Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Two
WeekModule
2 Professor-Authored
Reading (Nancy Hadaway, Ph.D.
Oral Communication in Middle School and High School
"The inarticulate speak longest."
Japanese proverb from
A World Treasury of Folk Wisdom
So I'm Proud
Our History teacher says, "Be proud you're Canadians."
My father says, "You can be proud you're Jewish."
My mother says, "Stand up straight, Kate.
Be proud you're tall."
So I'm proud.
But what I want to know is
When did I have the chance to be
Norwegian or Buddhist or short?
By Jean Little
The Importance of Oral Language
Oral language development plays a powerful role in school success by laying a
foundation for reading and writing. Children who come from environments with plentiful
opportunities for oral language development have the advantage when they enter
school. They possess a wider vocabulary and conceptual background because they
have participated in wide-ranging opportunities to talk about daily concerns and activities
with caregivers, siblings, peers, and relatives. This advantage only continues throughout
the formal education process since it is through these chances to talk and listen, that
students gain a great many understandings about language and how it functions how
the language sounds in various circumstances from formal to informal, how sentences
are structured, how different words are used with different audiences and for different
occasions.
When we discuss oral language, we are really referring to listening and speaking as
separate from reading and writing. Although it is hard to factor out reading and writing
from oral language since reading aloud to students, for instance, involves a focus on
print matter as we show children the text and they follow along while we read. Indeed,
listening and speaking share some similarities with reading and writing, as well as some
key differences. These common bonds as well as the differences among the four areas
of the language arts listening, speaking, reading, and writing are helpful for teachers
to note as they work with students in the language arts classroom.
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Both require an active learner who is thinking; the reader and the listener must
be focused on the task and use what they know about language to make
meaning.
As we work with learners to foster listening ability, we can draw their attention to the
similarities between listening and reading. Indeed, students who are struggling with
reading often benefit from practice developing listening skills, which help increase
vocabulary, story structure knowledge, and even attention span. Often we
overemphasize remediating reading when building foundational listening provides
greater benefits.
Speaking and Writing: Similarities
Like reading and listening, writing and speaking share some features in common
(Halliday, 1989).
For instance, both are purposeful acts of communication; we use speaking and
writing to accomplish a task to make meaning.
Written language, on the other hand, tends to be more abstract and context free
or context reduced. As readers, we may not have the author or illustrations
present to help us decipher the written text, and this can lead to comprehension
miscues. Certainly, teachers encounter this as they grade students work and
wish they could ask students what they meant at certain points in a written
assignment.
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Despite the differences, a strong oral language foundation is critical to the development
of writing because students early writing attempts are often just speech written down.
And, the exercise of reading ones writing aloud usually helps student writers "hear" or
view their own writing somewhat more objectively. As learners progress, they begin to
see how writing often has a formal tone and more academic purposes that may differ
greatly from informal conversation (Ovando & Collier, 1998). When teachers work with
students, they can demonstrate to students both the parallels and the distinctions among
reading, writing, speaking, and listening and help students move from concrete spoken
interactions to more abstract and context-free uses of language.
For more on the integration of the language arts, read the article found at
http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/arts.html.
How Do Teachers Create a Productive Oral Language Environment?
While reading and writing are the language modes most critical to academic success,
the lack of emphasis on more abstract and academically oriented oral language
represents a missed opportunity for a natural transition to reading and writing. It is also a
necessary step for developing confidence and fluency. We never stop developing our
listening and speaking abilities throughout our adult lives. So, where do teachers begin
to create a productive and challenging oral language focus?
Gibbons (1993) offers a description of the needed elements to foster oral language
development.
The first and most important element needed to support oral language ability is a
comfortable learning environment. When students feel anxious or frightened, this
creates a barrier to communication, and they are less likely to participate in oral
communication activities.
Next, they need planned opportunities for meaningful interaction with their peers.
Collaborative learning through paired and small-group activities provides
authentic, motivating listening and speaking opportunities, offers a wide range of
language from the teacher, as well as from peers, and can be used to engage
students in discussions of academic content (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992).
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Therefore, it is critical that frequent opportunities exist for quality input and
interaction. A variety of input options (e.g., read alouds by the teacher or guests,
books on tape, videos, guest speakers, etc.) could be utilized.
First comes immersion or surrounding students with language, both oral and
written, as well as interpersonal and academic language. And, it is imperative
that the classroom provides immersion through meaningful language
interactions. Obviously, reading aloud from quality literature and having trade
books, environmental print, and other print matter for students to browse through
and discuss is a powerful starting point for immersing learners in language.
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Texas Night Before Christmas: What does the classic poem, "The Night Before
Christmas," sound like with a Texas twang? Well, James Rice helps us hear a
Texan version of the poem. Closely linked to our demonstrations or models of
language to students is a third element, expectation. What a powerful influence
on learning is teacher expectation! We must send messages that we expect
students to succeed. A positive and supportive environment fosters language
growth and spurs a higher level of motivation among students. Communicating
our expectation that errors are a natural part of the language learning process
frees students to experiment and take more risks with language.
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30% speaking
16% reading
9% writing
45% listening
We see that teachers spend a great deal of time talking, with students listening. But, do
students listen well? And, of the 30% of time spent speaking, do students use effective
speaking skills? Probably not; educators draw a great deal of criticism from business
and industry professionals who complain that high school and college graduates come to
them with poorly developed oral communication skills.
So the question remains: Why arent students taught listening and speaking skills in
school? (Milner & Milner, 1999).
Point: Reasons We Dont Teach Listening and Speaking
Talking and listening are natural acts, so there is no need to focus on them at
school. Children learn them without adult help, so instructional time should be
reserved for skills and knowledge that must be taught, such as how to read and
write.
The schools emphasis is on back to basics math, reading, and writing.
The curriculum does not give a clue as to what to do to teach listening.
There is no research identifying specific listening skills.
Most educators are not aware of the impact of oral language development on
reading.
Children get substantial practice in talking and listening outside of school.
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Talking and listening are too difficult to teach, and teachers have no training in
how to go about teaching these skills.
Teachers have too much to do already without adding talking and listening to the
curriculum.
Talking and listening cannot be tested. We can't spend time on skills and ideas
that are not tested. What we're not accountable for is not our responsibility.
Counterpoint: Why We Should Teach Listening and Speaking
When students talk and listen in class, they learn the skills of clarifying and
understanding the thoughts and perceptions of others and to integrate their own
understandings and those of others, thereby making meaning and extending their
own knowledge.
Talking and listening are the basic communication tools throughout life as we
negotiate the workplace and relate to friends and family.
Oral language skills are strongly correlated to the highly tested skills of reading
and writing. "The relationship of talk to writing is central to the writing process. It
is no longer necessary to justify classroom talk as a means to anything else; it is
properly valued in its own right, but this doesn't detract from our conviction that
good talk helps to encourage good writing. It is probable that of all the things
teachers are now doing to make their pupils approach to writing more stimulating
and the writing itself seem a more integral part of the manifold activities of the
classroom, it is the encouragement of different kinds of talk which is the
commonest and most productive factor." (Britton, Burgess, Martin, McLeod, and
Rosen, 1975, p. 29)
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Here are some different types of listening experiences that you might provide for
students in your classroom.
Listening lessons should not be isolated; all day long we have situations where
children can listen for different purposes.
Listening is part of the classroom, within the organization of the classroom.
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Formal/Organized Discussion
Teacher Modeling
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Second, encourage students in class discussion or literature circles, etc., to look not only
at the teacher, but to look at the students they are talking to. This is difficult because
students have been trained to look at the teacher for cues on how to proceed!
Third, teach students to tolerate silence and use the silent time to consider some of the
following options.
Finally, Sorensen also encourages teachers to teach students the process of selfevaluation. For instance, students could discuss or write their responses to the following
questions after a specified class discussion.
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It is amazing how the use of this language has changed our discussions. My kids
stopped the 'Uh-uh's' and 'I don't think so's,' which elevated the tone and reduced the
level of discord."
"You Have to Start Meeting Like This!" is an interesting article about leading meetings.
Since leading class discussions resembles leading a meeting, this article can furnish
some helpful hints to teachers. Check it out at this Web site
http://www.fastcompany.com/online/23/begeman.html.
Assessing Discussions
As noted earlier, some teachers avoid listening and speaking in the classroom because
it is so difficult to evaluate. Matanzo (1996) advocates that teachers focus student
attention on two aspects of the discussion process: behaviors that facilitate discussion
and the actual content to be discussed. These components for effective discussion can
be included in a class observation grid to more objectively quantify listening and
speaking behaviors. As students progress in their discussion skill, they can add their
own characteristics and content issues. Following is a list of Matanzos
recommendations.
Discussion Behaviors
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Title appropriateness
Character Analysis
Plot analysis
Theme support
Points of view
Dialogue effectiveness
Conflict and resolution
Texts on similar topic, theme
Character interactions
Effect of ending
Effect of setting on story
Character motives
Stereotype analysis
Development of story
Authors use of language (style)
Effectiveness of illustrations
Compare works of given author
Compare text to media on book
Title appropriateness
Author organization of text
Treatment of topic
Authors credentials
Effectiveness of examples
Authors clarity
Accuracy
Currency
Completeness of presentation
Effectiveness of visuals
Text comparisons on topic
Topic treatment in other genres
Stereotype analysis
Compare text to media treatment on same topic
Authors use of language
Sequence of presentation
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Communicate a clear purpose for the activity and make sure that students
understand the purpose.
Choose activities with real, communicative purposes.
Spend some time initially teaching group conversation and interpersonal skills
prior to collaborative tasks.
Provide for a variety of tasks according to student abilities and interests.
Build in multiple opportunities for student interaction.
Integrate listening and speaking activities with reading and writing.
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For early listening activities, make sure the speaker is visible, there are
environmental clues to the meaning, and no highly specialized vocabulary is
used.
For speaking activities, have students respond in some meaningful fashion (e.g.,
asking a question, discussing a point, following a command or request).
What might be the most effective techniques to foster oral communication? First, lets
look at some tasks that concentrate on listening and then, some techniques that focus
on speaking. All of these ideas can be effectively used for grades K-12. And remember,
many of these techniques also integrate elements of speaking, reading, and writing,
which is a goal all teachers should be working toward (Hadaway, Vardell, & Young,
2001).
Matching or Distinguishing. A common task involves students listening to a passage
and then choosing an appropriate response. In preparation for such tasks, teachers
might select a short passage as a read aloud or tell a story focusing on the setting or an
event, and then, have students place pictures or objects in a sequence that matches the
selection or choose a picture or written response that corresponds. Or, students can
discuss in pairs or groups as they match the information heard to some written or visual
task. Poems can also be helpful here. The poems title is often indicative of the main
idea of the poem. Thus, the teacher can read aloud the poem and have students guess
or match the poem title from various possibilities, given the details provided in the poem
(Hadaway, Vardell, & Young, 2001).
Transferring. For this activity, students receive information in one form and then
transfer it or parts of it to another format. After hearing a description of a house, students
might sketch what they heard, and then follow up by comparing their drawing to a
partners and talking through the differences and similarities. I like to bring poetry into
play with the Shel Silverstein (1981) poem, "Shapes." I read the poem, and students
sketch the action that takes place with the personified circle, triangle, and square, and
finally, they compare illustrated versions. As an added bonus, this poem is an easy
introduction to the literacy technique of personification. Such listening activities are great
warm ups at the beginning of the class.
Scanning. While we normally think of scanning as a reading skill, we actually scan both
written and verbal input for information. Scanning activities give students permission not
to focus on the whole text and remember all the details. Instead of remembering
everything, students must target a specific piece of information. For instance, while
listening to a news broadcast, students identify the name of the winning party or
candidate in an election. Or, using a radio advertisement about a special sale or
recreational activity, students determine when and where the event will take place.
Listening teams supply another twist to a scanning activity. Rather than having each
student listen individually for some bit of information, the class can be divided into
teams, with each group focused on different bits of information during the read aloud,
radio show, etc. After the presentation, teams confer to determine if each person came
up with the same answer, and then the whole class pieces the information together. To
individualize and more effectively address the variety of proficiency levels among the
students in many classrooms, teachers can easily create listening centers with oral or
written questions and prompts linked to a variety of recorded selections (e.g., teacher
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Choral Reading. When we recite the Pledge of Allegiance at school and make a
mistake, no one really hears our blunder. Choral reading offers this same format of
protected oral language the chance for students individual voices to be lost amidst
their peers voices. Using individual student texts or reading material on the overhead to
guide student participation, there are countless response formats for choral reading such
as: in unison (the whole class reading together), students echo the teachers lines, small
groups read specific lines or sections, the class is divided into two groups and each
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For more on creative dramatics, check out this article by Bruce Robbins at
http://reading.indiana.edu/ieo/digests/d32.html.
Dialect Activities (Tchudi & Tchudi, 1991). Have students develop an understanding of
their own language by keeping a journal or notebook and writing about any of the
following.
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Their own dialect and their comfort level with the way they speak.
How does their dialect represent their heritage or their culture?
Explore dialects through television news show interviews, sitcoms, etc.
Discuss how stereotypical characters speak in certain ways.
Discuss linguistic prejudice. What impressions do they have of speakers of a
Southern dialect, a Northern dialect? Is this fair?
In conclusion, there are countless possibilities to develop listening and speaking ability.
The suggestions in this section offer the chance for students to work together in low-risk
activities to expand their oral language with teacher support. All of these techniques
work across grades K-12 and can be easily adapted to any classroom.
OFFERING DIVERSE MODELS OF LANGUAGE FOR STUDENTS
In addition to furnishing a variety of listening and speaking tasks for the classroom,
teachers must offer diverse models of language. We all need to hear different language
models. Some possible resources of authentic language, both in and out of the
classroom, include the following (Hadaway, Vardell, & Young, 2001).
Newscasts. The many varied formats of news reporting can provide some valuable
comparison/contrast for students. For instance, students might compare and contrast
recorded news segments from radio and television along with the printed news in
newspapers. As part of the focus on the newscast, students can analyze the different
news categories (e.g., local and national events, weather, sports, entertainment) for the
types of information presented and the typical vocabulary used. After watching and
discussing many models, students are ready to create their own newscast, either a
generic daily news broadcast or one linked toa short story, novel, or content-area unit.
Videotaping a student-produced newscast provides a valuable assessment tool and can
be used for both teacher evaluation purposes as well as class analysis. Indeed, over
time, a class could create an impressive classroom library of videotaped newscasts and
other class activities that students could check out in learning centers and listen to with
headphones after completing their class assignments.
Speeches. Another example of formal oral language use, speeches present one more
option for oral communication activities in the classroom. Students might consider the
tremendous range of speech events (e.g., State of the Union address, inaugural
address, protest speeches). Some famous speeches, such as Martin Luther King, Jr.s "I
Have a Dream" or John F. Kennedys inaugural address, are available on videotape. As
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The illustrated versions of The Gettysburg Address and I Have a Dream are perfect to
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Furnishing diverse models of language helps students to explore the many varieties of
English that are used on a daily basis. We do not all speak the same, so this section has
highlighted a variety of ways that teachers can draw in other voices to the classroom and
to extend listening and speaking opportunities for students.
USING LITERATURE TO DEVELOP LISTENING AND SPEAKING ABILITY
Literature furnishes an ideal stimulus to the listening and speaking ability of students.
Poetry and repetitive books provide rhythm and predictability and provide a great oral
language workout. Here are just a few suggestions from childrens and young-adult
literature to help students with oral language development!
Drama and Readers Theater. Poetry affords an easy avenue into drama through choral
reading, Readers Theater, and role-play (Gasparro & Falletta, 1994; Kelly, 1992;
McCauley & McCauley, 1992). For instance, after studying one poem, the class divides
into groups. Each group discusses the poem, comes up with their interpretation, and
performs a Readers Theatre of the poem. In this manner, the class is exposed to the
literary selection numerous times, resulting in far more readings than a regular class
situation would have afforded. Such natural repetition of language fosters the
development of oral language and reading fluency (Cullinan, Scala, & Schroder, 1995;
Richard-Amato, 1996). But, poems are not the only source of Readers Theater scripts;
fiction and nonfiction literature furnish an endless stream of material that students can
use to develop scripts. The many benefits of Readers Theater for oral language
development include: purposeful oral reading, an opportunity for cooperative learning,
practice using oral skills, and heightened attention in listening. Because students do not
have to stage a scene they simply read the lines this more simple dramatic
technique is easy to implement into any classroom. For more detail on Readers Theater,
go to http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/CITE/langrt.htm.
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50 Ways to Save the Earth is a stunning nonfiction photo essay book to share with the
class in any discussion about conservation. Young people are very eco-conscious and
this will be a book they will enjoy browsing through!
Wordless Picture Books. With their sequenced illustrations, wordless picture books
supply an idea bank to spur student creativity carrying them through the entire narrative
structure from beginning to end. Students can work together in groups to create the story
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Van Allsburg's The Mysteries of Harris Burdick is a "sophisticated" wordless picture book
ideal for older students. The black and white drawings with a title and one line serve as
wonderful story starters. For some sample pages from the book, check out the links at
http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/davidc/6c_files/documents/mysteries/divmysteries.htm
Three Minute Tales (Notable Books for a Global Society 2005 List) and One Voice,
Please are wonderful classroom resources filled with quick read alouds. Check them out!
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