Chapter 8 - Environmental Health & Toxicology

8.1 Environmental Health

health: state of complete physical, mental & social wellbeing, not merely
absence of disease or infirmity
disease: abnormal change in bodys condition that impairs important physical
or psychological functions
morbidity: illness
mortality: death
environmental health: external factors that cause disease, including elements
of natural, social, cultural & tech worlds
1.global disease burden is changng
many epidemics reduced or eliminated
decrease in many infections illnesses with an aging population = producing
shift in global disease burden
disability - adjusted life years (DALYs)= measure of disease burden
o combine premature deaths & loss of healthy life resulting from illness
or disability
o attempt to evaluate total cost of disease, not just how many people die

2.

i.

3.

emergent diseases: those not previously known or that have been absent for
at least 20 years
ex) old diseases being absent then coming back
Conservation medicine combines ecology & health care
o ecological diseases: domestic animals & wildlife also experience
sudden & widespread epidemics
ex) animals share diseases extinct ecological loss
o conservation medicine: emerging discipline that attempts to
understand how our environmental changes threaten our own health
as well as that of natural communities that we depend on for our
ecological services
Resistance to drugs, antibiotics & pesticides = increasing
o many diseases thought wiped out come back stronger b/c built
resistance to medicines
we have to create new medicine later they get stronger

8.2 Toxicology
toxins (poisons) & their effects on living systems = toxicology
o toxins damage or kill living organisms bc they react w/ cellular
respiration to disrupt metabolic functions
environmental toxicology (ecotoxicology): interactions, transformation, fate
and effects of natural and synthetic chemicals in the biosphere, including
individual organisms, populations and whole ecosystems
o 275 substances regulated by CERCLA
2.

How do toxins affect us

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allergens: substances that activate immune system

antogens: they are recognized as foreign by white blood cells &
stimulate the production of specific antibodies
ex) formaldehyde directly allergenic & can also
trigger reactions to other substances. widely used in
plastics, wood products, insulation, glue fabric
sick building syndrome: headaches, allergies, chronic fatigue, and
other symptoms caused by poorly vented indoor air contaminated by
mold spores, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, etc.
costs $60 billion a year in absenteeism and productivity (EPA
says)
immune system depressants = pollutants that suppress immune
system death of seals/dolphins
endocrine disruptors: chemicals that disrupt normal hormone functions
neurotoxins: special class of metabolic poisons that specifically attack
neurons
ex) heavy metals (lead & mercury) kills nerve cells & cause
permanent neurological damage
anesthetics (ether, chloroform, halothane, etc) disrupt nerve
cell membranes necessary for nerve action
organophosphates (malathion) & Carbomates (carbyl) inhibit
acetylcholinsterase (enzyme) that regulates signal transmission
between nerve cells & tissues or organs they innervate
mutagens: agents (chemicals & radiation) that damage or alter genetic
material
damage leads to birth defects during fetal growth
teratogens: chem & other factors that specifically cause abnormalities
during embryonic growth/development
most prevalent = alcohol = fetal alcohol syndrome
300,000-60,000 children born a year exposed in womb
mercury
carcinogens: substances that cause cancer
2nd leading cause of death - 1.6 million people

diet influence health because 60% of all adults in US are now considered
overweight

8.3 Movement, distribution & fate of toxins

1. solubility & mobility determine where and when chemicals move
o solubility: one of most important characteristics in determining how ,
where, & when a toxic material will move through the environment or
through body to its site of action
o water soluble: move fast because water is ubiquitous, have ready
access to most cells in body
o oil soluble: generally need a carrier to move thru the environment &
into/within body in body, oil penetrate readily into tissue & cell
membrane accumulated and stored in lipid deposits, where may be
protected from metabolic breakdown & persist for many years
2. Exposure an susceptibility determine how we respond

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many routes for entry of dangerous substances into our bodies

airborne toxins more ill health than any other exposure source
lining in lungs = exchange gases and absorb toxins WELL
3 million people = children die each year because disease
aor pollution
condition of organisms + timing of exposure = strong influence
of toxicity
ex) exposed to toxin = dangerous @ certain stages of
developmental or metabolic cycles
3. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification increase concentrations of chemicals
o bioaccumulation: selective absorption & storage of a great variety of
molecules allows to accumulate nutrients & molecules
toxins that dilute in the enviro = dangerous levels inside cells &
tissue through this process
o biomagnification: occurs when the toxic burden of a large number of
organisms @ lower trophic levels is accumulated & concentrated by a
predator in a higher trophic level
ex) DDT accumulated thru food chain
4. Persistence makes some materials a greater threat
o persistentorganic pollutants (POPs) : extremely widespread, often
accumulate in food web & reach toxic concentration in long living top
predators
5. Chem interactions can increase toxicity
o antagonistic reactions: interfere with the effects and stimulate the
breakdown of other chemicals
o additive: occur together = in exposures
o synergism: interaction in which one substance exacerbates the effects
of another
every material can be poisonous under some conditions but
most chemicals have some safe level or threshold below their
effects are undetectable
6.
Metabolic degradation & excretion eliminates toxins
o most organisms have enzymes that process waste products &
environmental poisons to reduce their toxicity
o also remove waste products & reduce enviro poisons through
excretion
accumulation of toxins in urine can damage vital system
kidney & bladder subjected to harmful levels of toxic compound
7.
repair mechanisms mend damage
o individual cells have enzymes to repair damage to DNA & protein @
molecular level, tissues & organs

8.4 Toxicity & risk assessment

1. We usually test toxins on lab animals
o widely acceptable toxin test = expose population of a lab animal to
measured doses of a specific substance under controlled condition
procedure = expensive, time consuming, painful

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more humane test = use computer simulation model

LD50: convenient way to describe toxicity of a chemical = to
determine the DOSE to which 50% or of the test POPULATION is
sensitive
unrelated species = can react VERY differently to same toxin
not only because body size vary but diff physiology &
metabolism
even within single species = variation in responses
2. Acute and chronic doses & effects differ
o acute effects: caused by a single exposure to the toxin & result in an
immediate health crisis of some sort
o chronic effect: long lasting, perhaps even permanent
can result from single dose of very toxic substance or can be
result from continuous/repeated sublethal exposure
3. Detectable levels arent always dangerous
o toxins & pollutants seem way more widespread
o increasingly sophisticated measuring tech = lead to believe toxic
materials have become more prevalent
4. Risk perception isntalways rational
o risk:possibility of suffering harm or loss
o risk assessment: scientific process of estimating the threat that a
particular hazards pose to human health
hazard identification scientists evaluate all available info about
the effects of a toxin to estimate the likelihood that chem will
cause a certain effect in humans
o exposure assessment: estimation or determination of the magnitude,
frequency, duration & route of exposure to a possible toxin
o # of factors influence how we perceive risks
people with social, political, or economical interests
downplay certain risks to suit THEIR OWN agendas
tolerate risks we choose (driving, smoking, etc.)
difficulty understanding & believing probabilities ( 1in100)
personal experiences often are misleading
news, media give us a biased perspective on frequency of
certain kinds of health hazards = overreporting/underreporting
irrational fear or distrust of certain tech or activities that leads
us to overestimate their dangers