Honors Calculus 1

Menendez

What Do Rational Functions Look Like?

Alex Menendez
November 25, 2014

Abstract
, where p(x) and q(x)
In this paper, we explore the characteristics of rational functions of the form f (x) = p(x)
q(x)
are polynomials such that deg(p, q) 2. More explicitly, we define a0 , a1 , a2 , b0 , b1 , b2 R, and
f (x) =

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
b2 x2 + b1 x + b0

Given f (x), we can investigate its various properties, including asymptotes, holes, extrema, and points of inflection.

1
1.1
1.1.1

Intercepts
Can f (x) have three x-intercepts?
Case 1: Let a0 = 0:

Assuming a0 = 0, the constant term thus vanishes, leaving:

a2 x2 + a1 x
=0
b2 x2 + b1 x + b0
Of course, the denominator has no power in determining whether f (x) = 0, thus we focus on the numerator only:
a2 x2 + a1 x = 0
Factoring out a power of x, we obtain:
x(a2 x + a1 ) = 0
We now have the liberty of concluding that either x = 0, or (a2 x + a1 ) = 0. Solving the latter for x, we get:
a2 x = a1
x=

a1
a2

Thus, we end up with two solutions, x = 0 and x = a1 /a2 .

1.1.2

Case 2: Let a1 = 0:

Assuming that a1 = 0, we are left with:

a2 x2 + a0
=0
b2 x2 + b1 x + b0

Which, of course yields:

a2 x2 + a0 = 0
Therefore, solving for x, we obtain:
r
a0
x=i
a2
Which gives two (imaginary) solutions assuming that a0 > 0.

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1.1.3

Menendez

Case 3: Let a2 = 0:

Assuming a2 = 0, we obtain:
b2
Of course, we can restate the above equation as:

a1 x + a0
=0
+ b1 x + b0

x2

a1 x + a0 = 0
x=

a0
a1

Which gives one solution. By considering each of these cases in which we manipulate the coefficients of p(x) and
restrict the order of p(x) to at most two, we generate at most two solutions, which is logical, as p(x)assuming a2
nonzerois a parabola, which always has at most two roots. What this means is that, under the condition that
deg(p(x)) 2, we cannot possibly have three points at which p(x) intersects the x-axis.

2
2.1
2.1.1

Asymptotes
Does f (x) have a horizontal asymptote?
Case 1: Let f (x) be defined as it is in the abstract (all coefficients and powers of x):

Assuming that we have

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
b2 x2 + b1 x + b0
We can determine the possibility of a horizontal asymptote by taking the limit as x :
f (x) =

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
x b2 x2 + b1 x + b0
lim

Multiplying both the numerator and denominator by a factor of 1/x2 yields:

lim

a2 +
b2 +

a1
x
b1
x

+
+

Which reduces to:

lim f (x) =

2.1.2

a0
x2
b0
x2

a2
b2

Case 2: Let a2 = 0:

Letting a2 = 0, we get:
f (x) =

b2

a1 x + a0
+ b1 x + b0

x2

Thus, the limit is written as:

a1 x + a0
b2 x2 + b1 x + b0
Applying the same multiplication trick in the previous part, wed see that the numerator goes to zero as x ,
while the denominator goes to b2 . Thus, we end up with a limiting value of zero. Another shortcut to recall is that,
in the case where deg(p(x)) < deg(q(x)), the horizontal asymptote is simply the x-axis.
lim

2.1.3

Case 3: Let b2 = 0:

If we allow b2 to be zero, we may write out function as:

f (x) =

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
b1 x + b0

Thus, the limit shall be written as:

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
x
b1 x + b0
lim

Honors Calculus 1

Menendez

Again, multiplying both the numerator and denominator by the reciprocal of the highest-order variable, 1/x2 , we
would observe that the numerator converges to a2 , while the denominator converges to zero. Thus, division by
zero yields . Therefore, we can say that there is no horizontal asymptote under this condition; there is, however,
an oblique asymptote that can be found through polynomial long division. Long story short, though, there is no
horizontal asymptote. What we can conclude from this, then, is thatunder the condition that deg(p(x)) > deg(q(x))
it is perfectly possible for f (x) to have no horizontal asymptote(s).

2.2

Can f (x) have two different horizontal asymptotes?

In the previous section, we observed that, manipulating the leading coefficients of p(x) and q(x) allowed us to see that
the horizontal asymptote could only be singular, existing at either , 0, or a2 /b2 . What if, however, we consider
a case in which the denominator can be two different expressions?
2.2.1

Case 1: Take the absolute value of the denominator:

f (x) =

a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
|b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 |

In this case, we can simply plot the above function (I gave it arbitrary coefficients):
(2 x + 2 x2 + 1)/abs(2 x + 4 x2 + 1)
0.65

0.6

0.55

0.5

0.45

0.4

20

15

10

0
x

10

15

20

1 x+a0
In the above plot (courtesy of Matlab), we see that the function of the form f (x) = |ba22xx2+a
+b1 x+b0 | approaches a
single horizontal asymptote, but from different directions on either side of the x-axis. Hmm, no cigar.

2.2.2

Case 2: Decrease the degrees of p(x) and q(x) by one (i.e., Let a2 and b2 = 0:)

While still maintaining the absolute value in the denominator, but lowering the degree of the leading terms by one,
we get:
a1 x + a0
f (x) =
|b1 x + b0 |

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Menendez

If we plot this function, we obtain a graph that looks like (again, with arbitrary coefficients):
(2 x)/abs(2 x + 1)
1

0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

3
20

15

10

0
x

10

15

20

We now observe that the function clearly approaches two different horizontal asymptotes. What this verifies is
that, under the condition that a2 = b2 = 0 and we take the absolute value of the denominator, there can be two
different horizontal asymptotes that the function approaches. Note that the horizontal asymptote positioned at the
smaller x-value intersects the function.

2.3

Can f (x) have a vertical asymptote and a removable discontinuity?

In general, a vertical asymptote occurs where a rational function f (x) is undefined (i.e., q(x) = 0). If we allow
q(x) = 0, then we can equivalently state that:
b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 = 0
2.3.1

Case 1: Let b2 = 0:

Allowing b2 = 0, we obtain the equation:

b1 x + b0 = 0
Where we find that
x=

b0
b1

Which gives us the location of the functions vertical asymptote (in this case), sinceassuming that b2 = 0the
denominator is now zero, thus the function has a singularity at x = b0 /b1 .
2.3.2

Case 2: Let b1 = 0:

Letting the linear term in the denominator vanish, we are left with:
b2 x2 + b0 = 0

Honors Calculus 1

Menendez

Thus, solving for x yields:

r
x=i

b0
b2

Which, effectively, means that there are no vertical asymptotes. This is due to the fact that the values at which the
singularity should lie are imaginary, conflicting with the fact that f (x) can only be plotted in the real plane.
2.3.3

Case 3: Let b0 = 0:

Letting b0 = 0 leaves us with:

b2 x2 + b1 x = 0
Thus, factoring yields:
x(b2 x + b1 ) = 0
Thus, x = 0, and b2 x + b1 = 0. Thus, we are left with two solutions:
x = 0 or x =

b1
b2

Alright, so what exactly was accomplished in the previous problems? Generally, the same reasoning will now be
employed to explore if the same conditions that create a vertical asymptote create a removable discontinuity.
2.3.4

Case 4: Let b2 = a0 = 0 and let a2 = b1 and a1 = b0 :

Using the conditions above, we may write:

f (x) =

a2 x2 + a1 x
b1 x + b0

f (x) =

x(a2 x + a1 )
b1 x + b0

Factoring out a power of x, we obtain:

Now, allowing a2 = b1 and a1 = b0 , we can cancel the two linear expressions (a2 x + a1 ) and (b1 x + b0 ). Since these
quantities cancel, they represent removable discontinuities at x = b0 /b1 or x = a1 /a2 . Keep in mind that these
two expressions are equal under the condition that a1 = b0 and a2 = b1 . Now, recall in the previous section where
we found that a vertical asymptote exists assuming that:
b1 x + b0 = 0
We found that the vertical asymptote was located at x = b0 /b1 , which exactly matches the two expressions we
derived in the above steps. What this means is that, yes, f (x) is allowed to have a removable discontinuity and a
vertical asymptote.

3
3.1

Tangency
Can f (x) be tangent to the line y = 2x + 1?

To do this, we (me, Alexthats who we are) consider two methods of exploring this problem: a hand-wavy,
contrived, number theory-y method, and an easy method.
3.1.1

The hand-wavy method:

To begin, we will first differentiate f (x), obtaining (skipping many intermediate steps):
f 0 (x) =

(a1 b2 a2 b1 )x2 + (2a0 b2 )x + (a0 b1 2a2 b0 a1 b0 )

(b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 )2

We also recognize that this. . . thing . . . is tangent to y = 2x + 1, therefore it should be equal to 2:

(a1 b2 a2 b1 )x2 + (2a0 b2 )x + (a0 b1 2a2 b0 a1 b0 )
=2
(b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 )2
5

Honors Calculus 1

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Cross-multiplying:
(a1 b2 a2 b1 )x2 + (2a0 b2 )x + (a0 b1 2a2 b0 a1 b0 ) = 2(b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 )2
But, if like before, we *arbitrarily* say a0 = b2 = 0 and a2 = b1 and a1 = b0 , we can hand-wavily rearrange the
entire equation as:
a22 x2 2a2 x (2a2 a1 + a21 + 2a1 ) = 0
Which, by the quadratic formula, yields:
x=

2a2

4a22 (8a32 a1 + 4a22 a21 + 8a1 a22 )

2a22

There still is no telling whether or not this quantity will produce real results or not; that would depend on the values
of a1 and a2 . Thus, we will test four cases:
a1 > 0 and a2 > 0
a1 < 0 and a2 < 0
a1 > 0 and a2 < 0
a1 < 0 and a2 > 0
In the first case, if both a1 and a2 are positive, then the expression should yield imaginary roots, aswithin the
radicalwe subtract (8a32 a1 + 4a22 a21 + 8a1 a22 ) from 4a22 . (8a32 a1 + 4a22 a21 + 8a1 a22 ) contains more factors of a2 than 4a22 ,
and is also multiplied by the positive number, a1 , where we allow a1  1. Therefore, the quantity within the radical
is negative, producing complex roots. In the second case, we consider a1 < 0 and a2 < 0. For the sake of simplicity
and not changing coefficients in the quadratic formula expression, we will consider a1 = 1 and a2 = 1. Assuming
that this is the case, the quantity underneath the radical will reduce to zero, leaving us with:
x=1
Which is a real answer. Tested at a1 = 2 and a2 = 2, the answers are once again real. In the third case, we
consider a1 > 0 and a2 < 0. If we allow these conditions and choose a1 = 1 and a2 = 1, then the quantity
underneath the radical should condense to zero1 , leaving us once again with a real result in the same fashion as
before. In the fourth and final case, we consider a1 < 0 and a2 > 0. Again, arbitrarily choosing a1 = 1 and a2 = 1,
we once again prove a real result. Thus, in 3 of the 4 cases, we obtain a real result, confirming that, yes, f (x) is
tangent to y = 2x + 1.
3.1.2

The easy method:

We can also plot f (x) and the line y = 2x + 1. For this, we will give f (x) arbitrary coefficients2 , and say:
f (x) =

2x2 + 2x + 1
4x2 + 2x + 1

The subsequent plot shows us:

1 The
2 The

quantity under the radical will not always be zero, but it just so happened that it did in the process of leading to a real result.
tangency of f to the line will largely depend on the coefficients we choose.

Honors Calculus 1

Menendez

2x+1

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
x

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

We notice an interesting trend, however; when we manipulate the leading coefficient of q(x)make it largerwe
define the function as:
2x2 + 2x + 1
f (x) =
100x2 + 2x + 1
When plotted, the function exhibits characteristics of being tangent to y = 2x + 1:
2x+1

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.1
x

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Honors Calculus 1

Menendez

Thus, we can say that

2x2 + 2x + 1
x2 + 2x + 1

lim f (x) = lim

Allows the function to become tangent to the line y = 2x + 1 on a restricted domain (depending on the chosen
coefficients).

4
4.1

Extrema
Can f (x) have absolute extrema on the interval (, )?

Recall that, if f (x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then there exists a global maximum or minimum. Since
the interval of concern, however, is not closed, we cannot conclude that there even exists a global maximum or
minimum.

4.2

Can f (x) have three local extrema?

The local extrema occur at the critical points (arg maxx[a,b] f (x) or arg minx[a,b] f (x)), or where f 0 (x) is equal to
zero. Thus, using the previously computed derivative, we obtain:
(a1 b2 a2 b1 )x2 + (2a0 b2 )x + (a0 b1 2a2 b0 a1 b0 )
=0
(b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 )2
Thus, focusing on the numerator, we find:
(a1 b2 a2 b1 )x2 + (2a0 b2 )x + (a0 b1 2a2 b0 a1 b0 ) = 0
Which is a quadratic in x; thus, using the quadratic formula, we obtain:
p
(2a0 b2 ) (2a0 b2 )2 4(a1 b2 a2 b1 )(a0 b1 2a2 b0 a1 b0 )
x=
2(a1 b2 a2 b1 )
Which represents two critical points, rather than three.

4.3

Can f (x) have two local maxima?

Under that condition that deg(p(x)) and deg(q(x)) 2, we can state that f (x) cannot have two local maxima on a
closed interval I. Thus, there is not more than one value of x for which x = arg maxxI f (x), meaning that there
cannot be more than one maximum. There can be more than one critical point, but to have two critical points that
represent a maximum cannot happen under the given conditions. For an example, we will give f (x) real, arbitrary
coefficients and plot it on a closed interval (next page)

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Menendez

(50 x + x2 + 3)/(2 x + 4 x2 + 4)

6
20

15

10

0
x

10

15

20

Thus, we can see that, on a closed interval, a rational function f (x) has only one maximum. It clearly has two
critical points, but only one of them is a local maximum value.

5
5.1

Concavity
Can f (x) have three inflection points?

For this, we will take the function described in the abstract and compute its second derivative:

f 00 (x) =

(2(b2 x2 +b1 x+b0 )(2b2 x+b1 ))((a1 b2 a2 b1 )x2 +2a0 b2 x+(a0 b1 2a2 b0 a1 b0 ))(2(a1 b2 a2 b1 )x+2a0 b2 )(b2 x2 +b1 x+b0 )
(b2 x2 +b1 x+b0 )4

Which is cubic in form, thus it should have at least three real rootsin other words, f 00 (x) will be zero in three places,
meaning at least three inflection points. To verify, though, we shall give f (x) arbitrary coefficients and compute the
second derivative. Suppose:
x2 + 50x + 3
f (x) = 2
4x + 2x + 4
Thus,
3(66x3 + 8x2 194x 35)
f 00 (x) =
(2x2 + x + 2)3
Which has solutions at x 1.7, x 0.18, and x 1.7, thus there exist 3 points of inflection.

6
6.1

More Tangency
Can f (x) be tangent to a single line in more than one place?

Given the shape of a rational function, a line that we attempt to draw tangent to two places should intersect through
the function, thusby definitionit cannot be tangent in more than one place.