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    1 Crystal Structure PERIODIC ARRAYS OF ATOMS Lattice translation vectors Basis and the crystal structure itive lattice cell FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF LATTICES ‘Two-dimensional lattice types ‘Three-dimensional lattice types INDEX SYSTEM FOR CRYSTAL PLANES SIMPLE CRYSTAL STRUCTORES Sodium chloride structure Cesium chloride structure Hexagonal close-packed structure Diamond structure Cubic zine sulfide structure DIRECT IMAGING OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE, NONIDEAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURES: Random stacking and polytypism ORYSTAL STRUCTURE DATA SUMMARY PROBLEMS 1, Tetrahedral angles 2. Indices of planes 3. Hep structure UNITS: L.A = 1 angstrom = 10-%em = 0.1m ene euse 13 1B u 15 16 eg as 19 rt) 22 23 ‘STAL STRUCTURE PERIODIC ARRAYS OF ATOMS The serious study of solid state physies began with the discovery of x-ray diffraction by crystals and the publication of a sevies of simple calculations of the properties of crystals and of electrons in crystals. Why crystalline solids rather than nonerystalline solids? The important electronic properties of solids are best expressed in crystals. Thus the properties of the most important semi- conductors depend on the crystalline structure of the host, essentially because electrons have short wavelength components that respond dramatically to the regular periodic atomic order of the specimen. Nonerystalline materials, no- {ably glasses, are important for optical propagation because light waves have a longer wavolongth than clectrons and see an average over the order, and not the less regular local order itself We start the book with enystals A crystal is formed by adding atoms in a constant environment, usually in a solution. Possibly the first crystal you e, saw was a natural quartz crystal grown in a slow geological process from a cate solution in hot water under pressure, The erystal form develops as identical building blocks are added continuously. Figure 1 shows an idealized picture of the growth process, as imagined two centuries ago. The building blocks here are atoms or groups of atoms. ‘Tho erystal thus formed is a three-dimensional periodic array of identical building blocks, apart from any imperfections and ‘impurities that may accidentally be included or built into the structure ‘The original experimental evidence for the periodicity of the structure rests on the discovery by mineralogists that the index numbers that define the orientations of the faces of a exystal are exact integers. This evidence was sup- ported by the discovery in 1912 of x-ray diffraction by crystals, when Laue de- veloped the theory of x-ray diffraction by a periodic array, and his coworkers reported the first experimental observation of x-ray diffraction by crystals. ‘The importance of x-rays for this task is that they are waves and have a wave- Jength comparable with the length of a building block of the structure. Such analysis ean also be done with nevtron diffraction and with eleetron diffraction, but x-rays are usually the too! of choice. ‘The diffraction work proved decisively that crystals are built of a periodic array of atoms or groups of atoms. With an established atomic model tal, physicists could think much further, and the development of quantum th ory wes of great importance to the birth of solid state physics. Related studies have been extended to noncrystalline solids and to quantum fluids. The wider field is known as condensed mattor physics and is one of the largest and most vigorous areas of physics. Figure 1 elation ofthe extemal form of crystals tothe form ofthe elemet ‘The busking blocks are Mdontieal sn a) and (ut different erst (6) Cleavnga ent of rack, tary buen Backs, foot are developed Lattice Translation Vectors An ideal crystal is constructed by the infinite repetition of identical groups of atoms (Fig. 2). A group is called the basis. The sot of mathematical points to which the bass is attached is called the lattice. The lattice in three dimensions may be defined by three translation vectors a, aa, ay, such that the arrange ‘ment of atoms in the crystal looks the same when viewed from the point « as when viewed from every point r’ translated by an integral multiple of the as: PS rt ua ma + tty a Here uj, tt, us ar arbitrary integers. ‘The set of points x’ defined by (1) for all ‘thy th, ts defines the lattice ‘The lattice is said to be primitive if any two points from which the atomic arrangement looks the same always satisfy (1) with a suitable choice of the in- tegers u,. This statement defines the primitive translation vectors a,. There ‘is no cell of smaller volume than a “ay X ay that can serve as a building block for the erystal structure, We often use the primitive translation veetors to de- fine the erystal axes, which form three adjacent edges of the primitive paral- llepiped. Nonprimitive axes are often used as erystal axes when they have a simple relation to the symmetry of the structure. Figure 2 ‘The crystal srctare is formed by lhe addition of the basis (b} to every lattice Point of the spare lattice a). Ky looking at {6), one ean recognize the Basis ad Hien one ean abstract the space latiee, does not ster where the basis i put i relation Co & Iatice pine Basis and the Crystal Structure The basis of the crystal structure ean be identified once the exystal axes have been chosen, Figure 2 shows how a erystal is made by adding a basis to ‘every lattice point—of course the lattice points are just mathematical con- structions. Every basis in a given erystal is identical to every other in compost tion, arrangement, and orientation. The number of atoms in the basis may be one, or it may be more than one, ‘The position of the center of an atom j of the basis relative to the associated te pts We may arrange the origin, which we have called the associated lattice point, so that 0 3, yj.3) = 1. goes a @ Figure 3a Lattice points ofa space ftie n vo dimensions All par of vector, ae eas | aion vectors ofthe atte, Buta" a" ate na primitive translation vecovs bec anne forthe ltice translation T feom integral combinations of 4" and ag" The other pairs shown ‘of a dg may be taken a the primitive translation vectors ofthe late, ‘The paallelogyaiss 2. 2,9 are equa in area und aay of thea ened a taken the prisitive cell The parallelogram thas ‘rico the aree a priitive cel, Figure 8h Primitive cal oF space late in three dimensions, Figure Se Suppose these points are identical stoms:Skotl inom the igre a set of lattice points, choice of primitive aves, primitive cel, and the bass of sons asset with attice pont. Figure 4 A primitive cell may algo be chosen fl. lowing this procedueo: (1) draw lines to connect & ven ltice point to all seach lattice points, (2) at the midpoint and normal to Hass lines, draw new lines or planes, The smallest volume enclose n hit vay is dhe Wigner Sete primitive cell All space may befille by these cls, jst as bythe cells Pg. 3 Primitive Lattice Cell ‘The parallelepiped defined by primitive axes a, ay, ay is called a primitive coll (Fig. 3b). A primitive cell is a type of cell or unit cell. (The adjective unt is superfluous and not needed.) A cell wil fil all space by the repetition of suit. able erystal translation operations. A primitive cell is a minimum-volume cell. There are many ways of choosing the primitive axes and primitive cell for a given lattice, The number of atoms in a primitive cell or primitive basis is always the same fora given crystal structure. There is always one lattice point per primitive cell. Ifthe primitive cel is parallelepiped with lattice points at each of the eight corners, each lattice point Is shared amnong eight cells, so that the total number of latice points in the cellis one: § Xf = 1. The volume ofa parallelepiped with axes ay, ay ais Ve= faye, X eal, (3) by elementary vector analysts, The basis associated with a primitive cells called primitive basis. No basis contains fewer atoms than a primitive basis contains, Another way of choosing a primitive cell is shown in Fig, 4, This is known to physicists a5 a Wigner Seitz. cell, FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF LATTICES Crptal lattices can be carried or mapped into themselves by the lattice twanslations and by various other symunetry operations. A typieal symmetry operation is that of rotation about an axis that passes through a lattice point Lattices can be found such that one-, two-, three-, four, and sixfold rotation sxes carry the lattice into itself, corresponding to rotations by 2a, 2m!2, 2a3, 2n/4, and 27/6 radians and by integral multiples of these rotations. The rota. tion axes are denoted by the symbols 1, 2,3, 4, and 6, ‘We cannot find a lattice that goes into itself under other rotations, such as hy 2m/7 radians or 27/5 radians. A single molecule properly designed ean have any degree of rotational symmetry, but an infinite periodic lattice cannot, We can make a exysta from molecules that individually have a fivefold rotation axis, but we should not expect the latice to have a fivefold rotation axis, In Fig. 5 we show what happens if we try to camstruct a periodie lattice having, fivefold Figoro 5 A veld of symmetry ean sot eat ins eve ace bas ir ot poste ithe gro af 9 plane wih {eam ay pentagons We an Howes i a the arc of lane ih i din desig of ko loony phe a o © @ 6 Figure 6 (4) A ple of syinnetry parle tothe fics of cabe cb) A dagonal plane of yey inaabe (The three tetrad ee acabe (Ther ad es vee Tesh es oncube symmety: the pentagons do not fit together to fil all space, showing that we ean- ‘hot combine fivefold point symmetry with the required translational periodicity. By lattice point group we mean the collection of symmetry operations Which, applicd about a lattice point, earry the lattice into itself. The possible ro- tations have been listed. We ean have mirror reflections m about a plane through « lattice point. The inversion operation is composed of a rotation of m followed by refleotion in « plane normal to the rotation axis; the total effect sto xeplace r by “F The symmetry axes and symietry planes ofa cube are shown in Py. 6 Two-Dimensional Lattice Types The lattice in Fig. 3a was drawn for arbityary my and ay, A general lattice such as this is known as an oblique lattice and is invatiant only under rotation of rand 2 about any lattice point, But special lattices ofthe oblique type ean be invariant under rotation of 27/3, 2/4, or 27/6, or index misvor reflection, ‘We must impose restrictive conditions on a, and a, ifwe want to construct a it, {ice that will be invariant under one or more of these new operations. Thore are four distint types of restriction, and each leads to what we may calla special lattice type. Thus there axe five distinct lattice types in two dimensions, the oblique lattice and the four special lattices shown in Fig. 7. Bravais lattice is the common phrase for a distinct lattice type; we say that there are five Bravais lattices in two dimensions = 00 tat = lal: oh SAF Tait ¢ Laat: w= 90" foes are shown for both the: ilieve col and for the ‘esangular nie el fy whic La) baal; e «90% Figure 7 Fourspocal latices i tw dimensions Ae eee eee Three-Dimensional Lattice Types ‘The point symmetry groups in three dimensions require the 14 diferent lattice types listed in Table 1. The general lattice is triclinic, and there are 13 special lattices. These are grouped for convenience into systems classified according to seven types of cells, whieh are triclinic, monoclinie, orthothom- bio, tetragonal, cubic, trigonal, and hexagonal, The division into systems is expressed in the table in terms of the axial relations that describe the cells. ‘The cells in Fig. § are conventional cells: of these only the se isa primitive cell, Often a nonprimitive cell has a more obvious relation with the point symmetry operations than hasa primitive eel, ‘There are three lattices in the cubic system: the simple eubic (se) lattice, the body-centered cubic (bec) lattice, and the face-centered cubic {fee} lattice. ‘Table 1 The 14 lattice types in three dimensions ator anon nda Number oF Restrictions pn conventional Syston latices cell stead angles ‘Diclinic 1 ata AO aspey Monoclinic ay tan tas a=7= Wr ep Orthorhombie 4 ata 4a, a= B= 7-90" Tetrngonsl 2 Cubic 3 ‘Tigonal 1 Hexagonal 1 igure 8 The cuble space latices. The ells shown se the conventional els, Volume, conventional cel e Lattice points per cell 1 Volume, priustive cell ° Lattice points per unit volume Number of nearest neighbors 8 [Nearest neighbor distance « 39/2 = 0.8660 5 Number of second neighbors Sevond neighbor distance Packing fraction® “The pking nin he main propria of he wae we at cab with hard spheres, i paananane Figure 10. Primitive tesslatio vectors of the oes ‘catered cubic lice: these vetorsexnect he lice point st the origin o latce pos atthe by centers ‘The primitive ells obtamel on completing the rom. boahedion. In terms af the eu edge e, the prtive translation vectors ere Figure 9 Body-ceateeetlexie Iie, showing a prnitve cll, The primitive ell shown is «sont Heron of ege £V3 a, andthe angle between ej conc elgers WA28 mW: ae baeeysa, aa lie Fea) Here &, 9, ae the Cartestan i vectors ‘The characteristics of the three cubic lattices aro summarized in Table 2. A primitive cell of the bec lattice is shown in Fig. 9, and the primitive translation veetors are shown in Fig. 10. The primitive translation vectors of the foe lattice are shown in Fig, 11, Primitive cells by definition contain only one lattice point, but the conventional bee cell contains two lattice potnts, and the fee cell contains four lattiee points. igure HL The rombahedrat suble eratal, The prnitive translation vectors, a, ay connect the lattice point atthe origin wit atee pots atthe face conte As dean, he pre vectors ae: (48, a= haere oo. a= ast os anh: “The angles between theses ‘The position of « point in a cell is specified by (2) in terms of the atomie coordinates x, y,2. Here each coordinate is a fraction of the axial length a, aa, «in the direction of the caordinate axis, with the origin taken at one corner of the cell. Thus the coordinates of the body center of cell are $3, and the face centers include $30, 0}4; 205, In the hexagonal system the primitive cell is a right prism based on a chombus with an included angle of 120°. Figure 12 shows the relationship of the shombie cell toa hexagonal prism. INDEX SYSTEM FOR CRYSTAL PLANES ‘The orientation of a crystal plane is determined by three points in the: plane, provided they are not collinear. each point lay on a different crystal axis, the plane could be specified by giving the coordinates of the points in terms of the lattice constants 4, a, ay, However, it turns out to be more useful for structure snalysis to specify the orientation of a plane by the indices deter- ‘mined by the following rules (Fig. 13). Find the intercepts on the axes in terms of the lattice constants a, a, ¢s ‘The axes may he those of a primitive or nonprimitive cell. Figure 12 Relation of the primitive cll fn the hezagonal system (heavy lines) to 4 prism of exon symametey: Here above the index: (hkl). The cube faces of a cubic exystal are (100), (010), (001), 00), (010), and (001). Planes equivalent by symmetry may be denoted by eutly brackets (braces) around indiees: the set of enbe faces is 100}. When we speak of the (200) plane we mean a plane parallel to (100) but cutting the a axis at La ‘The indices [nme] of a direetion in « erystal are the set of the smallest imte~ gers that have the ratio of the components of a veetor in the desired direction, roferred fo the axes, The a, axis is the [100] direction; the ~ay axis is the [010] direction. In cubic exystals the direction [hkl] is perpendicular to a plane (hkl) baving the same indices, but this is mat generally true in other erystal systems. Figure 13. This plane satercepts the my, ay ay ates St Sn, 28, Bay The reciprocels of these numbers fare $4.4 The smaller hice snte- (ges having the same eaio ave 2,3, 3. ard thas tho indices ofthe plane are (2, SIMPLE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES We discuss simple crystal structures of general interest: the sodimnn ehlo- ride, cesium chloride, hexagonal close-packed, diamond, and eubie zine sulfide structures Sodium Chloride Structure ‘The sodium chloride, NaCl, structure is shown in Figs. 15 and 16. The lattice is face-centered cubie; the basis consists of one Na* lon and one Cl- jon, (dow Figure 14 Indices of important planes «cubic erystl The plane (200) spall eo (100) a Bae portant ph plane (200) i parallel to (100) and * Take the reciprocals of these numbers and then reduce to three integors having the same ratio, usually the smallest three integers. The result, en- closed in parentheses (kt), is called the index of the plane, Figure 15 We may coostuct the sodium chloride cyetlstncture by arranging Na and Cl sons alder ately atthe lattice potnts ofa shmple cube atic, In ‘he crystal each on fs snrsewned by sc nearest neigh bors of the apposite charge. The space lattice Fe, For the plane whos intercepts are 4,1, 2, the reciprocals are 4, 1, and §; the smallest three integers having the same satio are (142). For an intercept at infin- ity, the corresponding index is zero. ‘The indices of some important planes in 2 cubic exystal are illustrated by Fig, 14, The indices (hk?) may denote a single plane ou set of parallel planes, Ifa plane cuts an axis on the negative side of the origin, the corresponding index is negative, indicated by placing a minus siga ‘znd the bass sce CI” tm at OOD sone Na fom at sour amp 20g amyesodusay woos yw O28 UON'S WEP OY) Auauqe a1p yo seams SKID E OIE one to the other as the temperature or pressure is varied. Sometimes two strme- tures coexist at the same temperature and pressure, although one may be slightly more stable, SUMMARY + A lattice is an antay of points related by the lattice translation operator T= tay + gts + tag, where uy, ty are integers and ay, ass ay are the cxystul axes, ‘To form a crystal we attach to every lattice point an identical basis composed of s atoms at the positions «y= xa, + yjay + 3a, with j= 1,2,...,9. Here x, yz may be selected to have values between O and 1 The axes a1, ty as are primitive for the minimum cell volume Jaya, X ay for which the crystal can be constructed from a lattice translation operator and a basis at every lattice point: Problems 1, Tetrahedral angles. The angles betwoon the tetvabedral bonds of diamond are the same as the angles between the body diagonals ofa cube, as in Fig, 10, Use elemen- tary vector analysis to find the value ofthe angle. 2. Indices of planes. Cousier the planes with indices (100) 2nd (001) the lattice is foc, and the indices refer to the conventional cubic cell, What are the indices of these planes when referred to the primitive axes of Fig, 11? 8. Hop structure, Show thatthe fa rio fr an ideal hexagonal elose-packed struc tare i @)"®= 1.683 Hai signticanl anger than this value, the ntl structare nay be thought of as composed of pines of closely packed atoms, the planes being loosely stacked 2 Wave Diffraction and the Reciprocal Lattice SS TRANS T TL DENSER DIFFRACTION OF WAVES BY CRYSTALS 25 ‘The Bragg law 25 SCATTERED WAVE AMPLITUDE 26 Fourier analysis 27 Reciprocal lattice vectors 29 Diffraction conditions 30. Laue equations 33. BRILLOUIN ZONES 32, Reciprocal lattice to se lattice 34 Reciprocal lattice to bee lattice 36 Reciprocal lattice to fee lattice 87 FOURIER ANALYSIS OF THE BASIS 39, ‘Structure factor of the bee lattice 40. Structure factor of the fee latt 40. ‘Atomic form factor a SUMMARY. 43 PROBLEMS 43 1. Interplanar separation 43 2. Hexagonal space lattice “4 3. Volume of Brillouin zone 4 4. Width of diffraction maximum = 44 5. Structure factor of diamond 45 6. Form factor of atomic hydrogen 45 7. Dintomte line 5 Wavelength, & 5 a ou T 310 30 Too Figure 1 Wavelength versus pat Photon energy ke tle energy, For photons, neuteens, ‘Neutron energy, 001 eV and electrons restr energy, 100." Figure 2. Derivation ofthe Bragg equation 24 sn. ere dis the spcng of pall atomic lines and mnt the ftene i pss betwen relations om screen poe Fe ‘electing plas have nothing do wth he vac planes Deuntingte patel spate (CHAPTER 2: WAVE DIFFRACTION AND. ‘THE RECIPROCAL LATTICE RA ES SLES LD LED DIFFRACTION OF WAVES BY CRYSTALS The Bragg law We study crystal structure through the diffiaetion of photons, neutrons, and electrons (Fig. 1). The diffraction depends on the erystal structure and on. the wavelength. At optical wavelengths such as 5000 A, the superposition of the waves scattered elastically by the individual atoms of a crystal results in or inary optical refraction. When the wavelength of the radiation is comparable with or smaller than the lattice constant, we may find diffracted beams in directions quite different from the incident direction. W.L. Bragg presented a simple explanation of the diffracted beams from a caystal. The Bragg derivation is simple but is convincing only beeanse it repro- duces the correet result. Suppose that the incident waves are reflected specu- larly from parallel planes of atoms in the crystal, with each plane reflecting only a very small fraction of the radiation, like a lightly silvered mirror. tn specular (mirrorlike} reflection the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. The diffracted beams are found when the reflections from parallel planes of atoms interfere constructively, as in Fig, 2. Wo treat elastic seatter- ing, in which the energy of the x-ray is not changed on reflection, Consider parallel lattice planes spaced d apart. The radiation is incident in the plane of the paper. The path difference for rays reflected from adjacent planes is 2d sin 0, where @ is measured from the plane. Constructive interfer tence of the radiation from successive planes occurs when the path difference is un integral number » of wavelengths A, so that ay ‘This is the Bragg law, which can be satisfied only for wavelength A = 2d, Although the reflection from each plane is speeula, for only certain values ‘oF will the reflections from all periodic parallel planes acd up in phase to give strong reflected heam. If each plane were perfectly reflecting, only the first lane ofa parallel set would see the radiation, and any wavelength would be re- lected. Hut each plane reflects 10 to 10°> of the incident radiation, so that - 10*to 10% planes may contribute to the formation of the Bragg-reflected beam in perfect crystal. Reflection by a single plane of atoms is treated in Chapter 17 ‘on surface physics. ‘The Bragg law is a consequence of the periodicity of the lattice. Notice ‘that the law does not refer to the composition of the basis of atoms associated. ncn ben = Siwy te , Mowockmting cesta (220 retecon a LIGA ake Fone pan (220) reieton aeugs A oe Fa a Braggangled f= Ben from manoehnomtor eee = PE cyst specinen Son rotating table |+—Undevinte companents of se eat Figure 9. Sketch of 1 monochromator which by thuge selection selects naseaw spectrum of Xniy or neutron aselengs Com a broad spectro cident beam. The npper prt et the Figure shows the ais (obtained by reflection from secon esta oF the party ofa 1.16 A boar of ‘neutrons from s caletam More eryatal manextaometor (ARer ©. Basan) Figure 4 Xu difacometerrecoating of posed silicon, showinga counter recndingat the diffracted beams, (Courtesy of W, Parcish.) e * a with every lattice point, We shall see, however, that the composition of the basis determines the relative intensity of the various orders of diffraction (denoted by n above) from a given set of parallel planes. Bragg refleetion from a single erystal is shown in Fig. 3 ancl from a powder in Fig. 4 SCATTERED WAVE AMPLITUDE ‘The Bragg derivation of the diffraction condition (1) gives a neat state- ment of the condition for the constructive interference of waves scattered from the lattice points. We need a deeper analysis to determine the scattering intensity from the basis of atoms, which means from the spatial distribution of ‘loctrons within each cell, Fourier Analysis ‘We have seen that a crystal is invariant under any translation of the form P= way + aaa + usa, where a, t,t are integers and as, ay are the exystal axes. Any local physical property of the crystal, such as the charge concentra tion, electron number density, or magnetic moment density is invariant under T, ‘What is most important to us here is that the electron number density n(r) is a periodic function of r, with periods 1, ag, agin the directions of the three erys- tal axes, respectively. Thus n(e +1) = n(x) (2) Such periodicity creates an ideal situation for Fourier analysis, The most inter- esting properties of exystals are directly related to the Fourier components of the electron density. We consider first a function n(x) in one dimension with period « in the direction x. We expand n(x) in « Fourier series of sines and cosines: nia) = no +3 [C, cost2apea + §, sin @mpxia)} @ where the pare positive integers and G,, $, are real constants, called the Fourier coefficients of the expansion, The factor 2a/a in the arguments en- sures that n(x) has the period a: nie +a) = no + LIC, cosi2apxia + 2mp) + S, sin(Qmpx/a + 2mp)] =o + ZIG, cost 2mpsia) + 8, sin 2mpr/a)] = nox) w We say that 2np/a is point in the reciprocal lattice or Fourter space of the ‘crystal. In one dimension these points lie on a line, The reciprocal lattice points tell us the sllowed terms in the Fourier series (4) or (5). A term is al- lowed if i is eonsistent with the periodicity of the exystal, as in Fig. 5; other nt Figure 5. pesiolle function nfs) of period , and the terms apie. tht fay appear in the Fourer transforma ne) = Yo, extempv, points in the reciprocal space are not allowed in the Fourier expansion of a pe- odie function Tt is convenient to write the series (4) in the compact form n(x) =¥ ny expitmpstay , 6) where the sum is over all integers p: positive, negative, and zero. The coeti- cients n, now are complex numbers. To ensure that n(x) is a real function, we require nam» @) for then the sum of the terms in p and —p is real. The asterisk on ns, denotes the complex conjugate of ay With @ = Qmprla, the sum of the terms in p and —p in (5) is real if (6) is satisfied. The sum is ylo0s @ + i sin ¢) +n-(cos @ isin g) = (n,#n pose +iy,—nphing , which in tm is equal othe real fanetion 2Re(n,] cos @ — 2tmtn,) sing 8) if (6) 1s satisfied. Here Rejn,) and Im(n,} are real and denote the real and imaginary purts of n,, Thus the number density {x} is « real fiction, as desired. The extension of the Fourier analysis to periodic functions n(x) in three dimensions is straightforward. We must find a set of vectors G such that nle)=: ine expliG -r) co) is invariant under all crystal translations T that leave the exystal invariant. It will be shown below that the set of Fourier coefficients ng determines the ssray seattering amplitude. Inversion of Fourier Series. We now show that the Fourier coefficient n, Inthe series (5) i given by de n{e) exp(—i2mps/a) ao) Substitute (5) in (10) to obtain Dy J dzexpinaty’ — pil an fp! # p the value of the integral is diego iy ayer Pe 1, and the value of the integral is @, so that 1, so that (10) is an identity. Asin (10), the inversion of (9) gives ng= Ve! [dV nte) exp—iG +2) Here V, is the volume of « cell ofthe crystal Reciprocal Lattice Vectors To proceod further with the Fourier analysis ofthe electron concentration we inust find the vectors G of the Fourier sun Sng exp(iG + r) as in (9). There is a powerful, somewhat abstract procedure for doing this. The procedure forms the theoretical basis for much of solid state physics, where Fourier analysis is the order ofthe day. ‘We construct the axis veetors by, by, bs of the reeiprocal lattice: ay aX ‘The factors 2ar are not used by exystallographers but are convenient in solid state physies If a, aa, ay are primitive vectors of the crystal lattice, then by, by, by are primitive vectors of the reciprocal lattice, Each vector defined by (13) is orthogonal to two axis vectors of the crystal lattice. Thus by, by, by have the property bya, = 200, aaa) whore 6) = 1ift = jand d,~ Oat # Points in the reciprocal lattice are mapped by the set of vectors G= ob, + ob, + ody , (a5) ‘here 3, bp, bs are integers. A vector G of this form is « reeiprocal lattice vector, ‘The veetors G in the Fourier series (9) are just the reciprocal lattice vectors (15), for then the Fourier series representation of the electron density has the desired in- variance under any crystal translation T = anya + uss + tay, From (9), nie +1) = ¥ ng expliG 1) expiG 7) a6) But expliG-T) = 1, because xpfl(oyby + ogy + vo) = (in, + aot) apli2atoyu + vats + on6)) a7 ‘The argument of the exponential has the form 2mi times an integes, because ‘oy * dally + oss is an integer, being the surn of produets of integers, Thus by (9) we have the desited invarianee, u(r 1) = ale) = 5) ne expliG “1, Every erystal structure has two lattices associated with it, the erystal lattice and the reciprocal lattice, A diffraction pattern of a crystal is, as we shall show, ‘a map of the reciprocal lattice of the exystal, A microscope image, if it could be resolved on a fine enough scale, is a map of the crystal structure in real space. ‘The two lattices are related by the definitions (13). Thus when we rotate a crys tal in a holder, we rotate both the direct lattice and the reeiprocal lattice, Vectors in the direct lattice have the dimensions of [length]; vectors in the reciprocal latice have the dimensions of [Ilength]. The reciprocal latice is a lattice im the Fourier spave associated with the crystal. The term is motivated below. Wavevectors are always drawn in Fourler space, so that every position Jn Fourier space may have a meaning as a deseription of a wave, but there is a special significance to the points defined by the set of G's associated with a cxystal structure, Diffraction Conditions ‘Theorem. ‘The set of reciprocal lattice vectors G determines the possible x-ray reflections. We see in Fig. 6 that the difference in phase factors is expli(le ~ k’) +r] between beams seattered from volume elements r apart. The waveveetors of the incoming and outgoing beams are k and k’. We suppose that the amplitude 7st spesien Figure 6 he ifereneo in pathlength ofthe incident wave Kat the points O, rier sing nd the Aifevence tn phase angle is Oar'sin UA, which is equal tok +e. For the disc wave the ference in phase angle is ~K’«r. Th total difference n phase angle i(k ~ K’) +, the wave scattered from Vat = has tho phase fstorexpli( ek’) =] eolative to the wave seutered fra volume element eee igure 7. Definition ofthe scatoring vector Ak such that Ke Ake= Ke. In elastic scatoring the magnitudes satisfy B= Further in Bragg seattoring fom a pests atic, ‘any allowed Ale ust esa some roeiprocalatce vector . ‘of the wave scattered from a volune element is proportional to the local elee- tuon concentration n(r). The total amplitude of the scattered wave in the di- rection of k’ is proportional to the integral over the erystal of n(r) dV times the phase factor expfi(k ~ k’) +r] In other words, the amplitude of the electric or magnetic ficld vectors in the scattered electromagnetic wave is proportional to the following integral which defines the quantity F that we call the scattering amplitude: F=f dV nlx) explithe— Kk’) -x]=f dV n(x) exp(—idk-1), (18) where k ~ k’ = -Ak, or k+Ak=K as) Here Ak measures the change in wavevector and is called the seattering yeetor (Fig, 7). We add Ak to k to obtain k’, the wavevector of the seat- tered beam, We introduce into (18) the Fourier components (9) of n(x) to obtain for the scattering amplitude P= ZL aVngexplil ~ Ak) -r] (20) ‘When the scattering veetor Ak is equal to a particular reciprocal lattice veetor, Ak ey ‘the argument of the exponential vanishes and P = Vig. It isa simple excreise (Problem 4) to show that F is negligibly small when Ak differs significantly from any reciprocal lattice vector: In elastic scattering of a photon its energy hw is conserved, so that the frequency” = ck’ of the emergent heam is equal to the frequency of the inci- ent beam. Thus the magnitudes k and k’ are equal, and k? = k'*, a result that holds also for elastic scattering of electron and neutron beams, From (21) we Gork + G =k’, so that the diffraction condition is written as (22) ‘This is the central result of the theory of elastic seattering of waves in a periodic lattice. If G is a reciprocal lattice vector; so is —G, and with this sub- stitution we ean write (22) as (23) This particular expression is often used as the condition for diffraction, Equation (23) is another statement of the Bragg condition (1). The resule of Problem 1 is that the spacing d(hkI) between parallel lattice planes that are normal to the direction G = fiby + kby + Iby is d{hkl) = 27/IGl. Thus the result 2k» G = G? may be written as (2m) sin O-= Inia hkl) , or 2d{hkl) sin @=A. Here @ is the angle between the incident beam and the crystal plane, The integers AI that define G are not necessarily identical with the in- dices of an actual crystal plane, because the hk! may contain a common factor 1n, whereas in the definition of the indices in Chapter 1 the common factor has been eliminated, We thus obtain the Bragg result: 2dsind=nd , (24) where d is the spacing between adjacent parallel planes with indices hin, kin Ua, Laue Equations ‘The original result (21} of diffraction theory, namely that Ak expressed in another way to give what are ealled the Laue equat are valuable because of their geometrical representation. Take the scalar prod- uct of both Ak and G successively with a, ay, a From (14) and (15) we get f° Ake= 2a: : ay Ak = 2m, : ay-Ak=2m;. (25) ‘These equations have a simple geometrical interpretation, The first equation a, Ak = 2p, tells us that Ak lies on a certain cone about the direction of ay, The second equation tells us that Ak lies on a cone about , as well, and the third equation requires that Ak lies on a cone about as, Thus, at a reflection Ak must satisfy all three equations; it must lie at the common line of intersee- tion of three cones, which is a severe condition that ean be satisfied only by systematic sweeping or searching in wavelength or erystal orientation—or by sheer accident. A beautiful construction, the Ewald construction, is exhibited in Fig. 8. ‘This helps us visualize the nature of the accident that must occur in order to satisfy the diffraction condition in three dimensions 2 Reciprocal Lattice gare 8 The points onthe sigt-hand side are resiproal-lative points ofthe ext. The vector is dravn inthe divetion ofthe incident xray eam, andthe orig Is chosen sch that k termi fates at any reciprocal lattice pot, We draw’a spre of radi k= Sh aboot the origin of 1 fred ean wal be formed thin sphere intersects anyother point dhe reciprocal lati, ‘The spiere as draom intercepts a point connected with the en of K by a reesproral lattice vector The diffracted x-ray beam isin the diveetion k! = Ie-+G. The angle @i8 the Bragg angle of ig. 2. The constuction du to BB. Ewald, BRILLOUIN ZONES Brillouin gave the statement of the diffraction condition that is most ‘widely used in solid state physics, which means in the description of electron energy band theory and of the elementary excitations of other kinds, A -Brillonin zone is defined as a Wigner-Seitz primitive cell in the reciprocal lat- “tive. (The construction in the direct lattice was shown in Fig. 14.) The Baillouin zone gives a vivid geometrical interpretation of the diffraction condi- _ tion 2k» G = G of iq. (23). We divide both sides by 4 to obtain k-(3G)=Ge} . {26} We now work in reciprocal space, the space of the k’s and G's, Select @ «tor G from the origin toa reciprocal lattice point. Construct a plane normal this vector G at its midpoint, This plane forms a part of a zone boundary ‘ig. Sa). An xray beam in the crystal will be diffracted if its waveveotor k has we magnitude and direction required by (26). The diffracted beam will then ein the direction k~G, as we see from (19) with Ak = ~G, Thus the Brillouin construction exhibits all the waveveetors kk which can be Bragg- _teflected by the crystal. Figure 94 eeiprsl ltice points near the potnt Oat the origin ofthe teprocal late. The reeiprcel tice vector Ge connects pints OC: and Gp connects OD. ‘Two planes Land ar dram which ao the perpondie- lar bissetre of Gand Gp, respectively. Any’ vector Frou the origi wo the pane 1, such ae k,l sty the ‘ffiation condition Ky 4G2)= GF, An from the orig to the plane 2, such as ke, wl Ainetion edition k= G_) = GG Figure 9b Square reciprocal latice with reciprocal Jattice vectors shown as fine blick fines. The lines show in white are perpendicular bisectors ofthe rec- ‘procal aie veotors. The contra equare sth suall- Sat volame about the origin whichis bounded entirely I white ines, The squnte is the Wigner Seite primi tive cell of the reciprocal ltie.1¢ scaled the frst Brillouin ove, ‘The sot of planes that are the perpendicular bisectors of the reciprocal lattice veetors is of general itportance in the theory of wave propagation in crystals: A wave whose waveveetor drawn from the origin terminates on any of these planes will satisfy the condition for diffraction, These planes divide the Fourier space of the erystal into fragments, as shown in. Fig. 9b for a square. lattice. The central square is a primitive cell of the reciprocal lattice, It is a ‘Wigner-Seitz cell of the reciprocal latte. ‘The central cell in the reciprocal latice is of special importance in the the- ‘ony of solids, and we call it the first Brillouin zone. The first Brilloutn zone is the smallest volume entirely enclosed by planes that ave the perpendicular bi- sectors of the reciprocal lattice vectors drawn from the origin, Examples are shown in Bigs. 10 and LI. Historically, Brillouin zones are not part of the language of x-ray diffrac- tion analysis of crystal structures, but the zones are an essential part of the analysis of the electronic energy-band structure of crystals Reciprocal Lattice to se Lattice The primitive translation vectors of a simple enbie lattice may he taken as the set ob (27a) Figure 10° Construction of the frst Brillouin ‘one for an oblique latice in two dimensions. We fest draw a numberof vectors Lom O to nearby ‘points in the reciprocal Itice. Next we constr Tines perpendicular to these vectors at ther mid- ‘points ‘The smallest enclosed area the fst Br © Towin ne "Figure 11 Crystal and yeiproal latices in oe dimension. The bass veotr inthe reelproca lat ‘ices b, of length equal to 2v/a. The shortest reciprocal ative vetors from te origin are band B. The perpondhcnlar bisector ofthese veetars fora the boundares ofthe frst Bellon zone ‘The boundaries are at k= onl Here & 9, are orthogonal vectors of unit length. The volume of the cell is 4 + ay X ay = a®. The primitive translation vectors of the reciprocal lattice are found from the standard prescription (13): y= (mia; by=(2nla)p by = (nla (om) Jere the reciprocal lattice is itself a simple cubie lattice, now of lattice igure 12. Prinitve bosis vectors ofthe body centered Figure 13 First Brillouin 2006 of the body ‘centered cubic lattice. The figure i» regular thombie dedeeahedron, ‘The boundaries ofthe first Brillouin zones are the planes normal to the six reciprocal lattice vectors thy, -tbs, thy at their midpoint: Hby= ttle: 4d by= (mays Eby= Silay. (28) The six planes bound a cube of edge 2mia and of volume (22a), this cube is the first Brillouin zone of the se erystal lattice. Reciprocal Lattice to bee Lattice ‘The primitive translation vectors ofthe bee lattiee (Fig, 12) are am aa(-R 4944); a=salR—F +H) y a= salk+$-2, (29) where a is the side of the conventional cube and & §,% are orthogonal unit vectors parallel to the cube edges. The volume of the primitive cell is, V= lara Xa,|=sa° (30) ‘The primitive translations of the reciprocal lattice are defined by (13). We have, using (28), by = (Bava )l¥ + &) ; by = (2m/ah& +2) ; by = (2m/a K+ 5). (31) Note by comparison with Fig. 14 (p. 37) that these are just the primitive vectors ofan fee lattice, so that an fee lattice is the reciprocal lattice of the bee lattice. The general reciprocal lattice vector is, for integral 0,02, 2, GT = ohy + dab + obs = Qnfa)llog + og + (0, + ON} + (0, + ogle] - (32) 2 Reciprocal Lattice face-centeted cube itice The shortest G's are the following 12 vectors, where all choices of sign are independent: (2mlaX¥ #2); Bmla*R*H); — (mMa+R +H). (99) ‘One primitive cell of the reciprocal lattice is the parallelepiped described by the by, bs, by defined by (31). The volume of this cell in reciprocal space 8 by “bX by = 22m)”. The cell contains ome reeipracal lattice point, because each of the eight comer points is shared among cight parallelepipeds Each parallelepiped contains one-eighth of each of eight comer points (see Fig. 12). Another primitive cell is the central (Wigner Seitz) cell of the reciprocal lattice which is the first Brillouin zone. Each such cell contains one lattice point at the central point of the cell. This zone (for the bee lattice) is bounded by the planes normal to the 12 vectors of Eq, (33) at their inidpoints. The zone 's azogular 12-faced solid, a rhombic dodecahedron, as shown in Fig. 13. Reciprocal Lattice to fee Lattice ‘The primitive translation veetors of the fee lattice of Fig. 14 are Ha FG +H, ma pae+a: a=laet§) (3a) The voluine of the primitive cell is (35) a7 igure 14 Primitive bass vectors of the Figure 15 Brllovin zones of the face-centered cubic hitiee ‘The cells are in reciprocal space, and the weeiprocal late i body centered ‘The primitive translation vectors of the lattice reciprocal to the fec lattice are by = Batali 7 +2): i) ‘These are primitive translation vectors ofa bec lattice, so that the bec lattice is reciprocal to the fec lattice. The volume of the primitive cell of the reciprocal lattice is 42a}. ‘The shortest G's are the eight vectors: by = (2mia-R +942) 5 by= (nlaye+§ (omloy 28 + 9 +2) on ‘The boundaries of the central cell in the reciprocal lattice are determined for the most part by the eight planes normal to these vectors at their idpoints, But the corners of the cctahedron thus fornied are cut by the planes that are the perpendicular bisectors of six other reciprocal lattice vectors (2miay=28) s — (Bmlay( 25); (Bafa) +22) (88) Note that (27/a](2%) is a reciprocal lattice vector because itis equal to by + by ‘The first Brillouin zone is the smallest bounded volume about the origin, the truncated octahedron shown in Fig. 15. The six planes hound 2 cube of edge dma und (before truncation) of volume (4a. FOURIER ANALYSIS OF THE BASIS ‘When the diffraction condition Ak = G of Eq, (21) is satisfied, the seatter- ing amplitude (18) for a crystal of N cells may he written as Fe =f ante epl-iG +8) = 8 (39) ‘The quantity Se is called the structure factor and is defined as an integral over a single cell, with r = at one comer. Often it is useful to write the electron concentration n(x) as the super- position of electron concentration functions ny associated with each atom j of the cell, If x; is the veetor to the center of atom j, then the funetion ir — 1) defines the contribution of that atom to the electron concentration at r, The total electron concentration at r due to all atoms in the single cell is the sum ne) = Bago x) (40) over the s atoms of the basis. The decomposition of n(x) is not unique, for we eannot always say how much charge density is associated with each atom, This js not an important difficulty. ‘The structure factor defined by (39) may now be written as integrals over the s atoms of a cell: PSV nfe— x) expliG-) w Dewpl-iG 4) FAV nfp) expliG -p) 1) where p = x ~ 1), We now define the atomic form factor as (42) Aa LAV nfl op 1G). integrated over all space. If n(p) is an atomic property, fis an atomic property. ‘We combine (41)and (42) to obtain the strueture factor of the basis in the form Se> Efom-1G x) (43) ‘The usual form ofthis result follows on writing for atom j nasty teas (aay asin(1.2). Then, for the reflection labelled by vy, va, ba. we have = lob) + oyby + osha) + (5a, + ys + 3:80) 2a, + oy, +05) c so that (43) becomes Selowany) = Sf expl-iaauay + oy + 095)] (46) ‘The structure factor $ need not be real because the scattered intensity will involve S'S, where S*is the complex conjugate of $ so that *S i real. Structure Factor of the bee Lattice ‘The bee basis referred to the cubie cell has identical atoms at xy = yy = m= Oand ats = yo= ‘Thus (46) becomes Soyoses) = fll + expl—iaty, +0, + oI], (47) where f is the form factor of an atom. The value of $ is zero whenever the exponential has the value —1, which is whenever the argument is ia X (odd integer), Thus we have s=0 s=9 Metallic sodium has a bee structure. ‘The diffraetion pattern does not con- ‘ain lines such as (100), (300), (111), or (221), but lines such as (200), (110), and (222) will be present; here the indices (ppv) are referred to a cubie cell. What 4s the physical interpretation of the result that the (100) reflection vanishes? ‘The (100) reflection normally occurs when reflections from the planes that ‘bound the eubic cell differ in phase by 2a In the bee lattice there is an inter- ‘vening plane (Fig. 16) of atoms, labeled the second plane in the figure, which is {equal in scattering power to the other planes. Situated midway between them, it gives a reflection retarded in phase by a with respect to the first plane, thereby canceling the contribution from that plane, The eancellation of the (100) reflection occurs in the bee lattice because the planes are identical in ‘composition, A similar cancellation can easily be found in the hep structure. when 0, + 0; + 05 = odd integer ; when v, + 0, + 95 = even integer . Structure Factor of the fee Lattice ‘The basis of the fee structure referred to the cubic cell has identical stows ‘at 000; 033; 205: 220. Thus (46) becomes Sloyeans) = fl + explains + 0,)] + expl—ir(o, + 05)] (48) Fexpl-into, + valll igure 16 Explanation ofthe absence of (100) selection from « body-contored cubic lattice ‘The phase diference hetween successive planes 18, so thatthe eflcted amplinde from to adjacent planes el +" = 1 1= 0, fall indices are even integers, $ = 4f; similarly ifall indices are odd integers. But if only one of the integers is even, two of the exponents will be odd multi ples of ~iar and S will vanish. IF only one of the integers is odd, the same argu- ment applies and $ will also vanish, Thus in the fee lattice no vefleetions ean ‘occur for which the indices are partly even and partly odd. ‘The point is beautifully ilustrated by Fig, 17: both KCl and KBr have an fcc lattice, but n{r} for KCl simulates an sc lattice because the K* and CI” ions shave equal numbers of electrons, __ Inthe expression (46) for the structure factor, there occurs the quantity f, __ which isa measure of the seattering power of the jth atom in the unit cell. The value of f involves the number and distribution of atomic electrons, and the ravelength and angle of scattering of the radiation, We now give a classical Iculation of the scattering factor. ‘The scattered radiation from a single atom takes account of interference ffects within the atom, We defined the form factor in (42) Hz LAV nfo) expliG +) , (39) the integral extended over the electron concentration associated with a ngle atom. Let ¥ make an angle « with G; then G +r = Gr eos a. If the elec- distsibution is spherically symmetric about the origin, then G= 2a $ de? dleos a) n{r)exp(—IGr cos «) =e fdrrnfr) Mae, 20) cag 222 Figure 17 Comparison of ray rllctions from KC] fad KBr powders. KCL the numbers of electrons (of K" and CI" ions are equal. The seutering ampli tndes f(K") and fC) arp almast exactly equal, 30 that the crystal loks to ‘crys ar if Kl were a rmomatorie simple cubie Ito of laioe estat 12 Only even integers cecur in the reflection indices ‘ven these are based on web lattice of atce on ‘tant a kn Kir the frm factor of Brie quite dies fent to that of K*, and all reflections of the foe Iaice are proseat (Gontesy of Ryan Ifthe same total electron density were concentrated at r would contribute to the integrand. fn this Knit (sin GrvGr fie dar Sdenfry? = the number of atomic electrons, Therefore fis the ratio of the radiation ampli- tude scattered by the actual electron distribution in an atom to that seattered by one electron localized ut a point. In the forward direction G = 0, and f reduces again to the value Z, ‘The overall electron distribution in a solid as seen in x-ray diffraction is fairly close to that of the appropriate free atoms. This statement does not ‘mean that the outermost or valence eleetrons are not redistributed somewhat in forming the solid; it means only that the x-ray reflection intensities are represented well by the free atom values of the form factors and are not very sensitive to small redistributions of the electrons. __ teeiprocal lattice vector G = SUMMARY Various statements of the Braga condition: Qdsind=n; Ak=Gy 2k-G=Gt = Lano conditions: ay AK = 210, ; ap Ak=2am,; ay A= 205 ‘The primitive translation vectors ofthe veelprocal lattice are ag X ay aya X ay aX a) b= 20 ata by = 20 Here a,, ay, a; are the primitive translation veetors ofthe erystal lattice. ‘+ Areciprocal lattice vector has the form G = ob, + obs + obs. where 04, 0,03 are integers or zer0. ‘The scattered amplitude in the direction k’ tional to the geometrical structure factor Se= Lf exp(—iny-G) = Df expl—i2atyn, + yn + a4), + Ak = k + G is propor- where j runs over the s atoms of the basis, and f, is the atomnte form factor (49) of the jth atom of the basis. The expression on the right-hand side is, written for a reflection (00403), for which G = pyby + vgby + oyby, + Any function invariant under a lattice translation ‘T may be expanded in a Fourier series of the form le) = Bing expliG +) + The first Brillouin zone is the Wigner-Seitz primitive cell of the reciprocal lattice. Only waves whose wavevector k drayn from the origin terminates on ‘a surface of the Brillouin zone can be diffracted by the crystal + Crystal lattice First Brillouin zone Simple cubic Cube Body-centered cubic Rhombie dodecahedron (Fig, 13) Face-centored cubic Truncated octahedron (Fig. 15) Problems 1. Interplanar separation. Consider a plane hkl ina crystal lattice. (a) Prove thatthe ‘by + Hb + Iby is perpendicular to this plane. (b) _ Trove that the distance between two adjacent parallel planes of the lattice is Aibkt) = 2n/|G|,(c) Show for a simple cubic lattice thatd® = afi(h! + AE +P) nee one primitive translation vectors of the hexagonal space lattice spay be taken as MACRO : m= OMAR + WMP; aed (a) Show thatthe volume ofthe primitive cells (34/2). (©) Show eat che primitive translations of the reciprocal lattice are bi= Galak + ately; y= —(2mIS"ahR+ (Onlakp y= LenkE 5 that the lattice is Its own reciprocal, but with a rotation of axes, (6) Deseribe and sketch the first Brillouin 2one ofthe hexagonal space lattice, 3. Volume of Brillouin zone, Show tht the volume of the fist Brillouin zone is (2r)W,, where V, isthe volume of a erystal primitive cell Hint: The volume af Ballou zoue ts equal to the volume of the primitive parallelepiped Ia Fourier spice, Recall th vector identity (eX a) % (a Xb) = (ea % ba 4. Width of diffraction macimum. We soppose thit in a linear erst thee are dential point scatoring centers t every latice point py ~ ma. whore ia inte. ger By analogy with (20), the total scattered radiation amplitude will be proportional to F = E expl—ima- Ak]. The sum over M lattice points is > expl~iatfa ak expla BI] by the use ofthe series (a) The seatered intensity x proportional to [Ef Show that Mia Ak) ‘in? Fa +A) (b) We know that a diffraction masinum appears when a Ak = 2a, where is an integer. We change Ak slightly and define ¢ i al + € such that € gives the position ofthe first zero in sin Ma Ak), Show that € = 2/4, so thatthe width of the diffraction maximum is proportional to VM and ean be extremely narrow for macroscopic values of M, The same result holds true fora three-

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