XY=10 the function F is 0 (for both Z=0, Z=1) thus mux input2 = 0
when XY=11 the function F is Z' thus mux input3 = Z'

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Example for logic function implementation using MUX

De-multiplexers

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They are digital switches which connect data from one input source to one of n
outputs.Usually implemented by using n-to-2n binary decoders where the decoder enable line
is used for data input of the de-multiplexer.The figure below shows a de-multiplexer block
diagram which has got s-bits-wide select input, one b-bits-wide data input and n b-bits-wide
outputs.

The operation of a de-multiplexer can be better explained using a mechanical switch as


shown in the figure below. This rotary switch can touch any of the outputs, which is
connected to the input. As you can see at any given point of time only one output gets
connected to input.

1-to-4 De-multiplexer

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Truth Table
S1
0
0
1
1

S0
0
1
0
1

F0
D
0
0
0

F1
0
D
0
0

F2
0
0
D
0

F3
0
0
0
D

Unit 4. PROGRAMMING LOGIC CONTROLLERS


Programmable Logic Controllers Basic Structure Input / Output Processing Programming
Mnemonics Timers, Internal relays and counters Shift Registers Master and Jump Controls
Data Handling Analogs Input / Output Selection of a PLC Problem.

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used


for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly
lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike
general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements,
extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact.
Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real time system since output results must be produced in
response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder
logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was
chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians. Other early PLCs used a form of
instruction list programming, based on a stack-based logic solver.
Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder logic to more traditional
programming languages such as BASIC and C. Another method is State Logic, a very high-level
programming language designed to program PLCs based on state transition diagrams.
Many early PLCs did not have accompanying programming terminals that were capable of graphical
representation of the logic, and so the logic was instead represented as a series of logic expressions

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in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra. As programming terminals evolved,
it became more common for ladder logic to be used, for the aforementioned reasons. Newer formats
such as State Logic and Function Block (which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using
digital integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are still not as popular as ladder logic. A primary
reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic
allows the programmer (the person writing the logic) to see any issues with the timing of the logic
sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats.
Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a graphical diagram based on
the circuit diagrams of relay-based logic hardware. It is primarily used to develop software for
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) used in industrial control applications. The name is based
on the observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a
series of horizontal rungs between them.
An argument that aided the initial adoption of ladder logic was that a wide variety of engineers and
technicians would be able to understand and use it without much additional training, because of the
resemblance to familiar hardware systems. This argument has become less relevant given that most
ladder logic programmers have a software background in more conventional programming
languages, and in practice implementations of ladder logic have characteristics - such as sequential
execution and support for control flow featuresthat make the analogy to hardware somewhat
inaccurate.
Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs, where sequential control of a process or
manufacturing operation is required. Ladder logic is useful for simple but critical control systems or
for reworking old hardwired relay circuits. As programmable logic controllers became more
sophisticated it has also been used in very complex automation systems. Often the ladder logic
program is used in conjunction with an HMI program operating on a computer workstation.
Manufacturers of programmable logic controllers generally also provide associated ladder logic
programming systems. Typically the ladder logic languages from two manufacturers will not be
completely compatible; ladder logic is better thought of as a set of closely related programming
languages rather than one language. (The IEC 61131-3 standard has helped to reduce unnecessary
differences, but translating programs between systems still requires significant work.) Even different
models of programmable controllers within the same family may have different ladder notation such
that programs cannot be seamlessly interchanged between models.
Ladder logic can be thought of as a rule-based language rather than a procedural language. A "rung"
in the ladder represents a rule. When implemented with relays and other electromechanical devices,
the various rules "execute" simultaneously and immediately. When implemented in a programmable
logic controller, the rules are typically executed sequentially by software, in a continuous loop
(scan). By executing the loop fast enough, typically many times per second, the effect of
simultaneous and immediate execution is relatively achieved to within the tolerance of the time
required to execute every rung in the "loop" (the "scan time"). It is somewhat similar to other rulebased languages, like spreadsheets or SQL. However, proper use of programmable controllers
requires understanding the limitations of the execution order of rungs.

Example of a simple ladder logic program

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The language itself can be seen as a set of connections between logical checkers (contacts) and
actuators (coils). If a path can be traced between the left side of the rung and the output, through
asserted (true or "closed") contacts, the rung is true and the output coil storage bit is asserted (1) or
true. If no path can be traced, then the output is false (0) and the "coil" by analogy to
electromechanical relays is considered "de-energized". The analogy between logical propositions
and relay contact status is due to Claude Shannon.
Ladder logic has contacts that make or break circuits to control coils. Each coil or contact
corresponds to the status of a single bit in the programmable controller's memory. Unlike
electromechanical relays, a ladder program can refer any number of times to the status of a single
bit, equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely large number of contacts.
So-called "contacts" may refer to physical ("hard") inputs to the programmable controller from
physical devices such as pushbuttons and limit switches via an integrated or external input module,
or may represent the status of internal storage bits which may be generated elsewhere in the
program.
Each rung of ladder language typically has one coil at the far right. Some manufacturers may allow
more than one output coil on a rung.
--( )-- a regular coil, energized whenever its rung is closed
--(\)-- a "not" coil, energized whenever its rung is open
--[ ]-- A regular contact, closed whenever its corresponding coil or an input which controls it is

energized.
--[\]-- A "not" contact, open whenever its corresponding coil or an input which controls it is

energized.
The "coil" (output of a rung) may represent a physical output which operates some device connected
to the programmable controller, or may represent an internal storage bit for use elsewhere in the
program.

Examples
Here is an example of what one rung in a ladder logic program might look like. In real life, there
may be hundreds or thousands of rungs.
For example:
1. ----[ ]---------|--[ ]--|------( )
X
|
Y
|
S
|
|
|--[ ]--|
Z

The above realizes the function: S = X AND ( Y OR Z )

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Typically, complex ladder logic is 'read' left to right and top to bottom. As each of the lines (or
rungs) are evaluated the output coil of a rung may feed into the next stage of the ladder as an input.
In a complex system there will be many "rungs" on a ladder, which are numbered in order of
evaluation.
1. ----[ ]-----------|---[ ]---|----( )
X
|
Y
|
S
|
|
|---[ ]---|
Z
2. ----[ ]----[ ]-------------------( )
S
X
T

2. T = S AND X where S is equivalent to #1. above


This represents a slightly more complex system for rung 2. After the first line has been evaluated,
the output coil (S) is fed into rung 2, which is then evaluated and the output coil T could be fed into
an output device (buzzer, light etc..) or into rung 3 on the ladder. (Note that the contact X on the
second rung serves no useful purpose, as X is already defined in the 'AND' function of S from the 1st
rung.)
This system allows very complex logic designs to be broken down and evaluated.
For more practical examples see below:

------[ ]--------------[ ]----------------( )


Key Switch 1
Key Switch 2
Door Motor

This circuit shows two key switches that security guards might use to activate an electric motor on a
bank vault door. When the normally open contacts of both switches close, electricity is able to flow
to the motor which opens the door. This is a logical AND.
+-------+
----------------------------+
+---+-------+
Remote Receiver
--|-------[ ]-------+-----------------( )
| Remote Unlock |
Lock Solenoid
|
|
|-------[ ]-------|
Interior Unlock

This circuit shows the two things that can trigger a car's power door locks. The remote receiver is
always powered. The lock solenoid gets power when either set of contacts is closed. This is a logical
OR.

Often we have a little green "start" button to turn on a motor, and we want to turn it off with a big
red "Stop" button. The stop button itself is wired as a normally closed switch, the PLC input is read

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as normally open. When the stop button is pushed, the input will go false. Making the rung false,
stopping the "run" output.

--+----[ ]--+----[\]----( )
|
start |
stop
run
|
|
+----[ ]--+
run
-------[ ]--------------( )
run
motor

This latch configuration is a common idiom in ladder logic. In ladder logic it is referred to as seal-in
logic.

Additional functionality
Additional functionality can be added to a ladder logic implementation by the PLC manufacturer as
a special block. When the special block is powered, it executes code on predetermined arguments.
These arguments may be displayed within the special block.

+-------+
-----[ ]--------------------+ A
+---Remote Unlock
+-------+
Remote Counter
+-------+
-----[ ]--------------------+ B
+---Interior Unlock
+-------+
Interior Counter
+--------+
--------------------+ A + B +----------+ into C +
+--------+
Adder

In this example, the system will count the number of times that the interior and remote unlock
buttons are pressed. This information will be stored in memory locations A and B. Memory location
C will hold the total number of times that the door has been unlocked electronically.
PLCs have many types of special blocks. They include timers, arithmetic operators and comparisons,
table lookups, text processing, PID control, and filtering functions. More powerful PLCs can operate
on a group of internal memory locations and execute an operation on a range of addresses, for
example,to simulate a physical sequential drum controller or a finite state machine. In some cases,
users can define their own special blocks, which effectively are subroutines or macros. The large
library of special blocks along with high speed execution has allowed use of PLCs to implement
very complex automation systems.

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Anatomy of a Ladder Program

Input instructions are entered on the left


Output instructions are entered on the right
The power rails simulate the power supply lines
L1 and L2 for AC circuits and +24 v and ground for DC circuits

Most PLCs allow more than one output per rung


The processor (or controller) scans ladder rungs from top-to-bottom and from left-to-right.
The basic sequence is altered whenever jump or subroutine instructions are executed.

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Logic Functions

PLC programming is a logical procedure

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In a PLC program, things (inputs and rungs) are either TRUE or FALSE
If the proper input conditions are TRUE:The rung becomes TRUE and an output action
occurs (for example, a motor turns on)
If the proper input conditions are not TRUE:The rung becomes FALSE and an output action
does not occur
Ladder logic is based on the following logic functions:
AND, OR, Sometimes called inclusive OR, Exclusive OR.

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