Running Head: NOW YOU SEE IT

Now You See It

Timothy C. Ware
Ocean Lakes High School

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Abstract

During the on-site portion of this project, I mentored at Morphix Technologies under the
direction of Mrs. Kim Hulin and Dr. Jay Parker III. Morphix Technologies produces a number of
different products that are used in the detection of a wide variety of hazardous chemicals. These
products rely heavily on indicator chemicals to produce a highly visible color change in the
presence of certain toxins.
While at my mentorship, I was given the assignment of redesigning the color comparator
used with Toluene Diisocyanate sensitive badges. This project was the central aspect of my
mentorship experience, and at least part of every day I spent at the laboratory was used to work
on that project. Because of the amount of time I spent working on the comparator project and the
different aspects involved in the process of redesigning it, I have chosen it as the basis of my first
case study. As the products created at Morphix Technologies rely on color change to function;
the basics of color as human beings see it is the basis for my second case study. This study also
includes complications that arise from the way humans perceive color. The basis for my third
case study is how chemical indicators function and how color change is objectively measured, as
this is the scientific link between color and the products made at Morphix Technologies. In
addition to the color comparator project, I was also able to assist in basic laboratory procedures
and inventory, quality control checks for other products, company database updates, indicator
chemical layer printing, and product assembly.
There are three occupations that would be involved in the type of work that I observed at
Morphix Technologies. Chemists, Chemical Technicians, and Chemical Engineers all require
bachelors degrees for entry-level positions in their respective occupations.

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Case Study I: Comparator Redesign

Color comparators are objects used by Morphix Technologies to supplement the use of
chemical-sensitive badges. As each badge is exposed to a certain gaseous chemical or airborne
vapor, it reacts to inform the wearer and/or other observers to the presence of that chemical.
This property alone is extremely useful, as demonstrated by Morphixs Chameleon line of
products, which are commonly used by military and law enforcement agencies to quickly
respond to the introduction of hazardous chemicals into the immediate environment. This is an
advantageous product, as many chemical detection systems used by law enforcement are large,
expensive, slow, difficult to operate, or some combination thereof (National Institute of Justice,
2000; Douglas, 2013). The magazine American Cop ran an article in their September 2013 issue
praising the merits of the Chameleon over such systems (Douglas, 2013). While not necessarily
scientific, such an article is a vote of confidence from those who most use these systems in the
field that they are convenient, reliable, and effective. An example of such large and complicated
systems that I experienced personally was the thermo-luminescent dosimeter used to verify the
concentration of TDI in the vapor chamber. The system was complicated, unwieldy, and could
take upwards of twenty minutes to use. The Chameleon is very straightforward and effective,
and can stand up to a variety of conditions. The Chameleon products can also be reconfigured to
detect a number of different chemicals at any given time. One limitation that the Chameleon has,
however, is that it is incapable of relaying any information regarding the actual concentration of
hazardous material, only that a dangerous substance is present. Other Morphix products provide
much more detailed information. Both the SafeAir and ChromAir products change color in
varying degrees corresponding with the concentration of chemical present. For determining the
concentration of the given chemical, an observer must compare the color of the badge to a scale
on the color comparator, and then read the corresponding dose in parts per billion (ppb) or parts
per million (ppm) x hours. Quality control checks are constantly performed to ensure that the
colors on the badges match the colors on the comparator as closely as possible, but occasionally
adjustments or complete redesigns of the comparators will be necessary to better match the
observed colors.
The badges produced by Morphix Technologies consist of a chemically sensitive layer
in paper housing. A portion of the layer (often in the shape of an exclamation point) is exposed
to air, while the remainder is covered by plastic to prevent contamination. When exposed to a
specific chemical, the layer reacts with the compound and changes color. This color change
intensifies as the dosage increases, and the color comparator that accompanies the badge can be
used to match a specific color on the badge to its corresponding dosage.
The comparator upon which this study was based accompanied the SafeAir badge built
for toluene diisocyante (TDI) vapor. Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) is a compound used to produce
polyurethane. Toluene is an aromatic hydrocarbon, meaning that its major structure is one or

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more benzene rings (C6H6). Toluene, specifically, is a benzene ring with an attached methyl
(CH3) group. The diisocyanate portion of the name refers to the two cyanate (one oxygen atom
bonded to nitrogen atom bonded to one carbon atom) groups bonded to the benzene ring. There
are two common isomers of TDI, 2,4-Toulene diisocyanate and 2,6-Toluene diisocyanate.
Isomers are two chemicals which contain the same atoms in the same ratios (in this case
C9H6N2O2), but have different bonds and structures. The numbers proceeding a chemical name
denote the location to which a group is bonded. In the case of 2,4-TDI, the two cyanate groups
are bonded to the second and fourth carbon in the benzene ring (the first carbon is bonded to the
methyl group, forming toluene). Commercial grade TDI, most often used in manufacturing
applications, is a mixture of 80% 2,4-Toluene diisocyanate and 20% 2,6-Toluene diisocyanate
(Center for Disease Control and Prevention National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
1989). Because it is the most common form of TDI, this is what was used in the laboratory for
our testing. (ALS Environmental, n.d.; Health Protection Agency, 2010)
TDI is considered an organic compound, which is a very large group of compounds that
are comprised primarily of carbon backbones and hydrogen atoms, and which often contain
nitrogen and oxygen atoms in functional groups along the backbone. It is a colorless liquid at
room temperature and has a strong, pungent odor. It is flammable and highly reactive, and
dissolves well in water as it is a polar molecule. This means that electrons tend to be pulled
towards certain regions of the molecule more than others, creating a dipole that can attract to the
oppositely charged areas of other polar molecules. This contributes to its solubility in water, its
relatively high melting point of 20C, and its boiling point of 250C. (ALS Environmental, n.d.;
HPA, 2010; CDC, 1989)
In general, aromatic hydrocarbons are highly toxic, and TDI fits this description. TDI is
toxic via ingestion, inhalation, and contact. TDI has been found to be a carcinogen following
chronic exposure, and can cause tumors in a variety of organs, including the skin, liver, pancreas,
mammary glands, and circulatory system (Toluene Diisocyanate (TDI) and Toluenediamine (TDA):
Evidence of Carcinogenicity, 1989). Furthermore, chronic inhalation of TDI can result in
significantly reduced lung function, including bronchopneumonia, asthma and other respiratory
issues (2,4-Toluene diisocyanate, 2000). TDI is also toxic in acute exposure, and is highly irritating
to whatever part of the body it comes in contact with. The eyes, nose, and skin are particularly
vulnerable to irritation by TDI. TDI is also a strong irritant in the intestinal tract, and ingestion
can bring on nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Dry throat and shortness of breath are acute
respiratory symptoms of TDI exposure. Finally, exposure to high doses of TDI can result in
ataxia (loss of muscle control) and unconsciousness (EPA, 2000; HPA, 2010; CDC, 1989).
According to the resources used by Morphix, the specific permissible exposure limit for
toluene diisocyante vapor is only 10 parts per billion (ppb) per hour. A permissible exposure

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limit (or PEL) is the highest dose of a chemical that can be present in a workspace over an eighthour shift.
The TDI comparator required a complete redesign, meaning that instead of a mere
adjustment of colors in the comparator, a new set of color standards had to be created for use in
the comparator. The main reason for this complete redesign was a shift in creation method.
Whereas the TDI comparator had previously been made with paint chips, Morphix wanted to
digitalize the comparator so that the colors could be printed off of a computer.
The first step in the redesign process for the toluene diisocyante comparator was the
collection of data. For printed colors to be compared to a set standard, that standard had to first
be created. As the standard to be matched was the color of the SafeAir badges after being
exposed to specific doses of TDI, the exact colors of the exposed badges had to be determined.
To accomplish this, a system was set up that swept pressurized nitrogen over a solution of the
TDI, and moved the swept vapor into a test chamber. Nitrogen was used because it was inert
when in contact with both the TDI and the badges. Had a more reactive gas been used for the
sweep, a side reaction could have produced incorrect results. The rate of the nitrogen sweep was
kept constant to ensure that the concentration of TDI in the test chamber was stable. To
determine the amount of time the badges needed to be exposed for, the desired dose (given in
ppb x hour) was divided by the concentration of TDI in the chamber, and the resulting number
was the duration of the exposure test. After finding the duration of the exposure, three badges
each selected from three different lots (for a total of nine badges) were placed in the testing
chamber. Once the exposure was completed, the color of each badge was recorded using a
spectrophotometer. The standard for the color comparator was created using the averages of
these measurements. This process was repeated for each of the doses required for the final color
comparator.
Once the data was input into the computer, the measurements of the badges were
averaged for each lot, and the three lots were averaged together to get a standard for that dose.
The difficulty with using colorimetric data from the spectrophotometer to print directly was that
spectrophotometers and computers work in different color systems (of which a more complete
explanation is included in a separate case study). Where spectrophotometers and other devices
that measure the color of objects operate in the light primary colors of red, green, and blue
(RGB); printed colors are created using the pigment primary colors of cyan, magenta, yellow,
and black (CMYK). Because these different methods function in different color systems, it is
difficult to match the printed colors to the standards on the computer. Though some photo
editing programs have the capability to convert RGB color into CMYK for printing, these
programs are rarely perfect. For use in a badge designed to detect toxic substances and alert the
wearer to their presence, the match between the color observed on the badges and printed on the
comparator must be as exact as possible.

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Because of the discrepancy between the RGB color standards and the CYMK
conversions, the colors in the comparator had to be refined before they could be used in a color
comparator. This was an iterative and somewhat repetitive process. The CMYK colors were
placed in a palette and printed, and were then taken to the spectrophotometer and compared to
the standards created from the exposure tests. After the measurements were taken from the
printed colors, they were analyzed by the computer to determine which primary colors needed to
be added or removed to match the standard. This was a relatively new technique for Morphix, as
they had begun using the status density tool for comparison shortly before I arrived. Prior to
that, the comparison process required a tedious regression calculation for each iteration of the
palette. The status density tool was a part of the X-Rite (spectrophotometer) software that
showed the quantity of each primary color as compared to the standard. This made adjusting the
colors for each iteration significantly simpler than it would have otherwise been. There were
some limitations to this method, however. First, the status density graph did not provide exact
numbers regarding the CMYK color values. As such, the changes made between iterations were
estimates based on past attempts. Secondly, whereas RGB is an additive color system, CMYK is
subtractive. This means that as color is added to RGB colors, the color gets progressively
lighter, and the result of combining the maximum amount of each color is white. By contrast, as
color is added to CMYK colors, the color darkens, and the combination of the maximum amount
of all colors is black. The problem that arose from this is that, to match the hue of the standard,
the combination of colors often resulted in a color that was similar to the standard, but
significantly darker. Another key piece of information collected after reading each new palette
was E value for each color. The DE value was essentially a measure of difference between the
printed color and the measured standard. The goal was to match each color to its respective
standard within a DE value of less than 1.0, which was a theatrically indistinguishable difference
between two colors.
After each color was matched to its standard, the palette was put into an existing
comparator platform for validation testing. For validation, three badges (one each from three
lots) were exposed to a certain dose of TDI. After the exposure was performed, five people were
asked to read the badge using the comparator and report what they believed was the appropriate
dose, as well as any other comments they felt necessary for the refinement of the comparator.
Each validation test was performed in a light box that mimicked natural daylight to minimize any
effect a change in lighting may have on the reading of the badge. Although the majority of the
colors in the palette had been matched within the 1.0 DE range, the colors in the first comparator
prepared for validation was noticeably different in color from the exposed badges. Following
each set of readings, the colors in the comparator palette were refined by hand. Instead of
refinement based on data collected from the spectrophotometer, refinement following validation
tests was based on the readers results and observations. While not perfect, this serves to

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demonstrate that computers and instruments have not yet become able to mimic human
perception perfectly.
Validation testing for a specific color can be considered complete once four out of five
readers read all of the badges for a certain dose to the correct dosage. It is unlikely that all colors
will be validated simultaneously, however; as there are between seven and twelve doses on most
color comparators, each needing to be validated individually. Although validation was begun
while I was still mentoring at Morphix Technologies, my mentorship hours were completed
before the TDI comparator was validated.

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References

Environmental Protection Agency. (2000, January). 2,4-Toluene diisocyanate. Retrieved from

http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/toluene2.html
ALS Environmental. (n.d.). 2,6-Toluene Diisocyanate. Retrieved from
http://www.caslab.com/2_6-Toluene-Diisocyanate.php5
Douglas, D. (2013, September). The Chameleon: Keeping Away From The Methyl-Ethly-BadStuff. American Cop, 18-19. Retrieved from
http://fmgpublications.ipaperus.com/FMGPublications/AmericanCop/AC0913/
National Institute of Justice. (2000, June). Guide for the Selection of Chemical Agent and Toxic
Industrial Material Detection Equipment for Emergecy First Responders [Booklet].
Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/184449.pdf
Health Protection Agency. (2010). Toluene Diisocyanate Incedent Management [Presentation].
Retrieved from http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/hpawebfile/hpaweb_c/1279889229814
Center for Disease Control and Prevention - National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health . (1989, December). Toluene Diisocyanate (TDI) and Toluenediamine (TDA):
Evidence of Carcinogenicity (Current Intelligence Bulletin 53). Retrieved from
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/90-101/

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Case Study II: Color Theory

As the basis of chemical detection products made by Morphix Technologies rely on a

visible color change to alert the user of a dangerous substance, a basic understanding of color
theory and how it applies to such circumstances is useful. Specifically, I encountered difficulty in
trying to replicate a color measured in one color system to a color printed in another; as well as
avoiding the effects of metamerism to reduce the chance of reading errors in the final
comparator.
To fully understand color theory, one must first understand color itself and how it is
perceived by human eyes. The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum that classifies light
waves based upon their wavelengths. Those colors visible to the human eye are aptly named the
visible spectrum, and occupy only a fraction of this spectrum. This area can be further
specified by color. Each wavelength of light appears as a different color to the eye. Light waves
that have a wavelength of roughly 400 nanometers (4.0x10-7 meters) appear toward the
blue/violet end of the color spectrum, while those that have a wavelength closer to 750
nanometers (7.5x10-7 meters) appear red. Waves having shorter or longer wavelengths are known
as ultraviolet (above violet) and infrared (below red), respectively (Cavendish, 2003b;
Color, 2012). These waves have a variety of different uses and applications; however they are
invisible to the human eye. As such, they will not be discussed at length here.
There are two kinds of light-receptor cells in the human eye. These cells are found in the
retina and are named for their shapes; cones and rods. Rod cells are responsible for seeing at
night, as they are capable of functioning in low-light conditions. These cells are poor at clearly
rendering objects and are incapable of distinguishing color. Cone cells require a much higher
intensity of light to function properly, and these cells are responsible for the perception of sharp
images and color. Human eyes are trichromatic, which means that we have three different kinds
of cone cells in our eyes. Each of these different types of cones is responsible for the perception
of a specific primary color in the red-green-blue spectrum. (These are the three primary colors of
light. Color systems are explained below.) The combined images of red cones, green cones, blue
cones, and rods produce a cumulative image that defines how we see an object (Cavendish,
2003b; Color Theory; Exploring, 2009; Morton, 2012).
The way color is seen in objects is related to the way color is seen in light. In light, the
wavelength of light seen translates directly to color. Under most normal circumstances though,
light does not appear as a single color. White light produced by the sun and most artificial light
sources is comprised of light waves of various wavelengths, and the cumulative effect of this
jumble of different wavelengths is what is perceived as white light. When this white light
strikes an object, the majority of it is absorbed by the surface of the object. That light that is not
absorbed by the object is reflected away from its surface. Objects tend to reflect only one

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specific wavelength of light. When this reflected light enters the eye, the wavelength of the
reflected light is perceived as the color of the object itself, though it is actually the color of light
reflected by that object. A more concise definition of color is that color is the visual effect that
is caused by the spectral composition of the light emitted, transmitted, or reflected by objects
(Morton, 2012).
With color itself defined, one can begin to understand color theory. As demonstrated
above, electromagnetic (light) waves of differing wavelengths can mix and combine to create
new colors. This allows for a spectrum of color that smoothly shifts from one color to a
completely different one without large jumps or gaps between. This ability to mix and create new
colors is not unlimited though. Human beings are capable of seeing three primary colors.
These are defined as colors that cannot be created from a mixture of other colors, and these three
colors are used to create all others. Part of what makes matching an observed color with a
digitally created color difficult is that these primary colors are not necessarily constant in all
instances. A set of primary colors and those colors that can be formed by mixing them is known
as a color system. There are three commonly used color systems. The first color system is
comprised of the primaries red, green, and blue. This color system (RGB) is recognized by
scientists as the set of primary colors and represents the primary colors of visible light. The RGB
color system is the only one of the three that is considered additive. This is the system of color
used in televisions, computer screens, and other electronic devices that emit colored light. The
second color system is that used by artists. It is the color system of paints and physical objects,
and is the only one taught in most elementary art classes. As such, this is the color system that
most people are familiar with. This system recognizes the primary colors of red, yellow, and
blue. The red-yellow-blue (RYB) color system is unlike the RGB system in that it is subtractive.
The final color system is the one used by ink and printers. This color system uses the primary
colors of cyan, magenta, and yellow. Black is also added to this list to darken colors formed
when required, as the three primary colors mix to grey. These, incidentally, are the secondary
colors of the RGB system. This system is most often referred to as the CMYK color system, with
K standing for black to avoid confusion with blue. This color system is the reason that printer
ink cartridges come in cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (Color Theory; Morton, 2012).
Secondary colors are created by mixing two of the primary colors in a given color
system. For the RGB system, these are cyan (blue and green), yellow (green and red), and
magenta (red and blue). In the RYB system, green is created from a mixture of yellow and blue,
violet from blue and red, and orange from red and yellow. The CMYK system creates green from
a combination of cyan and yellow, red from yellow and magenta, and blue from magenta and
cyan. These secondary colors can be further mixed to create tertiary colors and beyond, but these
colors are often named as their two component colors connected with a hyphen (such as bluegreen) and are not as unique as the primary and secondary colors, and they will therefore not be
discussed at length in this study.

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A number of terms used to refer to certain attributes of color are commonly used words;
however they are often used interchangeably when they describe separate and distinct qualities
of a color. When comparing two colors, a tint defines a base color mixed with white to create a
lighter color. Conversely, a shade denotes a base color mixed with black to create a darker color.
The term hue refers to the dominant wavelength emitted or reflected by the light source or
object. In a sense, this describes the base color mentioned above. Objects of a certain hue can
be tinted or shaded to appear lighter or darker than other objects of the same hue, but the base
color remains the same. Lightness (or brightness) of a color is a description of the intensity of
light reflected or emitted, resulting in the appearance of lighter and darker coloration.
Of the three color systems mentioned, RGB differs from the other two in that it is an
additive color system. This essentially means that a mixture of all primary colors in this color
system combine to create white. (The distinction of white and black as colors is a highly
debated topic, and the answer often depends on the situation, so I will refrain from using the term
color with respect to white and black in this study.) This happens because no light is absorbed
within the RGB spectrum, as the color perceived is based on the wavelength of light produced
from a light emitting source. The RYB and CMYK color systems are termed subtractive color
systems in that their primary colors combine to form black (actually dark grey for CMYK).
These systems behave this way because colors in these systems are formed by absorbing all but a
specific wavelength of light. As more different paints, pigments, or other coloring agents are
added, more wavelengths of light are absorbed by the mixture as a whole. When all wavelengths
of light are absorbed (and therefore none are reflected), the eye perceives the object or printed
area as being black (Cavendish 2003a; Color Theory; Morton, 2012). Because of the
difference in the RGB and CMYK color systems in this area, replicating a color measured in
RGB on a printer that uses CMYK can be rather difficult. In multiple instances throughout the
course of my mentorship experience, the spectrophotometer status density report stated that more
color needed to be added to match the target hue; however adding the required pigment to the
printed palette resulted in too dark a shade of color.
Another issue in color matching is a phenomenon known as metamerism. Metamerism is
the apparent similarity between two colors that are not actually of the same hue. Because humans
detect color as the cumulative effect of light on three different types of vision cells (red cones,
green cones, and blue cones), it is possible for more than one color to create similar cumulative
effects (and therefore the same perceived color) in certain circumstances. Metamerism is most
common in blue-greys, lilacs, and tans; as well as colors that are particularly light or dark. There
are three different kinds of metameric failure, which is the term used to describe a situation in
which two distinct hues appear to be similar (Green, 2012; Morton, 2012).

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The first (and possibly most noticeable) is illuminant metameric failure. This form of
metamerism occurs when two objects appear to have the same color under one light source but
not another. Florescent lights in particularly have a tendency to cause this effect because the
coolness of their light is significantly different from incandescent lights and sunlight in the
wavelengths of light emitted. As such, florescent lights are infamous for draining the warmth
from beige, a direct result of illuminant metameric failure. In designing the color comparator,
this difficulty was overcome with a light box that could be set to accurately simulate multiple
different kinds of light, including sunlight, incandescent light, and florescent light.
The second type of metameric failure is known as geometric. This type of metamerism
occurs when two colors appear the same when viewed from a certain angle, but different when
viewed from others. This is especially problematic with metallic colors. As the comparator
was a relatively smooth color on a flat sheet of label paper, this effect did not present much of an
issue (Green, 2012).
The final form of metamerism is observer metameric failure, which is caused by
differences in color vision between different observers. This is most commonly a result of
colorblindness in one observer, but occasionally occurs between multiple color-sighted
observers. In color-sighted observers, the distribution and ratio of different types of cone cells
varies from person to person, as does the light sensitivity of each type of cone, clarity of the lens,
and pigmentation of the eye itself. These differences contribute to observer metameric failure
even when color blindness is not involved. To compensate for this effect, validation testing for
comparators involved the dosages being tested being read on the comparator by five different
observers. Because four of them had to read the badge correctly to validate the color, the impact
of observer metameric failure was largely reduced. (Green, 2012).
Color theory played a major role in this mentorship experience, as most of my time was
spent working on matching the colors on the comparator to those recorded on the badges. An
understanding of the mechanics of color and color systems was required to effectively replicate a
color recorded in RGB into a color that could be printed in CMYK. Because RGB is an additive
color system and CYMK is subtractive, the color often became too dark before correctly
matching the desired hue. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that the software I was using
could add primary colors only in integer increments, making the right ratio of colors even more
difficult to achieve without creating too dark a shade of the hue. Also, the badge and the
comparator were made of different substrates (materials on which color is printed), and colors
can often appear different when printed on different substrates. This can be observed by
comparing a design printed on a piece of matte paper to an identical design on glossy paper. The
design on the glossy paper, though made with the same ratio of primary colors, appears more
vibrant. This problem occurred when designing the comparator, and forced us to compensate for
the different substrate. Finally, metamerism was a major concern due to the fact that these

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badges are relied upon by clients to detect harmful and potentially lethal chemicals. As such, the
comparator had to match the badges accurately regardless of lighting. To ensure that this did not
become an issue, the badges were placed in a light box set to imitate sunlight (which is less
likely to incur metameric failure than artificial light) when they were put through validation
testing. This and the fact that each badge had to be passed by four of the five readers chosen
minimized the chance of metametic failure in the final comparator.

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References

Cavendish, M. (2003a). Colorimetry. In W. Horobin (Ed.), How It Works (3rd ed., Vol. 4, pp.
510-512). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
Cavendish, M. (2003b). Light and Optics. In W. Horobin (Ed.), How It Works (3rd ed., Vol. 9, p.
1240). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
Color. (2013). In P. A. Kobasa (Ed.), World Book Encyclopedia (2013 ed., Vol. 4, pp. 817-825).
Chicago, IL: World Book, Inc..
Color Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved February 11, 2014, from New York University website:
http://cs.nyu.edu/courses/fall02/V22.0380-001/color_theory.htm
Exploring the Fourth Dimension. (2009, March 20). Retrieved February 11, 2014, from
University of Bristol website:
http://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/research/behaviour/vision/4d.html
Green, L. (2012). Metamerism. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from Colwell, Inc. website:
http://www.colwellcolour.com/pdfs/Colwell_Metamerism.pdf
Morton, J. L. (2012). Color Matters. Retrieved February 11, 2014, from NWI Designs website:
http://www.colormatters.com/color-and-design/color-systems-rgb-and-cmyk

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Case Study III: Color Analysis and Chemical Indicators

The real chemistry behind colorimetric chemical detection is not within the design of the
comparator or the viewing of light, but in inducing and measuring a change of color within the
product itself. The chemistry of color, as applied in this mentorship, can be separated into how
color is measured and how color change is achieved.
Color in chemicals can be measured an analyzed using a tool known as a
spectrophotometer. Spectrophotometers work by recording the number of photons that strike a
detector. Photons are small packets of energy that make up light. Although the basis of all
spectrophotometers is the detection on photons, the ways in which spectrophotometry is
performed is different between solid and liquid materials. Chemical reactions are very commonly
performed under aqueous conditions, that is, where all chemicals are dissolved in water;
therefore most common spectrophotometers by which I mean those most often used by high
school students, at least work with solutions instead of solid objects. As these are most
common, it is a good place to begin.
From a physical standpoint, a spectrophotometer is fairly simple. A basic
spectrophotometer is composed of five elements arranged in a linear sequence. For photons to be
detected, they must first be emitted. As such, the first component of a spectrophotometer is a
light source. From the source, the light travels to diffraction grating or a prism, where it is split
into its component wavelengths (as discussed previously, white light is actually a mixture of all
color wavelengths). Once the light is split, a small aperture allows a specific wavelength of light
to continue. Beyond the aperture is a cuvette containing the sample solution. The receptor itself
is behind the cuvette, and detects photons that pass through the solution (Tissue, 2000)
Most spectrophotometers can analyze detected photons in two ways. The first is called
transmittance, and it is a measurement of how much light passes through the solution being
analyzed. From a mathematical standpoint, transmittance is calculated as the ratio of light that
passes through the sample to the total light emitted. A higher transmittance reading means that a
large number of the photons emitted are passing through the solution and striking the detector,
and therefore the solution appears clearer. Conversely, a low transmittance reading means that
the solution is more strongly colored, and more of the photons are being deflected by the
solution. Because this kind of spectrophotometry occurs only at a single wavelength,
transmittance does not necessarily correspond to the opacity of a sample. A blue solution, for
instance, would reflect light at higher wavelengths but not at lower wavelengths. Therefore, the
transmittance would be high at 450 nm but low at 650 nm. The second measurement,
absorbance, is the negative natural log of transmittance. Instead of defining how much light
passes through the sample, absorbance describes how much light is absorbed by it. Analyzing a
single wavelength through two samples of the same coloration but different opacity can be used

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to identify the concentrations of the coloring agents in the solutions as well, and this is often how
spectrophotometers are used at the high school level (Blauch, 2002).
Understandably, this form of spectrophotometry is not used on solid surfaces. It is much
more difficult to pass a beam of light through an opaque solid than a translucent fluid. A
common form of spectrophotometer used on solid objects uses sphere spectrophotometry to
analyze color. Instead of passing a beam of light through a sample and analyzing the quantity of
light that makes it through the sample to the detector, sphere spectrophotometers work by
bouncing a beam of light off of the sample, which is placed at one side of a reflective sphere.
Certain wavelengths of the initial beam are reflected by the sample and rebound around the
sphere, eventually hitting the detector at another side of the sphere. The wavelength and intensity
of these photons are measured to obtain information about the color of the sample being
analyzed. (Saudi Basic Industries, 2011)
Colorimeters are another piece of equipment commonly used to analyze color in samples.
Colorimeters are particularly useful for applications such as those I experienced at Morphix
Technologies because they are capable of analyzing the precise hue of a color as a combination
of three primary colors. Cavendish (2003) states that An instrument that allows the observer to
match a patch of light by a combination of the three primary colors is a trichromatic
colorimeter. In essence, a colorimeter is a light meter that has color filters appropriate to the
three primary colors. Each specific primary color will have a peak wavelength when analyzing a
given sample, and the three primary wavelengths together produce a tristimulus image. The
major complication with tricolor colorimeters is that as each person tends to see color slightly
differently, standardizing measurements is difficult. In 1931, however, the Commission
Internationale de lEclairage (International Commission on Illumination) was able to specify
measurements for an standard observer, which is representative of the average person. This
created a standard for colorimeters to use (Color, 2013). Colors detected by trichromatic
colorimeters are graphed on three axes, one each representing the saturation of each primary
color (red, green, and blue). However, this data can be reduced to only two axes by using the
proportions of red and green light in white light as the X and Y axes. By plotting tristimulus
values on these two chromaticity coordinates, all colors can be displayed on a two dimensional
graph despite being comprised of three unique colors. Monochromatic colorimeters also exist,
but they are used to measure the intensity of a single wavelength as opposed to tristimulus color
(Cavendish, 2003).
Throughout my mentorship at Morphix Technologies, spectrophotometry was used to
analyze colors on the chemical detection products for accuracy. When redesigning the toluene
diisocyanate comparator, I relied upon the readings from the spectrophotometer to record the
colorimetric data from the badges after the exposure tests and to create a standard, and later to
compare each iteration of the digitally generated comparator colors to those observed on the

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badges. The spectrophotometer was also used extensively for quality control tests, a number of
which I had the opportunity to be involved with. These tests involved exposing a set of badges to
a predetermined dosage and comparing the color change in the badges to the expected color
change, which was a standard that had been preset in the spectrophotometer software on the lab
computer.
Before a color change can be measured an analyzed, however, it must first be made to
occur. To accomplish this, a special type of chemical called an indicator is used. A chemical
indicator is any substance that gives is visibly altered in the presence or absence of a threshold
chemical species (Chemical Indicator). This visible alteration most commonly takes the form
of a color change. These substances are used in a wide variety of applications to detect a number
of different things. One of the most well-known applications of indicator chemistry is in the
detection of acids or bases during titration. This application of indicator chemistry is relatively
well known and encompasses a large number of individual reactions; it is useful for explaining
the mechanics and use of indicator chemistry.
Chemicals reflect different colors of light based on their atomic structures; more
specifically, the placement of their electrons. Electrons that are tightly confined to a small space
emit high-frequency photons, which result in blue, violet, or ultraviolet light. Electrons that are
less restricted and allowed to move more freely emit low-frequency photons, resulting in orange,
red, or infrared light (Senese, 2010).
Most compounds, particularly organic ones, are held together by covalent bonds. These
are chemical bonds in which electrons are shared between two atoms, thus allowing both to fill
their outer electron shell with the same pair of electrons. There are two main types of covalent
bonds: bonds and bonds. bonds are sometimes referred to as single bonds, as they
involve only a single pair of electrons being shared between the bound atoms. Because only two
electrons occupy the space of the bond, those electrons in bonds occupy larger space (relative
to bonds) and result in lower-energy photon emission. bonds involve a second or third pair of
electrons being shared between the bound atoms. As such, they are often called double or
triple bonds, depending on how many pairs of electrons are shared between the two atoms. In
bonds, electron density is concentrated around the bond axis, which is the straight line distance
between the two nuclei. bonds occur from the overlap of orbitals surrounding the bond axis,
and the electron density of these bonds is concentrated above and below the bond axis (Chang,
2008; Kotz & Treichel, 1996). Because of the greater number of electrons, which try to move as
far away from one another as possible due to their similar electric charges, and the smaller bond
length, bonds confine electrons more than bonds, resulting in higher-frequency photon
emission and colors closer to the ultraviolet end of the electromagnetic spectrum (Senese, 2010).

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Chemical reactions that cause the breakage or formation of bonds in indicator chemicals
effect changes in electron configuration and confinement within the compound, causing the
chemical to change color. Selection of chemicals with specific relativities allow for the detection
of certain chemicals. This can be observed at a simple level by viewing an acid-base titration in a
high school chemistry class, where an indicator chemical (often phenolphthalein) reacts with an
acid and changes from clear and colorless to red. This same principle is also at work in strips of
litmus paper, which are also used to detect acidic and basic solutions. A more complex
application of this concept is at work in Morphix Technologies products, which are tailored to
detect specific toxic chemicals. This use of chemical reactions to induce color change can alert
workers of a chemical leak or law enforcement officers to a hazardous environment that would
have otherwise gone unnoticed. In these ways, the concept applied to relatively simple chemistry
labs can be used to save lives through the detection of otherwise invisible substances.

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References
Blauch, D. N. (2002). Spectrophotometry. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from Davidson College
website: http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/spectrophotometry/Spectrophotometry.html
Cavendish, M. (2003). Colorimetry. In W. Horobin (Ed.), How It Works (3rd ed., Vol. 4, pp.
510-512). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
Chang, R. (2008). General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts (T. L. Good-Hodge, Ed., 5th ed.).
New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Chemical Indicator . (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2014, from Encyclopedia Britannica website:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/108717/chemical-indicator
Color. (2013). In P. A. Kobasa (Ed.), World Book Encyclopedia (2013 ed., Vol. 4, pp. 817-825).
Chicago, IL: World Book, Inc..
Saudi Basic Industries. (2011). Geometry Spectrophotometers. Retrieved from
https://www.sabicip.com/staticcxp/user/en/LearnAboutColor/ColorBasicsDetail/geometry_spectrophotomet
er.html
Kotz, J. C., & Treichel, P. (1996). Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity (3rd ed.). Fort Worth, TX:
Saunders College Publishing
Senese, F. (2010). Water to Wine: The Molecular Basis of Indicator Color Changes. Retrieved
February 25, 2014, from Frostburg State University website:
http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/features/water2wine.shtml
Tissue, B. M. (2000). Single-Beam UV-Vis Spectrophotometer. Retrieved February 25, 2014,
from Virginia Tech website: http://www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/spec/uvvis/singlebeam.html

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Evaluation

There were a great number of positive aspects of my mentorship project at Morphix

Technologies. First, the entire staff was very friendly and welcoming, and willing to allow me to
observe their work and answer any questions I had. Secondly, I was given the opportunity to
work fairly independently during this project, an experience I greatly enjoyed. I was given my
own desk space and handled the redesign of the colors on the TDI comparator mostly on my
own. Mrs. Hulin was there to guide and instruct me, but I often worked on the color editing
iterations by myself and reported to Mrs. Hulin when something important happened. Though
the TDI comparator project was largely the focal point of my experience, I was often able to
observe and be involved in other areas of the facility, including quality control checks, other
comparator updates, chameleon assembly, database updates, and product testing.
Despite all of these aspects, there were a few minor points during my mentorship that
were not quite so positive. One of the most apparent was the lag time involved in the exposure
testing process for the TDI comparator redesign. Any adjustments to the nitrogen sweep in the
vapor chamber took time to take effect, and in the event of overcompensation, another
adjustment had to be made. The exposure tests themselves often took upwards of half an hour to
run, some taking several hours. During this time, I was often able to observe other aspects of
Morphix Technologies, but this was not always the case. Also, the vapor chamber proved to be
very temperamental, and there were often periods of hours spent trying to bring the concentration
of TDI in the chamber back to a usable and stable level. Finally, the process of redesigning the
color comparator was an iterative process and was often very repetitive, as I spent multiple days
doing little more than editing and analyzing colors to go into the comparator.
Overall, I found this experience hugely positive. Despite the repetitive nature of
redesigning the TDI comparator, my direct involvement in the project allowed me to feel a great
level of personal pride and excitement when the comparator progressed to the next step in
development. Also, Mrs. Hulin and the other staff members with whom I worked more than
compensated for the temperamental vapor chamber, as we often managed to find a way to laugh
about the situation despite the setback. In conclusion, this was a very positive experience and I
am glad to have had the opportunity to go through it. This mentorship has reaffirmed my desire
to go into the field of chemical engineering in college and as an occupation.