Roman

Britain

AD 409 425

Sheridan L. Davis

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Sheridan L. Davis
HIST 1500-002
Professor William K. Jackson
November 28, 2014
Roman Britain
The Roman Empire was a well-oiled machine of extreme organization, structure,
ingenuity, brute force and military power. And yet they placed great importance and devotion to
learning and knowledge, public health and welfare, art and beauty. The state believed that
Romanization was a benefit to others (Bedoyere). Bringing the barbarians and the uncivilized
into the folds of the Empire, they felt legitimized and morally justified invasion and conquest.
The British Isles seemed to be an isolated, backwater province of Rome with little importance
and not much to offer. Why were the British Isles important to the Roman Empire and what
legacy did the Romans leave behind? Britain was a frontier province with three legions and it
furthered the political careers of many Romans. Rome gave the Britain Isles its political
infrastructure, a new social order, culture, and knowledge. Most importantly Rome opened the
way for the religion of Christianity and paved the way for a monastic movement in Ireland that
preserved Western Civilization.
The British Isles consists of Britain, Scotland, Wales, Ireland and Northern Ireland plus
over six thousand smaller islands. The crossing of the sea that surrounds Britain, neither wide
nor long, is often dangerous, which provides security and protection but not complete isolation.
The people of these islands have had their lives invaded and conquered, restructured and
assimilated, and yet they have continued to survive. The culture that was created has long been a

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source of inspiration for many. It is a land of wonder and mystery and strength of spirit; full of
myths surrounding the Celts and Druids, kings and knights, castles and stone circles. All set
against the backdrop of the breathtaking scenery of lochs and rivers, forests and glens, mountains
and rolling hills in every shade of green imaginable. It draws you in and takes its hold.
The people of these isles were farmers and traders, a number of small tribes without
overreaching political organization. They were culturally tied to the Celtic people, largely
unfamiliar with the wider world outside their islands, and they were not literate. Problems arise
from the lack of written records as to who these Neolithic people really were. What is known
comes from the archaeological record and the piecing together of artifacts to build a picture of
everyday life. There was trade and movement across the sea and overland. Evidence of artifacts
and similarity in buildings and structures has been found on both sides of the English Channel,
which suggests some interaction and a communication network. This was a complex society
capable of producing pottery, metal working skills in bronze and managing resources such as the
movement of stone in the building of monumental structures. The landscape is dotted with tombs
and burial mounds, great stone circles and stone henges. The most well-known is Stonehenge on
the Salisbury plain in Wiltshire England. Although the people accomplished these engineering
feats, Rome considered them highly uncivilized and could be easily incorporated into the
Empire.
Rome linked its people within the Empire from northern Britain to southern Egypt in the
east through trade, reaching as far as Finland, sub-Saharan Africa and into India. As a Roman
citizen you lived and breathed all aspects of Roman civilization and culture. You were either
born Roman or could achieve Roman citizenship. However, to do this, you must first be
Romanized. To be Roman you strived for political power and social recognition; which offered

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certain privileges, refinement and sophistication, legal rights and protection, and provided access
to knowledge and education. With these rights also came an expectation of duty, loyalty, and of
course the payment of taxes.
The Empire placed great importance on the written accounts of imperial activity. The
Vindolanda tablets contain the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain. These tablets
were unearthed near Hadrians Wall in northern England in March 1973. It depicts life along the
wall dated around the first and second centuries, roughly 90-105 AD. These records are 752
wooden leaf-tablets of military and supply records written in Roman-cursive with carbon-based
ink. They also contain personal messages to and from the garrison to their families and slaves, a
document written by a woman, plus other official business and personal affairs of the lives of the
soldiers and officers.
Britain functioned as any other Roman province, used the same methods of record
keeping and communication, government and administrative systems, and military organization.
There is some hindrance surrounding the view of the impact Roman culture had on the local
indigenous peoples. The written records such as the Vindolanda tablets, Julius Caesars
descriptions of his activities, Tacitus account of the invasion as copied by Dio Cassius 160 years
later, along with later writers offer a seemingly biased look towards the military impact and not
necessarily to the everyday activities of the people. It provides an incomplete picture centered on
the military, the powerful elite and wealthy, economic matters, and some aspects of life, but not
typical members of society. Written confirmation as to how the local people responded to outside
rule is a different matter because there is none. It is apparent that Roman culture did take its hold
in Britain as shown by the material evidence left by the people: remnants of architecture and

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settlements, Hadrians Wall and Antonines Wall, pottery, personal ornaments and coins that
have been unearthed and also found in graves.
A new social, economic and political order was introduced to Britain. This grouping of
islands had previously been a loose conglomerate of tribes. The peoples loyalty was to their
tribal chief and local gods with a view of belonging to their individual tribe, not belonging to a
sovereign state. The Roman infrastructure had to be created almost from the ground up. Its
administration was organized into provinces and originally viewed Britain as a single unit. In the
late second or early third century, Britain was reorganized into two provinces: Britannia Inferior
north of Hadrians Wall and governed from the city of York; Britannia Superior south of the
wall and governed from Londinium. Britain was not yet ruled by a monarchy, but instead was
ruled by the Roman Emperor through a governorship. Monarchy and the emergence of Royal
Lineages did not begin until after the Norman invasion in 1066 by William the Conqueror and
the defeat of Harold of England at the Battle of Hastings.
The control of Britain came from loyal kings, the Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, and
Jutes that had been brought in to help fight internal conflicts, who stayed to settle and later
replaced the kings. Management of the frontier more importantly came from the original four
legions, later reduced to three, of over twenty-one thousand men stationed throughout the
province and thirty-five thousand auxiliary troops (Osborn). The army of legionaries and
auxiliary troops were one of the most vital aspects of social hierarchy. These auxiliaries were
trained and equipped as soldiers, but were not Roman nor from Rome. The troops were made up
of men from newly conquered lands and from unconquered lands outside the Empire. They were
responsible for conquest of territories, upheld borders and frontiers against incursions by
foreigners, and maintained relations between Rome and the indigenous populations.

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General Julius Caesar turned his attention to the British Isles with the support of the
legions and auxiliary troops. There is much debate between historians as to the precise reason for
this decision. Beyond the obvious reason of expansion of the Roman Republic, Britain had
reputed wealth in tin, an alloy of bronze, timber for construction, shipbuilding, and smelting, the
southern and eastern regions are fertile agriculturally; streams and rivers crisscross the landscape
to sustain human occupation almost anywhere, i.e. colonization, which brings it back to
expansion. The resources could be appropriated and exploited to provide the mainland and other
areas of the Republic with necessary goods and supplies (Frere). Perhaps the most important
reason of all was the possibility to gain a much needed military victory. Roman ideology held
that military leadership, victory, and success were all vital to reinforce the strength and power of
the Emperor and the Republic. In 55 BC and 54 BC Caesar led two campaigns in the southern
area of Britain. He was unable to hold his position after the first campaign and was forced to
withdraw. The second campaign, he had more success and installed Mandubracius, a supporter
of Rome, as king of the Trinovantes. This brought Britain within the scope of the Roman
Republic and forced the south eastern tribes to pay tribute to Rome.
It was not until almost one hundred years after Julius Caesars campaigns, in 43 AD, that
Emperor Claudius brought the legions back to Britain. Individual British Kings and tribes had
grown in power since Caesar, and the reign of Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula. After the
murder of Caesar, Augustus (27 BC-14 AD) restored the Roman Republic to order after decades
of civil war and the Republic was forged into an Empire. During this time period Britain was
mainly left to manage its own needs; kings and tribal chiefs who fell out of favor often fled to the
aid of Rome keeping the connection to the Empire in line. Claudius was Augustus grandson and
Caligulas uncle, but due to an illness growing up and a weak constitution, this deemed him

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unsuitable as a successor. After Caligula was murdered, Claudius was elevated to the position as
emperor and viewed as a puppet by the Praetorian Guard (Osborn). He knew he needed to
solidify his position as emperor through an easy military victory. Political intrigue among the
southern tribes gave Claudius the opportunity to invade and bring Roman order to the islands.
Along with Julius Caesar and Claudius many other Romans benefited from Britain
politically. Governor Paullinus gained military glory over the druids but opened the way for the
Boudiccan Revolt in 60 AD; Agricola subdued Britain which brought a respectable career as
governor of the province replacing Paullinus, and a consulship in Rome. Perhaps the greatest
political gain arose with Constantine I launching a rebellion with Britain as the base. He used the
British army as the core force to conquer the Empire. In 312 AD at the Milvian Bridge
Constantine I inscribed on his and the soldiers shields the Christian symbol Chi-Rho, the first
two letters XP of the Greek word for Christ (Ibeji, An Overview of Roman Britain). Thus
adopting the symbol as his standard and designating Christianity as the official religion of Rome.
That day Constantine I and his army of mostly British soldiers defeated Emperor Maxentius and
became sole ruler of the Roman Empire.
Although the Romans subjugated most of the British Isles, Ireland was never conquered.
Wales was only subdued, and Scotland was temporarily under the Empires rule. During the
reign of Vespasian, the governors of Britain, including Julius Agricola penetrated Scotland to the
river Tay in 79 AD. Many of the tribes were dominated and placed under Roman control. The
details were recorded by Tacitus, Agricolas son-in-law. The further advance was halted after
Vespasian died in 79AD, but taken up again under the rule of Domitian in 82 AD. The Scottish
tribes were defeated in 83 AD at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Coinciding with a crisis along the
Danube and the removal of one of the four legions in Britania, after serving as governor for

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longer than usual Agricola was recalled to Rome. This loss of experience and loss of one of the
legions meant the victory over Scotland would not be pursued. This also forced the Roman army
to abandon the line held for one that was further south between Tyne and Soloway. As a result a,
line was drawn that would later mark the frontier for the building of Hadrians Wall. Scotland
remained a target for complete and sustained conquest, just outside of Romes reach. Antonius
Pius, Septimus Severus, Constantius Chlorus Emperor Constantines father, all tried to reconquer
and hold Scotland and failed.
In 121 AD Emperor Hadrian took a tour of all of the Empires provinces. Construction of
a frontier wall began in 122 AD partly in stone from New Castle to the river Irthing and partly in
turf from Irthing River to the Soloway River. This use of turf suggests there may not have been
easy access to stone at the time. Towards the end of Hadrians reign in the 130s AD, however,
the turf section was replaced with stone and extended eastward from Newcastle to Wallsend.
Mile-castles were built to mark the Roman mile with two turret structures each marking onethird and two-thirds of the mile. The wall and its mile markers in some areas have been
preserved relatively well. An example of one of these turrets is the Black Carts Turret on Milecastle 29 in Walwick, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland (Davis). Each of the mile markers had
one or two buildings to probably serve as barracks for the soldiers stationed there and also each
one had a gate.
The Roman ideology of the wall was of separation between the civilized and uncivilized.
The Mile-castles served as watch towers and the wall did not completely close the frontier. It
served to regulate and control passage. Along many sections of the wall ditches run six meters in
front and vary in width between eight and twelve meters and are two to three meters deep. There
is an implication that these ditches were dug to deter anyone from getting too close to the wall or

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from trying to climb it. The wall was an imposing structure to control movement and remind the
indigenous population of the frontier line. Antonius Pius, Emperor Hadrians adopted son, in 142
AD decided to push the frontier north again. Thus the Antonine Wall of turf on a stone
foundation was built up across the Forth-Clyde isthmus and Hadrians Wall was no longer
considered the frontier line during the 140s to 160s AD.
The Roman forces arrived in Wales by 48 AD, at this time Wales and England did not
formally exist in a traditional sense. This region was inhabited by a collection of roughly five
tribes. The Romans intention was to divide the people of the highlands of Wales from the
highlands of the north England, by establishing a major fortress at Glouchester. The tribes
resisted, but were finally subdued by 80 AD. A town was established in 75 AD as Venta Silurum
meaning the market town of the Silures. The Silures were one of the five rebellious tribes that
were defeated. The name would later be changed to Welsh, Caer-went. The site was a deliberate
choice to mark and divide the still troublesome peoples with those that had been subdued and
demonstrate the benefits of Roman Civilization (Venta Silvrvm). After the removal of Rome
from Britain and as the Anglo-Saxons and Jutes settled throughout the province, the RomanoBritish people were forced into Wales. They brought with them their religious conviction of
Christianity and by the seventh century these still pagan people were converted.
The early religions of both Rome and the British Isles were polytheistic. Rome centered
on the emperors cults and the Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (Ibeji, An
Overview of Roman Britain). Britain, Ireland and Scotland believed in the spirit of the natural
world where every living thing had its own unique life-force. Rome combined these ideals with
their own and associated specific nature characteristics with their gods and goddesses. With the
Edict of Milan by Constantine legitimizing Christianity, Britain was now part of the new Roman

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Christian Empire. However, the spread of the religion in the province seems to have been more
gradual and less extensive. By the time of the Council of Arles in 314 AD three bishops, a priest
and a deacon from Britain attended, suggesting that small communities had probably been in
existence for some time (Todd). There is speculation as to when the first Christian missionaries
first came to Britain.
Bede, the Venerable, a monk and historian at the monastery of Jarrow in northern
England, in the early eighth century wrote the Ecclesiastical History of the English People. He
recorded in the mid to late second century, a British king named Lucius, made a request of the
pope for instruction in the faith, and that the request was fulfilled. This would mean the religion
had made its way to Britain quite early on and remained on the surface for centuries before it was
widely accepted. Bedes account is also of Pope Gregory the Greats inspired decision to send
the servant of God, Augustine and several other monks who feared the Lord, to preach the word
of God to the English Nation (Bede, The Venerable: Conversion of England, 597 AD).
Therefore, Roman Christianity was finally and officially brought to Britain in 597 AD by St.
Augustine.
Christianity is the continuing thread that binds this collection of islands together. Rome
did not annex Hibernia or Ireland. There is evidence of a degree of Roman influence
commercially, culturally, and religiously. Archaeological artifacts have been found in the form
of material goods such as various jewelry, tools, bronze bowls, glassware, and coins (Laing 156160). The discovery of such items is an indication of involvement in the Roman trade network,
whether first-hand or indirectly through other peoples. From this interaction ideals and beliefs
would have been passed and shared, Christianity certainly being one of these. It would not be

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until after Romes fall that a Christian missionary would formally bring the religion in the midfifth century.
St. Patrick was born into a Romano-British family, was abducted by Irish raiders in his
youth and sold as a slave where he lived for six years before he escaped and eventually returned
to Britain. He then studied Christianity and became a cleric. Through his written confession,
preserved in the Book of Armagh or Cannon of Patrick, he describes his life during captivity and
spiritual development that led to his belief and conversion to Christianity. Patrick later returned
to Ireland where he began his journey of meaning and purpose of sharing his personal faith with
the Irish people. This was the first de-Romanized version that did not contain Roman sociopolitical views. These ideals of Christianity did not eradicate the Irish pagan influences and
beliefs in the power of the natural world, but instead intertwined both. Many pagan festivals
persist today throughout Ireland and Britain, such as Halloween or Samhain and the arrival of
winter, Lunasadh the harvest feast of the god Lugh, and Beltaine or May Day the celebration of
spring and life (Ellis). Patrick understood that the new religion would not survive without
literacy. He introduced Christianity to Ireland without bloodshed or force, instead through
awareness and compassion of the people. Thus the first Irish Christians were the first Irish
literate.
Ireland had no cities and as monasticism took root in the sixth century it grew into centers
of learning, art, prosperity, and ingenuity that was open to anyone. These centers of learning
were established at Clonard in Meath, Derry, Durrow, the island of Iona, and off the coast of
Northumberland at Lindisfarne. The people were eager for wisdom and knowledge of everything
they could get their hands on, from the Holy Bible to the Gospels, to sermons and other Christian
texts. They then turned to classical Greek and Latin literature. This eagerness gave rise to

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Irelands role in preserving Western Culture and Civilisation. The monks and scholars began
copying manuscripts and books that would otherwise have been destroyed or burned, lost or
forgotten as the onslaught of Germanic invaders began.
They protected and reproduced written works of Greece, Rome and Latin that included
concepts of culture, philosophies, histories, and the continuing spread of Roman Catholicism. As
they learned Greek, Latin, and some Hebrew they did not stop the use of their own tongue. Their
only written language was Ogham a series of runic lines mainly used by the Druids. The Irish
monks used the simplicity of Ogham and combined it with the Greek and Roman alphabets to
devise a writing system (Cahill). This Irish grammar consists of two scripts: Irish half-unical that
is more rounded and Irish miniscule that is easier to write and read. During the Middle Ages
many scribes beyond Ireland adopted Irish miniscule as the common script.
Through inspiration from the engravings of spirals and swirls on the Boyne Valley
megalithic tombs in the New Grange region and from other monuments, these monastic
communities took this early art form and interpreted it into their illuminated manuscripts. In turn,
Roman Catholicism and other ideals were preserved in texts including the Book of Kells, the
Book of Darrow, and the Book of Armagh or Canon of Patrick, all of which are housed today in
the Trinity College Library, Dublin. Throughout Medieval times, into the Renaissance and later
the classical philosophies and thinking of Greece and Rome were rediscovered due to the care
taken by the Irish monks and their followers to protect this knowledge.
As Christianity began to flourish and take hold throughout the British Isles, the Roman
Empire was disintegrating. The beginning of the end was with the assassination of Emperor
Commodius in late 192 AD. Civil war erupted in Rome, followed by years of economic crisis,

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threats of invasion, and political disunity leaving the state fractured and vulnerable. The Empire
was not equipped to keep soldiers so far from the Roman Capital. Outposts throughout the
Empire were abandoned as legions were recalled home to defend Rome. By 408 AD the last of
the remaining military forces of the already stripped garrison in Britain were finally taken. The
civitates or citizens in 410 AD requested aid against the Saxons from Emperor Honorius, without
the resources to defend, Britain was instructed to look after their own defenses. The same year on
August 24 the Visgoths sacked Rome and Roman influence had irrevocably ended in Britain.
Written evidence of the events that followed in Britain is incomplete and based on limited
sources from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, St. Gildas account and Bede the Venerable. In
September of 476 AD the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus was overthrown by
the Germanic Chieftain Odoacer and the Fall of Ancient Rome was complete.
The Romano-British population continued for several generations. The people tried to
continue to function as it had under Roman rule even as the Roman material way of life
gradually started to fade. As goods started to wear out they could not be replaced because trade
declined and manufacturing slowed or stopped altogether. Towns and cities were no longer
centers for taxation or government administration and began to fall into ruin. The maintenance of
roads and buildings all but ended as the elite stopped spending money for their upkeep or repair.
Throughout the countryside the peasantry seems to have continued their everyday ways of life,
for them not much changed. The lack of progress and stagnation of society paved the way for the
Saxons to take control and later the invasion of the Vikings and the Normans. There is some
contradiction as to the level of destruction, violence and havoc caused by the Saxons. In some
areas forts and walls were strengthened, for example the hill-fort at Cadbury, but Cantebury
shows no signs of destruction or refortification (Ibeji, After the Romans). The Saxons appear to

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have merged into the lives of the British peoples rather than forcing their way in through
savagery and ruin.
Acculturation is a complex process of one culture interacting and impacting another.
Aspects of each culture are often adopted and borrowed at different times, levels and variations.
Rome borrowed influences from the Greeks and other cultures, expanding and shaping these
ideals with their own. The Romans introduced their way of life to the British Isles. They brought
their politics, architecture, culture and religion, knowledge and learning, road system and towns
that are still around today London, York, Lincoln. In turn, Britain furthered many political
careers, they embraced Roman learning and knowledge, and undertook Christianity with
devotion. The Roman material and political way of life gradually faded away. As new societies
migrated and overcame the British population, the core basis of Roman ideals remained.
Although other cultures were introduced to Britain, the belief that remained with constancy is the
commitment to their Christian religion. This devoutness of faith is the thread that continues to
bind the people together.

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Davis, Sheridan. Hadrian's Wall Black Carts Turret. Engish Heritage, Northumberland. 2009.
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