" During this same period , the a mo unt of s treet ligllting more than do ubled .

Gas

T ,,'a! 'l OW used instead of oil. New s t reet la mp8 took the place of the olde r appara­
IU S. a nd permane nt lighting was 8ubl tituted for intermitte nt lighting." l\I . Poete,
..: . Clouzot , G. Henriot, La Transformatio n de Pa ris SO IU Ie Second Empire,
( Paris, 19 10 >. p. 65 (E xposition de la Bibliotlleque e t des 1'raya ux histo riques de
[Modes of Lighting] III \·iIle de Paris). [ n ,7)

Et noctunm facibus ilIustrata.]

- Medal of 1667, commemorating the imroduction
On t he ladies of the cash register: " All day lo ng tlley go about in hair curlers a nd
d ressing gown ; afte r s undown , howe ver, when tile gat it lit , they make their a p­
j
of su= lighting peara nce, arra yed as for a ball. Seeing the m, then, e nthroned a t the cashie r',
dcek . sur rounded by a sea of light , one olay well think back to The Blue Ubraryf
and the fairy tale of the prince with golden hair a nd the e nchanting princen, a
compariso n the mo re admissible inasmuch as Parisia n wome n enchant more tha n
they are enchanted ." Edua rd Kroloff, Schilderungen aus Pari$ (Hamburg, 1839),
vol. 2, pp . 76-77. [f1,8]

" Napoleon h al coverings of wool , velvet . sille , embroider y, gold . a nd silver ; a g1...
The tin racks with arti..6.cial Bowers, which can be found at refreshment bars in
ban for his ha t ; wreaths of the immo rtals; a nd a n ete rnal gal lamp." Karl Cula­
railroad stations, and elsewhere, are vestiges of the Bora! arrangements that
kow, Briefe a/U Pari., (Leip:Ilig, 1842), vol. I , p . 270. <See "The Ring of Saturn."~
fonnerly encircled the cashier. [f1 ,9]
[n ,l ]

Note relating to 1824: " Paris was illumina ted, this year, by means of 1l,20511treet Ou Bartas called the s un uG ra nd Duke of Candles." Cited by M . Du Camp, Pan,
lamps .... The entrepreneur hal been hired to provide lighting for the entire city (Pariil, 1875), yol. 5, p. 268. rn ,IO]
for a t lealit (o rt y minutes-tha t iS lo say, beginning twe nty minutes before the hour
prescribed d aily, and finishing twenty minute8 later; he can assign no more than
""The lantern carriers will haYe oil la nterns with 'six thick wicks'; they will be
twenty-five lamp8 10 each lamplighter. " J .-A. Dulaure. Hu toire <ph ysique, civile
statiollcd at pos ts, eac h o ne separated from the ne:t:t b y a dista nce of eight hundred
et morale >de Pari" depuis 1821 jUlqu 'il DOl jour! (Paris <1835» . vol. 2, pp. 118­
pacel... . The y will have a tinted lamp hung aboye their post tha t will serve as a
119. ]1'1,2]
beacon , a nd o n their belts a n hour glass of a quarter hour', dura tion , bearinA: the
. hield of the city.... rlere. once agai n , it was a matte r of empiricism ; these wan­
" A dreamlike &etting, where the yellowish Riekering of the gas is wedded to the
de rin g la mpi proyided no securit y a t all to the city, and the ca rriers beat up the
lunar fri gidity of electric light. " Georges Montorgueil, Pa ris au hOJord (Parill, , people they we re acco mpan ying on more thall one occasio n . Lacking an ything
1895), p. 65. ]1'1,3]
beller, howeye r, the city used the m ; a nd they we re used so long that they were still
]1'1,' ] , to he found at the heginning of the nineteenth centu ry." Ou Camp, Pam . yol. 5,
1857 , the fl u t electric streetlights (al the Louvre).
p.2 75. [fl ,ll]
Originally gas was delivered to fashionable establit hnlents in containers for daily
consumption . ... rn ,S] '"'T hey [ the la nte rn ca rriers ] would hail hac kne y cabs. would serye al crier­
, eSCOrts for c ha uffe ured ca rriages. anti wo uld accompa ny late-night passersby
" I boldly declare myself the fri end of Argand lamps; tilesc, 10 tell the trutb. are
right to t heir homes, coming up to tllt:ir a p a rtmellts a nd lighting the candles. Some
content with shedding light and do 1I0 t da l'l zle the eyes. Much lesl volatile than gas,
clai ll\ that tlle~e lante rn carriers \'olunt arily gave accounts e very mo rn ing to the
t heir oil never callscs explosiolls; with the m we breathe mo rc freely, a nd the odor
lieutena nt gene raJ of police 0 11 wha t they had noticed during the night." Ou Camp .
is less o((en8ive. Trul y incomprehensible to me is the existe nce of a U those . hop­ Jluri$. \' 01. 5, p . 281. [r1a ,1]
k ~ I)4!1"8 who. e ntrenched in o ur a r cades, remain-at 1111 hou rs a nd in the wa'Trues t
of wealhe r 8-within s ho ps where, on a ccount of the gas. it feels like tile Tro pics."
o Arcades 0 NQ IWealiX tabkoux de "uri$ , 011 Observations Sllr les m Qe Il r! et us ­ '''fhe patent or importatioll ta ke n o ut by Winsor for Paris is dated Decembe r I,
age! des Pa r is icns a lt commencement d" XIX' ! wcle (Pa ris, 11:121:1), yol. I , p . 39. 11:1 15; in J an ua ry 18 17, 1.lIe Passage des Panoramas was illumina ted .... The fIrst
]1'1,6] a ttempts b y bus inesse. wer e not al all satisfa ctory; t he public seemed resistant to
this kind of lighting. which was suspected of being dangerous allli of polluting
brea thable air:' Du Camp . Puru, vol. 5. p . 290. [Tl a,2]
" This place visited by commercial deat h , under tbis gas ... which Roems to trem_
ble at the thought of not being paid for.'" Louis Veuillot , Le, OclelLr. de I'u rit
(Pari8. 19 14), p . 182. [T la,3]
" Glass is de8tined to play an important r ole in meta l -a rchit ~ ture. In place of thick
walls whose solidity and resistance is diminished by a large num ber of apertures,
our houlles will be 80 filled ~;tb openings that they will apllea r diap h anous. Theae
wide openings. Curnished with thick glan, single- or double-paned . frosted or
tra nsparent , will tra nsmit- to tbe inside during the day and to the outside at
night- a magical radiance.'" Gobard , " L' Architectu re de I' avenir," Revue
Seneraie d 'Clrchitecture ( 1849), p . 30 [So Giedion , Bauen in Frankreich <LeiPD&
and Berlin , 1928> , p . 18J. [T1a,4]
Lamps in the form oCvases. The rare flower " light ," as done in oil. (T he Corm on a
fas hionable COPller engraving of 1866.) [Tla,5]
The old gas torches that burned in the open air often had a fl ame in the 8 h a l~ o( a
butterfl y, a nd were known accordingly as pClpiUoru. [Tla,6)
In the Ca rce1 lamp, a clockwork dri ves the oil up into the burner ; where88 in the
Argand lamp (quinquet) , the oil drips into the burner from a reservoir above ii,
thereb y producing a shadow. [Tl a,7]
Arcades-they radiated through the Paris of the Empire like fairy grottoes. For
someon e entering the Passage des Panoramas in 1817, the sirens o f gaslight
would be singing to him on one side, while oil·lamp odalisques offered. entice­
ments from the o ther. With the kindling of electric lights, the irreproachable glow
was extinguished in these galleries, which suddenly became mOT(: dillirult to
find- which wrough t a black magic at entranceways, and which looked within
themselves out of blind windows. [Tla,8J
When , oll Febr uary 12 , 1790. the Marquill de Favras was executed Cor plotting
againllt the Revolution , the P lace de Greve and the scafrold were ad orned with
Chinese la nterns. ) [T!.8,9]
" We said , in the first volume, that every historical period is b il l lied in a distinctive
light , whether diurnal or noctu rnal. Now, ror the first time, this world has an
artificial illumina tion in the form of gaslight , which burst onto the scene ill Loudon
at a time when Na poleon's Slar was beginning to decline. which entered Pll ris more
or less contemporaneously witll the Bourbons. and which . by slow ami tenRciou'
advances. finall y took IH>S8ession or all streets and public localities. By 1840 it watl
Haring eve rrw lll~re. even in Vienna . In tltis strident and gloomy, sharp a nd flicker­
iIlg. prosaic Imd ghostl y illumination , large insects are busily moving about; shop­
kccl,crs." Egon Friedell , K,,'w rse.chichte der Neuzeit, vol. 3 (Munich , 1931),
p.86. [T1a, IO]
On the Cafe Mille et U" e Nui ts: UEverything there was of an unprecedented mag­
nifu:e nce. In order to give yo u a sense of it . it will suffice to say that the beautiful
/inlOnadie re had , for her seat a t the counter, . . . a throne, a veritable royal
throne. on which one or t.he great potentates of Europe had sat in all hi8 maj esty.
Ho..- did this th rone get to be there? We cou ld nol say; we affirm the (act without
undertaking to explain it. " lIu toire del cafes de Paris, extraite de. rniimoires d 'un
vii>-eur (Paris, 1857), p. 3 1. [n a,l l ]
"Gas has r eplaced oil , gold has dethroned woodwork , billia rds has put a stop to
dominoes and backgammon . Where one formerl y heard only the buzzing of flies,
one now listens to the melodies of Ven li or Aubert .'" lIu roire ck, cafos ck Paris,
extrait$ des memoires d 'un viveur (Paris, 1857), p . 11 4. [T2,1]
Grand Cafe <lu XIX' Siecie--()pens 1857 on the Boulevard de Strashourg. "The
greell felt tops of numerous billiard ta bles call he lleen there; a splendid cOllOter is
illuminated by gas j ets . Directl y oppo8ite is a white marble foun tain , on which the
allegorical subject is cr owned by a luminous aureole." H u toire des cafe. ck PaTU,
extraite de. memoires d 'un vivear (Paris, 1857), p . 111 . [T2,2]
"'As early as 180 1, Lebon had attempted to inslaU g88 lightin~ at the Hotel
Seignelay,47 Rue Saint-Dominique. The system was improved at the beginning of
January 1808; three hund red gas jelS lit up the Hospital of Saint-Louis. with such
BUCceSS that three !as-j et factorie8 were built ." Lucien Dubech aod Pierre
d'Espezel, Hu toire de Paris (Paris, 1926). I). 335. [T2,3]
" In ,matters of municipal admini8tra tion , the two great works of the Restoration
were gas lighting and the creation or omnibuses. Paris was illuminated in 1814 by
5,000 street lamps, serviced by 142 lamplighten. In 1822 , the government decided
that 8treelS would be lit by ga8 in proportion as the old contracts came due. On
June 3, 1825, the Compagnie du Caz Portatif' Fran~ais undertook, for the lin t
ti me, to light up a s(luare; the Place Vendome received (our multiple.j et street
lamps at the corners of the column and two street lamps al the corner s of the Rue
de Castiglione. In 1826, there were 9,000 gas bur ners in Paris; in 1828, there were
10,000 , ·with 1,500 subscriber s, th ree gas cOlllpanie8, a nd four gas-jet (actories,
\ OtiC of which was on the Left Dank ." Dubech and d 'Espezel , Hi.stoire de Pari.s,
p. 358. [T2,4]
Prom all eighteenth-century pr081)ectus, " lighting Project , P roposed by Sub­
scription fo r . Decora ting t.he Fa mous T horoughfare of the Boulevard Saint­
Amoine"': " The Boulevard will he iIIuminaled by a garland of Lanterns that will
extend on both sides between I.he tree8. This illumination will take place twice
weekly, on Thursda ys and Sunda ys, and , when there is a Moon , on the d ays after
the abovemt:ntioned weekdays. Lighting will begin at tcn o'clock , and a ll will be
illuminated h y eleven .... Since this sort of evening Prolllcluule i8 suited only to
lordI alld Men of Weilith who have carriages, it is onl y to thcm tha t we offer this
subscription . Subscription for this year is at the rate of 18 pounds for each (louse;
in subsequent years, however. it will cost onl y 12 pounds, the 6 additionall)Ounds
this year being for the initial expenses of instaUation'" (p . 3). -rhe Ca f~ and
Theaters that border this famous promenade are justl y cd ebrated ; Yes-I say tlris
to their glory-it was the handlome Lanterns adorning their illustrious Booths
that gave me the idea of universallUumination. The celebrated Chevalier Servan_
doni hal promised me d esigns for the Arcades, for the Garlands, and for the
elegant Monograms, designs worthy of his fecund genius. Is there a single one of
our wealthy style-sellers who does not heartil y support this brilliant Project?
Adorned in this manner, the Boulevard will become a well-appointed Ballroom,
one in whicb Carriages will serve 88 Box Seats." [T2,5)
"Mter the theater I went to a cafe, which was all newly decorated in Renaissance
style. The walls of the main room were entirely covered by mirrors set between
gilded columns. T he cashier sill at all times behind a large and sumptuous table
placed upon a platform ; before her is silverware, fruits. flowers, sugar. and the
boJ:. for the ga n;on.t. It is customary for every paying customer to leave a small
gratuity for the waiter ; this is thrown by the laller into the oox . Its contents are
later equally divided." Eduard Devrient . Briefe aw Perris (Berlin , 1840), p . 20.
[1'2., 1]
Between the February Revolution and the June lnsurrection: " When the club
meetings were over, workers took to the streets, and the sleeping bourgeois were
either awakened by cries of 'Des lampion8! Des lampion8!' in consequence of
which they would have to light their windows; or else wanton gunsholl roused
them from their beds in terror. . . . There were endles8 torchlight processioru
through the I treets of Pari8, and on one occasion it happened that a girl allowed
herself to be undreued and shown naked to the crowd b y torchlight ; for the
cr owd . this was merely a reminiscence of the Goddess of Liberty of the fir8 t French
Revolution .... At one point the prefect of police, Caussidiere, iU lied a procl ama •
tion against these torchlight processions-but the edict terrified the c.iti.tellry of
Pari8 still more, beca use it stated that the people were suppo8ed to brandish
torche8 olily in the event of some threat to t.he repllblic." Sigmund Engliill<ler,
Ge$chichte der fran%o$uc he" Arbeiter-AuQCiationeli (Ha mburg, 1864), vol. '2,
p. 277- 278. (T2a,2)
" It W 88 8till the womell wllO cleaned the oily street lamps by Ilay, ali(I lit them at
night , climbing up and down with the aid of a n e)(tendable rope kcpt l oc k c~ in. a
toolbo)( du ri ng the daY-8ince ga8. which for some yeau had beell bla:llIng tn
English towns , had yet to be 8upplied . The merchant8 wilt) sold the oil and the
Argand lamp8 wi8hed to avoid all fa vo rable mention of this other ~ource of light .
and they 800n found two highly reput able writert, menieur8 Ch arles Nodier and
Amedee Pichot •... to dellounce, ... ill octavo form at , all the problcms and per­
\'ersities connected whll gas. incllulillg the danger of our complete an nihilation by
explosion at the hand8 of malefactort.·· Nalla r, Qua nd j'ewi$ photogruphe (Paris
«900», PI" 289- 290. [T2a,3]
Fireworks and illuminatiOll8 were already on the 8cene during the Restoration;
they were sel off whenever a measure prolwsed by the ultraroyalists was defeated
ill the Chamber. [T2a,4]
Apropos of an institute for the blind and the in88ne, this excursus on electric light :
" I come 1I0W to the fa cts. The bright light of d ectricity served , at first, to illumi­
nate the subterranean galleries of nline8; aft er that, public squares and 8treets;
then fa clories, workshop8, stores, theater8, military barracks; finally, the dome8­
tic interior. The eyes, initially, put "I) rather well with this penetrating new enemy;
but , by degrees. they were da.tded . Blindneu began 08 something temporary, 800n
became periodic, and ended as a chronic problem. This, then, was the fint re­
8ult-sufficiently comprehensible, I believe; bUI what abOllt the insanity lately
visited 011 ollr leaders?-Our great heads of fin ance, industry, big bllsineu have
seen fit ... to seud ... their thoughts aro und the world , while they them8elve8
remain at rest . . . . To this end . each of them has nailed up, in a corner of his
office, electric wires connecting his executi ve desk with our colonies in Mrica ,
Asia, and the Americas. Comfortably seated before his 8chedules and acco unt
books, he can communicate directly over tremendou8 distances; at a touch of the
finger, he can receive r eports from aU his far-flun g agents on a startling variety of
mailers. One branch-corre8pondent te1l8 him , at tell in the morning, of a ship­
wrecked vessel worth over a nlillion ...; another, at five after ten , of the unex­
pected sale of the most prosperOU8 house in the two Americas; a third, a t teo after
ten, of the g10riOUI entrance, into the P<lrt of Marseilletl, of a freighter carrying the
fru}ts of a Northern California harvest . All this in rapid succe8sion. T he poor
brains of these men , robu8t a8 t hey wer e, ha\'e simply given way, just as the
shoulders of 80me Hercule8 of the marketlJlace would give way if he ventured to
, load them with ten 8ack8 of wlteat illstead of one. And this was the second r esult ."
J acques Fabien , Paru en songe (Pari8, 1863), pp. 96-98. [1'3, IJ
Julien Lerner, Pari$ all gaz (Pa ris, 1861 ): " I c108e the curtain8 on the sun . It is well
aud dill y put 10 rest ; let tl 8 spea k 110 more of it . Hcnceforth , I shall kuow no other
light th rm that of gltS" (p o 10). The vollirne conlains th n-e novellas in addition to
Ihe Parisian vigncttt:s, of which Illc first givcs it it8 tit.le. [1'3,21
1.11 Ihe I'lace d e ('1-lOtd de Ville: 3_a rou nd 1848-lhertJ was a Cafe dll Gu.
]T3.3]
'fhe misfortu;les of Ainu:: Arga nd . The Ya rious improvement8 he made in Ihe old oil
lanll)-the double current of air, the fu se woven in the 8hltl>e of a hollow cylinder.
the glau tubing, and so forth- were at fi rs t laid claim to by Lange in England (a ft Is petite vertu" <The Strolling Suitan ae of Night againu Our Lord. the ~ treet
ma ~ wil.h whom Argand had been auociatcd). before being stolen in Paris by Lamps: To Easy Virtue>. 1769:
QUllllluet , who gave his name to the invention . And thus Argand ended in misery:
The poor WOman finds. instead
" The misanthropy to which he succumbed after the wi thdrawal of his patent led Of loven. only laml'l)0818
hi m to seek a compensation of sor U in the occult $ciences. .. ' During the last In this da nling town,
years of his life, he was seen wandering through graveyards gathering bones and Once a second Cyll.era.
dust from tombs, which he wouJd then submit to chemical processes in the hope Wheu nymphs would ..·alk.
of finding in death the 5eCret of prolonging life. '" He himself died young. Tender mo thers of delight.
A<ntoinette> Drohoj owska, us Gra ndes Induslms de la France: L 'Eclairage They are forced today
(P aris < 1881 », p . 127. [f3a, l) To 8(lueeze themselvea into Il box,
In ot her words, an octogenarian liac re,
Which, by way of B., or r. , tllkel lhem
Ca reel, inventor of the lamp that oper atcs by clockwork. Such a lamp has to be To wheu fi ac~. ha\'e nothing to do ....
wound up . It contain, a clockwork mecha nis m that pumps the oil from a reservoir M~ericordia , when once the night
at the bottom up into the wick . Carcel', advanee over earlier oil lamp8--which had Will lei you leue Ihe hovel;
the re8e rvoir located above the wick, whence the oil dripped down--consisted an For life is 80 needy.
eliminating the shadow caused by this overlying reservoir. Hi8 invention dates Not a lingle corner or carrefour
from 1800. Hi8 enseigne: " B.-G. Carcel, inventor of the Lycnomene., or mechani_ The IIreel!iptt dOQ not reach.
callam ps, manufac tu res said laml)s." (T3a,2) It i8 a burning-~a" that pierce. through
The plans we made by dll)·....

''The chemical match i8, without do ubt , one of the vilest devices that civilizatioa Edouard Fournier, Les Lanrernes: Hufoire de i'a ncien eclairagc de Puru (Paris,
has yet produced .... It is thank. to thi8 that each of U8 carrie8 aro und fire in ru. 1854), p. 5 (from the specially p aginated printing of the poem). [f4,1]
pocket .... 1 ... detest this permanent plague. alway. primed to trigger an explo­
sion , alway. ready to roas t humanit y individually over a low fl ame. If you foHow In 1799, an enginef:r installed gas lighting in his house, and thus put into practice
!\t . Alphonse Karr in his crusade against tobacco, you should likewise raise tbe what previously had been known only as an ~rimem in the physicist'S labora­
banner in opposition to these matches .... If we did not have in our pockets the tory. [f4, 2]
possiliility of ma king 8moke, we wowd smoke less." H <enri > de Pene, Paris intime
( Pari8. 1859), pp. 119-120. [1"3a,3] It it po88ihle, you know, to .void thelt: ....thackt
By choosing the , heller o{ cO"ered arcades;
Though, in these lane8 the idler (avon,
According to Lurine ("Les HowevarlS ," in Paru chez; soi <Paris. 1854»: the firet
Spiral, of hlue emoke rise from " avanu.
gas lighting-18 17, in the Passage des Panoranlas. [1"3a,4)
Make for U8. by your efforts, a gentler life,
Rega rding the d efinitive ins tallation of street lamps in the streets of Paris (in Clear from our path all bumps and jOltll,
Mar ch 1667): " I know of no one but the a bbe Terra880n, among the men oflettert, And wa rd off, for Il time, the deadly volcanoes
who spoke ill of the la nterns . . . . According to him , decadence in the realm oC Of readillg room, and reslaun nts.
AI d118k, give orden to ....areh
leiters began with the establishment of s treet lights. ' Before thi8 period,' he once
Tho.... 81.ou deliled b)' the odorlel8 gu,
said , 'everyone returned bome early, from fear oC losing their lives. and thi8 fact
And 10 &G und Ihe alarm with erie. of fear
worked to the advantage of labor. Nowadays. people stay out at night, and....work Atthe seeping in of fla mmable fumel.
less.' Surely there is truth in this observation and the invention of gas is not likely
to give it the lie." [douard Fournier, us Lanternes: lIutoire de ,'(weien eclairage BartheJe,ny, !'uris: Revue s fltiri(/Ue (I M. C. De/esserl (Pari" 1838), p . 16. [f4,3]
de Paris ( Paris, 1854), 1>. 25. [T3a,5)
"'\1;'h al a s plendid inve ntion this ~as lighting is!' Gottfried Seml>er exclaims. ' In
In the 5eCond half of the 1760s, a num ber of pamphlets were published that dealt ho...· ma y different ways has it not enriched the festive occasions of liCe (not to
with the new streel lights in IlOCtical form . The following ve rse. come fro m the inC/ilion its infinite importll nce fo r our practical need s)!' This stri king preemi­
poem " IA:s Suitanes nOclurnes et ambulanles conlre Nosseigneurs les reve rberea: nelice of the festive over the d aily, or rather the nightl y, imlJeril ti ve8--fo r, than k8
to t.hi, gcneral illumination, urban nighttime itself hecome8 a 80rt of ongoing ant.
mated festival---clearly bet r aY8 the oriental char acter of thi8 form of lighting.. . .
T he fael that in Berlin , after what is now twenty years of operation , a ga8 company
ca n boast of &Ca rcely ten thou. alld private cU5tome1"8 in the yea r 1846 can he. "
ex plained ... in the following manner : ' For the most part . of courlle. one could
l)Oint to gener al commer cial and social factors to account for thi8 phenomenon',
there wall 8till , in fact, no real need for increased activity Iluring the evening and
nighttime hours.'''' Dolf Sternberger, Pcmorama (I-I amburg, 1938), PI>. 20 1, 202 .
Citation8 from Gottfried Semper, Wi.ueruchaft: Indus trie und Kuru, (Brullswick
1852), p . 12; and from 1-1(111dbuch fiir Steinkohleng(ubeumchlulig . cd. N.
Schilling (Munich, 1879). p. 2 1.
a:
[T4a.l]
Apropos of the covering over o f the sky in the big city as a consequence of
artificial illumination, a sentence from Vladimir Odoievsky's "The Smile of the
Dead "Vainly he awaited the gaze that would open up to him." Similar is the
lt
: conser vative; otherwise. the import duty on i tea m eligillC!!, which were not yel
motif of the blind men in Bau delaire. which goes back to "Des Vetters Ed.
It
fenster. ' [T4a,2]
Ga8lightand electricit y. " I reached the Champs-Elysees_ where the caP ' concer's
seemed like blazillg hea rths a mong the leave&. T he chestnut trees, brushed with
yellow light , had the look of painted object&, the look of phosphore&cent trees. And
the electric globes-like shimmerillg, pale moons, like moon eggs fallen from the
sky, like monstrous. living pearl&--dimmed . with their nacreo us pow, mYllteriow
and regal, the Baring jell! of gas, of ugly, dirty gas. and the garlands of colored
glass." Cuy de Maupassant , Claire de lane (Paris. 1909). p. 122 ("La Nuit caucIte.
mar" <The Nightmare». [T4a,3]
Gaslight in M aupassant: "Everything was clear in the mild night air, from the
planets down to the gas lamps. So much fire sh one there above, just as in the
town, that the shadows themselves seemed luminous. The glittering nights are
memer than the brightest of sunny days.1t Guy de M aupassant, Claire de fune
(Paris, 1909), p. 121 ("La Nuit cauchemarlt). 1n the last sentence, one finds the
quintessence of the "Italian night.1t (T5,1]
The cashier, by gaslight, as living image- as allegory of the cash register. (T5,2]
Poe in the " Philosophy of Furniture": " C la re is a leading error in the philosophy
of American household decoration.... We are violently ellalllorell of gas and of
glaas. The former is totally inudmissible within doors. Its harsh and ullstead y light
offends. No one having both bra ins a nd eye5 will II SC it ." Cha rle8 Baud~laire.
Oeu vre5 complete5, ed . CrCltet (Pa ris, 1937), p . 207 (lIi81oire, s rotesqlLeS e'
5erieuses pa r Edga r Poe). 5 . (T5.3]
u
-
[Saint-Simon, Railroads]
"Characteristic of the entire period Ul' to 1830 i8 the slowness of the SI)read of
machines .... The mentality of entrepreneurs. economically 5peaking, was 8till
produced by more than a h andful of factorie8 in Fra nce. could not h ave been
raised to 30 per cent of the value . French industry at the time of the Restoration
was thus IIliU . in essence, thoroughly tied to the prerevolutionary regime." Willy
Spuhler, Der Saillt-Simmlismus : Lehre und Leben von Saint-Amand Hazard (Zu.
rich, 1926), p. 12. [V 1,1]
"CorreSI)Onding to the laborious developmeut of lar ge-scale industry is the slow
formation of the modern proletariat .... The actual proletarianization ... of the
working masses ill effected only at the end of the 1830s and 1840s." SpUh1er, Der
Sai"t-Simonu mus. p. 13. [UI ,2]
"During the whole period of the Restoration ... the Chamber of Deputic!! followed
a commer cial IJolicy of the most extreme protectionism.. .. The old theory of a
halallce of trade was aga in in full swing, as in the days of mercantilism." SpUhler.
Der Saillt-Simoni, nul8 (Zurich. 1926), pp . 10- 1I . [U l ,3]
,
" It was only in 184 1 that a mode&t little law concerning child labor was approved .
Of interest is the objeetion of the famous phYliici81 Gay-Lussac, who liaw in the
intervention "'an onllet of Saint-Simonia nism or of phala nsterianism .... Spuhler.
Der Saint-Simo fl isnuu, 1" 15. [U l .4]
" Aphrodite'll birds travel the skie8 from Paris to Amsterda m. and under their wing
is d ipped a Ii ~ t or d aily quotatiolls rrom the Stock Exchange; a telegr aph sends a
mcssage from Puris to Brussels concerning Ihe r ise in 3 percent allnuitie&; courier!!
gallop over highwa YIi 0 11 pa nting horses; the amba8sIIJors of real kings ha rgain
with idelll kings. alltl Natha n Hoth.schild in Lolillon will sllOw you, if you pay hilll a
,·isil. a casket jU&t arri" ell fro m Brazil with frelihly mined diamonds intended to
cover the interest on the current 8razili an {Ie bl. h ,,' t that intere&ting?" Karl
Gutzkow, ' Offe" ,fiche Clluraktere. pa rt I (lI amlmr g. 1835), p. 280 ("Hoth­
s.:hild"'). [V I ,S]
" Tile inRuence and development of Silint Simonillnism, up until tile end of the
ninell..-enth century. had almost nothing to do witll the working clilu. Saint-Simoni_
ani!lm provided lin impetus and an ideal for the spirit of large-scale indust ry a nd
for the rea.li"J;ation of ambitious works. The Saint-Simonian Pereire brothers con_
trolled the railroad. banking, and real estate operations of the July Monarchy and
the Set!ond Empire. The Suez Canal, for which Enfantin and Lambert-Bey would
stud y the plans and work out the conception at a time when Ferdinand de LeS8ePI
was consul in Cairo, has remained the prototype of the Saint-Simonian planetary
enterprise. We may, without hesitation , contrast the grand bourS-eoil project of
Saint-Simonianism, which is based on production and action, with the peril bour­
geois projet!t of the Fourierist phalanstery, which is based on consumption and
pleasure." Albert Thibaudet, Le, Idee, polirique, de La France (Paris, 1932),
pp. 61-62. 0 Set!ret Societiel 0 [01,6]
"Girardin ... founded La Preue in 1836; he invented the popular, low-priced
newspaper and the romon feuilkton, or serial novel. " Dubech and d'Espezel,
llisloire de Pori, (Paris, 1926), p . 391. [01,7]
" In the past several years, a complete revolution has occurred in the cafes of
Paris. Cigars and pipes have invllded every corner. Formerl y, ther e was smokinc
only in certain 'pet!ial establishments known as e'taminet, <public house.>, which
were frequented solely by persons of low standing; todllY people smoke nearly
everywhere.... There is one thing we cannot forgive the princes of the house of
OrIeanlJ--namely, for having so prodigiously increased the vogue for tobacco , thU
malodorous a nd nauseating plant that poisons both mind and body. All the IOnl of
Louis Philippe I moked like chimneys; no one encouraged the consumption of thU
nasty product nlore than they. Such consumption no d oubt fattened the public
treasury- but at the expense of public heliith and buman intellit!:ence." Hilloire
de, cafes de Poril, extraile de, memoirs d'un viveur (Paris, 1857), pp. 91-92.
[V1a,I]
"Symbolism is so deeply rooted ... that it is found not just in liturgical rites. In
the previous century, didn' t the disciples of Enfantin wear waistcoats that but­
toned in the back , 80 as to draw IIttention to the frat ernlll assistance which one
mlln renders another?" Robert Jacquin, Notions sur Ie Langage d 'apre. lei
lravaux du P<ere) Marcel Joune (Paris, 1929), p . 22. "\ [Ula,2]
" In 1807. there wer e over 90,000 workers in Paris prllclicing 126 professions.
T hey were subject to strict supervision: associations were prvhihited . employment
agencies were regulated, and work hours were fix ed . Sala ries went from 2 fran ci
SO. to 4 fra nc, 20. yielding an averllge of 3 franCI 35. The worker ate a hearty
breakfast, a light lunch , Mild IlII evenillg supper." Lucien Du bech and Pierre
d ' Espczd, Iliswire c/e Paris (Paris, 1926), p. 335. [VI a,3]
" On August 27. 1817 , the steamship Le Genie clu commerce, invented by the Mar­
quis de Jouffro y, had sailed the Seine bctwt:ell the POllt- Royaland the Pont Loui,
XVI." DUOech li nd d' Espe7.e1. lIiSloire cle Pnris, p. 359. [0 13,4)
The national workshol)S' " had been created according to tile proposal of a moder­
ate. <AJexalidre-ThomIlS> Marie. because the Revolution had guaranteed the ex­
istence or the worker through his work , a nd bet!lluse it was net!essary to satisfy the
demands of the extre mists . . . . The workshops were organized , in a manner at
once democratic and militaristic. into brigades, with e1ectC(i chiefs." Dubech and
d·E6IJeZeI , lIi1toire de Paris. pp. 398-399. [Via,S)
The Saint-Simonian,. " In the magnificent disorder of ideas that accompanied Ro­
manticism. they had grown enough , by 1830. to abandon their loft on the Rue
Taranne and to establish themselves on the Rue Taithout. Uere. they gave lectures
before an a udience of you ng men dressed in blue and women in white with violet
scarveS. They had acquired the llewspalH!r Le Globe, and in its pages they advo­
cated a program or reform s .... The government , ... 0 11 the pretext of supporting
the emancipation of women . decided to pro&e<:ute the Saint-Simoniaos. They Clime
to the hearing in full regalia , and to the accompa niment of hunting borns. Enfan­
tin wore written on his chest, in large lellers. the two words Le Pere, and he calmly
declared to the presiding judge that he was in fact the father of humanity. He then
tried to hypnotize the magistrates by staring into their eyes. He WIIS sentenced to
one year in prison , which effectively put an end to these follies." Dubech and
d'Espezel, Hiltoire de Paris. pp. 392-393. 0 Haussmann 0 Set!ret Societies 0
[Ola,6]
" Cirardin published ... a brochure with the title. " Why a Constitution?" It Will
his idea that the entire French constitution should be replaeed by a simple declara­
tion of ten lines, which ... would be engraved on the five·franc piet!e." S. Englan­
d,er <Geschichte der fran:osilchen Arbeilef'-AJlocicdionen (Hamburg, 1864», vol.
4, pp. 133-134. [OIa,7]
"At the time of the Revolution . a new d ement began to a ppear in Paris: lar ge.scale
industry. This was a consequeucc of the disappearance of feud al guilds; of the
reign of unfettered liberty th at followC(1 in their wake; and of the wars against
England , which made necessary the production of items previously procured by
import. By the end of the Empire, the evolution was complete. From the revolu­
tio nllty lH!riod 0 11 , ther e were fa ctories eUablishel1 for the production of saltpeter,
firearms , woolen and cotton fabrics. preserved meat, and small utensils. Mechalli­
cili spinnilig mills for cottollMnd linen were dcvclolH!d. with the encouragement of
Calolille, beginning i.n 1785; fa ctories for t.he production of bronze were COli'
Structed under Louis XVI; a nd chemica l ami d ying companies ",·ere founded by the
COIIIII d 'Artois ill J a vel . Didot Sai nt-Uger ran a new machine for paper I'roduc­
tio ll on the Rue Sainte-Aline. In 179'). Philipl)f! Le bon receh·ell II palent on a
process for prod ucing gas lighting. From September 22 to September 30, 1798, the
iJJ!porlallce, from tile I)QUII of view of,'ourn li h
fi rst ' public e" hi bition of the prooUCI8 of French manufacturing and industry' w.. " A . a sm . t an an event of great co
(illenee m men eaorAsia ."' J eanJ\forielival , _ C " d nse­
held on the Cha mp de Man." Dubee-h and d ' Espezel, I/i.. loire de Pa ris (Pan. • • 'A!1l reateurll e la " ronde
Fr(lII ce (Pans ( 1934», p . 132. .. preue en
1926). p . 324. 0 E)(hibiliolls 0 [U2,l j [U2a,2J

On tile Saint-Simonians; "School constituted by a veritable corps of industrial ../. itlllos rupllf~ was run Ily Bourdin t beca uoa ViII "
. . ,~ I emessant , like Na pol I d
engineers and entrepreneurs, representatives of big business underwritten by the to apporllOIl kingdoms. That curious I l l ' " " " d d
, . cry III epen cnt of ..
00 11 , ove
I
power of the banks." A. Pinloche. Fourier el Ie 1l0cialillme (Paris. 1933) , p . 47. acted alone. He "·ol.dd ' collabora te.'" J" " " I' _ , Splrat , ra re y
n " orlcnva I.A!$ Create d la d
I}reuc en Prance (Paris). p . 142. • Itrll e g ran e
[D',' j [U2a,3)
" Although the worker associations were a ll run in e)(emplary fashion , ably aDd poetry of Saint-Simonianism: " 'n the preface I th fi I
honestl y•... members of the bourgeoisie were nevertheless unanimous in their 0 e I"8t vo lillie of l..e Prod
A. Cerc Iet Iaunchel all urgcnt appeal to rt ' UCteltr,
a IStJJ. . . . And Buchez h I
disap proval. Most of the bourgeoisie would fLoel a certain apprehension in paBaiua CCC(ll:d 10 the leadership of thc coope f , w 0 a lcr 8UC_
r a lYe lIIaveluClit appealed t II
bcfore one of the houses that bore the sign . . and the emblcm of a worker of arliSls in similar tcrnlS It was B I h fi ' 0 Ie community
.... ue lez w 0 Irst observed Ih t I "
association. Though these shops were distinguished from other. similar buaineue. and romanticism share equ. Uy in th Id " h ' ... . a c 8SSlCism
. . e wor WIt which the - til S· S· .
ollly by the inscription 'Association fra terneUe d ' ouvriers : Liherte , Egaliae, 8U9-are ~upled, just as legitirnacy a nd libcrali di 'd Y e allll_ Imoru·
Fraternite,' on the petit bourgeois they had the effect of snakea in the gran that IlOlilica l world In 1825 sm VI e between themselves the
might suddenly strike at any time. It sufficed for the bourgeois to think of the " doc Canal . P~~;~ Rique;.a ~:D::nt wa, ~rected S to the builder of the Langue­
February Revolution , which h ad been the origin of thesc associations . . . . For hYOIII •••• The literary chronicler fo , _occaSion
p __,
, oumet composed ' .
a stirnng
r 'A! r~lIcte lt1: Leon Hal ' b h f
their part. the associations of worker s made every possible effort to conciliate the ralllous composer hailed tiles h' h ' evy, rot ero the
• ' e verses, w IC he char acterized as ' ind . I
bourgeoisie, hoping to gain i18 sUPI)()r!. It was for this reason that many of tb.,. elry. . .. Soumel, however, oo1y partly fulfilled h . uSlna po­
fur nished their shops in the most splendid manner, so as to draw their shne 01 Simonians had placed in him If I " . . t e hopes which the Saint­
. ater on , In his DWlne Epa • "
customers. T he privations which the workers thus laid upon themselvefl, ia .. the ha mmer 's clang and th . . pee. oue can still hear
f
effort to withstand the competition , are beyond belief. While that part of the . bop prttisely here, in the poet ': : IS,y gnndiDkg °h the gears of industrial labor, it is
which was open to the public was fiu ed out in the costliest way, the worker hiaueIf
would be sitting on the fl oor of a workroom that often was totally lacking in
men!. '" Sigmund Englander, Gellchichle der fraruollillchen Arbeitel'-AnociatioMll
eq. J .
abs traClJons is ma nifest
H.a Ievy pUblished his Po. ' "
~_aes two r ,t atthe pr
HI '
. . .. a evy, moreover. was himself
e$le, eurapeenne$
Simon . who had died in 1825 " H Th
ocIIetristik ," Die neue Zeit 2.1 . . 2 (S
d ' 1831
• :,' . an In
urow Aus den Ann'
. (
openslty or metaph yslcsl
I
a poet. . . . n 1828
wrote an ooe to Saint-
d
.

(Hamburg, 18M). vol. 3. pp. 106-108. 0 Secret Societies 0 [U2,sJ ' angen er 80zialisti&chen
• , no. tultgart . 1903), pp. 217-2 19. (U2a,4J
Influence of the feuilleton in its ea rl y da ys. " T here are newspapers for one sou aad
On a r eview; b y Sainte-Beuve in the Rev I
newspapcrs for ten centimes . A dealer obser ves a solid bourgoois passing by, who, ,"The Verses which Sa iute_S ~ (e$ deux mondell. February 15, 1833:
after carefull y pe rusing his COnll titlltiotlllel ... , ncgligentl y folds it and pute it iD I h euve ... r eViewed were the lit
Iy t e name of BruheHle I d ' d erary remaills of a poet
his pockct . The dealer accosts this plucky reader. presents him with either ttl Sainltl-Beuve draws atlc:I:~lo ,Ie very ,YOIII~g ... . in hi, account , furth ermore.
Pellpie or La Revolllliou. which eost onl y a sou , and says to him: ' Monsieur, i£yoa · -
S(I//U I oa nove whlchbor th h " "
-S imo/lienne aud I " I d e e c araclen SllC title La
Like. I will give you . in uchange for the p al)Cr you 've juS! finished . l..e Peupk. by "I • W IIC I • •• emonstra tes th t . h f
I( ta . T hat the autho ' e nump 0 the Saint-Simonian
I r, a certain Madame Le Bas b ' b
citilten P rou dho n . and its supplement containing a ser ial by the famous Men • ...­ t Irough a ra ilier iml)roha bl r su, nnga a out this triumph
Scnllevillc.' T he bourgeois allows himself to be persuaded . What good is a CiHU"" f e COurse 0 event&--nam I h
rOln the veins of a yo uth ' , ....1 . . .
r
e y, I e trails ullion of blood
tIIliollllei yo u 've already read? He gives up his newspape r and acce pts the other, III eCh:.. W1th Samt Sin . d "
eCcleSiastically educa t .. .J I ,I I - loman oclnne into those of his
· .,.. )e OVe( - ma y be d I'
enticed , as he is, by dlt~ sovereign namc of Menars-Senllevillc. Oft en he forget' t Ilent ; \:lo t the sa me tim, " 0 " " regar e( III essence as a n artistic exp"
. . , wcver It Inngs 0 I th . .
himself, in his delight at being rid of so tedious a burden , and addsanother sou ISIII. TILis mys tical elemellt It I ' h I he II e lliysllcal sllie of Saint-Simonian_
into Ihe ba rgain ." A. I)r i\'al d 'Allglemollt. Puru inCOIln!1 (Puris. 186 1), PI)' 155­ . ai, s ort y fore found t k
stJjOlirn by. the ' fa mily' ill ,I ," I I ' 6 ar e)(pr euioll during the
156. [U2a, I) IClr ast p ace of ref h R
COJleiudingcpisooe iJl tl r, r I uge,ont e ue Mellilmontanl . This
,. Ie l eo tie movemenllilc .
IJlg lilerature--poems SOli " I eWI5e cngcnder CII • correspond _
T he well-known pr inciple of Villcnlt:ua nl : " t.hat a n incidcnt which is COllllllcte11 , - ga. sp lntua e)(erciscs i I
ullllic !!ymbolism could be UII I 'OO<! I b II verse alii prosc--whose enig_
ordi ll ury, bllt which occur!! 011 tilt.: houlevards or their environs, has much mOre CourSt: h y the violen(.'e of politi I d
(ers on y y tllc few i ' f
.
'r
m lales. . . . hrown off
ca all economICdevdolllllCllIS, 5.,",., •S,"nlonlal1l8m " "
had run agro und on meta phy. icI." II. Thurow, " Au! de n Anfiingcn de r loziali.ti._
chen Bclie triJl ti k ," Die ne ue Zeit, 2 J. 110 . 2 (Stut tgart. 1903), JlJl. 2 19-220 . [U3, 1)
Utopia n socialillm. " The da llS of capitalisl8 . loo ked on its pa rtis a ns as mere
ecce.ntrics a nd harmless enthusiaslt. . . . T hese pa rtisa ns t he mselves, fu r the r _
mo re, did a U tha t was huma nl y possilJle . .. to warr a nt s uch a n im)reu io n . They
wo re do thes of a ve r y pa rticular Cllt (Saint-Simo nia ns, for example, buttoned
their coats in the back so as to be re minded , while dressing, of their relia nce on
their fellow ma n a nd the reby of the neetl fo r union), or else they wore IlIlusuall y
la rge hats, very 10llg beards, a nd so o n ." Pa ul Lafargue, " Oc r Klassenka mpf in
Fra nkreich ," Die ne ue Zeit , 12, no . 2, p . 6 18. [U3,2J
" M le r the Jul y Revolution . the Saint-Simo nia ns took over even the frontline or·
gan of the Roman tics, Le Globe, Pie rre lA:roux beca me the editor." Fra nz Died_
e rich , " Victor Hugo," Die lIelle Zeit , 20 , no . 1 (Stuttgart , 190 1), p . 65 1. [U3,3j
From a rel>ort o n the Novembe r 19 11 issue ofthe j ournal of Aust ria n social democ­
racy, Der Kampf : "' On Saint-Simo n's I 50th birthd ay,' ... Max Adle r wrote: .. ,
He was kn own as a 'socialist' a t a time when this wo rd meant so mething e ntirely
diffe rent from wha t it means today.... As fa r as the clan s truggle is concerned , be
sees o nl y the opposition of ind ustrialism to the old regime; bourgeois ie a nd work­
e r& he considen logethe r as a single industrial class. whose riche r me nIDen be
calls upon to take a n interest in the lot of their impove rished fellow worke n .
Fourier had a cleare r view of the need fo r a new form of societ y." Review of
Pe riodicals, Die ne ue Zeit , 29, no. 1 ( 19 1 I), pp. 383-384. [V3,' ]
Engels 011 Feue rbach 's Wesen de! Chru tenfltmJ <Ene nce of Ch ristia nity>. " Evea
the sho rtcomings of the book contributed to iu immedia te effect . III literary,
so metimes e ven high -fl o wn . s tyle secured for it a large public a nd was, a t a ny rate,
refres hing afle r long years of a bstrac t a nd abstruse Hegeliaoizing. The I18me it
t r ue of its extravagant deification of lo ve, wiJic h , coming aft er the now intolerab~
sover eign rule of ' pure reason .' had il8 excuse, ... But what we must not for¢ ..
t ha t it was precisely t hese t wo weaknesses of Fc uerbach that ' true sociali&m,'
which had been spreadjng like a plagu e in 'educated ' Ge rma ny Billce 1844, took ..
ils sta rling point , )lutting Lite ra ry phrases in the place of scientifiC kn owledge, the
lihe r ation of ma nkind by means of ' love' in place of the cmancipati~n of the
prole tariat through the economiC . tra nsfo rma tion
. 0 ( pro d uctlO
' n- 1ll
. S I10 rt , loslnl
itself in the na useo us fin e writing a nd ecstas ies of love t ypified b y He rr Karl
Crull ." .' ricllric h Engels. " Ludwig Fe ue rbach lind de r Au sgun&...de r klauisched
deuuc hc n Philosophie," Die neue Zeit , 4 (Stuttga rt . 1886). p. 150 [re view of C. l"l·
­ )] ) [U3a,l}
Starcke. Ludll.'iS Feuerbach ( S tllllgan , 188 ~. .
" Railroads ... de ma ndt.."I. besides othe r imp08sihili tic~. a tra nsfo rmat.ioll in t~
mode of PNlI)Crt y.... Up until thell . in fact . a ho urgeols could r un a n IIIdusl n
o r a bus inc&& co ncern with onl y his own mo ney. o r a t most with tha t of olle o r ntO
friends a nd aCtlllaintBru:e8.. , . He ma naged the mOlley himself, a nd was the ac tual
proprieto r of lhe facto r y o r bus iness esta blishme nt. Bul rai.lroads hatl nt.·ed of
~ lI c h lIIa ssive II mOlln ll1 of t:a pillt.1 th ut it eo ultl no lo nger be concentra ted in the
hlluds of o nl y a few il1l.livitiua1.!i . A II~I so a grea t ma ny bo urgeois we re forced to
ellt rus t their precio us flln~ls, which had neve r before bt."en allowed Ollt of their
I!.ight . to l)COple wllOse na mes they hard ly knew. . . . Once the mo ney was give n
O\·cr. they wo uld lose all control over its inveUlllcllt lind could 1I0t expect to claim
11 11 )' pro pr ietary rights over te rmilla1.!i . ca r... loconlOli ves , a nd the like . ... They
"';~'re entitled o nl y to a s hare of the profits; in plal.' e of a n o bject , ... they were
gh 'en . .. a lIIe re piece of pa lH:r t ha t re presented the fictio n of a n infinitely small
and ungr as pa hlc piece of the real prope rt y, wllOse ull me was pr inted at the bottolll
in la rge leiter s .. .. This p rocedure ... s tood in s uc h violent contrast to wha t the
bourgeoisie was used to ... tha t its defense eOllld be unde rta ke n o nl y by people
who . . . we re s uspected of wa nting to overthro w the. o rder of socie ty-socialislI, in
sho rl. Firs t Fo urie r a nd then Saint-Simoll extolled this 1II0bili1.alio n of prope rt y in
the fo rm of paper securities." Pa ul Lafa rgue, " Marx' historisehe r Ma te rialismus,"
Die neue Zeit, 22 , no. I (Stuttgart . 11JO.1 ), p . 83 1. [V3a,2)
" Every d ay, t here is a riot. The s tudents, a U sons of the bourgeois ie. are frate rniz­
ing he re with the worker s, lind the wo rkers belie ve the time has come. They a re
also seriollsly co unting o n the pupils from the Ecole Poly technique. " Nad a r,
Qua ndj'etm's photogrophe ( Pa ris ( 1900), p . 287. [U3a,3)
" It is not in proleta ria n circles, 1I0t e ven in de mocr a tic circles, tha t the initial
imlH:IUS ... for the esta blis hment of labor e xcha nges is to be found. The idea was
fi n t ad va nced in 1842 by M. de Molinari, editor-in-chief of Le Journal des econo­
mistes. It was Molinar i himself who develo ped this idea in a n article he ... wrote
entitled ' L'Aveni r des c he mins de fe r ' <The Futu re of the Railroad s). In order to
indicate jus t how much limes had c ha nged, he r efe rred to Adam Smith, who had
said \ ill effect , tha t la bo r was the commodit y most diffi c ult to tra nspo rt . Against
this. he affirmed tha t la ho r powe r had 1I0W become mobile, Europe and the whole
World no w s ta lld s open to it as a ma rke t . . . . T he main po int of the co nclusion
~ which Molina ri drew in 'L'Ave nir des e he millls de fe r,' ill favor of t he institu tions
tha t we re to serve as la ho r exc ha llges, was the followin g: the pri ncipal cause fo r
th t· low rate of wages is the frequentl y recur r ing dis proportio n hd ween the nu m­
be r of wo r kers a nd t he dellla n<i fo r ....ork ; contrilmting furth er to the p roblem is
Ih.e high ,?oncentra tion of wo rke r s IHl pulation i.n certai n cente rs of productio n ....
GI\'" to worke rs the mea ns ... Ly which Ihey ca n clHllIge thei.r place of resideliCe a t
\ 10 .... I;ost; give Ihe m , too, the poss ibilit y of knowing ....Ilere they willlH: a Lle to find
...·(lrk ill the mos t favo ra hle ci rcums ta nces .... If l'I'orke rs hegin traveling (Iuic kl y
a nti , abo\'e all , c heaply, lab(lr eXl;hallgl!"8 will 800 11 a rise." On t he p ropos al to
erellte II la ho r re port; " T his proposal, which was pllbli ~ h etl in I.e Cour rie r
~rflll{(/is, edih,..1 hy Xa \'icl' Durricu . tlll'ned mUllcrs di rec tl y to the wo r ken .. . :
'Il'e would like ... to rell~ler a se r vice to ....o rke rs " y puhlis hing in our columns ,
Ilcxt to the stock ma rket (1IiOlalioIl8. a lis t of wo rk availa hle . . . . What is the
 purpose of sl ock market (Illotalions? They repor t . 88 we kn ow. the ra te of eIl~
- cha nge of government securities a nd . hares of stock . . . 0 11 vario us markeu
around the wo rld .. .. WitllOul the aid of these mar ket reports. tile capitalis u
would often have no idea where 10 invest their mo ney; withoul these Iiste , the y
would find themsdves in t.he IIDm c situation liS workcn who ... have no idea where
to go to find work .... The worker is a vendor of work , and , a8 such , he has a very
malerial interest in knowing what tile n1l1rket olillets are for ms goods. ", Low.
Heritier, " Die Arbeitsborsen, Die neue Zeit. 14, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1896), pp. 64S­
~. ~,~
Notable difference between Saint-5imon and Marx. The fonner fixes the number
of exploited as high as possible, reckoning among them even the entrepl'Uleur
because he pays interest to his creditors. Marx, on the other hand, includes aU
those who in any way exploit another-even though they themsdves may be
victims of exploitation-among the bourgeoisie. (V4,2J
It is significant that the theoreticians of Saint-Simonianism are unfamiliar with the
distinction b etween industrial and financial capital. All socia] antinomies dissolve
in the fairyland which k progreJ projects fo r the near furore. (Vb ,l)
"Let U8 examine 80me of the large manufacturing cities of France. . Never,
perh aps, h al a defeated and retreating army presented a more lamentable 8pecta·
cle than the triumphant industrial army. Gaze on the workers of Lille. Reima,
Mulhou8e, Manchester, and Liverpool , and tell me if they look Like victon!"
Eugene Buret . De la Muere de8 claISe. laboriewe. en Anglererre et en Fra~
(Paris ,I840), vol. I, p . 67. (V4a,2)
On the political role o f intellectuals. hnportant : the "Letter to M. Lamartine" by
Emile Barrawt, editor of I.e 'Tocsin cUJ trauailkurs. ["Die socialistischen und com­
munistischen Bewegungen scit der dritten franzOsischen Revolution," appendix
to <Lorenz von) Stein, Socialumus und CommunumuJ cUJ heutigtn Frankreidu
(Leipzig and Vienna, 1848), p . 240.] [U4a,3]
, view of ill discr epancy with the actual relations among the classes of the period. is
To ascertain : whether or not, in the preimperial age, a relatively greater propor­
tion of the profits of capital went into consumptio n and a relatively lesser propor­
tion into new investments. (V4a,4]
1860: " Napoleon entered into a trade agreement with the English government ... ;
according to the provision8 of t.his treat y. custom8 duties were consider ably low·
ered on French agricuhu ral products imlwrted by Ellgland , and on 6nglish manu·
factllred good s iml)Orted h y Fra nce. Thi8 treaty was ver y favo rable to the '!'us
public .... On the other hantl . in ortler to holtl their own !lgainst English competi·
tion . French illtlu8try was forced to lower the prices of its product8. The immedi·
ate COlllie(luence was ... a certain rapprochement with the OPI)Osition. Aiming to
counter the r esistance of ... industrialist8. Napoleon took steps to enlist the 8Up"
l)Ort of the liberals. ThllJ led , ultimately. to the transformation of the regime and
the emergence of the Liberal Empire." A. Malet and P. Grillet . XIX' Sieck (Paris,
19 19) . p. 275. (Loosening of COli trois 0 11 the p relifl. ilO a 8 to cllable coverage of
Jt.bates ill the Chamber. ) [U4a,5)
Chnsiflcation of the pres8 under tile Restoration . Uhras<?): lA Cflzette de
f rance. La Quotidienne. l...e Drflpeflu blllllC, Le Journal des delx.ts (until 1824).
IlIdt' pcndcllt8: Le G/o be. l...e Min eI've. a nd , from 1830. during the last yCa r of the
Restoration . Le Natio nflt. l...e Temps. Constitutionalists: Le Constiruriormel. Le
Cou rrier fram;czu. alld , a ft er 1824, Le Journczl des deimts. [U4a,61
Because of the rarity o f newspapers, they were read by groups in thc cafes.
Otherwise, they were available only by subscription , which cost around eighty
francs per year. In 1824, the cv.:elve most widely circulating newspapers had,
together, some 56,000 subscribers. For the rest, both the liberals and the royalists
were concerned to keep the lower classes away from the newspaper. [U4a,7]
The " law of justice and of love," rej ected by thc Chamber of Peen : " One detail
surfices to demonstrate the spirit of the project : every printed sheet , be it only a
notification card , would have been suhject to a tax of one fran c per copy."
A. Malet and P. GriIlet , XIX' Siecle (Paris, 1919), p. 56. [U5, 11
"Saint.Simon lingers over the history of the futeenth-eightt.oenth centuries, and
gives to the social classes of this period a more concrete and specificaUy economic
description . Hence, it is thi8 pa rt of Saint-Simon '8 system that i8 of ~ea tes t impor­
tance for the genesis of the theory of clan struggle. and ,hat exercises the strongest
influence on its subsequent development. ... Although. for later period" Saint­
Simon emphasizes the economic momeut in his characterilllation of classes and the
causes of their growth and decline ... , in order to be consistent he would have
h!ld to see. in this economic activity, the true r oots of the social cla88et1 as well . Had
he ,'a ken this etel), he would inevitably have attained to a materialist conception of
history. But Saint·Simon never took this step . and his general conception remains
idealist .... The second point that i8 so surprising in Saint.Sinlon's cla8s theory, in
the re present ation of the clalS of illllUSlrialisl8 as homogeneous .... The mani­
fes tl y e8Senti!l1 differences that exist between proletarians alul entrepreneurs are
fo r him external , and tlleir antago nism is groUlulCfI in mutuallllisunden tanding:
the interests of the director s of imlustrial enterprises, in reality, coincide with the
ill terests of the masses .... This cntirdy unfoumled assertion resolves for Saint·
Simull the vcr y real social cOlltradiction . salvaging the unit y of the industrial cla8s
alltl , with it, the perspe<:th'e on a peat.'eful bllildin~- uJ> of tile new social system."
Y. Volgin , "Obe r die historische Stellllllg Saint-Simons," ill MClrx-Engeu Archiv,
ell. D. Hjazallov, vol. I (Fra llkfurt am Main (1928»), pp. 97- 99. [U5,2]
Saiut-Simon : .... I...east or all does the indu strial system rC(luire t.he overst.oeing of
individuals. for with a system in which t.he immedia te goal i8 the weU-being of the
lO!lny, there ought not to be any encrgy wastCiI on mai ntaillin~ power over these
people. who no longer threaten the existing order.... ' Thi~ fun ction of m a intain~
ing ordcr Cll n lium etl8ily b~ume ... II tas k shared h y all citizen8, wllether it be to
contain troublemaken or to settJe ~lis put e8." Instead of a n in8trument for the
domination (If men , the state system b«omes a system for the administration of
things .... And the chicftask of this administrative autllority, whose agents will be
the schola n, a rtists, and industrialists, . .. is to organize the cultivation of the
terrestr ia l g1ohe." V. Volgin , " Uher die historische Stellullg S aillt~Simo n8," in
Marx-Engel$ Archiv. ed. D. Rjazanov, '·01. I (Frankfurt am Main), pp. 104-105.
[US,3)
On the idea of the total work of art , according to Saint-Simon , OellvreJ choisie.
vol. 3 , pp . 358-360: "Saint-Simon indulges in fanta llies about the development of ~
cult through the combined efforts of p rophets, poets, musicians, sculptors, and
arc hitects. AJI the arts are to be united so as to make the cult useful to so<:iety, and
so as, th rough the cult , to restructure humanity in the spirit of Christian morals."
V. Volgin, "Uber die histor ische Stellung Saint-Simons," in Marx-Engel$ Archiv,
vol. I (Frankfurt am Main), p . lO9. [U5a,l )
Conccrning the reprcselltation of Louis Philippe.-Saint-Simon teache8 that "the
industrial system is not in contradiction with ro yal power. T he king will become
the First Industrial , just a8 he has been the First Soldier in the kingdom. " $ V. Vol­
gin , ..tiber die histori8che SteUung Saint-Simons," in Marx-Engel! Archiv. vol. 1
(Frankfurt am Main), p. 11 2. [U5a,2]
­ to transform the planet into a paradise." V. Volgin , " lIber die historische SteUung
Saim-Sim on was a forerunner of the technocrats. [U5a,3]
Two passages fro m Le Globe (October 3 1 and November 25, 1831 ). con cernin~ the
workers' uprising in Lyons: " we, defcnd ers of AU . workers-from the leaders of
industry to the humblest laborers"; and conceming the workillg clau: ..It is ~
nizing fo r us to see the workers degraded by brutality. Our heart bleeds at thesipt
of such moral privations , qui te as hideous, in their way, as phys.ical priva­
tions .... We wo uld like . . . to inspire the worken with ... our own aentiment8 of
order, peace , and friend ly acco rd ." In the same publication , an expreuion of
approval for the add ress of the Saint-Simonians from Lyons. who " have pJ"ellerved
Saint-Simonian calm ." Ci ted in K Tarle. " Der Lyo ncr ,\rbeitcraufstand ," in
MClrx-Engels ArcMv. ed . Rjaza no v. vol. 2 (rrankfurt am Main , 1928), PI). 108.
109, 111. [11iia,4)
Important m aterial relating to the history o f the railroad, and particularly o f the
locomotive, in Karl Kautsky, Die materialististhe Ge;chichlJa'!!faSJung, vol. 1 ~
lin, 1927), pp. 645 ff. What emerges is the great importance o f mining for the
railroads, n ot only because locom otivcs were first used in mines but also because
iron rails crune from there. ~ an.: thus referred back to the use that was made o f
rails (originally, no doubt, o f wood) in the operation of tipcarts. [U5a,5)
On Saint-Simon 's idea o f progress (polytheism, m onotheism, recognition o f
many laws of nature, recognition of a single law of nature): "'Gravitation is
supposed to play the role of the unive~ absolute ide~ ~d repl a~ ~e id~a of
v:
God." Oel/llm choisieJ, vol. 2 , p . 2 19,' oted by VOlglll, Ober die histonsche
Stellung Saint-Simo ns," in Ma rx- Engelt Archill, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main),
p . 106. [115a,6]
·· In the system of the Saint-Simonians , b anks not only play the part of force. that
ol"gllllize industry. They are the one antidote which the sY8tem now in place has
developed to counter the anarchy that d evours it ; they are an element of the
sys tem of the future . ..• one that is free of t~e atimwallt of personal enrichment ;
they are a aocia l institution." V. Volgin , "Uber die historische Stellung Saint­
SilllOns," in Marx-Engel$ Archiv, ed. Rjazanov, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main), p . 94.
[U.,l)
"T hc chief task of an industrial system is aaid to be the establishment of a ... plan
of work that could be carried out by so<:iety.... But ... his ideal is considerably
closer to sta te capitalism than to so<:ialism. With Saint-Simon , there is no talk of
the abolition of private property, of eXI)ropriationa. Only up to a certain point
does the state submit the activity of industrialists to the ~eneral plan. . . .
Tllrougho ut his ca reer Saint-Simon .. . was drawn to la rge-8cale projects ... ,
beginning with the plans for the Panama and Madrid canals a nd ending with plans
Saint-Simons," in Marx -Engel! Archiv, vol. 1 (Frankfurt am Main), PI'. 101- 102,
116. [U6,2]
" Sto<:ks have been ' democr atized ' so that aOthe world can sh are in the benefits of
modem asso<:iation . For it is under the banner of 'association' that people have
glurified the accumulation of capital in j oint-stock COml)anies, over which grand
fin ~ nciers now exer cise 8Overei~ ty at the expense of the shareholders." W. texis,
Cewerkvereine IIml Unter'lehmer verbiinde in f'rankreich (Leipzig, 1879), p. 143 ,
cited in D. Rjazanov, " ZlIr Gescbichte der ersten Internationale," in Marx-Engel!
Arclli v, ed . D. Rjazanov, vol. I (Frankfurt am Main), p . 144. [U6,3)
Emile Pereire, ex-Saint -Simonian , was the found er of Credit Mobilier.-Cheval­
i.'r presents him , in La Religion SClint-Simotlienne , as " a fo r mer student at the
Ecole Polyt« hlli(lue." [U6,4j
Re the history o f newspapers. Differentiation according to socia] classes and mass
circulation of literature, which, under C harles X, was mobilized against congre­
gations. "Voltaire, m ore or less abridged, is ad apted to the needs and circum­
stances of all levels of socicty! There is the rich man's VOltaire, the 'Voltaire for
owners of medium·sized propeny,' and the cottager's Voltaire. Thcre arc also
editions of Tarttiffo at three sous. There an.: reprints of . . . H olbach, . . .
Duprais<?), ... VOlney. "Ibings an: set up in such a way that ... more than
 2,700,000 volumes were put uno circulation in less than seven years." Pierre de la
Gorce, La ReJtauratjon, vol. 2, CharleJ X (Paris), p. 58. [U6,5]
~ting for the Riuiu,teur, who will bring on .the end of the bourgeoisie and who
will ,render ~~ to the father of the ~amily for pe?cefully administering the
Lord s estate. 'Ibis, presumably, an allUSIOn to Enfannn. At the begilUung of the
text, a sort of lament for the proletariat; the pamphlet also refers to this class in
closing: u. Emancipateur pacifique! He travels the world over, everywhe~ working
for the liberation of the proletarMn and of WOMAN." The lament : "If ever you ha~
visited our workshops, you have seen those chunks of molten iron which we
draw from .the furnaces and cast into the teeth of cylinders that tum more rapidly
than the wmd. These furnaces emit a liquid fire that, in its boiling and heaving,
throws ofT a shower of glowing drops into the air; and from the teeth of the
cylinder, iron emerges drastically reduced. \V(: tOO, in truth, are hard pressed like
these masses of iron. If ever you have come to our workshops, you have seen
those mining cables that are wound around a wheel, and that unwind in the
search for blocks of stone or mountains of coal at a depth of twelve hundred feet
The wheel moans upon its axle; the cable stretches tight with the weight of its
enonnous charge. \\e, too, are drawn taut like the cable; but we do not moan like
the wheel, for we are patient and strong. 'Great God! What have I done; mes the
voice of the people, conswned with a sorrow like that of King David. 'What have
I done that my hardiest sons should become C3JUlon fodder, and my loveliest
daughters be sold into prostitution?' Michel C hevalier, "Religion Saint-Simo­
nienne: Le Bourgeois, Ie reveiateur" <pamphlet (Paris, 1830), pp. 3-4, j>.
(U6a, l]
­ into the hean of the palace, ... they pardoned their prisoners ... ; they ban­
Chevalier in 1848. He speaks of the forty-year sojourn of Israel in the wi.ldem eu,
before it entered t he Promised Land . "We, too , will have to pause for a time,
before advancing illto an era ... of ... prosperity for workers. Let us aecept thit
season of waiting .... And if some lH!rsons endeavor to stir up the wrath of the
populace . .. on the pretext of hastellillg the advent of beller ti.mes, .. . then lei W
emblazoll the words that Benj amin Franklin , a worke r who became a great
man, ... once spoke to his feUow citizens: 'If anyone saY810 you t.hal you can come
into wealth by some mea ns olher than industry a nd frugality, then pay him no
heed : He's a viper. '" Fra nklin . ConseiLs pour faire fo rtu ne (Paris, 1848), pp . i-i.i
Ulreface by Michel Chevalier). : (U6a,2)
The press under Charles X: "One of Ille memhers of Ihe court , M. Soslhcne de la
Roehefouca ult , ... coneeived the gra nd project of a bsorhing the opposition neWI·
papers by buying them up . Dut tile only ones that woull) COlisentto the deal had no
inAuenee to sell. ·' Pierre de la Gorce. u. Resta ura lion , \'01. 2. Ch arles X (Paris).
~- ~Q
The FourieriSIS looked forwar,II Omll88 eonversions a mong the public after they
introduced a fe uillctoll in l.A1 PI!IJ/IHIge. See Ferra ri , " I)es Ideell et lie I'ccole de
Fourier." R evlI~ des deux mo"des, 14, no. 3 (1845), p . 432 . fU7,2]
"0 fbets! You have eyes, but you do not see-and ears, but you do not hear!
Great things are wtfolding in your midst, and you give us war chants!" [Ibere
foUows a characterization of the warlike inspiration for "La Marseillaise."] "This
hyum to blood, these frightful imp~cations bear witness not to any danger that
Iltight be threatening the country, but to the impotence of liberal poetry- poetry
without inspiration beyond that of war, strugglc, and endlcss complaint .... 0
people! Sing, nonethelcss, sing "La Marseillaise," since your poets are silent or
can only recite a pale intitation of the hymn of your fathers. Sing! The hannony
of your voices will yet prolong the joy with which triwnph had filled your soul;
for you, the days of happiness are few and far betvo"Cen! Sing! ... 'rour joy is sweet
10 those in sympathy with you ! It has been so long since they heard anything but
moans and groans from your lipsl" "Religion Saint·Sinlonienne: La Marseillaise"
(extract from L'Organisateur, September 11, 1830) (according to the catalogue of
the Bibliothcque Nationale, the author is Michel Chevalier], pp. 3-4. The ani­
mating idea of this rhapsody is the confrontation of the peacefulJuly Revolution
with the bloody Revolution of 1789. Hence, this observation : "Three days of
combat sufficed to overturn the throne of legitimacy and divine right.... Victory
went to the people, who live from their labors-the rabble that crowds the
workshops, the populace that slaves in misery, proletarians who have no prop­
eny but their hands: it was the race of men so utterly despised by salon dandies
and proper folk . And why? Because they sweat blood and tears to get their bread,
and never strut about in the balcony of the Comic Opera. After forcing their way
daged the wounded . ... Then they said to themselves : 'Oh, who will sing of our
exploits? Who will teU of our glory and our hopes?'" ("La M arseillaise," as
above, p. 1). [V7,3]
From a reply to an unfriendly review (in La RaJue de Paris) of Charles Pradier's
literary labors : "For three years now, we have been appearing daily on the city's
' sidewalks, and you probably think l'o"C have grown accustomed to it all .... ~,
you are m..istaken.ln fact, every tinle we step up on our soapbox, we hesitate and
look around us for excuses; we find the weather unpropitious, the crowds inat­
tentive, the street too loud. we dare not admit that we ourselves lack daring....
And now, perhaps, you understand ... why some.times we exult in the thought of
Our work ; ... and why, seeing us filled with enthusiasm, ... you-and others
\";th you-could take it for undue pride." Ch. Pradier, "Rcponse La Revue de a
Pari.,," in I.e BohfflJe, Charles Pradier, editor-in-chief, vol. 1, no. 8 (June 10,
1855). TIle passage is entirely characteristic of the bearing-at once honest and
unccnain- of this newspaper, which did not make it past its initial year of publi­
cation. As early as the first issue, it marks itself ofT from the lax, morally emanci·
pated boh~ne and makes mention of the pious Hussite sect, the Freres Bohcmes,
founded by Michel Bradacz, which it would like to ensure a literary posterity.
[U7a, l ]
Sli mple of the IItyle of the lIewlI!JII I,el' LA!. Boheme: " Wllu! ~ lIrcet8 cruelly in the
garrets is in telligence,
, art , poetr y. the 80 1l1! •.• •' or the soul is a wallet cOlllltining
 o nl y the banknotes of paradise, a nd the s hoJ>keel>en of this ....orld would nail thit
mOlley to their counte r like II coin falle n from the 11811<18 of II counte rlei IA."
.... . AIex~
andre Guerin, "Les Mansu rdee," l..e Boheme, I . no. 7 (May 13, 1855). [U7a,2!
From a confrontatio n between the underclass intelk'CluaI, and tile ruling-dan
intellec:lua ls: " You princes of thought, j ewels of the intellect ... , since you have
moved 10 Ilisown U8, we in lum have abjured yo ur paternily; we have disdained
your crowns and impugned your coau of arms. We have casl &Side the grandiose
titles yo u formerly sought (or your Jabors: we are 11 0 longer "The Elan ," " The
Star," or " The Will-o'-the-Wisp," ... but instead are ''The Pretentious Fool"
"'The P ennilell8," " The Promised land ," "The Enfant Terrible," "The Tra ~c
Pariah ," or "The Bohemian ," and thull we protest ... your egotistical a uthOrit:"
Charles Pradier, "Peres et ftls," Le Boheme, 1, no. 5 (April 29. 1855). (U7a,3)
Le Boheme, in its first issue, bears the subtitle No npolitical NewJpaper. (US, II
"Do me the kindness of walking through the ~mb lin ~ dens, the little resta urants
near the Pantheon or the Medical School. There you will find ... poetl who are
moved only by envy and all the lowest paS8io ns, the self. proclaimed martyrs of the
sacred Cffwe of progress, who ... smoke many a pipe ... without doing any­
thing . . . ; whereas Picond , whose beautiful lines you have cited , Piconel the
gannent worker, who earns four and a haH francs a day to feed eight people, it
registered a t the charity offi ce!! ... I h ave no ... wish , paradoxical al it mipt
seem, to commend the boas ting of Dumas pere or to excuse the indifference of
some of his friends towa rd younger writers; but I declare to you that the greatest
­ ing groulld for the artistic life; it is the stcppingstone to the Academie, to the
enemies of those who have been deprived of a literary legacy are not the writen of
renown , the monopolizeN of the daily feuiUeton , but ra ther the falsely disinher·
ited, those who do nothing but hurl insults, drink, and scandalize hone" people,
and all this from the vantage l)Oint of art." Eric hoard , "Les Faux Bohemes," I.e
Boheme. I . no. 6 (May 6, 1855). (U8,2)
It is significant that Le BoMme, which looks after the rights of the literary proletar­
iat-who sympathize, to some extent, with the industriaJ proletariat-wowd see
6t, in an article entitled "Ou Roman en general et du romancier modem e en
particulier" (On the Novd in General and the Modem Novelist in Particu1ar>, by
Paul Saulnier (vol. I , no. 5), to condemn the practice of "slavers." M onsieur de
SanUs, as the novelist in vogue is named here, returns home after a day spent in
idleness. "Directly upon his arrival home, Monsieur de SanUs locks himself in . ..
and goes to open a little door hidden behind his bookcase.-He finds himself,
then, in a sort of little study, dirty and quite poorly lit. H ere, with a long goose
quill in his hand, with his hair standing on end , is a man with a face at pntt
sinister and unctuous.-Oho! with this one, you can tell from a mile away h e's a
novelist- even if he is only a former employee of tlle ministry who leamed the
art of Balzac from the serials in Le Constitutionnel. It is the veritable author of 1M
Clwmber 0/Skulll! It is the novelisl!" [U8,3]
"In 1852 the bruthers Pere.ire, IWO Portuguese J ews, founded the fi NI great mod·
ern bank. Cr&lil Mobilier, of which ollie said Iha t il ..-as lhe biggest gamhlin5 hell in
Eurol)C' It u,ulertook wild speculations ill everything- ra ilruads, hotels, colonies,
,I.
cal l , ,n ines ' theaters-a nd .. after fift een yea rs, it dt..'<:iared tQlal bankruptcy."
El;oll Friedell . Kulturgeschiclu e rler Nellzeif . vol. 3 (Munich . 193 1), p . 187.
(U8a,t)
" Yo/leme <bollt!mian ) belongs to the voca bulary in use a round 1840. In the lan­
guage of Ihat lime, it is synQn ymo us ....ith ' artist' or 'stude,"t ' or ' pleasure seeker';
itllIeallS someolne who is light-hearled a nd unconcerned With the morrow, lazy and
boisterous:' Gabriel Guillemot , I.e Boheme (paris, 1868). pp . 7-8; cited in Gisela
Freund , ("La Photographie a u l)Oint de vue sociologique," manuscript ,> p . 60.
(U8a,2j
"The rQman--feuilkton <serial novel> was ina ugura ted in France by Le Siecle in
1836. The beneficent effects Qf the rOma "~fellillefon on the newspaper's receipll is
revealed by the CQntract whicb Le COIlJ litutionnel and Ltt Prene together had
with Alexandre Dumas in 1845.... Dumas reeei"ed an annual saJary Qf 63,000
frllllC8 for five years, in return for a minimullI output of eighteen insta llments per
year:' Lavisse, Histoire de Iff monarchie de jltillet, Voli. 4 (Paris, 1892); cited,
withQut page reference, in Gisela Freund . (U8a,3]
A laying of Murger's (cited b y Gillela Freund , p. 63): "The boheme : it is the train·
Hotel-Dieu ( hospital> , or tQ the Morgue." (U8a,4)
Gisela Freund (p. 64) Wlderlines the difference betweell the fiNt gener ation of
bohemians---Gautier. Nervol, Nanteuil- who were Qften Qf 80lid bQurgeois origin,
lind the second : " Murger WIIS the son Qf a concicrge-tailor; Champfleury Was the
6 11 of a secreta ry in the town haU of LaQn ; Barbara , the SO li of a sbeet-music
seller ; Bouvin , the SQn of a village policeman ; Delvau , the 8011 of a tan ner in the
Faul)Ourg Saint-Marcel; a nd Courbet Was the SOli Qf a quasi-peasant ." To this
\ seeo"d generation belongcd Nadnr-the son of a poor printer. (He was later, for a
long time, sccretary to Lesscps.) [U8a,5)
·'M. de Ma rtiguac bequea thed ... a trouhlt.,.d legacy to the newspapcN . with his
law o( July 1828-a law that was more liberal , to be sure, hul which . by mak.iug
. . . dailies or periodicals more accessiblc to all , burdellcll tllcm with certain fiuan·
cial obligations.. . 'What will we do Iol cover the lIew c:lo:pcnscs? ' dcmanded the
IlcWspal)Cr!I. " Vell , yo u will run ad,-crtisements,' came the response.... The con­
SCIIIU!nccs of lulvertising were « uick to emerge and seemingl)' endless. It was all
"cry weIl to want to separa te_ in Ihe p ages of tIle ncwspape r. that whiell remained
('(.IIl~cicntioti s and illllcpCllllcnt from that which l)Ccaml' "arli ~a n alltl mercenary ;
bu t the boundary ... was quickl y crosscii. Tim udve rliilemcllt served li S "rillge.
110100' CQuld Qne condemn , five minules Lcrore, ... wllat fiv e ,,~inlli es afterwllrd
 I)r oc.la imed itself tim woniler of the a ge? Tile fa scina tion of capitalletten. which
- wer e gr owing e ve r la r ge r, curried a d ve rtis ing a way: it was the ma ~eti c mountan.
thall.h re...· off the compau .... This wretc hed adve rtising had an inOuence no less
rulal 10 the book trade. . . . Adve rtis ing represented . . . a doubling of ex~
penses ... : one thousand (ra lles for pro moting a new work . Because oflhis rise in
costs , mo reover. hook dealcn mercilessly demanded from authon two volume.
inst ead of oue---voiumcs iu oclavo rathe r than in smalle r (ormat , for Ihal did not
co st any more to advertise.... Advertising . .. would re<luirc It whole history unto
itlielf: Swift , wit.h his vitrio lic pen, wou ld he the o lle 10 wrile it .'" On the word
rh:lmne ( advertisement ). the following r emark : " For those who may not know the
facts , we merely obscrve thai the nk wme is the Little notice slipped into the ncws.
I)ape r near t.he end , and ordinarily paid for by the bookseller ; inserted on the
samc day a8 the advertisement , or on the da y following, it gin!s in two words a
brief and fav orable judgment that helps prepare the way for that of the review'"
Saint. 8euve, "De la Litterature industricllc," ReVile des deux mondes, 19, no. 4
( 1839), pp . 682-683. [U9,l]
" Writing and publishing will be less ami less a sign of distinction. 10 keeping with
our electoral and ind ustrial customs, everyone, at least once in his life, will have
his p age, his treatise, his prospe<:tus, his toast- will be an author. From there to
penning a feuilleton is only a slep . ... In our own da y, after all , who can aay to
himseUthat he does not , in pari , write in order 10 Live ... ?" Sainte-Beuve, " De la
Litterature intlu8lrieUe," Revue des deux mandes, 19, no. 4 (1839) , p. 681 .
[U9,.]
In 1860 and 1868, in Ma rseilles and Paris, appeared the IwO volumes of Revua
parisielmcs: Les }ollrnllllX, le, reViles, Ie! livre!, by Baron Caston de F1otte, who
took it upon himself to combat the thoughtlessneu and unscrupulousnesll of the
historical accounts in the press and , particularly, in the feuilletons. The rectifica­
tiolls concern the fa cts an~1 the legends of cultural, Literary, aod political history.
[U9,3]
Fees for feuilletoll8 wellt as high as two fr ancil per line. Authors would often wrile
as much (lialogue as possible so as to bcncfit from the blank spaces in the lines.
[U9.,1]
In his essay, " De la Litter ature industrielle" <On Industrial Literature). Sainte­
Beuve discusses , among other things, the initial proceedings of the newly o~an­
ize<1 Societe des Cens de Lcttres (which origina lly compaigncd, ahove all , againllt
Ull ll ulhorized Helgjan rCI)rinu). fU9a,21
" In tile beginlling, Sencfelil er luul thought onl y of facilitating tile reproduction of
munuscripts, ulul he puhlicized the II CW proeesse~ Icuding 10 this elul ill lIis Vol¥
sti;fldigen Lehrbucll der Steitltlruck erei <Complete MUIIII II I of Lithography) ,
which a ppeared ill 18 18. O lhen fi n l exploited hill id e a ~ for Ihe techlliqucoflilhO!­
ra phy itself. ThclIc methodil enabled n ra pidity of dra wing Ihnl wall nellriy Ct:lual to
Ihat of the word.... They opened the way 10 a journalism of the grayer." Egon
fri eden . KIIlmrgcschichle der Nelu:eil, yol . 3 (Munich , 193 1), p. 95. fU9a,3}
O~·c rvie w of the r evolutionary press ill Paris ill 1848. Cllriosites re voillli01l1luires:
Les j OllrllUIIX rOllses-iJis toire critique de to~u leI journullx ultra-repllblicaiw ,
hy II Girondist (Paris . 1848). fU9a,4]
·'There is only olle way of preventing cholera , and that is to work to eleyate the
morality of the masses. No per son whose moral eonstitutioll is satisfa ctory has
all)'thillg to fear from the plague .... There is clearly a place, today, for awa ken­
ing moral salubrity among the manes.... What is needed are ... extraordinary
measures .... What i8 nt:eded is a coup d 'etat , all industrial coup d 'etat . . . . This
action ....ould consist in ch anging, by decree, the law of expropriation, so that ...
the iJllerminable delays occasioned by the current legislation would be reduced to
II fe .... days ... . One could thus begin operations, for inllta nce, on some thirty sites
in Paris , from the Rue de Louvre to the Bastille, which would clean up and reform
the ....orst neighborhood of the city. . . . One could ... 8tart up railways at the
barrieres .... The first stage or construction ... ""ould be accompanied by cere­
mOllies and public festiyal8. All the official bodies of the state would be thcre with
their insignia, to exhort the people. The king and his family, the ministers, the
council of IIta te, tbe CQurt of casslltion , the ro yal court , what is left of the two
Chamhers--all would drop by on a regular basis, wielding the shoyel and pick.
axe . . .. Military regiments would arrive on the scene to do service in full dreu,
with their military music to inspire them . ... Theatrical performances would be
put on there from time to time, and the best actors would consider it an honor to
appear. The mOi l radiant women would mix with the worker s to provide encour­
agement . Exalted thus, and made to feel proud , the population would most cer ­
tainJy become invulnerable to cholcra . Industry would be given an impetus; the
governme.nt ... would be ... established On a firm foundation ." Michel Chevalier,
",Religion Saint-Simonienne: Fin du cholera p ar un coup d 'etat" <pamphlet>
(Paris, 1832). The Saint·Simonians wanted to distribute medicine free of charge.
[Uga,S]
,
" \!lhat makes working 0 11 the omnibus train into truly painful drudger y: it departll
Ilaris at 7:00 ill the mo r ning and arrives in SITlishourg al midnight. TillS makes for
seVenteen hours of continuous service, during willch the contluclor must get off at
e\'ery station , ....ithout exception . to OIH!n tbe doors of the car s! ... Surely, the
employee who is re.luired to climb duwn al each station , ami to wade around in the
8'IOW for fi Ye or six minutes ever y IlIlif-hour, 80 as to opell and close the car
dours_lIud a ll this lit twdve degrees below freezing, or worse--must suffer cru­
elly." A. G ra n,·eau . L 'Ou vrier det/filll fa societe (Paris, 1868), pp. 27- 28 ("'Les
Employee et Ie 1II0uvemcnt des chcmillS de fer"). [U IO, I]
A remarlGible apotheosis of the traveler- to some extent a counterpart, in the
realm of sheer banality, to Bauddai.re's <OLe Voyage"-can be found in Benjamin
Gastineau, La Vlt rn dwnjn fkfer (Paris, 18 61 ). The second chapter of the book
is called "Le. Voyageur du XIX' siecle" <The Nineteenth-Century Traveler>
(p. 65). ll1is wy(lgeur is an apotheosis of the traveler in which, in quite peculiar
fashion, the traits of the WanderingJew are mingled with those of a pioneer of
progress. Samples: "Everywhere along his path, the traveler has sown the riches
of his heart and his imagination: giving a good word to all and sundry, . , .
encouraging the laborer, rescuing the ignorant from their gutter, . , . and raising
up the humiliated" (p. 78). "The woman who seeks a love supreme: traveler!_
The man who seeks a devoted woman: traveler!-... Artists avid for new hori­
zons : travders!-The mad who take their hallucinations for reality: trav­
e1ers!-... Glory hunters, troubadours of thought: travders!-Life is a joumey
and every single being who departs the womb of woman to return to the womb
of earth is a traveler" (pp. 79-81). "Humanity, 'tis thou who art the eternal
voyage.-" (p. 84). [U IO,' )
Passage from Benj amin Gastineau , Lv. Vie en chemin defer (Paris, 1861 ): " All of a
sudden , the curtain is lowered abruptly on the 8UII. on beauty, on the thousand
scenes of life and lIature which your mind amI hea rt ha ve savored along the way, It
is night und deat h a nd tile cemetery; it is despotism- it is the tunnel! Nothing but
beings that dwell in the shadows, never knowing the bright wing of freedom and
truth! ... Nonetheless , after hearing the cries of confusion and dismay from pa...
sengers 011 the trai n a8 it enters the gloomy archway, and their exclamations of joy
on 'Iuilting the IIl11ncl, ... who would da re maintaill that the human creature wa.
not malle for light a nd liberty?" (pp. 37-38). [VIO,3]
- "Saint-Sinton believed in science .... But whereas. a t the beginning of his studies.
Passages from Benjamin Gaslineau , Lv. Vie en chemin def er (Paris, 1861): " H. ilIO
yo u , nohle races of the future , scions of the railway! " (p , 112). " All a board! AU
aboard! The whilltle piercell the sonorOU8 va wt of the sta tion" (p. 18). " Before the
creatioll of the railroads, n atu re did not yet pwsate; it was a Sleeping Beauty. , , .
The hea" ens themselves a plJea red immutable, The railroad animated every·
thing. . . . The sky has become an acti ve infinity, and nature a d ynamic beauty.
Christ is d escendetl from his Cross; lIe has walked the earth , and he is leaving, far
bc hind him 011 the dusty road , the old AhulI ueruiI" (p . 50). [VIOa,l ]
" Michel Clu.w alier delighted the !ltndellts [of the Ecole Polyteclllli<jue] when be
rdracell , in pa rticuiur, t.he grea t historical epochs. recurring oft en to Alexauder,
Cu e~ ar. Chur)cmngn e. 1t11(1 Napoleon . in order to emphasize the role of inventors
alllitriumphaut organizers ." G, Pinet, llislOire de {'Ecole polYfeellflilllle (PariJl,
HUH), p. 205. [V IOa,2j
" The IIiJlI'ipleli of Suinl-Simon- n 'cruited , for the 11108 1 pltrt , from the E col ~ des
Millell. wllk h i ll to lIay, f1'0 111 ulllong the best s tLid ent ~ of tile Ecole Polytcchnillue-­
coull) IInl IUlvc' failcll to c'xc'rt a consiclcrahle influcnce un t.llI'ir yo unger coro·
radell . . . . Nevc' rlhclc'6~, SlI inl -Simoniunilim ditl not havt' lillie 10 garner lIIany
t:UlIl'erl" a t IIII' Ecolt· l'olytt:·d llliclue, The schism of 1831 - dea lt it II fatu i blow- Ihe
fo llies of Menilmontant . lhe bizarre COShUII C8 . and the ritiiClllouSllameS had killed
it .,. G. Pinet , Ilis foire de "Ecole Jiolytedllliqlle , PI' . 204--205. [V IOa,3)
The itlea for the Suez Ca nal gucs hack 10 [nfantin. who hall sought a conceSliioli
frolll the ,'icero y of Egypt. Muliamma,1 Ali , and wan ted to move there with forty
pupils. Engllllltllllude SlIre I.hallhe concession was denied him. [VIOa,4]
"Saint-SinlOn attempted to found an association to take advantage of the easy
tenns mandated by the decree, . , of November 2, 1789, which made it possible
to acquire national lands at a price that was payable in twelve annual installments
by means of assignats. These temlS alIO\~'Cd for the acquisition, with modest
capital, of a considerable spread of rura! properties .... 'Every financial specula­
tion is based upon an investment of industry and an investment of funds. The
returns on a financial speculation should be divided in such a way that industty
and capital have shares proportiona te to the influence they exercised. In the
speculation I entered on with M. de Redem, capital played only a ~condary
role.''' The author cites a letter from Saint-Simon to Boissy-d~glas, dated No­
vember 2, 1807; it contains indic.1.tions as to his theory of the relations between
capital, labor, and talent. Maxime Leroy, UJ Spicu/ationJ fondem de Saint-Simon
et Jt:i qumllu d'qffaim aVt:c Jon (lJJocii, Ie comlt: de Rt:dern (paris <1925», pp. 2, 23.
[U 1I,1)
the mathematical and physical sciences, , . had almost exclusive claim on hil
attention , it was now from the realms of the natural Icienct:s that he would seek the
elusive key to those locial pro blems tha t so vexed him . ' I distanced myself, in
180 1, from t.he Ecole Polyteduti'lue.' he writes, ' and I esta blished myself in the
"icinity of the Ecole d e Medicine, where 1 was able to aJlsociate with the physiolo­
gisls. ,,., Maxime Leroy, Lv. Vie lJeri'able dll comte lIen,-i d e Saint-Simon (Paris.
1925), pp. 192- 193.- T he Ecole Polytec::lmi'lue. at the time Saint·SinlOn lived
, near it , was housed in the Palais Bourbon . [V I 1,2]
"Ule Nave of the Grand Cafe Parisien" reads the cap60n under an engraving
from 1856, The view of the pubtic oITered here does, in fact, resemble the one
secn in the nave of a church, or in an arcade. Visitors are mostly standing in place
or wandcring about- t.hat is, among tile billiard tables whicll are set up in the
navc. [U Il ,3j
H ubbard says-refening, with doubtful justification, to Saint-Sinlon's tears on
parting from his wife at the time of their divorce :' "Perpetual sacrifice of the
tC~lde r and t:ompassionate being to the being that thinks and understands."
CIted in Maxime Leroy, La Vie uin'labte du comlt: Hrori de Saint-Simon (Paris,
1925), p. 21 1. ... [V 1I ,4]
" Let li S put all elltlto hono n for AJexander; and hail Archimedcs!" Saint-Simob ,
cill.'1.! ill Leroy, La Vie veri'tlble du comle lIenri de Sa inI-Simon . p . 220. [V II ,S]
Comte worked for four yean by the side of Saint-Simon. lII [VII ,, ]
Eugene Sue's juiferrunt <Wandering J ew ) in Le Cons tilUlionnel as a replacemebt
for Thiers's lIiJtoire du COns llwt et de I'Empire , which Veron had originall
planned to pllb1i8h there. (U11 ,~
Saint-Simon : " Conliideration8 lillr les melillreli a prendre pour terminer la Revolu_
tion" <1820>.- lntroduction to Les Tra uaux scienlifaques du XIX' siecle.
(UIla,l ]
Saint-Simon invented revolutionary playing cards: four geniuses (war, peace, art,
commerce) a8 kings; four libertie8 (religion, marriage , the p ress, the profession8)
as (Iueens; four equalities (duties, rights, dignities, colors) as j ac ks. I...eroy, La Vie
verittlble du comte lIenri de Suint-Simon (Paris, 1925), I). 174. (U lla,2]
Saint-Simon dies in May 1825. Hi8 lu t word8: " We are carrying on with our
work ." Leroy, p. 328. [Ulh,3]
On Saint-Simon : "A8 much B8 he u tonishes us with his foresight in matte... of
labor and society, he nonetheless gives us the impression that he was lacking some­
thing: ... a milieu , hi8 milieu , the proper spher e in which to extend the Optimi8tie
tradition of the eighteenth centu ry. Man of the future, he had to do his thinlciJl8
alm08t entirely by him8Cif, in a 80ciety that had been decapitated , bereft of ill
foremo8t minds by the Revolution .... Where was Lavoisier, founder of modera
experimenta l 8dence? Where was Condor cet, the leading phil080pher of the ap.
and Chenier, the leading poet? They would have lived , in all likelihood , had
Rohes pier re not had them guiUotined. It was left to Saint-Simon to car ry out,
without their hell), the difficult work of organill8tion which they began . And faced
with this immen8e and 80Litary mission, ... he took upon himself too man y ta8b;
he was obliged to he a t once the poet , the experimental 8cientist, a nd the philo80­
I)her of the newborn age." Maxime Leroy, La Vie veritable till comte lIenri de
Saint-Simon (Jlaris, 1925), PI)' 321-322. [U ll a,4]
A lithograph by Pattcl represents "Engraving Doing Battle with Lithography."
The latter seems co be getting the upper hand. Cabinet des Estampcs. [U Il a,5]
A lithograph of 1642 depicts "The Divan of the AJgerians in Pari ~" as "The Cafe
!\1auresque. " In till: background of a coffeehouse, in which exotic fi gllre~ walk by
the sille of EurOI)tlunS, th rl.'i: od alis(lueS are sitting, pressed close togcther 0 11 a tiny
di van hencath a mirro r. and smoking water pil)tlS. Cabinet des Estllmpes. .
[U lla,6)
Graphics fro m 1830 display readily, and often allegorically, the conflict of the
newspapt::rs among one another. They love to show, in this same period, what
happens when several pt::ople have to shan: in reading one newspaper. They
picture the snuggle that arises on this occasion, whether it be over possession of
the paper or over the opinions it purveys. Cabinet des Estampes, a plate from
1817: "The Love of News, or FbliUcomania." (U lla,7]
"AI the Siock Exchange, one Saint-Simonian i8 worth two J ews.'" " Paris·Bour­
sier." Les Petits- Paris: Par les auteur, des memoires de Hilbof/uet [TaxiJe Delom]
(Paris. 1854), p . 5<l. (U12,1]
An uncommonly telling expression of the heyday of boulevard journalism.
"What do you mean by the word '\vit'?-I mean something which, it is said,
travels the streets but only very rarely enters the houses." Louis Lurine, u
'frei!jeme ArTf)ndi.s.mnenl de Paro (Paris, 1850), p. 192. [U12 ,2]
The idea that newspaper advertisements could be made to serve. the distribution
not only of books but of industrial articles stems from Dr. veron, who by this
means had such successes with his Pate de Regnauld, a cold remedy, that an
investment of 17,000 francs yielded him a return of 100,000. "One can say,
therefore, . .. that if it was a physician, Theophraste Renaudot, who invented
journalism in France ... , it was Dr. Veron who, nearly half a cenntry ago,
invented the founh·page newspaper advertisement." J oseph d '~y, La Salle Ii
mtlnger du docleur Wron (Paris, 1868), p. 104. [U12,3]
The "emancipation of the 8esh," in Enfantin, should be compared to the theses
of Feuerbach and the insights of Georg Buchner. The anthropological material·
ism is comprised within the dialectical. [U12,4]
V"UJemessant : " lnitiaU y, he ran a bU5iness ill ribbons. This concern ... led the ...
youlig man to start up a fa5 hion journal. ... From there, Villeme68ant ... 800n
m~ ved into politics , rallied to the ugi timisl part y and , after the Revolution of
1848, turned himself into a political satiri8l . He organized three different new8Jla­
~rs i~ s ucce8sion , amOng them the Puris Chronicle, which was 8upp ressed by
\. Impenal decr ee in 1852. Two yean after this, he fo unded Le Figaro. " Egon Caesa r
COllte Corti , Der Ztlllberer von lIomburg lind Monte Ctl r/o (uipzig <1932» ,
pp . 238-239. [U 12,5)
J.'ralltois Blallc was one of the first grellt II{I Verliser~. Tllrollgl, contacts in the
press. he hlld placed IlIl vt~ rti 8c m c llt 8 for the Homhurg Casino in Le Siecle and
L "A ncmblee nlilionafe. " lie ulso pCI'solllllly lll'runged fOI' entire series of cight­
e::n~ \'ell fifty- ad ... c rti H t~ mc llt s to appca r ill ncwspa pers ... like Lfl Pressc, Le
I\ mwnll f, L1I I' II , n·e, all( I Le
' - G1I I ''8 /1WII.... E gUll C al:Sll r Collte C · Ocr Zauberer
Ol·tl, •
VO/l Hom bllrg lind MOllte Carlo (Leipzig), p . 9i. [U 12 .6J
II] Saint-Sil~IOII 'S Ilay: " " uICI)tllllientl y of the New J erusalem of Emanuel
SWedelihor g, alh'ocated lJy Baron Porlal, . . . d ll're ...·us the phalanstery of
Chllrles Fourier. There was a lso the 80-caUed Eglise Fra lll;ai8C 6f Abbe Chatel,
Primate of the Gaul8; there was the re8toration of the Order of the Tempi....
organized hy M. Fahre-Palaprat ; allli there ,..-all the cull of Ev.damism cre.ted b;
the Mapah."11 Philibert AudeIJralll1, Michel Chevalier <Pari8_ 1861>. p . 4.
(UI',7j
Sailil-Simonian propaganda . " One of the foUowers of Ihe doclrine. who waf
asked. one da y, whal hi8 dUlics were, replied: ' I am a ma n about lown, a respecled
speaker. I am elegantly Ilre88ed 80 I.hal 1 ca n be presenled everywhere; gold is put
inio my pocket so that I am rcady to play whist. How can I fail?'" Philibert
Audebrand, Michel Chevalier, p. 6. [U12a,l]
The split in the ranks of the Saint-Simonians forced adherents of the d octrine to
choose between Bazard and Enfantin . (U12a,2]
At Mcnilmontant, the members of the Saint-Simonian 8eC:t shared responsibility
for the various departemenu of housekeeping: cooking (Simon and Rocbelle),
tableware (Talebot), cleaning (d'Eichtel , Lambert), s boeshine (Barrault).
(U12a,3]
The Saint-Simonians al Menilmontant: "A great nlll8ician of tbe future,
M. FeLicien David , composer of Th e De5ert, of Th e Pearl of Bra::;il aod of Hercu­
wneum , was Ilirector of their orchestr a. He composed the melodies they saD« ... ,
notably those which pre<:ede<1 and foUowed the meals. " Philibert Audebraod,
Mich el Chevalier ( Paris, 1861>, 1' . 11. [V12a,4]
General celibacy, up until the marriage of Enfanlin , was the rule at Minilmootant.
[V12a,S]
After the dissolution of Menilmontant, and after being sentenced to a year in
prison, Chevalier was dispatched by Thiers to America. It is likewise Thiers who
later sends rum to England. After the February Revolution, which costs him his
position, he becomes a reactionary. Under Napoleon, he is made senator.
(U12a,6]
"' yellow predominate: "Saint-Simonian Ladies Preaching tbe Doctrine," "This
By the end of the 18508. Le Sieck. with 36,000 s ubscribers , had the largest circu­
lation. -Milland found s Le Pe,i, Journal. which he sells on the sl.reelll for one sou.
[V12a,7]
Uab:ac, commenting on Aux Ar,i.J'e5 : 011 Pelue e l de ro ve"ir tie5 ooaux-tIrU-Doc·
trilU~ de Soiflt-Simo" (Paris: Mesnier): " Apostleship is lin artistic lIIi6Sioll , but tM
uut hor of this pamphlet Illls not shown b.imself worth y of that uugust title. The
main ideu of h.is work is I.rul y imlKlrtallt ; what he has given us is inconsider­
able . ... Saini-Simon was a remarkable man , one who is yt:l to be understood.
This fa ct has causetlthe It'aders of his I!chool to engage in the practice of prosely­
tizillg II)" IIIJCaking. like Christ . u lunguage att uned ttl the limes a lld to the men of
those timclI. a language ca lcltlat(."(lto appeallCIIs to the mind than Itl the heart. " 10
this same text. with r eference to Saint-Simon : "There, perhal>s. Iiell the truth ."
lIollore de Balzac. Critique liueraire. 00. Louis Ltlmet (Paris, 1912), PI'. 58. 60
("Le Feuilleton des journaux politi(IUCII" ). £V12a,8]
The immediate cause for the schism among the Saint-5imonians was Enfantin's
doctrine of the emancipation of the flesh. To this was added the fact that others,
like Pierre Leroux, had earlier already bridled at holding public confession.
(UI',I]
The Saint-Simonians had little sympathy for democracy. (UI',']
The press under Charles X: "The newspapers did not seU single copies to individu­
abo Newspapers were read only by subscribers. and subscription wasexpeDllive. It
was a luxury, in fact , r eserved for the nobility and the hau te bourgeQisie. The total
number of copie. rose, in 1824, 10 only 56,000 (of which 41 ,000 were for the
opposition newspapers)." Charles Seignobos, Hi.Jtoire sincere de la nation
jram,uue (Paris, 1933), PI" 411-412. Over and above that , the newspapert had to
pay large deposits. [V13,3]
Cirardin , as editor of La Preue, introduces advertisements, feuilletons, and sales
of single copies. [V13,4]
"Newspaper salesmen have great difficulty procurinll: their stock . In order to gel
their supply, they bave to stand in line-in the street , no lcss!-for part of the
night." Puris 50W W Republique de 1848: Expo&ition de la BiblWtheque el des
TravClux hutorique5 de Ja Ville de Puru ( 1909), p . 43. [V13,S]
Around 1848. lhe Cafe Chant ant opens up : The founder is Morel. (UI',6]
Picture sheets: " Occul>ations of the Saint-Simonian Ladies Attording to Their
Capacities" (lmagerie popuwire, 1832). Colored prints. in which red, green , and
Bouquet Cannot Be Too Beautiful for Our Brother," "Saint Simonienne Dreaming
of the Hunt ," and 10 forth . Illustrations in Henry-Rene.d·Allemagne, Le5 Saint­
SimonienJ. J827-1837 (Paris, 1930), opposite I>. 228. A pendant to this : " .' unc­
tions of the Apostles or l\1ellil-Montant According to Their Capacity" (illustration .
ihill ., opposite p. 392). St.'e in this context (ibid ., opposite p . 296) the etiquette for
laullching a foot! itcm: "Liquor of tbe Saint-Simonian8." A group of Enfantin'l
disci ple8; at ccnter, Enfunlln and the Republjc wuving a tricolored flag . Everyone
raises a glass. [V 13,7)
In 183 1, Ba~ard , Chcvalier, aud a few othert refu se. as members of the " clergy" of
tht Sai nt-Simonian church , 10 serve in the Garde Nationale. Twenty-four hou u'
inl prisonment . (U 13,8)
,
Le Globe (October 31 , 183 1). with regard to the uprising in Lyons. held that a r_iae
in pay could place thai city', industr y in j eopardy: " Don' t you sw that , even if.
d irect intervention in the affairs of industry ... is rel.luired of YU II •••• yo u can.
not , for some brief pe riod , alleviate the suffering of oue das8 of society without
pel'ha»8 oppressing unother? Let 1111 now commend the henefll ' of competition, of
that laissez-faire ... which the liberal or ators of late have once agai n been tout_
illg." H .- R. d ' AUemagne . u !J SlJint-Simonien!J ( Paris, 1930), p. 140. [U 13,9)
The Saint-5imonians: a salvation anny in the midst of the bourgeoisie. [U13a,l]
Chevalier, writillg 10 Hoart a nd Brunea u, on Novemher 5, 1832 : " Listen to th_.
voice from Lyons! Lyolls is calling you . is calling us, with a roar. Lyo ns is totteriDfl;.
Lyon8 is trembling. What energy those proletaria n8 have! They are descendaDu or
Spartacus!" He nry- Rene d 'AUemagne, u! So iflt-Simonien!J, 1827- 183 7 <Pam,
1930>, p . 32.5. [U 13a,2]
Rcvoaling:
1bis people, whose head and hand you fear,
Muslmarch, must march-no halting!
It's when you stop their steps
They notice the hob in their shoes.
Uon HaJevy, "La C haussure," FahltS TlouUt!/Ie; (Paris, 1855), p . 133; cited in de:
Liefde, Le Saint-Simonisme dans la pobiefranfaise <Haarlem, 1927>, p. 70.
(V13a,S]
"Sal)l)(:r 8 of the army of l.eace"-a Sajnt-Simonian formula for the entire corp. 01
workers. (V 131.')
A piece from Pierre Lachambeaudie's Fable; et pobie; diverm (Paris, 1~51),
"Fumee": smoke from the foundry m eets with incense in the air, and they mingle
at God's behest. TIlls conception extends forward as far as Du Camp's poem 00
the locomotive, with its "sacred s moke." (V 13a,5]
Le C lohe--at least for II time--was diSl ributed gratis in Paris. [U131.6]
" The feminine and masculine element ...·hid l they tIiSco\-er ill God , a nd which they
aim to revive ill Ihc priestl y marriagc . ha s not LL'Cn celebrated in the poetry of the
sect . We have found onl y olle allU8ion 10 these doctrillL"II . . ..
God of nI. l.. and fema le ,·irille. T his wo rld lack. all <»n\'iclion :
It yet .10111,18. a lld fed~ nol t h e Falhcr'$ iron . mi clio n !
The MOlhcr-Cod a llO,·.,!- will he IIUl 8llving gr aC<"
Tha I. in hi ~ j"y. he' ll hurry 10 (·",hrace!"
Jules l\1er cier, " Dieu nous Je re.ndra ," in La Foi nouvelle, p . 15; cited in C . L. de
Liefde . U SlIinr·Simonisme (l lln!J la p oesie jrlJll{(Ji!Je d laa rlem . 1927 >, 1>1>. 146­
14i. [U 13a,7)
George Suml , for ",-holll love t~ ntuils the unifica lion of the classes , understands the
fIIutt er in this wuy: "A young man of humble station , but genial and good looking,
nl a rrie~ a bea utiful and l.erfect yo ung noblewoman , and voila: the merger of the
cla.sse;;.... In U Meunier d 'Angiooult, Lemor, the artisan hero , refuse8 the hand
of II patriciun widow bet!au!Ie she is rich ... , a nd then the widow rejoices at the
fi re "'hieh brings abo ut her ruin , removing thu8 the last obslacle in .he way of
Ull iOIl with her lover." CharlL 'lI Brun, Le RonltJn social en France au XIX; sieck
(Puris, 19 10) pp . 96-97. [U13a.8j
Enfantin a88umes that pr iests, artist8, trutlcspeople, a nd so on will exhibit , in
their different capacities, entirely different phY8icai constitutions (and different
ailments as well). (V13a,9j
Girardin's style: " Inden tation with each new sentence , each sentence being but a
line; the antillie8is of ideas enveloped in the similitude of word8; rhyme in
prose ... ; all nouns capitalized , enumerations that recall Rabelais. definitions
that often re<:aU nothing at all ." Edouard Dr umonl , Le. Hero, et Ie! pitre, (Paris
( 1900» , p. 13 1 ("Emile de Gira rdin"). (U14,1]
Drumont 0 11 C irardin : " To get this result- beillg forgotten eight day8 after his
death- he rose aU his life at five o' clock in the morning." Edouard Drumont, Le!J
fleros et 1e!J pitres (paris <1900» , p. 134-135 (" Emile de C ira rdin"). [U14,2]
According 10 cer tain calculation8, the Saint-Simonians distributed between 1830
and 1832, son;e 18 millioll printed pages among the popuJation . S~ ell. Benoi8t,
" L' llonlJlle de 1848 ," Revue del deux mOrldes (Jul y I , 19 13). [U14,3]
With their didactic contrast between worker bees and drones, the Saint-5imoni·
\ am hark back to Mandeville's fable of the bees. ' (V 14,4]
Uega rtiillg the mo veilleni wilhin Sainl-Simollianism : from t he letlen addreued to
~nlbert by Cla ire Demar alld Perrel Deseua rts , before their joint s uicide. Claire
Dtmar: " Bill if his "oice has lIot drawn me on . if it is not he who has come to invite
tnle to thi. S I1181 re8l .lvll. y. at IeaiOt I hllve not has tened his voyage: he hus hL'en reati y
or II long tillle." J)e"e~su rI8: " The offi ce unti Ihe officer a re extinguishing them­
ach·es
. at tlIe 8Ulll1. time. . .118 we Ilave often said. they must ; for the une ca nnot depart
Wit hout th C· O)". ler. . , AI as" I wIW Ilave .ll Iwa y8 IJL'en a nlan of advenlt)'
. and .of soli­
tUde-I I
II ' • 10' 11.1 lun'e II lways murt:hed a lone IIlItl apart , . . . p rotesti ng \'igorously
gauisl ortl cr . J ' I II I .. . .I
IIIC .unu ulllt y_ w lui COli ( )e 8l1rl)rtSlllg III my wI! ld rawal , enacted at
Ve ry /1101111:111 , it would SL'CIll , when I.he peuple8 are abuut to join in a religious
 feder a tio n . whe n their handa are now linked up to (orm tha t imP01inS cha in... .
- Lambert, I do not doubt humani t y, ... nor do I d oubt of Providence ... ; but iQ
tile lime in which we live , everything is ! ucred--even s uicitle! ... Woe betide the
man who d oes not ba re ills head before our c adavers, for he is trul y impioua!
Adieu. August 3, 1833, at ten o'clock in the evening. " Claire Demar, Ma Lot
d 'avenir,12 work published posthumously by SUJlllnne (Pari8: at the offices of La
Tribune de, /emmet, and in anociation with all marchand. de nouveautes, 1834),
pp. 8, 10- 11. [U 14,S]
Sta tistics on the anllua l publicatio n of newspalH!rI, lIIontidy pcriodiclIls, and (on­
nightl y r eviews. Included a fe new publications only:
1833:251 jounlUux 1838: 184- j ournaru
1834: 180 • 1840: 146
1835: 165 1841: 166 •
1836: 15 1 1842: 214
• Fourierism) was made the subject of a theatrical work b y the Sainl-Simoniaru.
1837: 158 1845: 185
Charles Louandre, "Statistique litteraire: De la Production intellectuelle ell
France depuis quinze ans," Rellue des deux mondes (November I , 1847), p. 442.
[U 14,6J
Toussenel re marks of Enfantin that , in order 10 make up for his conviction ill
court , a nd to console himself for the failure of bis fa scination on thia ocusioD, he
turned to speculation . Tou88enel provides, moreover, the following portrail ..
him : "There was among them a man of godlike comportment wbo was namecl
Enfantin . He was no less celebrated for the puissant maneuvers of h is cue stick , ill
the noble game of billiards , than for the frequency and dec.i~ivene88 with wbich he
doubled the stakes at gaming. Relying on the faith of sever al charming women, ..•
he passed himself off as someone ideally suited to a leading role. a nd had bimMH
proclaimed the Father . ... And since it was the aftennath of the July Revolu­
tion, ... this man did not lack for foll owers." A. Touue nel. us luifs rot.. •
l 'epoqlle, 3rd edition . cd. Gabriel de Gonet (Paris <1886>), vol. I , p. 127.
(U14a, l]
At the time of tbe choler a epidemics <in 1832?). people laid the blame for the
{U 14a,2J
infection on Li1luor dealers.
. .mtroduccs tIu:furClgn
Le )olJ.rIUlI des debau ' corrC8pon d ent . "5 mce".
' '. Bertin sent
. his wi fe hcrself that , in spite of all the symputh y . .. which she hud for him, she
Michel Chevalier on a diplomatic miu ioll to the United Sta tes (which gained for lad
newspalH!r the publication of the fam ous Lellres Jlir l'A merique du Nord), the
latter ha s acquired a taste for th ese goverllmentall y sponsored assignmentll ....
Following Ihe Lellres sur l'Ameril/lie du Nord . .. ca me the Leures sur l 'Es~'"
... ; Ihell there hael 10 be Lellres sur la Chine." A. Toussenel , Les )uifs rOt •
l 'eptxlUe (Paris), vol. 2, 1'1' . 12- 13. {U 14a,3}
1'he Saini-Silllonians looked for a female meuiah (La Mere), who ""'as to marry
with their high priest . Le P ere. (U 14a,4]
"Le IK'reOlinde <Rodrigues): ' ... If yo u are a Saini-Simonian woman , be ad vised
Ihpl it is nol the rep ublic that we want .··· Firmin Maillard . La Ugerzde de la
femme em(lIIcipee (Paris), p . Ill . [U14a,5J
Heine IIC(lica led Deutschland to Enfantin. Enfantin r esponded with a letter that
was publishcd in 1835, by Duguet . in a r eprint , Heine a Prosper Enfantin, en
Egypt, whose jacket bore tbe Line De l'Allemagne.-8" M. Piece 3319 <call number
in Ihe Bibliolbeque Nationale). The letter admonishes Heine to temper hi, sar _
casm, above all in Ihings religious. Heine should write books nOI about Gennan
Ihoughl but rather about the German r eality, the hearl of Germany- which , for
Enfalltin, "",a& enentially an idyll . {U14a,6]
The conversion of Julie Fanfernot to Sainl-Simonianism (she turned later to
Extracts from Ihis publication , which appeared in the grouP'&j ournal , ar e to be
found ill Firmin Maillard . La Ugende de lafemme emancipee (Paris), pp . 115f£.
[UIS,!I
Saint-Simoll on tbe Rue Vivienne: " Dinners a nd evening parties followed one afler
anolher wilhout interruption .... There were, in addition , some la te-night scenes
of amorou.!! effu sion , in whicb cerlain of the gueslfI , it is reported , ... let them­
selves be car r ied away in Anacreontic Iransports, while, from deep in his easy
chair, a calm and impanive Saint·Simon looked on , ta king no pa rt at all in the
OOnverfl8tion , but nonetheless taking it all in , and prep aring himself withal to
transform the human race." Firmin Maillard , La U gende de lafemme emanci"ee
(Pari! ), p . 27. {U15,2]
Many believed Ihat the female menia h- who, according to Duvey rier, could issue
, ""'ell from the ranks of the prostilutes as from any other Sirat um of 8ociety­
.118
woult! have to come from the Orient (Con5lantillople). Barrauh and ""e!ve com­
rades, therefure, set out for Con8lantinople 10 look for " the Atother. " {U15,3J
Apropos of I.he schism among the Sailil-Simonians: " Hazard ... had been mortally
...·ou1uled in conSC(lucllce of the fallloll 8 general confeuion , where he learned from
Could ncver see him come up to her withoul feeling an instinctive repugnance. It
Wil ~ ' Hercules ellchaincII . ' as someone bad said un !!CC.ing him struck by apoplexy."
Fir1nill Maillard , La Legemle de la fe mme em(m cipce (Pnris), p. 35. [U 15,4J
" E" eryo ne kno~s a bout the rel.reul al Menilmonlalil. . . . There they Iive!1 in celi­
bllcy S(I as to Ilemonstrate thallbcir idcas 0 11 marriage. and on the em,ancil'lIlion of
women, were in no way the outcome of an el)icurean deAign." Firmin Maillard , La
Legende de lafemme emanci"ee (Parill). II . 40. [U l 5,5]
Proudhon was a fierce opponem of Saint·Simonianism; he speaks of "Saint·
Simonian rottenness." [U 15,6]
"The artll can fl ourish only as conditioned withiJl lUI organic age <epoque or_
ganique >, a nd inspiration il strong and salula ry only when it is social and reli&­
ious." Thul E. Barrault speakll out , in Aux arti.stes: Oil Passe et de l 'cHlenir de.
beaux-(lrt.s (Pa ris, 1830), p . 73 , agaiRllt the bar ren "critical agel." [U15,7]
Last echo of the idea that inaugurated Saint-Simonia nil lll : "One can compare the
zcal and the ardor displayed by the civilized nations of today in their e8tab_
lislullent of r ailroads ",ith tha t which , several centuries ago, went into the huildins
of cathedrals .... If it is true, as we hear, that the word ' religion' comes from
religare , " to bind" ... , then the railroads have more to do with the religious ' piMl
than one might suppose. There has never existed a more powerful instrument for
... rallying the scattered populations." Michel Chevalier, " Cherninl! de fer," in
Dictionn(l;re de I'economie politique (Pa ris, 1852), p. 20. [U15a,l ]
"The government wanted, on its own , to construct the railway system. There were
various disadvautagC8 to thil course of action , ... but , in the end , it would bave
r;iven us r ailroads. The idea occalioned a ter rific explosion ; political rivalriel
dominated the scene. Science itself ... came out in support of the spirit of ayatem- _
atic oppollition. An illustrious aavant was vain enough to lend the authority of hit
name to the plot against the railways. Construction by the sta te was Ihu8 rejected
by an overwhelming majorit y. TILis occurred ill 1838. Favorably diapoaed, aa it
was, toward the project, the government now tur ned to I)rivate induatry. Take
these marvelous thoroughfarell, it said; I am offering you the conce88ion for theat.
And no sooner were these words out tha n a new &Iorm a r08#!. What! The banken,
the capitalists are going to reap a (ortune from this venture! ... It it feudaWlD .
. . • were
reborn from its own ashcs!- The plans to 0 ffer conceUlOns to COmpanle
accordingly withdrawn, ... or else spiked with clauses that made acceptance am·
··' "k
l)Ouible
.
for serIOus
.•
IDvestou. '1'/
we contlDuetl
'
(I e .1_11·8 up un til 1844 ." Michel
ChevaUer, "Chemins de fer," excerpt from Dicrionnaire de I'economk politiq~
. . [U15 • .2J
(Pans, 1852), p. 100.
ChevaUer alread y sets up , (or the transport 0 r wa r matena. IS In
' ral"Iroa d cars '"the
. prol~lBnat, o nly a mis fortune), Plekhanov ponrays the visions of the socialist
£(IUalion: fort y men equal six horses. See Michel Clulva lier, "Chemills de fer, 10
Dictwnfluire de l'economie politique (Pa ris, 1852). Jlp . 47-48.
a
[U 15 ,3)
T heory of art in Saint-SimOllia nism. It rests on I.IIe (rn'ISlOn
·· 0 f l118' lory "into Or-
gallic or r eligious ages ami Crilical or irreligious ages ... . The course of hislOry
trealed ill this "'ork compriscs t".·o orga llic agcII-the finit constituted under tbt:
reign of Greck pulythelsm.. Ihe sec-olIIl under II IUt 0 r eiIrlSllamty-
" · ulI dinthe .
wake of these organic ages, Iwo critical agea, of which one extends from the er a of
Greek pllilollophy to the advent of Chrilltianity, and Ihe olher from the end of the
Mtcell th century to tile present:' [£. Ba rraull , ] Aux urli.sles: Ou Pane et de
rtwenir cies beaux--aru (Pa ris, 1830). p. 6. <See NIO.5. ) [U15a,4]
Universal history appears, to the Saint-Simonian Barrault, as the new work of
art: "Shall we venture to compare the last of the tragic or comic authors ofRame
\..1th the Christian orators intoning their eloquent sennons? No, Comeille, Ra.
cine, Voltaire, and Moliere will nOI come back to life; dramatic genius has accom­
plished its missio n.... In the end, the novel will fail no less in respect of what it
has in common with these tv.·o genres as in its relations to the history of which it
is the counterfeit. ... History, in fact, will again take on a powerful chann ... ; it
will no longer be only a little tribe of the Orient that will make for sacred history;
the history of the entire world will merit this title. Such history will become a
veritable epic, in which the story of every nation will constitute a cantO and the
story of every great man an episode." [E. Barrault,l Aux arruJe.s: Du PasJi d de
1'al1t.7ljr des beaux-aru (Paris, 1830), pp. 81-82. The epic belongs to the organic
age; the novel and drama, to the critical. (U16,l ]
Barrault already has a vague idea of the imponance, for art, of secularized cultic
elements, although he puts the emphasis on periods that are consolidated
through cult: "Although Greece never fostered a religious caste system like that of
the Orient, its epic represented nothing less than an initial separation of poetry
from cult.... Should orthodox movements survive into the critical periods, the
course of these periods is imperceptibly drawn back into the bosom of ortho­
doxy." (E. Barrault,l Aux artutes: Du Paui d de l 'atmlir des beaux·aru (Paris,
1830), pp. 25-26. [U16,2)
Saint+Simori. l)Oints with satisfaction to the fact that precisely those men who
~nefited humanity most decisively- Luther, Bacon, Descartes--were r;iveo to
pa8sioliS. Luther, the pleasures of eatillg; Bacon , money, Descartes , women and
gamhUllg. St..'C E. n. CurtiulI, Bahac <Bonlt, 1923> , 1'. 117.
(U16,3]
With reference to Guizot, whose brochure, "Du Gouvemement de la France et
du ~stere actuel" (Paris, 1820) presents the accession of the bourgeoisie as the
cent~ncs-old struggle of a class (of course, his work De fa Dimocrab"e [Paris, 1849)
SCes Ul ~e class struggle, which h as meanwhile arisen between bourgeoisie and
Utopians as, "tllcorctically no less than practically," a great step backward. "The
reason. for this lay in the weak. developmcnt of the proletariat at that time."
Cc~rg1 Plckhanov, "Ober die Anfange der Lehre vom KJassenkampf," Die neue
.(ell, 2 1, no. I (St'uugan, 1903), p. 296. [UI6,4J
I\ Ugtlstin Tilierry. all " udopted SO li " of Suint-Simon. According 10 Marx. he de.
8en'IIeS ver y "" cll how "from Ih~ fir;;l , or at least afler t.he r ise of the tOWIIS, Ihe
,
French bourgeoisie gains too much inHuence by cOllstituting itself the Parliament,
the burea ucracy, and 80 on, and not , as in England, mere1y through commerce
and industry." Karl Marx to Friedrich Engels, London , July 27, 1854 [Karl Man:
and Friedrich Engelt, Ausgewiihlte Briefe, ed . V. Adoratsld (M08COW and Lenin.
grad , 1934), p . 6O]. 1l [V 16a, l}
Aftereffects of Saint-SinlOnianism: " Pierre Leroux-who is represented, in co­
gravings of the period. with hands clasped and eyes upraised in ecstasy--did his
best to have an article on Cod published in La Revue dea deu.x mondea, ... We
recaU that Louis Blanc delighted Huge with a lecture attacking the atheists.
Quinee. along with Michelet , struggled furiously against the J esui ts, while pri­
vately ha rboring the wish to reconcile his compatriots with the Cospel." C. Bougie,
Chez les prophetes socialistes (Paris. 1918), pp . 161- 162. [V 16a,2}
Heine', Deutschland is dedicated to Enfantin . [U16a,3J
Schlabrendorf reports that Sainl·Simon wa nted to make physics, and no~ but
physics, the true religion . "Teachers of r eligion we re supposed 10 deliver lecturee
in church on the mysteries and wonders of nature. There, 1 imagine, they would
have set up electrical apparatus on the altar and stimulated the faithful with
galva nic batteries." CrafCustav von Schlabrendorfin Paris iiber Ereigniue unci
Personen seiner Zeit [in Carl C ustav J ochmann , Reliquien: Aus seinen nach&eku­
senen Papi4!ren, ed. Heinrich Zschokke, vol. 1 (Hechingen. 1836), p. 146] .
[U16.,')-
Enfantin hailed the coup d 'ctat of Louis Napoleon as the work of providence.
[V16.,5)
1846: enthusiastic reception, on its d ebut , of Felicien David's Le Deser1. The
project of the Suez Canal was then the order of the day. ults theme was a poet'"
eulogy of the desert as the image of eternit y, coupled with his pity for the townsmaD
imprisoned between stone wans," S. Kracauer, Jacques Offenbach und dm Po';'
.einer Zeit (Amsterdam , 1937), p . 133. 14 Le Desert was parodied by Offenbach.
[U16.,6]
" Among the dream architectu re of the Revolution , Ledoux's projects occupy.
81>ecial position .... The cubic form of his " House of Peace" seems legitimate to
him because the cube is t.he symbol of justice anti stability, alld , similarly, all the
elementary forms would have aPI>eared to him , as .IIl1elhp
. 'II ·
) e SignS 0 f JOtn
' 'osic
moment . The ville nlliuunte. the city in which' an ella ited ' , , life would find iu
abode, wiJI be circumscribed by the pure contour of an ellipse . ... Conce.ming the
houK of the new tribunal , the Pacifere, he says in his Architecture: 'The buil~
dra"'11 up in my imagi nation should be as simple as the Jaw tha t will be di tpensed
there.'~ Emil Kaufmanll , Von Ledoux bis Le Corb wier: Ur. pruns urnl Entwick­
IUllg der tlutonomen Arcltitekwr (Vienna and Leip'J;ig, 1933), p . 32. [U17. 1]
Leiloux , Temple {Ie Mcmoire (House of Women): "The narrative relief on the
tri umphal columns a t four corncr! of a country house was intended to celebrate
the glory of the l>estowers of life. the mot hers. in place of the customary monu­
ments consecrated 10 tile blood y victories of generals. With this unusual work . the
prtist wished to render thanks to the women he had come to know in his life. " Emil
Kaufmann , VO,I udoux bis Le CorbU$i4!r (Vienna and Leipzig. 1933), p . 38.
[U17,2]
On Ledoull : " Once the distinctions of rank within architecture fall by the wayside,
then all architt.'C tural orders are of equal value. , , . The earlier thematic eclecti­
cism, .....hich was ta ken up almost exclusively with churchet, palaces, the 'better '
domiciles. and of course military fortification s, retrea ts before the new a rchitec­
tural univer salism , . , . The revolutionary process of the s uburbanizing of domes.
tic hout ing parallels the disa ppearance of the baroque anemblage as art form , ...
A more extended complell , a pparentl y conceived as a development at the entrance
to the city, consists in a number of two- to four--roo m dwellings ranged around a
sllu are court ya rd ; each of these residences lIOnesses the necessary closet space,
while kitchen , pllntries, and other utility rooms are located in a building at the
C1lnter of the courtyard. We have here, probably, the ea rliest instance of the type
of dwelling that is current toda y in the form of the apartment with shared
kitchen. " Emil Ka ufmann, Von Ledoux bis Le Corbwier (Vienna and Leipzig,
1933), p. 38. [U17.3)
"The Orient had been discovered , and some j ourneyed there to seek the Mothel'-­
La Mere--a representative fi gure of this century. covered with breasts like the
Diana of Ephesus." Adrienne Monnier, " La Gazette des Amis des Livrea," La
Gazette clesAmis des .Livrel , 1 (J anuary I , 1938) (Paris), p . 14. [U 17,4J
"Mall remembers the Pa st ; Woman divines the Future; the Couple sees the Pre·
s ent." Saint-SinlOllian formula , in Du Camp , So uvenir5 liUeraires, vol. 2 (Paris,
19(6), p , 93. [V 17a. l )
"'La Mere": "She WDSto be lafemme libre . .. , This indel>endent woman had to be
a thin king woman , one who, ... having fathomed the secr ets of the fc.mnine psy­
che .... would lIIake confession for all her Sell, ••• The quest for ... the Mother
Wus !l OI all innova tion of Enfantin 's; well before him, Saint-Simon himself, during
the l:.erio{1 when Augustin Thierry wall his secretory. hllil made an attempt to
tli~l;u\" 'r this, . , wolltlel' .. , alltl evidently thought to IlIn'e found her in Matlame
de Sinel.·' The lut h:r declined a n invitlltiun to heget a messia h fur humanity wit.h
Sainl -ShnOIl (JlP , 91 - 93).- "The m.issioll to locate La Mere now formed , and was
o,rr. Tlu~ pilgrims IHlluhered twelve, including o arra ult . the leader of the ex!>edi­
Uo lI , Their ultima te dt'stination was COllStantinople. . though they had 110
~Olley. Ore>J.S(...1 in white (as a t ign of I.he vow of chasti ty the y had tukell 0 11 leavillg
I aris). stuffs in IIUIHI , tl tey l>egged their way rrom plactl to place. in tile n ame of the
Mo1Jler. In llurguml y. they hi red themselves Ollt 10 help with the ha rvest; in Lyo ns.
I.hey arrived on the day before an execUlion and, the followin g morning, demon.
strateil against I.he dealh penally in front of the gallows. They embarked in Mar_
seilles, and worked as sailors aboard a merchant vend whose ~ond mate was
Garibaldi .... They siepi in the Great Champ des Morts , I ~ prolocted by cypres&e8
from the morning dew; they wandered through the ba:taars. occasionally 8topp·
v
10 preach the doctrines of Saint-Simon, speaking French 10 Turks who could :::! [Conspiracies, Compagnonnage]
understand them" (pp . 94-95). They are a rrested , then released. They set tbeir
l ights on the island of Rotuma , in the South Pacific, as the place to seek tbe
Mother, but they get only u far as Odessa , whence they a re sent b ack to Turk
. . ~
According 10 Maxune Du Camp, So uvenir. liueraire., vol. 2 (Paris. 19(6).
[U17a,2]

" Gaudissart demanded an indemnity of five hundred francs for the week he had to
" Those agenU provocateurs who, during the Second Empire, often mingled with
spend in boning up on the doctrine of Saint-Simon , pointing out what effor13 of
rioters were known as ' white smocks. '" Daniel Halevy, Decadence de la liberte
memory a nd brain would be nocenary to enable him to become thoroughly coo­
(Paris <1931» , p . 152. [V I,I]
ver sant with this article." Gaudinart canvasses for Le Globe (and Le Journal cU,
enfants). H. d e Dabac, L 'llIwtre Gaudi$$ort , ed. Calmann-Uvy (Paris), p . IV' , " In 1848, Louis PhiUppe hud ill Paris a securit y force of some 3,000 men , in place
[V18,1]
of the 950 gendarmes serving under Charles X , and some 1,500 police agents in
place of 400. The Second Empire had great Ilfft!(!tion for the police, and it ar­
The Continental system" was, as it were, the first test for the example of Saint·
ranged magnificent installations for them. They owe to the Second Empire that
Simonianism. H eine (Slimtliche WerRe [Hamburg, 1876], vol. I, p. 155-"FranzO.­
vast edifice--at once barracks, fortrel8, and office building-which occupies the
sische Zustinde") calls Napoleon I a Saint·Simonian emperor. [U lS,2]
center of the Cite between the Palais de Justice and Notre Dame and which
In the Saint-Simonian jacket that buttoned in back, we may discern an allusion to although lar ger and less beautiful , reeaU, those p alaces in Tuscan ci~es where th;
podestas resided ." Daniel Halevy, Decadence de to liberte (Paris), p . ISO.
the androgynous ideal of the school. But it has to be assumed that for Enfantin
[VI ,2]
himself it remained unconscious. [UIS,3]

"The secret files in police headquarters inspire a certain awe and a certain dread.
Consta ntin Pecqueur, ad versary of the Saint-Simonians, respond.. " to the qu~
~hen a new police commissioner fi rst la kes office. his personal file it brought up to
tion posed in 1838 by the Academie des Sciences Morales: ' How to usess . , . the
him. He alone enjoys this privilege; neither the ministers nor even the president of
influence of the ... currently emerging means of transportation on ... the state of
the republic get to see their dOlliers, which are shelved and maintained in archives
a society ... ?'" "The development of the r ailroads, at the same time that it in·
tba t no one is permitted to examine." Daniel Haltivy, Decadence de la liberte
duces t.ra veler s to fraternize in the cars, will overexcite ... the productive activity
(Paris), pp. 171- 172. (VI,3)
of people." Pierre-Maxime Schuh] , iIIachinisme et philo.ophie (Paris, 1938),
p. 67 . [U 18,4]
':~rning back toward the Quartier Latin , one r an into the virgin fo rest of the Rue
d Enfer, which extendetl between the Rue du Va l-de-Grace and the Rue de l' Abbe­
The historicaJ signature of the railroad may be found in the fact that it represents !le-n
I :pee.' TI lere, one fOllnd the garden of an old hotel , a bandoned and in ruins.
the first means of transport-and, until the big ocean liners, no doubt also the
w Icr e p!;jJle trees, sycamores, chestnut trees, a nd intertwi ned acacias grew hap­
last-to foml masses. The stage coach, the automobile, the airplane carry pas·
IUllllardly. In the center, u deep shaft guve IlCCe8S into the catacombs. It was said
sengers in small groups only. \ [U 18,5]
p'
thallhe ace was h·aUlllc(". n rea ,. Ity,.II scrved for the rom antic gatherings of the
Carbonari alld of the secrct society Aide·Toi. Ie Cic.! t 'Aider a <God Helps Him
"T he anemic pallor of our civililllUtiOIl , us monotonous a s II ruilwuy line," say'
Bul:tuc, Lu PerlU rle clwgrill, ed . Flammarioll (Parill), p. 45. 18 [U 18,6j
~~o ! 1e1PIl Himsdh ." Dubec!. Hnd (I'Espezel. lIistoire de Puru (paris, 1926),
I . 361. 0 Gardens, The Seine 0 [VI,4)

'''1'1Ie Garde Nationale was 11 0 laughing mullcr. Positioncd between the ro yal
troops and the po pular insurgents, tile a rmed bourgeoitie of Parill was Ihe great
mediating power, the good sense of the nation .... From 1830 to 1839, the hour.
geois Ga rde Nationale lost 2,000 of their own in confrontation with the barricades,
and it walJ (lull. more to thcm than to the a rm y that Louill Philippe was able to
remain on hilJ throne. . . . Whatever the reason- whether simple old age or a
s pecies of lassitude--it was a lways the bourgeoisie lhal wearied oflhis wasteful life
which made it neceuary. e\'er y six months, for hosiers and cabinetmakers to take
"I) arms and shoot at each other. The hosiers. lleaceful men , grew tired before tbe
u binetmaker s. This remark would suffice to explain Ihe Fehruary Revolution."
Dubech and d ' Espeze1, His'oire de I'Cl ril, PI)· 389-39 1. [VI ,S]
JUIIC Ins urrection . " It was cllough to have the appearance of pove rty to be treated
like a criminal. In those days there W88 something caUed 'a profile of the wur.
gent ,' and anyolle fitting the descriptioll was arrested ... . The Garde Nationale
itself bad most certainl y determined the outcome of the February Revolution , I but
it nel'er occurred even to them to gil'e the name 'insurgents' to men struggJ.ins
agaiust a king. Only those who had risen up against property ... wer e known at
ins urgents, Because the Garde Nationale . , . ' had saved society.' they could do at
that time whatever they wa nted . and no doctor would have dared refuse them
entr y into a hos pital .... Indeed , the blind fury of the Guardsmen went so far th.t
they would scr eam 'Silence!' to the fever patients speaking in delirium and would
have murdered these people if the studenu had not stopped them." EngliDder
<Ge$chichte der !run:,oliscllen Ari1ei'er-Auociurionen (Hamburg, 1864), > vol. 2.
pp . 320, 327-328. 327. [VI ,6]
" It goes without saying iliat the worker auociations lost ground with the coup
d'etal of December 2, 1851. ... AU the associations of workers, those who h.d
received subsidies from thc governmellt as weU as the others . began by promptly
removing their 8igns, on which symbols of e<luality and the words ' Liberty, Fr.te....
nit y. Equality' wer e inscribed ; it was as though they had been shocked by the
blood of the coup. Hence, with the coup d 'etat , thcre were still unquestionably
worker association8 in Paris, but the worker s no longer risked dis playing thO
name.... It would be difficult to trace the remaining a88ociations, for it is pot ONY
0 11 the signboards but ailio in the city 's dircctor y of addre88es that the narae
' Worker! A88ociation' is missing. Worker associatioll8 s urvive, after the coup
d 'etat, only in the guise of ordinary COlllmcrcial concerns. T hus, the former fra­
ternal association of maso ns is now going under the trade nallle ' Bouyer, Cohadon
& Co.,' the association of gilders that likewise once existed as such now operates as
the firm of ' DreviUe. Thibout & Co . .' and , by the sa me token , in every survivin«
association of worke r! it is the managers wllO give t1leir names to the business ....
Since the coup d 'etat , not one of these associatiolls has admillcil a new member;
any new lIlember would be regarded witll undisguised ii uspicion. If even the cus­
tomers were each time rttcived with disl.rllst . thill was becauliC one everywhere
senseti the presence of the police-a mi was tl;e more justified in doing so a8 the
police themselves would oft en ~ how up officiall y on olle pretext or another. " Si«~
millie! Engli nder, Geschichte der fr(,"~ij$uch e n Ari1eire,...Auociutionen ( Ham~
burg. 1864), vol. 4 , Jlp. 195 . 197- 198,200. [VIa. I]
In rega rd to Cabet. " After the "~ebruary Revolution , someone had discovered ... ,
in the files of Toulouse's chillf of police, a letter from Couhenant, delegate or
prt'sidellt of the fi rst va nguard , who in 1843, during the trial in Toulouse,t had
orfere<i his services as Iwlice agent to the government of Louis Philippe. It was
kU OW Ii that this poison of espionage in France had penetrated even into aU the
port'S of family life; bill that a poliee agent , this most disgusting excrelcence of the
oM society, could have found his way to the leader of the vanguard of lcarianl in
onler to CUlise his ruill , and ut the risk of going under himself, aro used conside....
ahle surprise. Hadn ' t Iwlice s pies been seen in Paris fightin, and dying on the
barricades, doillg Lattle wilh the government in whose pay they stood! " Sigmund
[ng.!under, Gelch ich'e der fran:,o$u chen Arbeiter-Auociationen , vol. 2, pp. 159­
160. 0 Utopian s 0 [Vla,2]
, " With the development of proletarian cons piracies, the need arose for a division of
labo r. The membe n were divided into occasional conspirators. cotl.lpirateur.
d 'occa $ion-that is, worken who engaged in conspiracy alongside their other em~
ployment , merely attending meetings and holding themselvell in readiness to ap­
pear al the place of assembly at the leaden' command-and profeS8ional
cOlls piraton, who devoted all their energy to the conslliracy and made their livin,
from it .... The social situation of this c1alili determines its entire character from
the outset . Proletarian conspiracy naturally affords them only very limited and
uncertain IlIcallS of liubsistence. They are ther efore constantly obliged to dip into
the cash boxea of the cOII!jpiracy. A number of them also come into di rect conftict
"'ith civil society as such , and appear before the police courts with a greater or
lesser degree of dignit y. Their precarious livelihood, dependent in individual easel
more on chan ce than on their activity, their irregular uvea whose only fixed ports­
of-caU are the taverlls of the m(lrchand, de vin (the conspirators' places of rendez­
vous), their inevitable acquainta nce wilh all kinds of dubio us people. place them
in that social category which ill Paris is known as the boheme. These democratic
bohemians of proletarian origin ar e therefore either workers who have given up
their wo rk a nd have as a conlle(luence become (liuolute. or characten who bave
emerged from the iUllllJellproletariat and brillg all the dissolule habits of that class
wit ll thcm into their new way of life .... The whole wa y of life of these professional
cOllapirat?rs has a nlosl decid...d ly bohemian characteT. Recruiting sergeants for
the I'ollspira cy, they go from m(frchond de !Jill tu nlllrchund de !Jill , feeling the
"uh ~ of the workers, sccking out their men , caj olillg them into the cOlis piracy and
getling either till' lioeiety's treasury or their new fri ellda to foot the hill for the litel'll
illcvitahly cunSIlII)e(1 ill the process. Indeed , it is really the marchcmd de vi,. who
pru ... idl~s a mof over their heatls. It is with him th at the cons pirator s pends most of
Ilis time; it is here he has his rendezvous with hill colleagu es, wil.h the members of
hi", l>Hctioll 11 111 1 witll pros pective rI..'Cruits ; it is III~ rc, finaLiy, that the IIttret meetings
~I f liections (groups) a1l<1 section leaders take "lace. The cons pira tor, highl y san­
guine in character anyway like aU Pari,ian proletarian,. 800n develops into aD
ab,olute bambocheur <boo1:er) in thi' continual tavern atmosphere. The sinister
conspirator, who in secret session exhibits a Spartan self-discipline, suddenly
thaw, alld is transformed into a tavern regular whom ever ybody knows and who
really understands how to enjoy his wine and women . This conviviality is further
inten, ified by the constant dangers the conspirator is eXI)()sed to; at any moment
he may be called to the barricades. where he may be killed ; at ever y tum the police
set snares for him which may deliver him to prison or even to the galleys .... At
the eame time. familiarit y with danger makel him utterl y indifferent to Life ud
liberty. He is as at home in prison al in the wine shop. He is ready for the call to
action any d ay. The desperate reckleuness which is exhibited in every insurrec_
tion in Paris is introdnced pret:isely by these veteran professional conspirators,
the homme$ de COUP$ de main. They are the ones who throw up and command the
fu·st barricades. who organize resistance, lead the looting of weapon-shops and the
seizure of arms and ammunition from housell, and in the nLidst of the upriain@:
carry out those daring raids which 80 often throw the government party into
confusion. In a word , they are the officers of the inllurret:tion. It need scarcely be
added that these COnSIJira tors do not confine themselves to the general organi.&in«
of the revolutionary proletariat. It is precisely their business to anticipate the
process of revolutionary development , to bring it artificially to the crisis point, to
launch a revolution on the spur of the moment , without the conditions for a revo­
lution . For them. the only condition for revolution is the adequate preparation 01
their conspiracy. They a re the alchenLislII of the revolution. and are characterised
by exactly the same chaotic thinking and blinkered obsessiolls as the alchemislll 01
old. They leap at inventions which are supposed to work revolutionary miracle.:
incendiary bombs, destructive devices of magic effect , revolts which are expected
to be aU the more miraculous and 8&tonishing in effect as their balis is leu ra­
tional. Occupied with such scheming. they have no other purpose than the mOlt
immediate one of overthrowing the existing government , and they have the pro­
foundest contempt for the more theoretical enlightenment of the proletariat about
their class interestl. Hence their plebeian rather than proletarian irritation at the
habits noirs ("black frock coats"}-people of a greater or lesser degree of educa­
tion who represent that aspect of the movement. but from whom they can never
make themselvel quite independent . since they are the official representative. of
the party. The habiu noir. also serve. at times, as their souree of money. It ~
without saying that the conspirator s are obliged to follow willy-nilly the develop­
lIIent of the revolutionary party.... The chief characteriltic of the conspiratol"ll'
way of life is their hattie with the police, to whom they have precisely the same
relationship as thieves and prostitutes." At Ilnother point ill this article. we read
(in reference to Chenu 's report on Lucien de La Hodde th at foll<fws); "Ai we see.
this spy ... turns OUI to he a politiclllproUitute of the vilet!t kind who ha ngs aoout
ill the street in the rain for the payment of his ' til)' by the fi rst officer of the peace
who happens to come along." '''On one of my nocturnal excursions,' recounU
Chellu . ' I noticed tie La Hodde walking III' and down the QUlli Voltaire .... It wal
raining ill torrentl, a circunUHllnce which lUll me tlLinking. Was this dear feUow de
La Hodde also helping himlelf from the cash hox of the secret fund,. by any
chance? ... " Good evening. de La Hodde, what 011 earth are you up to here at lhill
hour and in this fearful weather?" " I am waiting for a rallcal ....ho owes me some
money. a nd since he passes thi' way every evening at Ihis time, he is going to pay
me , or else"_and he struck the parapet of the emba nkment violently with hil
slick.' De La Hodde altemplll to get rid of him and walks toward the Pont du
Ca rrousel. Chenu departs in the opposite direction. but only to conceal himself
under the a rcades of the Institllt <tie France> .... 'A (Iuarter of an hour later. I
noticed the carriage with two little gr een lamps.... A man got out; de La Hodde
went straight up to him. They talked for a moment , a nd I saw de La Hodde make a
movement as though putting money into his pocket.·.. Marx and Engeill. review of
Chenll, Les COllspirateurs (Paris. 1850) anti de La Hodde. La Naiuance de Ia
Repuh/ique (Paris. 1850). published in the Neuell rheinischen ZeitulIg <1850>,
r pt . in <Die neue Zeit.) 4 (Stuttgart . 1886). PI'. 555-556. 552, 55 1.] [V2;V2aj
The workers of 1848 and the great Revolution; "Although the workers suffered
under the conditions created by the Revolution , they did not blame it for their
misery; they imagined that the Revolution had failed to bring about the happinen
of the manel because intriguers had perverted its founding principle. According
to their thinking, the great Revolution was good in itself, and human misery could
be eliminated only if people were to resolve on a new 1793. Hence, they turned
away distrulluully from tbe socialists and felt drawn to the bourgeois republicaru.
who conspired with the aim of establishing a republic by revolutionary means. The
leeret societies in existence during the reign of Louis Philippe recruited a veat
many of their most active members from the working class." Paul Lafargue. " Der
K1assenkampf in Frankreich," Die neue Zeit , 12 , no. 2 (1894), p. 615. [V3,lj
Marx on the "Communist League": "'As far al the secret doctrine of the League i.
concerned , it underwent aU the transfo rmations of French and English socialism
and communism, a8 well as their German versionll . . . . The secret form of the
society goes back to itll Paris origins .... During my first stay in Paris (from late
October 1843 to February 1845). I established per sonal contact with the leaders of
" the League living there, al well 88 with the leaders of the majority of the set:ret
French worker associations-without . however, becoming a member of any of
them. In Brun els •... the London Central Authority entered into correspondence
wilh us and ... sent ... a watchmaker called Joscl'h Moli ... to invite us to join
the Le~gue. Moll allayed our doubts ... by revealing that the Central Authority
intended to convoke a Congress of the League in London .. Accordingl y, we
joi ned it. The Congress . . . look place. and . after hea ted debate over several
weeks, it adopted the Manifesto of the Communist Party. written by Engels and
my elf. ' At the time Marx wrote tile&e lines, he described their oontent as comprill­
ing ' histories long past and half forsotten.' ... In 1860 the workers' movement,
~ uJlPressed .by the counterrevolutioll of the 18508. was dormant through out
Europe . ... Olle misumleruallds Ihe histor y of the Co mnUHlist Manife!lo if one
Sees the date of its publicatioll as lIIurking the commencement of the EurOllean
""orkert' movement . In point of fact, tile manifesto reprdentoo the cloH: of this
movement " first period , whicll stretched from the July Revolution to the Febru.
ary Revolution .... T ile most they could ultain wus theorc:tien l clarification.... A
secret league of worker! that , over the years, could accompany and illlcllectuall
stimmate the English and French socialism of the day, as well 8 S the reir;nin~
German philosophy, will have displayed an encrb'Y of thought that tlescrves the
highest respect. " " Ein Gedenktag des Kommunismus," Die neue Zeit , 16, no. I
(Stuttgart, 1898), pp. 354-355. The pauage fro m Marx is taken from the polemi­
cal pamphlet against VOgt.4 [V3,2]
'"The practical programs of the communist conspirators of the period ... se.t them
apart advantageously from the socialist utopians, thanks to the finn conviction
that the emancipation of the working clau (' the IH:Ople') is unthinkable without
struggle against the upper claues ('the aristocracy'). Of course, the 8Iruwe of.
handful of men who have hatched a conspiracy in the name of popular interests
can in no case be considered a class struggle. If, nevertheless, the majority of these
conapirators have come from the working class, then the conspiracy can be said to
constitute the genn of the revolutionary 8Iruggle of that class. And the conception
which the Society of Seasons5 has of the ' aristocracy' shows how c1ose.ly the ideas
of the revolutionary communists in France, at that time, were connec:ted to the
ideas of the bourgeois revolutionaries of the eighteenth century and the liberal
opposition during the Restoration .... Like Augustin Thierry, the French revolu.
tionary communists began with the idea that the struggle against the aristocracy
was necessarily in the interests of all the res t of society. But they rightly point out
that the aristocracy of birth has been r eplaced by an aristocracy of money, and
that , as a resmt, the struggle ... must be waged against the bourgeoisie. " Georsi
Plekhanov, " Ober die Anfange del" Lehre vom Klassenkampr' (from the introduc>­
tion to a Russian editiOIl of the Communi"t Manife"ro) , part 3, " Die Anschauungen
des vonnarxistischen Sozialismus vom Kassenkampf," Dk IIelW Zeit , 21, no. I
(1903), I). 297. [V3a, l]
1851; "A decree of DC(:ember 8 authorized the deportation , without hearing, ...
" Louis Philippe, they multiplied the number of secret societiel. The most important
of any person presently or formerly belonging to a !lC(:ret society. This was under­
stood as referring to any society at all , whether a society for mutu al aid or •
literary society, that met---even in broad daylight- without the express permis­
sion of the prefect of police." A. Malet and P. Crillet , XI X' Sieck (paris, 1919),
p.264. [V3a,2]
" Following the assassin ation attempt by Orsini ...• the imperial goverllment im­
mediately voted into law a general security measure giving it the power to arrest
and deport , without hearing, ... all perso n ~ previously punished on the occasion
of the June Days of 1848 and the events of December 185 1.. .. The prefect of each
dipeJrtement was ordered to designate immediately a specific number of victims."
A. Malet alld P. GriJIet, XI X' Siecle (Paris. 1919), 1' . 273. [V3a,3]
"The Independents had their secret society, the Charbonnerie <Carbonari>, or·
ganized at the beginning of 1821 on the model of the Italian Carbonari. The
organizers were a wine merchant, Dugied, who had spent time in Naples, and a
medical student, Batard.... Every member was required to contribute one franc
3 month, to possess a gun and fifty bullcts, and to swear to carry out blindly the
orders o f his superiors. The Charbonnerie recruited among students and soldiers
in partirular; it ended up numbering 2,000 sections and 40,000 adherents. The
Charbonniers wanted to overthrow the Bourbons, who had been 'brought back
by foreigners : and ' to restore to the nation the free exercise of its right to choose
a suitable government.' They organized mne plots during the first six months o f
1822; all failed ." A. Malet and P. Grillet, XIX' Sieck (Paris, 1919), p. 29. The
uprisings of the Carbonari were military revolts; they had, perhaps, a certain
analogy to those o f the Decembrists. [V4, 1]
April 29, 1827; dissolution of the Garde Nationale by order of Villele, on account
of a demonstrat.ion which it had organizt.-d against him. [V4,2]
About sixty students from the Ecole PolytC(:hnique at the head of the July Revolu­
tion. [V4,3]
March 25, 1831 : reinstatement of the Carde Nationale. " It na med its own officers,
except for the milita ry chiefs .... The Carde Nationale constituted ... a veritable
arllly. numbering some 24,000 men ... ; this army was a police force . ... Also,
care was taken to separate out the workers.... This was achieved by requiring
the Garde Nationale to wear uniforms and to pay its own expenses .... This bour­
geois guard , moreover, did its duty bravely in all circumstances. As soon as the
drullls had sounded the call , each man would leave his place of work , while the
thopkeepers closed their storee, and , dressed in uniform , they would all go out to
join their battalion , IIOt needing to muster." A. Malet and P. Grillet, XIX· Si~de
(Paris, 19 19), 1'. 77,79. [V4,4]
'"The republicans had helonged , for the most part , to the Charbonnerie; against
... was that of the Droits de l' llomme <Rights of Man ). Founded in Paris ("'here
it (Iuickly grew to nearly 4,000 members), and modeled 011 the Charbonnerie, it
had branches in most of the major cities. It was this secret society thai orgallized
the great iliSUrrectiolls in Paris and Lyons in June 1832 and April 1834. The
principal republican newspapers were La Tribllne and Le National. the first di­
rected by Armand Marrast 1.1 1111 the second by Arml.lnd Carrcl." Malet and Gri.llet ,
XIX· Siecle (Pari;;, 19 19), p. 81 . [V4.5J
Declaration of December 19, 1830, issued by students at the Ecole Polytechn.ique
to the edi~orial office o f I.e Coru/itulionlle/: "'If any man among the agitators,' they
say, 'is fo und wearing the umfonn of the Ecole, that man is an imPOStOr.... ' And
so they h ad these men tracked down wherever they appeared in the faubourgs in
the uMo nn of Poly technicians, seeking to usurp the latter's influence. The best
way to recognize them, according to Bosquet, was to ask them the dil!~rnlial of
Jine x or 0/ log X; 'if they respond appropriately, they are fo nner studen ts; if not,
we have them jailed.''' G. Pinet, Histoire tk I'£tole polytedmique (Paris, 1887),
p. 187. Disturbances took place in cOlUlection with the triaJ against the ministera
o f Charles X.' Pinet ad ds: "In supporting the interests of the bourgeoisie, those
with republican convictions seemed to fear they would be accused o f deserting
the cause o f the people" (p. 181). In a further proclamation, the school came OUt
decisively in favor o f universaJ suffrage. [V4a, 1)
"The students go to their I tudent societies, whether publicly or &eeret1 y organiud,
to get the watchword of the da y. . . . There, they learn what actions are heine
planned. . . . With all this going on . the Ecole Poly technique hal ht!gun to view
itself as a fourth estate within the nation . .. . It was the moment when the Repub­
lican p arty, which counted in its ranks the artillery of the Garde NationaJe, the
student , the proletariat , the worker. and the veteran of July. rel umed ... ill
activity; the moment when popular societie&-like Les Amis du P euple, LeI Droill
de I' Homme, and La Gauloise-were recruiting heavily; the moment when the
Garde Nationale failed to maintain the peace ; when the S aint~S imonian 8 thre.l~
ened to unsettle the order of society; .. . and when ... Le National and La '1hb­
une waged a daily struggle against those in power." C . Pinet , Hi.stoire de l'Ecole
poly technique (Paris. J887), pp . 192- 193. [V4a,2]
During the cholera epidemic, the government was accused of having poisoned the
fountains. For examille , in the Faubourg S aint~Antoine . [V4a,3)
" Young people in the schools had adopted the red ht!r et ; a nd memben of the secret
lOCieties looked forwa rd to the next time , when the national razor would be well
honed ." Charles Louandre. Les Idees subversives de notre temps (Paril, 1872),
p~ ~~
The secret societies of the democrats """eTC chauvinistic. They wanted interna­
tional p ropaganda fo r the republic by means of war. [V5,1]
" RcSlwnle afterward made by a prisoner before the Court of Peers: I ' Who was
your chief? ' I " knew none. and 1 recognized none.·.. Victor Hugo . Oeuvres com·
plktes, novell . vol. 8 (Par is. 1881 ). p. 47 (Les Mi.serables. " Faitl d ' oi! I'histoire
sort et que I' histoire ignore"). 7 [V5,2J
" From time to lime. Inen ' disgl.liled as bourgeois, and in fllle coats' came . 'causin 8
embarraumcnt ,' and . having the air 'of command .' ga ve a grip of the hand to the
most impo rtant. and wenl away. They never stayed more t h an ten nunlttes. . " Vie·
lor I-Iugo. Oeuvres completes. novell . vol. 8 (P aris, 1881 ). pp . 42-43 (Lei
Milerables, " Fait. tI ' ou )' rultoire sort et que I' rustoire ignore").' [V5,3]
The Socit~te d es Droits de I' Homme <Society of the Rights of Man > emploYI, in it.
pamphlets, the calendar or the great Revolution . I.n the month of Pluviose ,9 year
42 or tile Hepublican era , it COUllt. 300 branch establishments throughout France,
163 in Paril! alone. of which every Olle had its particular name. The wooing of the
proletarians by t.he bourgeoisie had the benefit " that . instead of enlisting them
through humiliatioll or material services. through the offer of money or other
forms of assistance, it was by various attentions and tokcns of resp«t , by j oining
IOgelher ill balls and !etes. that the leaden of the bourgeoisie worked to form
attachments with the workers." Charles Benoist , " L' Homme de 1848," part I .
RelJlle deJ deux moru/es (July I , (91 3), pp . 148-149. [V5,4]
The Societe de Prop agande <Society of Propaganda >: "1'0 this organization we
owe. in part . the strike at the end of 1833, which extended to typographen , me­
chaniCl , stonecutter s, rope maker s. hackney dri ven . eamberen, glovers, saw~
yen, wallpaperer s, hosien. and locksmiths, and which involved no leu than
' 8.000 tailon, 6.000 shoemakers, 5,000 carpe.nters, 4 ,000 jewelers, and 3,000
bakers.'" Ch. Benoist, " L' Homme de 1848," part I , Revue des deux mondes (July
1, 1913), p. 151. [V5,5]
The Comite Invisible <Invisible Committee>-name of a &eeret society in Lyonl.
[V5,"]
Only after 1832 , bot above all around 1834 and 1835 , did revolutionary propa~
ganda gain a foothold in the proletariat . [V5,7]
In the tightened organization of the secret societies after 1835, the mystagogic
element was intrnsified. The names of the days o f the week and of the months
became codewords for assault detachments and oonunandos. An initiation cere­
mony influenced by freemasonry and reminiscent of the Vehme <medieval ai.mj~
-nal tribunals> was introduced. According to de La Hodde, this ceremoniaJ
already includes, amo ng other things, the question : "Must one make a political
revolution, o r a social revolution?"IOSee Ch. Benoist, "lJHomme de 1848," part
\ 1, Revue deJ Deux Mon&J, 7, no. 1 (19 13), pp. 1959- 1961. [V5,8)
" It ..... as all up with the Jacobins " y 1840 , just 88 with the Montagoardl, the secret
societies. the conspiracies, the j ournals. the ceremonial parades, and the raids.
The. 'communists' now held center stage .... The workers took part in the ban~
(Iut! in Belleville, at which the c10ckmllker Simard gave a speech . The great strike
of 1840, during which , in Paris alone. 30 ,000 men stopped work, tightened their
federa tion .... Heinrich Heine has given U8, in ten passages of his Lutece, a vivid
picture of ... the powerful hold which communism had on the workers from the
I)aris suburbl . Heine had the honor, in his letters to t.he Augsburg Gaze lle, of
un' ·ciling·communism to the communisl8 .... But .. . there are communists and
(:olllnlUnists . I transcrihe, from ,~ 'Almanuel, Icarien of 1843, this notice ... :
'Today. the commUllists can be divided into two main categories: communists pure
and simple, ... who wan I 10 abolish marriage and the famil y, alld Icaria" commu.
lIists, . . . who wit h 10 pre1le rve the ramily and marri age. but wo nld do away with
&eCret societies , waliion violence, riols, and other such relonies." Charles Benout
" L' lIomme de 1848,'" part 2, Relme des deuJC mondes (r ebruary I , 1914):
pp . 638-641. [V5a, l ]
In the mid-Thirties, a crisis broke out in the traditio ns of the journeymen and
traveling artisans. The hierarchies handed down from the time of the guilds
began to lose their authority; many of the work songs had come to seem old-fash­
ioned. An effo rt was made to elevate the intelleaual and moral level of the
associations. Agricol Perdiguier put together a sort of journeyman's primer, with
songs and didactic o r devotional readings. 1bis document shows that the mori­
bund customs of the trade guilds were a breeding ground for secret societies.
[V5a,2]
Cenacles arter 1839: La Coguetle des rils du Diable ( Revels of the Sons of Satan >,
Le, CommuniUet Materialittes <The Materialist Communists>. [V5a,3]
, TheJuly Days brought about an upsurge in ~cret societies, in consequence of a
Network of wine merchants : " T he current law gives them freedom , where08 the
Empire, in point of fa ct, had deprived them of freedom . Napoleon III looked on
the taverns as 'meeting places for the secret societies,' and the Code annote (a
pamphlet by Julien Goujon , Code annote des limonadie rs ] accuses him of haviD«
wanted to 'strike with terror,' in order to ' transform th ree hundred thousand
inhabitants and their fa milies inlo official watchmen .' T hree hundred thousand
tavern8-that is, politica l taverns (what Bnb:ac caUs ' the people's parliament ')-­
- nich <1921», vol. 2, p . 102.
were thus consolidated . . . Wider the July Monarchy and the government of
1848." Maurice Talmeyr, "Le Ma rchand d e vins," Revue de. deux monJe, (August
IS, IS9S), pp . 877-878 . [V5a,4]
Varia from Agricol Perdiguier, Le Livre du compag nonnage (Paris: by the author.
1840); " In 1830, the Aspirants Menuisier , <A pprenlice J oiners> and the AlIpir anu
Serr uriers <Apprentice Locksmiths> in Dordeaux revolted against their fellow
comp(lg nom , or tradesmen , and formed amollg themselves the core of a new soci­
ety. Since then , in Lyo ns, Marseilles. and Nantet. other ap prentices have revolted
and formed societies .... These va rious societies cOrre1ll)(mded with one another.
and the Societe d e l'Union ou des IntielJendanls was born .... It is distinguished
by 11 0 myster y. 11 0 initia tion , no hier a rchy. . . . All members of this society are
equal" (pp . 179- ISO). Customs: " Whcn 8 compag notl goes to Ihe house where the
society lodges . cats, and congregate8, he says: ' I am going to the Mother's hOllse'"
(pJl . 180- IS I). Nanles: "The Rose of Carcauonne, the H esolvf!:(~of Tournu8, and
many others" (I' . 185). Greeting-a prescrihf!:(1 form of i.lllrodllction for trade­
gui.ld members on firsl meeting: " They ask one another what iiide they are on or
whal allegia nce Ihey hold 10. If il is Ihe samc, there is a (Cle. alld they drink from a
shared flask .... If 11 0 1, Ihere are insuitll io starl wilh , aml lhCII hlows" hI. 187).
Variously colored ribhons, worn in llirfcn:nl ways, are insignia or the illdividual
trades. Common , a. weU, are earrings with distinctive lillie pendants on them
(horseshoes. hammere, standard gauges, and the like). 10 which the different
trades lay exclus.l\·e claim . "The T.squa re and compau a re emblems. of all the
trade guilds, aU compag nonnage, for il is thoughl ... that the word compag no"
derives from compaJ <compass> . 11 ... The shoemakers and bakers h ave several
lillles paid dearly for the honor of weari.ng the compau; all the compagnoru with
allegia nce to other professions set upon them" (p . 189). " I.n the trade-guild Bocie­
ties. the word mOllsiCllr is never used . . . . The rrench , Spanish , Italians.. and
Swi.ss, whenever they happen to meet , add r ess one another as countries-Country
of Spain , Country of Italy, Country of Swil.%erland . and so on .... Since they aU
reside under the same starry vault. and tread the s.ame ~round , they a re--and
they call themselves--countries; the world for them, is one great country!"
(p . 4 1).-P erdiguier was 011 the staff of L 'A telier ( 1840-1850), founded by
IJuchell. It went under in IS50 because it could not ma ke a bail payment of 18,000
fra ncs. [VO.l ]
rapprochement between the republican bourgeoisie and the proletariat. [V6,2]
The Society of the Tenth of December. " On the pretext of establishing a ch aritable
auociation , Louie Napoleon di vided the Parisian lumpenproleta riat , after his.
elec:tion to the pretidency, into numeroua secret sf!:(;tions, whieb were beaded by
Bonapart.ist agents. " Eduard Fuchs., Die Kariharur der elJropiiilchen VOlker (Mu­
[V6,3]
The tavern on the Place BeJhomme . "Under Louis Philippe , it was run by an
individual connected with the police. Its clientele was composed , in large part, of
aU the conspira to rs of the day, who 88sembled there twicc a week . on Mondays. and
T hursdays. The names of confeder ate, were proposed on Thursd ay, and they were
admitted on Monday." A. Lepage, Les Cafi' politiques et litteraire. de Paris (Paris
<1874» , p . 99. [V6a, l]
, From a secrel report , cited in Pokrowski , by the Russia n informer Jakov Tolstoi,
COncer ning hia conversation with the di reclor of the English colonial bank, Camp.
bell , an agent of Prince Louis Nal)Oleon : "The p rince h ad apprised him of the
difficulties or hi, situation , given that he has to battle against Le Na tiona l {that iI,
agains.t Cavaignac-M.N. P.I. no Ie" than against the red republicans {that is,
Ledru-Rollin _ M.N. P. I. who have enormous l ums at their disl)(),al(!) .... Mter­
wltrd , ... he a8ked me whether or not the Russian government was likely to en­
trust the prince with such a sum [which was needed for the electoral campaign and
could lIot be raised ill England). ... It became clear to me then thai Mr. Campbell
WitS a sort of emi88ary of Prince Louis and so, in order to d ivert his a ttention and
to put an ent!. to the conver sation , I Irealed the whole affair as a joke. I asked him
what Louis Napolw n could give 10 Hussia in relurn ror the million he requires.­
' Every p088ihle concession ,' answered Mr. Campbell , gelting worked U». ' T ileD
Russia can buy the head of the Republic?' ( asked. ' And for only a million fra ncs?
Distributoo over tile four yean ofllis presidency. tllis comes 10 250.000 a year. You
will admit tha t it is not a great deal of money.'-' ( guara ntee you tll at, for this
price, he will he entirely at yo ur sen-ice. ' - ' Will lie. at the very leasl, exert his full
authorit y to ritl France of Polisll and Russia n emigr ants?'-' I say 10 you that he
will make a formal commitment in tins rega rd, for he presently find s himself in the
most difficult situation tllat in gener al can befall a man!'" M. N. Pokro.....ski. Hu~
tomche Auf,ii t:e (Vienna a nd Berlin <1928». p. 120 (" I. . amartine, Cavaignac,
ulld Nikolaus I"). fV6a,2]
"The old journeymen's association of coml'ag non" the beginnings of wllich go
hack to the fourteenth, perhaI)S ... the twelfth century ... (a number of hlstori~
ans derive the Ca rbonari movement from it) ... , must lIave espec:ially interested
Balzac .... The compagnons themselves ... trace their origin to the constr uction
of Solomon 's tenl ple .... In the preface to the Hu toire des Trei.:e. Balzac makes
allusion to the compagnons , who even tod ay would have their I)artisans among the
French people." Ernst Robert Curtius, Balzac (Bonll , 1923), p. 34. fV i', I]
" In Fra nce, it was above all the secret society known a8 La Congregation that
rurnished the public with materials ror all sorts of thrilling and gruCflome atories.
The writen of the RCfltoration, in particula r, ascribed to it the blacken machina·
tions. The Comte d 'Artois, the ruture Cha rles X, moved in its orbit. .. . With his
Hu tory o/Secret Societies in the Army, Char les Nodier enthralled hia readen. He
himself belonged to the Societe des Philadelphea, rounded in 1797 .... Equally
harm1ess was the Societe du Cheval Rouge <Society of the Red Horse>, which
Bab:ac founded with Gautier and some othen in the finn conviction that , b y
influencing the aalons. ita members ... would garner power and glory (or one
another.... A secret alliance or prison convicl8 is the Societe des Granda Fanan~
dela, whoae orga nization fonns the b ackground for ... Vautrin." Ernst Robert
Curtius, Balzac (Bonn , 1923), PI>. 32-34. [V7,2]
The Faubourg Saint-Antoine and the Temple precinct owe their importance for
handicraft to the fact that the laws which prohibited workers from establishing a
residence: before completing their term as journeymen were not in effect there.
The journeyman's tour de Frana required thn=:e to four years. (Vi',3]
Along wilh many other particulars concerning the compagnolU, Ch aptal rt l)(lrU
or the enemy clans: " The tools or their trade were alwaya thei r weapolIlJ of war."
<J ean ~Ant oin e"C l a ud e) Chaptal. De l'JllciustrieframiCli&e (Paris . 18 19), vol. 2,
~3~ ~
, "As for Balzac, one need only ... recall that he is the man whose earliest work (or
" Apart frOID ... meeting at night in small groups, the GcrUla n cr aftsmen ill Paris,
in thos.. year s. liketlto get together on Sund ays with kith allli ki.n i ll II refitaurant
on the outskirts of town . In J anuar y 1845. a former officer of the Garde Nationale,
Adalbert von Uornsledl . who at tha t time was sp ying on rallical ..... riten and arti·
,ans in Par is for the P r uasian government, described 10 the latter, in a report
denounc.ing Marx and He a. a ga lhering of this 80 rt in the Avenue de Vincennes,
where regicide. halrell of the rich. and the abolition of private prOIJerty were
OIW!nly aflvocated." Gustav Mayer. Friedrich EngeLs. vol. J. Friedrich EngeLs in
seiner f'riihzeit (Berlin ( 1933». 1). 252. fVi',5]
"}\dalbcrl von Bornstedl . . .....as . . . a spy ... or the P russian government.
Ellgeis a nd Marx made lise of him . knowing well enough, however. whom they were
dealing with." Gustav Mayer, Fr ied rich EngeLs , vol. I . Friedrich Enge ls in seiner
f riih:;eit, sec:ond edition (Berlin), p. 386. fV7a,I)
"'ora Trista n attempted to rree the workers rrom the tenns of their journeyman 'S
cOlltract . fVi'a,2]
Schlahrendorf gives an account or the popular comedian Bobec.he, who could he
seen on the Boulevard du Temple. " His stage is so na rrow, however, that he haa no
room to gesticulate when hia brothe....in· law, with whom he perfomla, is up there
with him . So he haa to stick his hands in his pockets. Tbe other d ay he exclaimed,
with reason: I must have a place, I absolutely must have II pl ace!-But you aurely
know tha t II place must he fill ed , that you must do some work and earn your
place?-FiUed? You fill just one pa rt of it a nd the r est is filled by othen .-So what
place do you want?-Tbe Place Vendome.-The Place Vendome! It will surely be
difficult ror you to h ave that.-Nothing easier. I sh all denounce the Column ."
CrafCw tCI v von Schlabrendorf in Pum iiber Ereignine und Personen &einer Zeit
[in Carl Gustav J ochmann , Reliquum : Aus ,einen Nachgela uenen Papieren , ed .
Heinrich Zschokke. vol. 1 (Hechingen, 1836), pp. 248-249]. (Vi'a,3J
The Carbon ari looked on Christ 88 the fi rs t victim of the ar istocracy. [Vi'a,4)
"The police spiea in Paris recognize one another by a badge bearing the ao·called
eye of provid ence." Carl Gusta v J acbmann , Re/uluien , ed . Heinrich Zacholtke,
yol. 3 (Hechingen, 1838), p. 220. fVi'a,5)
" For the .....ork of Balzac ... to appear authentically mythic, it suffices to recall
Ihal. evcn during the a uthor's lifetime, there were groups of men and women in
Vcnice and ill Rllu ia ....ho .....ould assume the pa rta of ch ar acters rrom his Co rtledie
hUrtlHine and try to live like them." Roger Caillois, " Paris, mythe moderne,"
iV olll1e lle RCl1ltefram;ai,e. 25 . 11 0. 284 (May I , 1937), p. 698. fV7a,6]
ncar~y his earliest) happens to be his H iJ/oire impartiale des Jisuites, which he
COnsIdered an homage to 'the most beautiful society ever fornu:d: and that he is,
at the sam"e time, the creator orVautrin and the author of the Huloire des 7feiu."
Roger Caillois, "Paris, my the modem e," Nouut:lle Reuue jranftlue, 25, no. 284
(May 1, 1937), pp. 695-696. The J esuits, like the Assassins, playa role in the
imaginative world of Balzac, as in that of Baudelai.re. [V8,1]
"Te n French regimenlll , were they 10 descend inlO the catacombs. could not have
laid a hand on a single Carbonaro. so many were the lurns of tbose dark and
dismal underground pa88ages . leading to inacceSllibJe relrealS. It may be men~
tioRed . furthennore . Ihal the catacombs were admirably nLined in five or six
places. and a spark would have been enough ... 10 blow up Ihe entire Lefl Bank."
A. Dumas, us Mohicans de Paris. vol. 3 (Paris, 1863), p . I J. [V8,2]
The conspirators of 1830 were rigorously classical in orientation and bitter foes
of Romanticism. Blanqui remained true to this type throughout his life. [V8,3]
Heine on a meeting of Les Arnis du Peuple, at which over 1,500 in attendance
listened to a speech by Blanqui. " The meetiug had the odor of an old copy-much
perused, greasy, and worn-of u Moniteurof 1793." Cited in Ceffroy, L 'Enfenne
<ed . 1926>, vol. 1. p. 59.
Secret societies after the July Revolution: Ordre et Progres, Union des Condam~
lies Politiques. Rt':clamanlll de Juillet , Francs Regeneres. Societe des Amis du
Peuple, Societe des Families. [V8,5]
Organization of the Societe des Saisons , lIucceslior to the Societe des FamilIes: At
the top , four seallOns, of which the chief is spring. Each seallOn has three montha,
the chief month being July. The month has four weeks, and their chief ill SUD~
day. -The chiefs are not present at the meetings (or are not recOp'~able). See
Gdfroy, L 'Enferme <ed . 1926 >, vol. I , p . 79. [V8,6]
The secliolls oflhe Carbollari were known as ventes l2 (the name "Carbonari" goes
back to a conspiracy organized in the house of a charcoal dealer during the st~~
gle of the Ghibellines against the Guelphs). Supreme vente. district ventes, local
ventes. Among the found ers of the French section wall Bazard . [V8,7]
J . J . Weiss on the Club dell Halles: "The club met in a little room on the second
fl oor above a cafe; it had few members, and these were serious and thoughtful.
Think of the atmosphere of the Comedie Fran",aise on days wben Racine or COr'*
neille is performed; compare the audience on tholle days to the crowd that fills a
cirCUli wller e acrobats are executing perilous leaps, and you wiU undersland the
impression made on someone wI10 ventured mto ' t h'IS revo Iu t 'IOlIary ......lub of Blan­
qui , compared witb the impression made by the two cluhs in \'ogue with the pa~y
of order, tbe club of Ihe Foliell-Bergere and that of Ihe Salle Va lentino. It was like
a chapel consec:rated 10 the orthodox creed of classical cOllspiracy, w~e~e the
doors werp. OJ)f'n to all . but where yo u never' felt like returnin,; unleu you J)eheved.
After the sullen I)arade of the oppressed who, every ni,;ht , would prese.nl them*
selves at this tribunal in o rder a1wlllYs to denounce lIomeone or somethin,;-the
f:o nspiracy of hankeI'll, an office manager, an administrator of the railroad- the
priest of the place would rise 10 his feet and. on the pretext of addressing the
sor rows of his congregation , the lH:ople (reprete nled by the half-dozen furious
imbeciles who had just heeu heard), would clarify the situation . lliJl appearance
was distinguisheil. his lH:aring irreproachahle; his counlenance was delicate. Sne,
a nd composed. with a Serce and sini.ster flash tllat sometimes lit the small and
piercing eyell, which . in t.heir usua] state, were more benevolent than harsh. His
wo rds were meas ured , collOl:luial, and precise; il was, along with thai ofM. Thiers,
the least declamatory way of speaking I have ever hea rd . As to the content of his
speech . almost everything ill it was just. ... ' Wher e, then , did Corneille learn the
art of war?' cried the Grand COllde at the Srst performance of SertorilU. Blanqui,
I would surmiliC. hall 110 more studied war than had Corneille. But possessing. as
he did , tbe l)Olitical facult y to a superlative degree, he could manage, ... even in
military mailers, all the signals that, when duly heeded , would have called forth
a salute." Cited in Gustave Geffroy, L 'Enferme (Paris . 1897), pp. 346-348.
{V8a]
[V8,4j
January 1870. after the murder of Victor Noir: Blanqui has the Blanquisls, pre~
sented by Granger, 6Ie by before him, without letting the fact be known. " He went
oul , armed, bidding farewell to his sisters, and took up his post on the Champs­
Elysees. It was there, a8 Granger had announced to him , that he would 6nd,
parading before him , the army of which he was the mysterious general. He reeoS~
ni:ted the squadron leaders, as they came into view, and , behind each of them, he
saw the men grouped geometrically and marching in step, as though in regimentl ,
It was all done according to plan. Blanqui held his review---8trange spectacle-­
without arousinS the slightest suspicioll . Leanins against a tree, surrounded by the
crowd of onlookers . the vigilant old man saw his comradee p alll by, orderly amid
Ihe surging of the people, silent amid the steadily mounting uproar. " Gustave
Geffroy, L 'Enferme (Puris, 1897), pp. 276-277. [V9, 1]
On the influence of Machiavelli , which Blan<lui felt at Sainte~Pelagie: " In contrast
I~ the French Bia nqui---8o lucid, so intelligent. so ironic---there appeared , from
, lime to time, this old Italian Blanqui , denizen of florence or of Venice, who put his
ral'lh In
'
tenebrous schemes and in the possible succe88 of an act offon:e." Gustave
Gerfroy, L'Enferme (Pa ris, 1897). pp. 245-246. [V9,2)
~ type of conspirator characteristic of the 1840s: Daniel Bomle, a journeyman,
aIf crazy, but above all ambiguous. He worked on assigrunent from Vidocq.
who, for his pan, took his orders from Caussidiere as much as from Louis
Napoleon. Borme put the regiment of the Vesuviennes on their feet· in 1848 he
w .. ' ,
as granled an audien ce, U1 the company of several Vesuviennes, with Mme. de
Lamartine. Lamartine himself refused to have any dealings with the Vesuvien·
nt'S. There ~ems to have been a plan [0 set up workshops for them. Borme
nlakes an appeal to the cillYJrnneson a poster dated February 28, 1848:
"To female citizens and paaiOtS, my sisters in the Republic: ... I have asked
the Provisio nal Government to register you under the title of \fesuvienncs. 1'he la boheme." Karl Marx, Der achtzehnte Bnmwire de5 Lolli., Bonaparte , ed .
engagement will be for one year; to enlist, you must be between fifteen and Rjazanov (Vienna and Berlin ( 1927)). p . 73.'~ [VIO,!)
thirty, and unmanied . Apply at 14 Rue Sainte-Appoline, from noon to four
o'clock." C ited in Roger Devigne, "Des 'Miliciermcs' de 1937 aux 'Vesuviennes' Re Balzac: " Sa ill te-Beuve . . . recounts a n a nec{lote stra nger . . than all the
de 1848," Vmdredi (May 21 , 1937). [V9,3) olhers. At one I)oinl , a whole society mt-'e ting ill Venice (one of the more a risto­
cr atic of the societies) decided to assign its member s different roles drawn from the
Ba udelaire. in his review of u& Mart yr, ridicule" by Leon Cladel: "The man of Comedie humaine , a nd some of these roles. add8 the cri tic mY8teriously, were
intelligence mold. the l)eople. a nd the vi8iona r y create8 reality. 1 have known IODle taken 10 the ver y extreme .... T his occurred a round 1840." Anatole Cerfberr and
l)!)Or wretches whose heads wer e turned by Ferragus XXIU and who !!eriou. I, Jules Christol)he. Repertoire de la Comedie huma ine de II . de Balzac (Paris.
planned to form a 5eCre t coalition in order to 8hare. Like a rabble di viding up • 1887), p . v (Introduction de Paul Bourget). [VIO,2]
eOlUluered empire. all the functions and the wealth of modern 8ociety." Baude­
laire, L 'Art r omanlique (Pari.), p _434. '3 [V9a, l ) h i 1828 The Conspiracy of Equab , by Buonarroti , IIppears in Brussels. " Very
(Iuickly, his book becomes tile breviar y of conspirators. " Title: dlistory of Ba­
bellfh Conspiracy for Equality, 60,000 copies sold in onl y a few d ays. In 1837,
Ch arle8 P role8, in u. Homme, de la revolution de 1871 ( Pa ris, 1898), p . 9, On
15,000 people a t BUOllar ro ti'. interment . Michelet'. father had a relation to the
Rao ul Rigault . Blanquist and prefect of police during the Commune: " In aU
hcginllings of Babeu!; Michelet , to Huonarroti . See Andre Monglond , u Pre­
things, ... even in his fanaticism, he had a r emarkable sang-froid , an indefinable
romantisme franl;a is, vol. 2, Le Ma itre des a mes sensible5 (Grenoble, 1930),
air of the sinister and impassive mystijicateur." Cited in Georges Laronze. Hislolre
de la Commllne de 1871 (Pa ris, 1928), p . 45. In the same text , p . 38 , on Rigault',
, JlP . 154--155. [V 10,3)
specialty, the unmas king of police spies: "Under the Empire. especially. he had
thrived , .. . keeping his notehook up to date, denouncing, on their arrival , the
disconcerted agents. 'So how are things with the bo,,?' And , with a sneer, he
would announce their names. Bl anqui 8aw in 8uch perspicacity the mark or.
ser viceable talen t. He let faU from his lips, one d ay, this unexpected word of
praise: ' He is nothing hut a ~a min , hut he ma kes a fi rst-r ate policeman . ,,, [V9a,2)

Doctrine of the Bianquisis during the Commune: " To issue decrees for the natioD
was to repudiate the utopia of federalism and . ., fro m Paris a8 the abidin&
capital. to ap pear to govern France." Georges Laronze. Hisloire de la CommUIMI
de 1871 (Paris. 1928). p . 120. [V9a,3)

T he Bl anqui.18 vener ated the memory of Hebert . [Y'" ,]

"Several editorial offi ces a nd boulevard cafes. in particular the Cafe de Suede,
were the centers ... of conspiracy. From there. the web spread out . It encom­
passed in its linkages the entire Commune, redoubta ble less for the resuits ob­
tained (these were effectively nullified by the profusion of plou) thall for the
atmosphere ... of suspicion it produced. At the Hotd de V"tlle, there wer e ince8­
santleaks. No dcliberutioll , no sccr ct decision took place that was not immediately
knowll b y Thiers." eeorges Larollzc, Hi&toire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris.
1928). p . 383. [\,9a,51

Ma rx ca ps u d etailed acco un t of the StH:icty of the Tenth of Oeetllllhcr. as an

organization of the lumpcnlu'uleta riat, with these wonls: " in short , the whole.
indefinite. disintegrated mass, thrown hither and thither , which the French term
w een), which last would have the righllo take a lover and bear illegitimate children ;
[Fourier]
Seas they fathoml Skies they ll!vcal!
Each of these: seekers after God
Takes an infinity upon his wing:
Fulton the ~en, Herschd the blue;
MageUan sails, Fourier soars.
The frivolous and ironical crowd
Sees nothing of their dreams.
-VICtor Hugo, !:Annit tmibh: LeJ ltirorsnlrJ, Epigraph
10 the brochure by PelJarin, 104' annivC'Sairr natal 1M
FrJurier (Paris, 1876), cited in A. Pinloche, JiJurla d
fe Jocia/UIM (Paris, 1933). supplement
''The words of J ean Paul which I put at the head ofws biography of Fourier-' O£
the fi ber s that vib rate in the human soul he cut away none, but rather harmonized
s U' -these words apply admirably to this socialist. and in their fullest resonance
apply only to him. One could not find a better way to characterize the phalarute­
rian philosophy." Ch. PeUarin , Notice biblWgraphique (1839), p. 60, cited in
A. Pinloche, Fourier et le socialUme (Paris, 1933), pp. 17- 18. (WI,I]
Fourier on his business career : " My best years were 108t in the workshops of
falsehood , where from aU sides the sinister augury rang in my ears: ' A very honest
ho y! He wiU never be worth anything in business.' Indeed , I was duped and
ro bhed in aU that I undertook . But if I am worth nothing when it comes to practic­
ing business, I am worth something when it comes to unmasking it." Charlet!
Fourier, 1820 , Publication M3 manwcrirs , vol. I , p . 17, ciled in A. Pinloche,
Fourier ed e socia/isme (Paris, 1933), p . 15. 1 [WI ,2]
Fourier wanled "every woman to have, first of all, a husband wilh whom she could
conceive two children ; second , a breeder (genilcur) with whom she could have
onl y one child ; then , a lover (Javori!) who has lived with her and retaihed lhis
title; fourth and last, mere possessors (poneueurs), who are nothing in the eyes of
the law.... A man who expressly says that a girl of eighteen who has nol yet found
ft man is entitled 10 prostilute herself; a man who directs that all girls be divided
into two classes, the juveniles (under eighteen) and I.he emancipated (over eight-
II man who ... maintains that unmarried young women who give Ihemselve1l up to
pleas ure l)Ossess qualities superior 10 those of married women , . .. and Ilescrihes
ill great detail how a n entire arm y of women should enter into prostitution under
Ihe supe rvisioll of matrons-such a man does not ullderstand the eternal bases of
hUlllanily." Sigmund E ngla nder, Geschichte der frallzosu.chen Arbeiter-Anocia­
lionen (Hamburg, 1864), vol. I , PI'. 245, 26 1-262.-ln the same vein : "Whal are
",·e to say of a syslem in whichfilles publi(luc!S are given the name baccha ntes and in
",.hich il is argued that they are just as necessar y as vestal virgins, and that they
... exercise the virtue of fellow ship? A system which describes in what manner
iJlJlocenl yo ung people areli uPPolied to lose their innocence?" (ibid ., pp. 245-246).
[WI ,31
"Around 1803 or 18M , Fourier, who practiced the profession of commercialtrav­
eler--or 'shop-sergeant ,' a8 he preferred to call it- found himse.lf in Paris. Hav­
ing before him a four~ month wait for a position he had been promised, he looked
around for some means of occup ying his time and hit upon the idea of searching
for a way to make all men happy. It was not with the expectation of obtaining any
practical r esults that he entered on this project , but purely as a j eu d 'csprit."
Charles-M. Limousin , Le Fourieru.me (Par is, 1898), p . 3. [Wl ,4]
" Fourier is so prodigal in his invention and his cr a:r;y descriptions that l.erminier
justifiably compares him to Swedenborg.... Fourie r, loo, was at home in all skies
and on all planets. Mter all, he calculated mathematically the transmigration of
the soul . and went on to prove that the human soul must assume 810 different
forms until it completes the circuit of the planets and returns to earth, and that , in
the course of these existences , 720 years must be happ y, 45 years favorable, a nd 45
years unfa vorable or unhappy. And has he not described what will happen to the
soul after the demise of our planet , and prophesied , in fact , that certain privileged
souls will retire to the sun? He reckons further that our souls will come to inhabit
alt other planets and worlds, after spending 80,000 years on planet Earth. He
calculates, in addition , that this termination of the human race will occur only
after it has enjo yed the benefits of the boreal light for 70,000 year s. He proves that
\ by the influence , not of the horeallight , to be sure, but of the gravitational force of
labor, . .. the climate of Scnegal will become as moder ate as summers in France
are now. He describes how, once the sea has turned to lemon ade, men will trans­
pori fis h from the greal ocean to the inland seas, the Caspian , Aral, and Black
Seas, given that the boreal light reacts less potenll y with these salty seas; and so, in
this way, saltwate r fi sh will accustom themselves gradually 10 Ihe lemonade, until
finally they ca n be res tored to the ocean . Fourier also says Illal , in its eighth
ascemling period . humanity will acqui re the cltpacily to live like fish in the water
and to fl y like birds in the air, alld that , lIy then , huma ns will have reached a
height of seven feet and a life span of al lea SI 144 yea rs. Ever yone, at that point .
"" iIl be able -to transform himself into all amphihian ; for the individu al will have
the power of opening or closing at will the valve Ihal COllnects tile two dlambers of
the hellrl , '0 liS 10 bring the blood directly to the hellrt without hllving it pa"
through the IUll goJ •••• Nature will evolve in such fll ~ hioll, he mllintllin8. that a time
will come when orange~ blossom in Siberia and the most dlillgeroll8 animals have
been replaced by their OPI)Osiles. Anti-lions, anti-whales will be lit man 'llervice
then , alld the culm will II rive his s hi)l ~. In this way, accortling to Fourier, the lion
will ierve ItS the l}Csl of horses and the sha rk will be ItS IIseful in 6~ hing as the dl>8
is in hunting. New sta rs will emerge to take the place of the moon , which already,
by then , will have l}Cgun to rot." Sigmund En~iinder. Ceschichte der !roruii­
suchell Arbeite,...AuociCl,ionen (Hamburg, 1864), vol . I , pp. 240-244. [Wla]
" Fourier, ... in his last years . ... wanted to found a phalanstery that wouJd be
illhabited exclusively by children aged t.hree to fourteen , of which he aimed to
Itssemble 12,000; but his appeal wellt unheeded and the project wal lIever real­
ized . 1.11 his writings he left a detailed plan, which specifically delcribel how the
children must be railH!(l 80 as to further the idea of association . From the moment
a child begins to walk , an allempt must be made to identify ite tastes and paslioDl,
and , by this means, to discover it s vocation. Children who show a liking for life in
the street, who make a racket a nd refuse to learn neatness and cleanliness , are
placed by Fourier in small bands which have charge of the more unpleal ant tal k.
of the association . On the odler side there are childrell in whom the taste for
elegance and luxury is inborn ; tllese again Fourier arranges in a group, so that by
their p~ Belice 011 the scelle the phalanx will not be lacking in luxury. . . . The
children a re to bt.'Come ... great artists of song. Every phalanx , Fourier BayB, will
have 700 to 800 actors, nJusicians, and dancers, and the poorest canton in the AlP'
or the Pyrenees will have all opera company at least as good as the Grand Opera of
Paris, if not much belter. In order to foster the general sense for harmony, Fourier
wouJd have the children already singing duets and trios in the nursery." Sipund
Englander, Gescllichte der !rallzo$uchen Arbeiter·Auociationen (HambulrI,
1864), vol. I, pp. 242- 243. [W2,J)
"'Among the disciples of Fourier. one of the most entertainin5 was this AJphorue
Toussenel, who, in 1847 and 1852 respectively, published those works so popular
in their d ay, L 'f;spri, de$ betes and Le Monde dC$ oueaux. ... Like Fourier, ...
he sees in nalure only animate beings: ' The planets,' he affirms, ' have great dutiet
to fu1611 , first as member s of the solar system, then as mothers of familici. , And be
\'oluptuolIsly descrilks the amour8 of the Earth and the SlIn : 'As the lover dresses
ill hiH1II 0~ t bea utiful robes, and glosses his hair, and perfumes his language for tbe
visit of his lovc, thll8 ever y morning the Earth indues her richest attire to meet the
ru ys of her 8tar belove.!. ... Ha ppy, thrice happy the Earth,l.hat 110 couucil of the
stars has yel tlUllldered its anathema against the immoralit y of the kisses of the
SUII!' .. . 'Professors of the officially sanctioned physical sciences dare not speak
of the two ~exes of electricity ; they ftnd it more moral to i lH!a k of its two pok$. ...
SUell absurdities are heyolilime.... If the fi re of love Ilill not kindle allikings,
metals ani! minerals as wdlas others. where, I ask , would be the reaso n for thollC
ardcnt IIffiuities of p011I ~~ illlll fur oxygen . of hydrochloric acid for water?' "
~ Tou ssenel .) l~ 'Elpritde. betel <6th edition) (Paris , 1862), pp. 9, 2-3,102_ 106. 2
CitC(1 in Rene de P lallllOl, l.es UWl'istes de l'amollr (Paris . 1921), pp. 219-220.
[W2,2]
"Our planet goes inlo material decline once iu inhabitllnl8 begin to backslide down
the social scale. It is like a tree whOle leaves the caterpillars have been aUowed to
devour over a period of yea rs: the tree languishes and wes." From Fourier,
Th eorie en abllrait ou negative, p. 325. " Our vortex is young, and a column of
102 planets is presently on course for an elltry into our univer'llC, which is on the
IJOint of advallcillg from the third to the fourth power." From Fourier, Theom des
quatre mouvement$ (1808), PI" 75, 462 , and Theom mute ou speculative el Syn.
the$e routinie re de l'auocia,ioll, Pl" 260, 263. Cited in E. Silberling, Dicrwnnaire
de $ocwwgie phalmuterienne (Pari., 1911 ), pp. 339,338 . [W2a, l}
Gay's newspaper, Le Communu,e: " What W88 noteworthy, in his case, was that he
championed the view that communism could not possibly be achieved without a
complete alteration in sexual relations .... ' l !l a communist society ... , not only
would aU men and women enter into a great many intimate relationships with
persolls of the opposite sex , but even at their first encounter a genuine sympathy
would spring up between them ...' Englander, Geschichte der Jranzosischen Ar­
beiter-Auociatwllen, vol. 2, pp. 93-94. (W2a,2]
On Cabet: "The cry was not : Let us emigrate to America and there , with utmost
exertion , found a colony in the wilderness .... Rather, Cabet was saying: 'Let us
go to learia!' .. . Let us enter boldly into this novel, let us give life to Icaria, let U I
free ourselves from all privations ... ! Every article in his newspaper wouJd rerer
henceforth to lcaria; this went 10 far that he would describe, for example, how
several workers were injured by the explosion of a steam engine in La Villette and
conclude his account with the words, ' Let us go to Icaria!'" Englander, vol. 2,
)lV'. 120-121. [W2a,3]
On Cabet: " Most of the correspondents write as though they have Clcaped the
\ general destiny of humanity by jourlleying to America. " [This pertains to the
correspolldents for Le Populaire. ] Englander, vol. 2, p. 128. [W2a,4)
"Cabet, wholll the radiCli1 reJluhlican part y attacked because they considered him
li n opiate-monger," had to "remove to Saint-Quentin . . so as to defend himself
frolll accusatioliS of revolutionary agitation . The accusation was to the effect that ,
e\'ell if the Icarians should embark with Ca be t . they would disembark at another
)Joint on the coast of france, in order 10 begin the revolution ." Englander, vol. 2,
p. 142. 0 Secret Socidies 0 [W2a,5]
" Mercury ta'ught U 8 to read . He brought us the alphabet , the declensions. and
finall y the entire grammar of the unitary Harmonian language. as spoken on
the sun and the h armonized planets." Citation from Fourier, in Ma urice Har .
md , "Ch arles Fourier," Porlraitj d 'hier, vol. 2, no. 36 (P aris, 1910), p . 184.
[W2a,6]
"Among all the contempor arics of Hegel, Charles Fourier was the onl y one who
saw through bourgeois relations as clearly as he himself did ." G. Plekhanov, " Zu
Hegels sechzigstem Todestag," Die neue Zeit, 10, no . 1 (Stuttgart, 1892), p. 243.
[W2a,7]
Four ier speaks "of the ascendancy of the principle of ' industrial passion ' (Jo ugue
industrieUe) , the univer sal enthusias m that is ruled by the laws .. . of the 'com.
posite' or the ·coincident.' On a cursory inspection , it might appear as though we
had reached this stage today. Indus trial p assiou is represeuted by the rage to
speculate and the impulse to acc umula te capital; the p auion coi'lCidenle (drive
toward iucorpora tion), hy the consolidation of capital, illl increasing concentra.
tion . But even though the elements discovered by Fourier a re present in thia
r elation , they are neither articulated nor regulated in the manner he envisioned
and anticipated." Charles Bonnier, " Das Fourier 'sche P rinzip del' Anziehung,"
, aire." Paul Lafargue. " Der Kiasse nkam"fin Frankreich ," Die neue Zeit. 12, no. 2
Die neue Zeit , 10, no. 2 (Stuttgart, 1892), p . 648. [W3,1]
" We can see from his works that Fourier expected his theor y to be accomplished
beginning in the year of their publication . In his Proieg omencs, he designates . . .
1822 as the year when the establishment of the experimental colouy of the HarJDO.
nian association was to be pre pared . T his colon y was s upposed to be actually
founded and put into prac tice the following year, whereu pon 1824 would neceuar·
ily see il8 general imitation by the rest of the civilized world ." Charles Bonnier,
" Das Fourier'sche P rinzip der Anziehung," Die neue Zcit, 10, no. 2 (Stuttgart,
1892), p. 642. [W3,2]
Mtereffeclll: " In Zola's powerful novel Le Tra vail <Labor ), the great utopian wu
supposed to cele brate his res urrection . . . . Leconte de U sle, later the famoUi
leader of the Parnassian school, was , in his Sturm. und· Drang period, a singer 01
\ fra nc. By such method s, tbey thought to interest tbe masses in the solidity of
Four ieris t socialism. A contributor to La Revue sociaiiste . . . [see the November
190 1 issue] informs us that , at the invitation of the editors of La Db nocrati.e
pacifiquc, ... the poet coutributed first to this latter j our nal and then brieRy to
La Phaionge." H. Thurow, " Aus den Antangen der sozialistischen Belletristik ,"
Die neue Zeit, 2 1, no. 2 (Stuttgart , 1903), p . 22 1. [W3,3]
" The political et:onomisu a nd politician s from whom the pr e- l848 so<;ialis ts had
lea rned wer e, in every case, opposed to strik e~. They explained to the wo r ke rs that
a str ike, even though s uccessful , would bring them no ad va ntage, and that the
wo rkers should put their money into cooperatives for production and consump­
tion ra ther th an into plans fo r a stri ke." P roud hon " had . .. the ingenious idea of
inciting the workers to strike in order not to increase their wages but to lower
them .... In this way, the worker obtaills two or three times more 11.8 a consumer
than he earns as a producer." ( Paul> Lafargue, " Der Kiassc nk ampf in Fr ank­
reich ," Die ne ue Zeit . 12, 110. 2 (1894), pp . 644, 616. [W3,4]
" fourier, Saint-Simon , a nd other reformers recruited thei r fo llowers almost ex·
c1 u ~ i vel y from the rank8 of the a rti 5 a n ~ .. . a nd from the intell« tu al elite of the
bourgeoisie. With a few exceptious, it was educated people who gathered around
them , people who thought they had not received from suciety consideration
sufficient to their merits . . . . It was the declcuses, those who had tra nsformed
themselves into d aring ent re preneurs, sh rewd busine8smen , or speculator s . . . .
M. Godin , for example . . . . fo unded in Guise (in the dep artement of rusne) a
!amiliMere acco rding til. Four ier 's principles. In h andsome bllildings su r rounding
a spacious, g1ass·cover ed square court yar d , he provided accommodations fo r nu.
me rous workers fr om his plate--enamelillg fac tory; here they found, besides a
home, allue<:essary articles fo r da ily lise ... , entertainments in a theater, con­
certs, schools for til!!ir children , and so on . In s hort , M. Godin saw to all tbeir
physical and s piritu al needs, and moreover realized . . . enormous p rofits. He
earned the r eputation of heing a benefactor of mankind, and died a multimillion­
(Stuttgar t , 1894), p . 617. [W3a, l ]
Four ier on stocks a ud bouds: " In his Traite de I'unite uni ver jeUe, Fourier enu·
merates ... the ad va ntages which this form of prope rty offers the capitalislll: ' It
does not run the danger of beiug stolen or d amaged through fire or earthqu ake.
. . . A minor never risks being taken ad vantage of in the administr ation of his
money. since that administra tion is the same for him as for every other shar e-­
holder ... ; a ca pitalist can realize his property at any moment, even though he
oWlled a hundred million '; and so fo rth . ... On the other hand , ' tbe poor man ,
though he h ave but one taler, can participate in the holding of public stock . which
is di vided up iuto quite s mall portions •... and hence ... can speak of our pal.
a~es , our storehouses, our wealth. ' Nal}Qleon III and his cohorts in the CO IIP d 'etat
were ver y taken with these ideas; ... they democratized state revenue, as one of
them put it , by making it possible to purchase bonds for fi ve fr ancs or even one
puhlic credit and preclude political revohltions." Pa ul Lafargue, " Ma rx' histor­
ischer Materialismus," Die neue Zeit . 22, no. I (S tuttga rt , 19(4) , p . 831. [W3a,2)
"Four ier is fl ot onl y a critic; Itis impe rturbahl y serene nature ma kes him a satirist ,
II rul ass uredl y one of tlte greatest sati.rists of all time." Engels,] cited iu Rudolf
Franz, review of Ii:. SilberBug's DictiomlUire de sociQlog ic piralclIlsteriellne (Pa ris,
191 1), Dic " eue Zeit. 30 , no. 1 (Stuttgart . 19 12), p . 333. [W3a,3)
The propagation of the phalanstery takes place through an ~cxplosion." Fourier
Speaks of <l!l "explosion du phalansterc." [W3a.4]
In England, the influence of Fourier combined with that of Swedenborg.
[W3a,5]
" Heine was well aC(IUainted with 80cialism. He could still see Fourier in perSOD. In
his articles entitled Fram:iisu che ZU$tiinde <French Mfairs ), he write8 at one
point (June 15 , 1843): ' Ye8, Pierre Leroux is poor, just as Saint-Simon aDd
Fourier were poor, and by the providential poverty of these great socialists the
world was enriched .... Fourier likewi8e had re.!01lr8e to the charity of fri enda.
How often have I 8een him scurrying pa8t the column8 of the Palai8-Royal in hi!
shabby gray coat , both pocket8 laden 80 that Ollt of one was peeping the neck of a
bottle and out of the other a long loaf of bread. The friend of mine who fint
pointed him out to me drew my attention to the indigence of the man , who bad to
fetch drink for himself at the wineshop and bread at the bakery. ''',I Cited in "Heine
an Marx ," Die neue Zeit . 14, no. 1 (Stuttgart , 18%), p. 16; pa8sage originally ill
<Heine,> Siimtliche Werke , ed. 80lsche (Leipzig), vol. 5, p. 34 [" KoDUnumsmu8,
Philosophie, und K1erisei," part 1]. [W4,1]
" In his gl08ses to the memoir8 of Annenkov, Marx writes : ' ... Fourier was the lint
to mock the idealization of the petty bourgeoisie. , .. Reported by P. Anski, "Zur
Charakteristik von Marx," RU$skaia Mrs! (August 1903), p. 63 ; in N. RjassDoff,
" Marx lind seine rU8sischen Bekannten in den vierziger Jahren," Die neue Zeit,
31, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1913), p. 764. [W4,2j
" Herr GrUn finds it an easy matter to criticize Fourier's treatment of love; be
measure8 Fourier 's criticism of exi8ting amorous relationship8 against the fanta­
sies b y which Fourier tried to get a mental image of free love . Herr Griin, the true
German philistine, take8 these fantasies seriously. Indeed, they are the only thins
which he does take seriously. It is hard to see why, if be wanted to deal with thiI
side of the system at all, GrUn did not also enlarge upon Fourier'8 remarks con­
cerning education ; they are by far the best of their kind , and contain 80me DIU­
terlyobservations.. . . ' Fourier is the very worst expression of civilized esoilm'
(p. 208). He supplies immediate proof of this by relating that, in Fourier's world
order, the poorest member eats from forty dishes every day, that five meals are
eaten daily, that people live to the age of 144, and so on. With a naive sense of
humor, Fourier oppose8 a Gargantuan view of man to the unassuming mediocrity
of the mell [in Das Westphiilische Dampfboot, the following words . .. inserted
after ' men ' : ' the infinitely smaD- Beranger' ] of the Restoration period ; but Herr
Grtin sees in this merely a chance of moralizing in his phili8tine way upon the mOil
innocent side of Fourier's fan cy, which he abstracts from the rest." Karl Marx
writing about Karl CrUn a8 historian of socialism (in an article originally publis~­
ed in Das Westphiili.sche Dampfboot. August-September 1847), r eprinted in Die
IIeue Zeit, 18, no . 1 (Stuttgart, 1900), pp. 137-138.~ , (W4,3j
The phalanstery can be characterized as human machinery. This is no reproach,
nor is it m eant to indicate anything mechanistic; rather, it refers to the great
complexity of its structure <Atljhau>. The phalanstery is a machine made of
human beings. (W4.4]
Fourier's point o f departure: the reSection on small business. Compare, in this
connection, the following : "VVhen one considers the number of people in Paris
whose lives depend on small business-the size of this fonnidable anny exclu·
sively occupied with measuring, weighing, packaging, and transponing from one
end of town to the other-one is rightJy alanned .. .. It must be recalled that, in
our industrial cities, a shop is generally run by three o r four families . .. . 'Sordidi
etiam qui mercantur a mercatoribus quod statim vendant ; nihil enim proficiunt
nisi admodwn mentiantur. Nec vera quicquam est turpius vanitate' (Ik QjJiciis).5
. The current president of the Chamber o f Commerce last year fOrmally
requested once again, as a remedy for commercial anarchy, the reestablishment
of guilds." Eugene Buret, Dr: fa Misere des clas.m lahomu.m en Angk tem: et en
France (Paris, 1840), voL 2, pp. 216- 218. [W4a, l j
" The modern proletariat '8 lack of history, the detachment of the first generation of
factory worker s from every historical tradition of class and profession, and the
diversity of its origin- in handicrafts, smaD landholdings, agrarian labor, and
, domestic concerns of every sort- made this category of economic man receptive to
II. vision of the world that would improvise ex novo a new state, a new economy, and
II. new morality. The novelty of what w as to be achieved corresponded logically to
the novelty of the situation in which the new men and women found themselves."
Robert I\tichels, " Psychologie der antikapitalistischen Massenhewegungen,"
p. 31 3 [Grundrin der Soziawko"omik , vol. 9, no. I , Die geseUschaftliche
Schichtlmg im Kapitalismus (TUhingen, 1926)] . (W4a,2j
"Grandville's life is IlDremarkable enough: peaceful , remote from all excess, at the
periphery of dangerous enthusiasms .. .. His youth was that of an honest clerk in
a respectable shop, where, on rows of spotless shelves, were arrayed- not without
malice-the various images that corresponded to the need for criticism which aD
'average Frenchman' might feel in 1827." <Pierre > MacOrlan, " Grandville Ie
precurseur," Arts el metiers g raphiques. 44 (December 15 , 1934) <po20>.
(W4a,3]
f ourier and Saint-Simon: " Fourier is more interesting and more diversified in his
economic analysis and in his critique of the existing social order. But , then , Saint­
Simon has the ad vantage over Fourier in his representations of future economic
devel0Jlment. Obviously, this development had to move .. . in the direction of a
gI?bal economy . . . , and not in the directioll of many self-sufficient IittJe econo­
nues, sueli as Fourier imagined . Saint-Simon conceives the capitalist order ... as
..a "~ t c" . . . , wh'''''
·I e ,'ouTler
·· rejects It· III
· t ,Ie nallle 0I'tIe pett y bourgeoisie." V. Volgin ,
<~bcr die historische Stellung Saint-Simons," ill (Marx-Engels Arclliv, vol. 1
Frankfurl anI Main, 1928 >, p . 118. (W4a,4]
" III an cxchang!= of views with the writcr Camillc Ma udair, . .. Zola ... dedared
uneqUivocally that he bore no love for collcctivism; he found it smallhearted and
Utopian . He was an anarchist rather than a sociali o~ • • .. . U.opllin
· SOCl.ll
. ,.Ism, . .. as
he saw ii , look ils rise fromlh e irulividual workshop , proceeded to the idea of the
associalion of prOtlueers. ami aimed to achieve a communism of thc general com_
munity. This Wll8 hefore 1848.... Zola , however, wanled to revive the method of
this period ; he ... took up tile ... ideas of Fourier, which were conditioned by the
embryo nic relations of capiialisl production , and attempted to aUy them to the
mo<lcrn form of t.his production . which h ad grown to gigantic pr oportions." Frana
Diederich , " Zo la als Utol)ist" (on I.e Tra vail), Die neue Zeir, 20, no. I (Stuttgart),
PI)· 326-327 ,329. [WS,I)
rourier (in u Nouveau Montie indUJlriel et Jooitaire, 1829) d isapproves o r the
contempt ror gastronom y. "111is gaucherie is yet another or those exploits or
m orality calculated to tum us intO enemies o r our own senses, and into rriends or
that commercial activity which serves merely to provoke the abu ses o r sensual
pleasure." E. Poisson, Foun·u [contains sclected texts] (Paris, 1932), p . 131. Thus,
Fourier here views inlD10ral businesses as a complement to idealist morality. 10
both he opposes his h edonistic m aterialism . His position recalls, from afar, that or
Georg Buchner. The words quoted ab ove might have been spoken by Buchner's
D anto n . [W5,2)
" A phala nx d oes not sell n thousand quintals of flour of indifferent quality ; it aeu.
a thousand quintals classified according to a scale of five, six, or seven varietiCi of
flavor, which it has te!!ted in a bakery and distinguished in terms of the field where
it was harvested and the method of cultiva tion .... Such an agricultural meclul­
nism will contrast sharply with the practices of our backward world, our civilisa­
tion so in need of perfecting. . . . We ace among OUr!lelVetl, furthermore.
merchandi!!e of inferior quality that is twenty times more abundant and more
easily sold tha n he tte.....quality goods .... As a result of this circumstance, we can
no longer even recogn ize the inferior quality; morality accu!!tom!! the civilized to
eating the good and the b ad indiscriminately. From this coar seness of taste follow
all the knaveries of mercantilism." Th eorU! des quatre mouvemenU ( 1828). cited
in E. Poisson. Fourier (Pa ris, 1932). pp . 134-135. : -Alread y children are taught
to " clean their platc!!. ,. [W5,3)
" Knowing ... that sometimes, in the region of the North Pole, there is generated
an electrical discharge which lights up those lands plunged in d arkne88 for six
months of the year, Fourier announce!! that, when tile eart h shall h ave been ra·
tionally cultivated ill all its pa rts , the aurora borealis will be continuous. h this
absurd ?" The lIuthor endeavors, followin g this, to provide an explanation: the
transfor med curtI! will absorh less electricit y from the sun , a nd whatever is nol
absorbed will encir cle it as 8 ring of Northern LiglJls. Charles-l'tt . Limou!!in, Le
Fourierisme: Repo/lse f; IHI article de Edmond Villey inti,ule " Fourier et son oeu­
vre" (Pa ris, 1898). p . 6. [W5a, I)
"T hen : ","oultl he lIot hillg ver y surprising in the fa cl that Fourier had been a88oci­
aled ... wilh a Martinist 100Igc, or al the very leasl had fel! t.he innuence of a
lIulieu in which such ideas Rourished ." Cha rles-M. Limousin , Le Fourw risme
(Paris, 1898) , p . 9. (W5a,2]
""'rthy of no te is the fact-to which Lim o usin adverts-that, with Fourier, the
desire ror possessio n is not a "passion ." This same commentator defines the
concept or paJJirm mir.anuante as that passio n which governs the play or the
others. H e remarks further (p. 15) : "Fourier was surely wrong to make a j oke or
duty?' Cenainly apt is his observation (p. 17) that Fourier is more an inventor
than a scientist. (W5a,3)
" In Fourier, occult science acq uires a new form- that of industry." Ferra ri , "l>ft
Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier," Revue de. d eux mondes, II , no. 3 (1845), p . 405.
[W5a,4)
On Fourier 's machinal mode of conception . The table entitled " Mesh of the Lodg­
ments of Harmony" establishes, for apartments in street-galleries, twenty differ­
, ent categories of rentals , priced from 50 to 1,000 fran cs, and offers, among others,
the foll owing justIDcation: " This meshing of the six series is a law of the twelfth
passion. The simple progreuion . whether constantly increasing or decreasing,
would have ver y seriOU!! drawbacks. In principle, it would be false and deleteri­
ous, insofar as it was simple .... In application , it would be injurious, insofar as
... it gave to the body of dwellings in the wings ... the appearance of an inferior
clan. Care must be taken to avoid thil arrangement , which would be simple and
therefore detrimental to the meshing -of the differt!nt claI!!es. 'ttl Thus, within a
single section of the strect-gaUeries, lodger!! of differ ent social standing will reside
together. " I put off discussion of the stables ... , about which I 8hall furnisb ...
ample detail!! in special ch apten to follow. For now, our concern is with lodg­
ments, of which one part alone--the street-gallery, the hall of univenallinkage-­
conclusively proves that , after 3,000 yean of research into architectu re, civilized
men have yet to lea rn anyt hing abo ut the bond of unity." Cited in E . Pois80n ,
Fourier [anthology] (Paris, 1932), pp . 145-146. [W5a,5)
\ Aspects of Fourierist num ber mysticism. according to Ferrari, " Des Idee!! et de
I'ecole de Fourier " ( Revue de. deux mondes, 14, no. 3 [Paris, 1845]): " Everything
indicates that FOllrierisrn bases itself on the P ythagorean harmony.. .. Its !!cience
was the science of the a ncients" (p . 397). " Number reproduces it!! rhythm in the
ev alu~tion of earnings" (p. 398). The inhabitant!! of the phalanstery comprise 2 x
8 10 men and women ; for " the number 810 gives them a complete series of chords
corresponding to the mlihitu~l e of clliJulist a$sonances" (I'. 396). " If. with Fourier,
Ihe science of the occult takes 0 11 a new form, t.hut of industry. it should not be
forgotten that form l>er se coun ts for nothing in this airy poetry of the my!!­
lagogies" (I). 405). " Number groups IlII beings according to its symbolic law!!; it
develops aU the groulls through serics; the series distributes the harmonies
throughout the universe . ... For lhe series ... is perfect throughout all of 1I1l­
ture. . . . M.an alone is unhalJpy; hence , civilization inverts the number which
should govern him . Let us reseue it from civilization .... The order that domj _
nRtes physical movement--(lrganic movement , animal movement-will thus radi.
ate in . . . plissional movement ; na ture ilJlelf will organize the association"
(p. 39>-J96). [WO,I]
Foreshadowing of the bourgeois king ill Fourier: " He speaks of kings who devote
themselves to locksmithery. to woodworking, to selling fish, to the manufacture
of sealing wa): ." Ferra ri, " Des Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier," ReVile c1e, delU
monde. , 14, no . 3 ( 1845) p. 393 . [W6,2)
"All his Life. Fourier was engaged in thinking; but he never once asked himself
where his ideas came from . He portrays the human being as a machine paI'ion­
nelle ; his psychology begins with the senses aud euds with the coml)Osite, without
presupposing .. the inter vention of reason in the solution of the problem of
happiness ." Ferr ari, " Des Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier," Revue des dew: monde"
no. 3 ( 1845) , p. 404. [W6,3)
Utopian elements: "The combined order comprises ' the glory of the arts and Ici.
ences , the spectacle of knight-errantry, gastro nomy combined in a political
sense • . .. and a politique galante for the levy of troops" (Ferr ari , p . 399). "The
world turm to its antitype, as dangerous and savage animals enter the service of
mankind : lionl are ul ed for delivering the mail. The aurora borealil reheau the
poles; the atmosphere, at the earth 's surface, becomes clear as a mirror; the aeat
grow calm ; and (our moonl light up the night. In short , the earth renewl itself
twenty-eight times, until the great soul of our planet (now enfeebled, exhauued)
passes on, with all its human soull , to another planet" (Ferrari, p. 401) . [W6,4)
" Fourier u cels in the observation of animality, whether in beasu or in men. He
has a genius for common maHers." Ferrari , " Del Idees et de )'ecole de Fourier,"
Revue de. dew: mondes. 14 , no. 3 (1845), p . 393. [W6a,l)
A Fourierist formula : "Nero will be more useful tha n Fenelon" (in Ferrari,
p.399). [WOo,2]
In the following scheme of twelve p allions, the four in the second group rep resent
the puuioru group a llles , the th ree in the third group the p ouions serionles : "6nt
the five senses; then love, fri endshil>, famil y feeling, a mbition; third , the pauionl
for intrigue, for mutability, for union- in other words, the ca balist . the butterfly,
the composite; II thirtet!lIth pas8ion , ' unityism, ' absorbs aU the otllers." Ferrari,
'; Oes Itli:es et de I'ecole de Fourier," ReVile dcs deux mondes. 14, no . 3 ( 1845),
p. 394. [W6a,3)
From "' ourier's last work , I A I Faluse I ndll.uric ( 1835-1836 ): "The celebrated
American hoax auociated with Her schel's discoveries ahout the world of the
moon' had raised in Fourier, once lhe hoax was revealetl as such, the hope of a
direct vision of the phalanster y on other 1)lanel8... . Here is Fourier 'l reBponse:
'TheAmerican hoax ,' hededares, ' proves. fIrst , the anarchy ofthe press; second,
the barreOliess of storyteller s concerned with the extra terrestrial: third , man's
ignorance of the atmospheric shells; fourth . the need (or a megatelescope ...• Fer­
. " D-,
ra n. .. Idees et de I'ecole de Fourier." Revue des deux monJe" 14 , no. 3
(1 845), p. 4 15. [W6a,4)
Allegorical specime.ns from La Fuu.ue Indwtrie: " On earth Venus creates the
mulberry bush, symbol of morality. and the r aspberry filled with ver se, symbol of
the cOlilltcrmorality preached in the theaten ." Ferrari, " Des Idees et de I' ecole de
Fourier," Revue des deux mondes, 110 . 3 (1845), p. 4 16. [W6a,5)
"'According to Fourier, the p halanstery should be able to earn , merely from spec­
tators alone, 50 million fran cs in two years. " Ferrari , " Del Idees et de I'ecole de
Fourier," Revue c1el dew: mondes, no. 3 ( 1845) , II . 4 12. [W6a,6]
'"Tbe phalanstery, for Fourier. wal a veritable hallucination. He saw it every­
where , both in civilization Bnd in nature. Never was he lacking for a military
pllrade; the drilling of l oldien was (or him a representation o( the all-powerful
play o( the group and of the scries inverted for a work of d estruction ." Ferrari,
" Des Idees et de l'ecole de ."ourier," Revue des deux mondel , no. 3 (1845). p. 409.
[W6a,7)
Fourier, in connection with a proposal for a miniature pedagogical colony: "Ful­
ton Wll8 sup posed to have constructed or merely drawn up p lans for a delicate little
laullch that would have demollstrated, on a miniature scale. the power of steam.
This skiff was to have tranl ported (rOlIl Paris to Saint-Cloud-without sails or
oars or borses-a half-dozen nymphs , who, on their return from Saint-Cloud.
would have publicized the prodigy and (>ut all the Parisian beau month in a flut·
ter." Ferrari, " Des Idees et de l'&:ole de Fourier," Revue del deux monde" no. 3
(1845), p . 414. [W', I]
"The »Ian to encircle Pari \O;th (ortifications would squander hundreds of mil­
\ lions of fran cs for reasons of defense, whereas tbil magician, with only a million,
\O'ould r oot out fore\'cr the ca use of all wars and all revolutions." Ferrari , " Des
Idi:"es et de I' ecole d e Fourier," Revue de. deux mOlldes, 14, no. 3 (1845), p. 413.
[W',2]
Micllelet on Fouricr: " SinguJa r contrast betwcen his boast of materialism a nd his
self-sacrificing. disinterested , aud spiri tu ul !ife!" J. Michelet, Le Pellple (Paris.
1846), p. 294. 10 [W7,3)
Fourier's conception o f the propagation o f the phalanstcries through "explo­
sions" may be compared to two anida o f my "politics" : the idea of revolution as
an innervation of the tecluucal o rgans o f the collective {analogy with the child
who learns to grasp by trying to get hold o f the moon}, and the idea of the
"cracking open of natural tdeol? gy." (See W8a,S and Xla,2 .) [W7,4]
Fourier, Oeuvre•. vol. ( 3) , p. 260: " L.ist of ch arges to be brought against Cod, 00
the hypothesis of II gap in the divine social code." [W7,5j
A take on the ideal of Fourier: " King Clodomir, restored by harmo ny to his natu.
ral vocation, il no longer that ferociou s Merovingian who has his confrere Sips.
mont! thrown into a pit. ' He is a friend of flowers and of verse, an active partisan
of musk roses, of golden plums and fresh pineapples , and man y another growing
thing.... He weds the vestal Antigone and follows her a8 troubadour to join the
Hippocrene phalanx .' And Lows XVl, instead of fillin g so pitiably the job of Irins
for which he was hardly cut out, makes magnificent door locks." Charles Lcman_
dre, Le. Idee. mbvenive. de notre temp. (Paris, 1872), p . 59 [cita tion given with_
out indication of source]. [W7,6)
Delvau , in Le. Lio,." du jour (Pa ris, 1867), p. 5, slJeaks of Fourier's " ingeoiolll
II rgol ." {W7,7]
" It is easy to understand that every ' interest' on the part of the mas&el ... goes far
beyond its ccllilimiu in the 'idea' or ' imagination' when it first comes on the scene,
and is confused with human inlerest in general. This illusion constitutes what
Fourier calls the ' tone' of each historical epoch ." Marx and Engels , Die~.
Fomilie , in Der hi!tori!che Moteriolismw . vol. 1 <Leipzig, 1932), p . 379. 11
(W7.8)
Augustin-Louis Cauchy is mentioned by Toussenel (L 'E'prit des betel [PariJ,
1884], p . 111 )12 as a mathematician with Fourierist leanings. [W7a,l)
­ tory of anthropological materialism stretches, in Germany, from Jean Paul to
In a passage concerned witb Malthusianism . Toussenel explains that the solutioa
to the problem resides in the double (_ filled ?) rose of Rhodes, whose nameD­
maments have been transformed into petals. "and which consequently becoa18
barren by exuberance of sap and of richness. In other words, ... so long as miaerr
shall continue increasing, the fecundity of the female sex will follow the ,ame
course; and there is but one method of curbing this continual prolification­
namely, to surround all women with the delights of I",wry. . . . Except throuP
luxury ... ,except through general riches, no salvation !" A. TOll.8senel. L'E.p",
de. bete.: Zoowgie passionnel (Paris. 1884), p . 85. 13 [W7a,2)
On tile feminism of the Fourierist ~h ool : " On Herschel and Jupiter. botany
cour5e@ aretaught by young vestals of eightecn to twenty... . When I say 'eighteen
to twellty,' 1 spell k the la nguage of Earth , since the years 0 11 Jupiter are twelvfl
times longer than ours, and the vestalate begins only toward the hund red th year."
A. TOUS6ellel, L 'E. prit de. bete. (Paris, 1884), p. 93. H [W7a,3)
A model ofFourierist psychology in Toussenel's chapter on the wild boar. "NoW,
surrounding the dwellings of humanity are great quantities o f broken glass ~­
ties, rusty nails, and candle ends, which would be completely lost to society if
some careful and intelli~nt hand did not charge itself with the collection o f all
tllese vaJucless relics, to reconstruct out of them a mass susceptible of being
reworked and made fit for consumption again. This important task evidently
belongs among tlle attributes of the miser. . .. Hett the character and mission of
the miser perceptibly rise: the pinch·penny becomes a ragpicker, a salvage opera·
lOr. ... The hog is the great salvager of nature; he fattens at nobody's expense."
A. Toussenel, L'&pn't des bites (Paris, 1884), pp. 249-250. 15 [W7a,4]
Marx charPcterizes the insufficiency (If Fourier, who conceived " a particular form
of labor-labor leveled down , parceled , and therefore unfrce--... as the source
of private property's perniciousne88 and of its existence in estrangement from
mell ;' instead of denoullcing labor as such , as the essence of private property.
Karl Marx , Der ili. tori.che Materililultlll. , ed. Lalldshut and Mayer (Leipzig
( 1932», vol. I , p . 292 ("NationalOkonoruie und Philosophie" ). I. [W7a,5]
Fourierist pedagogy, like the pedagogy of Jean Paul. should be studied in the
context of anthropological materialism. In this, the role o f anthropological mate­
rialism in France should be compared with its role in Germany. It might tum out
that there, in France, it was the human collective that stood at the center of
interests, while here, in Germany, it was the human individual. we
must note, as
....-ell, that anthropological materialism attained sharper definition in Gennany
because its opposite. idealism, was more clearly delineated over thett. The his·
Keller (passing through Georg Buchner and Guttkow); in France, the socialist
utopias and the physiologies are its precipitate. [W8, 1]
Madame de Cardoville. agronde d(lme in Le Juiferran( <The Wandering Jew). is
a Fourierist . [W8,2)
In cOnnection with Fourierist pedagogy, o ne should perhaps investigate the dia·
lectic of the example: although the example as model (in the moralists' sense) is
pedagogically worthless, if not disastrous, the gestic example can become the
Object of a controllable and progressively assimilable imitation, o ne that pos'
sesses the greatest significance. [W8.31
" Lfl Phalange. journul tie la science .ociale ( 1836-1843), which aplH!3rs three
limes II ....eek • ... will fade from the scene olily when it call cede il s place 10 a dail y.
/..{I lJemocrtllie IJUcijiqlle (IJl1J3- 1851). Here, the ulaill idea ... is ' the orga nization
of luho l" through the association ." Charll'S Benoist. " L' Homme de 1848." part 2,
Rlllille de. dellX "lOlide. (February I, 191 '1). p . &15. [W8.4)
FrUin Nellemell !', discussion of Fourier: " In crcuting the present world . Goo re­
Sen 'ed the righllO cha uge its outwanl aijIW(·t through suhsellucnt crea tions. These
c.reltlions arc cight ecn in numher. Every crt:atioll is Lruughl IlIJOul by a cuujunc­
hOIl of uuslral flu id alld boreal lluitl." The lalcr creatiOIiS. followin g on the fir~ t .
can eventuate only in lI armon y. AHred Nettement, HUloire de fa litterature
JrtJII{aise SOliS Ie gOll verllemenl de juille, (Paris, 1859), vol. 2, p. 58. {W8,5)
" According to him (Jo'ourier >, souls trunsmigrate frOIll body to body, and even
from world to world . Each planet possesses a soul , which will go to animate some
other, superior planet , carrying with it, as it does so. the sonls of those people who
have inhabited it . It is thus that , before the eud of our planet earth {which is
supposed to endu re 8 1,000 years) , the human souls upon it will have gone through
1,620 existences; they will have lived a total of 27,000 years on earth aud 54,000
yea rs 0 11 another plauet. ... In the exertions of its earliest infancy, the earth waa
struck by a putrid fever that eventually s pread to the moon , which died as a result.
But once or ganized in Harmony, the ea rth will resuscitate the moon ." Nettement, -
Histoire de hi litterafltreJran{aise 30 1t.f le gou vem ement dejuiUet , vol. 2 , pp. 57,
59. {W8,")
The Fourierist on the subject of aviation: " The buoyant aerostat .. . is the chariot
of fire , which . . . respects above all the works of God; it does not need to aggrade
the valleys or tunnel through mountains in imitation of the murderous locomotive,
which the speculato r has dishouored." A. Toussenel . Le Monde del oi.tearu, vol. 1
(Paris, 1853). p . 6. [\VSa, l]
" It is impossible ... that zebras, quaggas, hemiones, and pygmy ponies, who know
they are destined to serve as steeds for tbe children's cavalry of the future, are
sympathetic witb the policy of our statesmen , who treat as merely utopian the
C<IUestrian institutions wher e these animals are to bold a position of honor....
The lion likes nothing better ... than having its nails trimmed , provided it is •
pretty girl that wields the scissor s." A. Tou8senel, Le Momle de, oi.tearu: 0nU.
thologie passwnnelle. vol. I (Paris, 1853). pp. 19-20. The author sees in woman
the intermCi:liary between human and animal. [\VSa,2)
Memorable letter from Victor Cousin to Jean J ournet, in response to writings
sent him by the latter. It is dated October 23, 1843, and concludes : "When you
are suffering, think not of social regeneration but of God, ... who did not create:
man only for happiness but for an end quite otherwise sublime." The prefacer
adds: "'"'* would have consigned this litde anecdote to oblivion, had not this
poor letter ... , a uue masterpiece of perfect ignorance, summed up ... the
political science ... of a coterie that, for the past twenty-one years, has overseen
. . . the fortunes of our country." J ean J oumet, Po(sies d cnantJ narmonieru (Paris,
1857), pp. xxvi- xxvii (editor's preface). rw 8a ,3]
"The hislory of Ihe ... human races 011 Jupiter allli Saturu leaches U 8 that civili­
zation ... is on ils wa y to guarantislII ... by virhle of the political equality be­
hn:t:lIl1lan and woman , ami frolll guaralltism to Harmon y through the recognitioP
of the superiorit y of WOIIIUII ." A. TOlIsscnci. Le MOlille d C5 oiseullx, vol. I (Paris,
1853). p. 131. rwSa,4j
Fourier's long-tailed men became the object of caricature, in 1849, with erotic
drawings by Emy in Le Rire. For the purpose ofelucidating the Fourierist extrava­
gances, we may adduce the figure of Mickey Mouse, in which we find carried
out, entirely in the spirit of Fourier's conceptions, the moral mobi.l.ization of
nature:. Humor, here, puts politics to the test. Mickey Mouse shows how right
Marx was to see in Fourier, above all else, a great humorist. The cracking open of
natural teleology proceeds in accordance with the plan of humor. [\VSa,S]
Affiliation of anti-Semitism with Fourierism. In 1845, Les Juifi rois <The Jewish
Kings>, by Toussenel, appears. Toussenel is, moreover, the partisan of a "demo­
cratic royalty." [\VSa,6]
" The line . . . generally associated with the family group is tbe para bola. This
postulate is demonstrated in the work of the Old Masters, and above all in
Rap hael. ... From the approximation of this grouping to the parabolic type, tbere
res wts, in the oeuvre of Rapbael, a hymn to the family, ... masterful and ...
divine . . . . The master thinker, who determined the analogies of the four conic
sections, has recognized the correspondence of the parabola and of familyism.
And here we find the confirmation of this proposition in the prince of painters, in
Raphael. " D . Laverdant, De hi Mi.uwn de l'art et du role ck5 arti..!Ile,; Salon de
1845 (Paris, 1845), p. 64. [\V9,1]
Delvau {Le, Deuow ck Pam ( Paris, 1860>, p . 27) sees connections between
Fourier and Restif de La Bretonne. [\V9,2]
Highly characteristic of the relation of the Fourierists to the Saint-Simonians is
Considerant's polemic against the railroads. 1bis polemic relies, for the most
part, on Hoene Wronski, Sur la Barbade des chemins de fer et sur la rijOrme
ja~ tijique de la /ocomot£on. Wronski's first objection is directed against the system
of iron rails ; Considerant indicts "the process operating under the name 'railway
system,' that is to say, the consuuction of very long fiat roads equipped with
metallic rails and re:quiring enonnous amounts of money and labor-a process
i. 'not only opposed to the actual progress of civilization, but contrasting all the
more strongly with this progress in that it presents something truly ridiculous:
the barbarous contemporary reproduction of the massive and inert roadways of
the Romans' (lftition aux Chambres, p. Il)." Considerant opposes the "barbarous
means," which is "simplistic," to the "scientific means," which is "composite"
(pp. 40-41). At another point, he says explicitly: "For this Jimpfume has led, just
as one would expect, to a result that is completely barbarian: that of the ever
more ineluctable leveling of roads" (p. 44). By the same token: "HorUontality is a
proper condition when it is a question of conununications over water. The sys­
tem of terrestrial locomotion, on the other hand, evidently ought to be capable of
PUtting . .. .different elevations in communication with one another" (p. 53). A
Second and related objection of Wronski's is directed against navel on wheels,
which he describes as "a well-known and extremely vulgar process ... , in use
since the inventio n of the chariot.n H ere, too, he stresses the lack of any genuine
scientific and complex character. Victor Considerant, Dirau(Jn t:l dang«s de len­
gvucnent pour l~ cncnins rnf« (Paris, 1838). The comentS first appeared, in large
part, in La Phalangr. (W9,3]
Considcr ant ar gues di al the work of engilll!en sllouM be focused nol on the im­
provemenl of the track bUI 00 the improvement of Ihe means of Iransl)Ort. Wron_
ski, 10 whom he refen, a plHlars to he thinking primarily of an in11)roved form of
wheel or of its replacemenl by something else. Thus, COllsidcrant writes: "Is it not
clea r ... that the Iliscovery of a machine thai would facilitate locomotion over
ordinary routes, and incr ease ... tile present speed of trans portation on these
route!! , would devastate, from top to bottom, the entire ente'1lri!le of the rail­
roads? ... Hence, a disco\'ery 110 1 onJ y l)Ossihle bUI indeed probable can annihi_
late, at one blow alld forever, the extraordillary amountll of capital that some
IHloplc have propolled be sunk illto the railwa y lIYlltem!" Vietor Conside.rant,
Deraisoll et da nger' de I'ellgouermmt pour k . chemiras en fer (Paris, 1838), p . 63.
[W9a, l}
"'The ope ration of ruilroads , .. forced humanit y into the position of comhati.ns
natu re's workll ever yw here 011 ea rth , of filling up valleys and breaching moun­
tains, ... of struggJin g fmally, b y means of a general system , againsl the natural
conditions of the plallet's terrain, ... and r eplacing them universally by the oppo­
site sort of cOllditiolls." Victor Considerallt , Deroison et danger' de l'engoueme ...
pOllr les cllemiru en fer (Pa ris, 1838), pp . 52-53. [W9a,2]
Charles Gide on the " di vi natory genius" of Fourier: " When be writes: 'A certaiD
veuel from London a rri ve8 in China toda y; tomorrow the planet Mercury, haviDB
been ad vised of the arrivals and movements of shil)8 hy the astrOnomers of Asia,
will trallsmit the list to die aatronomer s of London ,' and if we trans pose tbit
prophecy into currellt vernacular ao that it reads, ' When a ship ar rives in China.
the T. S. F. will transmit the news to the Eiffel Tower or to London ,' then it is clear.
I be lieve, that we have here an extraordinar y anticipation . For wh at he mealll to
say is precisely this: the planet Mer cury is there to repreSf:nt a force, a8 yet un­
known , which would enable the transmission of message8-a force of which he hal
had a presentiment ." Cha rles Gide , Poltrier precurseur cle 10 cooperation (Pan.
<1 924 » , p . 10-11 Y [W9a,3j
Charles C ide on Fourier's nonsensical astrological s peculations: " lie tells us that
the pla nel8 Juno, Ceres, a nd Pallas each produce a s pecies of gooseberry, aud that
tllere ought to be a fourlh and still more excellellt ki nd , of which we are deprived
hecH use the planet Phoebe (the moon). which IO'ouill have generated it . is unfortu­
11
!lately dead ." Ch arles Girle. Pourier "reeur.eur c/e fa coo/,erafioJl (Pa ris), p , 10.
[W9a,4i
" When hcspeak.1I ' .. of u celestial a rm y which Ihe Sidereal Council hus resolved to
8end to the a id of Humanit y, UII army a lr eady dis patched some 1,700 yean ago and
havi.ng before it more than 300 yean of travel until it arrives in the conrmes of our
solar system •... we shudder a IittJe allhe hinl of Apoca lypse. In other places this
lunacy is nlOre amiable, bordering often on wisdom, abo unding in fin e and willy
ohser vations, a bit like Ihe harangues on the topic of the Golden Age Ihat Don
Quixote ill tile Sierra Morena addrened 10 the as tonished goatherds." Charlee
Gide, PourU!r precur,eur de la coop ert,tion (paris), p. 11 .19 (WI O, I]
"One could aay, and he says it himSf:lf, that his observatory--or his laborator y, if
you prefer- is the kitchen . It i!! his poinl of depart ure for radiating into all the
dOlllaill8 of social life." Charles Gide, POllrU!r precur.eur de 10 cooperaticJII
(paris), p . 20 . [W1O,2]
On the theory of attraction : " Berna rdin de Saint-Pierre d enied the fo rce of grav­
ity . . , beca use it signified an infringement on the free exer cise of providence; and
the aurOIlOlller Laplace struggled ... 110 len violentJ y ... against the fanciful
generalizations of tbis force. But that did not prevent the doctrines of an Aui's and
like~minded others ... from findin g their imilaton. Henri de Saint-Simon .. , was
oecupied for yean with the elaboration of a system of ' universal gravitation,' and
in 1810 he c~me out with the following cr edo: ' I believe in God. I believe that Cod
created the universe. I believe that God made the universe s ubject to the law of
gravitation .' Fourier likewise founded ... his ... system on the 'force of universal
attraction ,' of which sympath y between one man and another is said to be but a
s ~i al case." Ernst Robert Curtiw , Bauac (Bonn, 1923). p . 45 (Azau , 1766­
1845 , Des Compematiom dam ks de, ti"ees humaine.). [WIO,3]
Relation of the Com mu"ist Manifesto to the draft b y Engelt: "The organization of
labor (a concessiOn 10 Louis Blanc) and the construction, on state-owned lands, of
large communal palaces designed to bridge the gap between city and country (a
Concession 10 the Fourierists of the Democratu! Pacifique) were items which de­
rived from Engels' draft and which the final version of the manifeno left out ."
Gustav Maye r, Friedrich Engels , vol. J, Friedrich Engeu in ,einer Friilueit , 2nd
ed. (Berlin ( 1933», p . 288. (WIO.4]
\
Engels on Fourier: "'It is Morgan 's work which throws into bold relief the whole
brilliance of Fourier 's critillue of civilization ,' he an nounced to Ka utsky while
workillg on his Ur. pnmg der FamiJU!. In this book itSf:if, however, he wrote: 'The
lowest interests .. . usher in the new. civilized society, the cla8S-based society. The
nlOst 'out rageolls means . . . topple the old . classless, gentile socieIY.'" Ciled in
CUslav Mayer, f"riedricll Etlgels, vol. 2, EtlgeLs utld der Auf5lieg der Arbeiter­
bewegllng in Eu.ropa (Berlin ~ 1933» , II, 439.:!U [W lOa,11
Marx 0 11 Proullllon, in a letter 10 Kugelllllum . October 9. 1866: " I-lis sham criti­
cislll alit! lI.ham opposilion to Ille utopians (he IUlIIseif is onl y a IHlUy-bolirgeois
Ulopiall , whereas in the utopias of a Fourier, all Owen , and others, there is the
allticipa tiull and imaginati ve expressioll of s new world) a ttracted and corrupted
Grn the j euneue briUiantf', the studen ll, a nd then the workmen , I)srticularly
those of Pari8, who. as worker8 in luxury tradel, are 8trOngly attaehed , without
knowing ii , 10 the old ruhhi ~ h . " Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel~, Awgewiihlte
Brief. ed. Adorat~ ki (Mo~cow and Leningrad , 1934) <p o 174) . %1 [WIOa,2)
"When properly has been aboli8hed throughout Cermauy. these ultra·c1ever Bel"
linen will ~el up a Democratie PucifUJIW on the Ha ~enheid e .... Watch out! A new
Messiah will pre~entl y u ri~e in the Uckermark-a Messiah who will tailor Fourier
to accord with I-Iegel , erect a pha l a n ~ tery UpoD the eternal categorie8 , and lay it
down a ~ an eternal law of the 8elf·developing idea that capital, talent , a nd labo r aU
h ave a definit e share in the product . Thi~ will be the New Testament of H egelian_
ism; old Hegel will be the Old Testament ; the '51ate, ' the law, will be a ' tu kml8ter
over Christ ' ; and the phalanstery, in which the privie~ are located in accordance
with logical necessity, will be the ' uew Heaven ' and the ' new Earth,' the Dew
J eruu lem descending from heavell decked out like a bride." Engell to Marx,
Barmen , November 19 , 1844, in Karl Ma n: and Friedrich Engels, Briefwecluel,
vol. 1, 1844-1853, ed . Marx·Engels-Lenin Instilut (Moscow and Leningrad , 1935),
1)·11.%1 [W IOa,3)
Only in the summery middle of the nineteenth century, o nly under its SWl, can
one conceive of Fourier's fantasy materialized. [W IOa,4)
" Cultivate in children the sharp earl of a rhinoceros or a cossack ." Ch. Fourier,
Le Nouveau Monde indwtriel et societaire. ou In vention du procede d 'indwrrie
aUra yante et natureJle distrib uee en .eries passionnee. (Paris, 1829), p . 207.
(WIOa,5)
- vo rtex of stan represent an effect of the human palsions in the l ocial order, and
One readily grasps the importance of the culinary in Fourier; happiness has its
recipes like any pudding. It is realized on the basis of a precise measuring out of
different ingredients. It is an effect. Landscape, fo r example, signifies nothing to
Fourier. H e has no feeling for its romantic aspect; the miserable huts of the
peasantry arouse his indignation. But let "composite agriculture" move into the
area, let the little "hordes" and the little "bands":!l spread out across it, let the
noisy military marches of the industrial anny play over its surface, and we have
arrived at that proportion of elements needed fo r happiness to result. [WII ,I)
The kinship between Fourier and Sade resides in the constructive moment that is
proper to all sadism. Fourier conjoins the play of colors of the imagination in a
unique way with the play of numbers of his idiosyncrasy. It must be emphasized
that Fourier's hannonies are not dependent on any of the traditional number·
mysticisms, like that of Pythagoras or of Kepler. They are altogether his concep­
tion, and they give to the harmony something inaccessible and protected : they
surround the hannonitru as though with barbed wire. The happiness of the
phalanstcry is a bonheuT barhdl. On lhe other hand, Fourierist traits can be
recognized in Sade. The experiences of the sadists, as presented in his J20 J ours
de Sodome, are, in their cruelty, exactly that extreme that is touched by the
ext::reme idyllic of Fourier. us extremes .Ie touchent. The sadist, in his experiments,
could chance on a partner who lo ngs for just those punishmentS and humiliations
which his tomlento r in£I.icts. All at once. he cou1d be standing in the midst of o ne
of those hannonies sought after by the Fourierist utopia. [W II ,2]
Simplism appears in Fourier as the mark of "civilization." [W Il ,3]
According to fouri er. the people in the vicinit y of Paris, Blois . and TOlin are
especially suited to put their children into the trialphaluns tery. The lower classes
there are particularl y well bred . See Le Nouveau Momle, p . 209. [Wll a,l]
Fourier's system , as he himself explains, restS on two discoveries: that of attrac·
tion and that of the four movements (material, organic, animal, and social).
[Wlla,2)
Fourier ~pea k8 of a tra nsmission mirogiqae which will ma ke it po~sible for London
to have newl from India within four hours. See Fourier, La Fawle Indw trie
(Paris. 1836), vol. 2, I). 711. [Wlla,3J
"The social movement is the pattern for the three others. T he animal , organic, and
malerial movemenll! a re coordinated with the 80cial movement , which i. primary.
Thi. means that the propertiefl of an a nilllal, a vegetable, a mineral , or even a
that everything, fro m atoRls to stars, il an image of the propertie8 of the hURlan
passions." Cha rles Fourier, Theorie des quatre mou vements (Paris, 1841), p . 47.:.1
[W lla,4]
The contemplation of maps was one of Fourier's Cal'orite occupations. [Wl l a,5]
Messianic timetable: 1822 , preparation of lhe experimental canton; 1823 , ill! open­
ing and trial run ; 1824, its illlita tion in aU civilized nations ; 1825, recruitnlent of
the barbarians und savages; ) 826, organization of the spherical hier ar ch y; 1826 ,
\ dispatching of colonial squadrons.- The phrase hierarchie s"herique should be
taken to mean the " distribution of the 8cepters of sover eignty" (according to
E. Silberling, DiClioml(lire de sociologie phtlltlR.f terielUle [Paris, 19 11 ], p. 214).
[W lla,6]
The Illude! of the phala nstery comprises 1,620 persons-in otllcr words . a male
and a female exemplar of each of the 8 10 ch aracters tllUt , acconling to Fourier,
exha ust aU 1}I)81ihilities. [W ll a.7]
III 1828. the I)oles were to hecome ice fn.-e. [W11 a,8J
" The ~o ul of lIIall ill an emanation of the grea t pluneta ry 80ul , hi ~ hody a portion of
the plallet '~ hod y. Whcn a ilion dies. hill hotly Ji u olvcs illlo thc hod y of t.he planet
and his soul fadc8 into the planetary 80UI. " F. Armand and R . Maubla nc, ,"'ourier
(Pllris, 1937). vol. I , p . 111. [Wlla,9)
" AU childrell have thc following dominant tastes: ( 1) Ferreling. or the penchant
for handlillg thingt, exploring, running aro und , and constantl y ch anging activi_
tie8. (2) Indus tri«l (lin . the taste for noisy jobs. (3) Aping. or the imitative mania.
(4 ) Working on a minialllre scale. the taste for little workshops . (5) Progru.ive
enticemenl of the weak by the 8trong." Charles Fourier, Le Nouveau Monde indw_
trrel et locietaire (Paris, 1829), p. 2 13. u
[W 12,1]
Two of the twenty-four "'Sources for the blossoming of vocations": (3) The lure of
hierarchical ornaments. A plume already suffices to bewitch one of our villagers' to
such a n extent that he is ready to sign awa y his liberty. What. then , will be the
effect of a hundred honorific adornments in the effort to enroU a child in the
pleasurable association with his fellows? ... (17) Hannony of materiel, or the uni­
ta r y maneuver-something unknown in the workshops of civiliution , but puc­
ticetl in those of Harmony, where it is performed by tlte ensemble of soldien and
chor eographers in II man ner delightful to all children ." Charles Fourier, Le Nou.­
ve(1It Monde illdllltriel ef socielaire (Paris, 1829), PI'. 215, 216. [W12,2)
\kry characteristic that Fourier wants much more to keep the father away from
the education of his children than the mother. "Disobedience toward the father
and the teacher is ... a perfectly natural impulse; and the child wants to com­
mand rather than obey the father." Charles Fourier, I.e XoulJt:au Monde ituJwtriel ­
e/ Jodilaire (Paris, 1829), p. 219.215 (W12,3)
Hierarchy of children : ju ve niles, gymnasians, Iyceans, seraphim, c.herub8. ur­
chins. inll)S, weanlingt, nurslingt. The c.hildren are the only one of the ..three
sexes" that ca n ellter "straightaway into the heart of harmony." (W12 ,.)
"Among the imps, we do not distinguish the two sexes by means of contraltlq
attire, like trousen and petticoat; that would be to ris k stunting the growth of
vocations and falsifying the proportion of the two sexes in each function." Fourier,
Le NOll ve(J u Monde inllu,slriel et sociktaire (Paris, 1829), PI" 223-224 (imps: a~
one and u half to three; urchins: uges three to four and a hull). (W12,5)
Tools in 8even sizes. Industrial hierarchy of children : offi cers uf vurious types,
licentiate8, bachelors , neophytcs, as pirants. (W12,6)
Fourier concei ves tbe departure for work in the field s us a sort of country outiug,
in large wagons a nd with music. (W 12,1J
Qua lifying eJl:u minatiun for the choir of cllerubim : ( I) Musical and choreogr aphic
ulUlilion a lille OIH':ru. (2) Washing uf 120 plates in half an hour. witllout breakin«
one. (3) PeeUng uf I.alf a quintal of ap ples in u given space of time, without allowin«
the weight of the fruit to drop below a certuin level. (4) P erfect suting of a quantity
of rice or other grain in a fi xed period of time. (5) Skill in kindUng and 8creening a
fire ~i th intelligence a nd celerity." Charles .'ourier, Le Nouvea u Montie indlUt riel
et societaire (Paris . 1829), p . 23 1. [W12a,I)
Fourier unveils " the prospect of attaining, at the age of twelve or thirteen , to a post
of high dignity. such as commanding ten thousand men in a military or p arade
maneuver." Fourier, Le NOluJCau Monde indUJt riel et societaire (paris, 1829),
~- ~~
Names of children in Fourier: Nysas, Enryale. The educator: Hilarion . (W12a,3)
"And so it is that, from his childhood on , a lDan is not compatible with simple
nature; there is needed , for his education, a vast array of instruments, a multi­
grade and variegated apparatus. and this applies from the 1D0ment he fin t leaves
the cradle. J.-J. Rousseau has denounced this prison in which the infant is pin­
ioned, but he could not have known of the system of elastic lDats, of the combined
attentions and distrac tions, thut would be enlisted in support of this method.
Thus, the philosophers, in the fa ce of evil, know only to oppose their sterile decla­
mations, instead of building a road to the good- a system of roads that . far re­
moved frOID 8imple nature, results only from composite method!." Fourier, Le
Nouveau Montle indUJtriel et &ocietaire (Paris, 1829). p. 237. The " distractions"
involve, among other thinga, letting neighboring children play with one another in
hammocks. [W 12a,4)
Napoleon III belonged to a Fourierist group in 1848 . [W12a,5]
The Fourierist colony founded by Baudet-Dulary in 1833 still exists today in the
form of a family-ron pension . Fourier had disavowed it in his day. [W12a,6)
Babac knew and admired Fourier'. work . [W12a,7)
The Hag of the phala nster y di8played the &even colors of the rainbow. Note b y
Rene Maublanc: "The colors are an alogou8 to the passions .... By juxtaposing a
series of tables wherein Fourier compares the passions to colors, to notes of the
scale, to natural rights, to mathematical ope rations , to geometric curves, to met­
als l and to heavenl y botlies. one fmtl s, for example, that love corresponds to blue,
to the note mi, to right of pasture, to division , to the ellipse, to till , and to the
planets." F. Armalltl and H. Mauhlallc, Fourier (Puris, 1937), vol. 1, PI" 227-228.
(""12a,8J
He Toussenel: " Io' ourier ... claims tu ' join together and enframe, within a single
plall , th@ societary mecha nics of the pau ions with the other known harmOllies of
the universe ,' and for that , he adds, 'we llced ulily have recour&e to the amusing
lessons to be drawn from the m08t fascinating objects among the animals and
planu .'" Armand and MaliLlanc, Fourier (Paris , 1937), vol. I , p . 227; citins
Fourier, 'I'raill~ de i 'u$6oci(JtiQlI clome51ique-ug ricole (Paris alill Lomlon, 1822),
vol. I. pp. 24-25, a nd 1'hlwrie rie l'unite Imi ver$elle ( 1834). p. 31. [W13,l l
Fourier reproache8 DC8carh:8 with having, in his doubt , spared " Ihat tree of lies
one caUs civilization ." See I.e Nouveau Monde. I). 367 . [W13 ,2]
Stylistic (Iuirks reminisccnt of J ean Paul. Fourier loves preambles, cisambles,
trllllsambles, 1)o8lamble8. introductions, extroductions, prologues, inter ludes ,
postludC8, cismedianls, mediants, transmediants, inlermedea , notes , appendixee,
(WI'",1
Fourier appears very suggestive before the background of the Empire in this
note: "The combined order will, from the outset, be as brilliant as it has been
long deferred. Greece, in the age of Solon and Pericles, was already in a position
to undertake it, having a degree of luxury sufficient to proceed to this fonn of
n and Maublanc, Fourier (paris, 1937), yoU , p. 114.
organization. Annand and Maublanc, FOuna- (Paris, 1937) , vol. 1, pp. 261-262;
citing Truitt de {'association domestique-agricole (Paris and London, 1822), vol.1,
pp.lxi- lxii; Theone de {'unitt uniuer.seffe (1834), vol.l , p. 75.'11 (W13,4]
Fourier recognizes Illany forms of collective procession and cavalcade: storm,
vorlex, swltrm , seqH!ntage. [W13,5]
Wilh 1,600 phalansleries, the association is already deployed in aU iu combina­
tions. [W13,6]
"Fourier put himself body and soul into his work because he could nOt put into it
the needs of a n=volutionary class, which did not yet exist.n F. Armand and
R. Maublanc, rouna- (Paris, 1937), vol. 1, p. 83. It shouJd be added that Fourier .
appears, at many points, to pn=6gure a new type of human being, one conspicu·
ous for its hannJessn ess. a [W 13,1]
" In his rOOIll , Ihere was ordina rily but one free pathway, righl in Ihe middle.
h:acling from (Ioor 10 window. The rest of the space was enlirely taken up by his
flowerpots, which offered in themselves the spectacle of a progressive series of
sizeIJ, shapes. and even qualilies; there were pots of common clay, allIl there were
pols of Chincse pOI·celain. " Charles Pellarin. Vie de FOllrier (Paris, 1871). pp. 32­
33. (W I' ,' 1
Chal'les Pella rill , Vie de Fourier (Paris, 18i I) report.s (p. 144) thltt Fourier would
sometimes go !l.i" or sel'en nigllts without sleeping. This happened I...:cltuse of ex­
citemcnt over his diseovcrics. ~ 1 3a , 1 ]
" The phalanstcry will he an illllllense lodging house." (Fourier had no conception
offa mily life.) F. Armand ancl R. Maubla nc . Fourier (Paris, 1937), vol.l . p. 85.
[W 13a,2]
The e;abalisl, Ihe composite, and the butterfl y form appear WIder the rubric " dis­
tributil'es," or <po,uion!> meclUl;,!'OlIte.s. <See W15a ,2.) [W 13a,3]
~The cabalist spirit always brings selfish motives into play with passion. AU is
calculation with the intriguer-the least gesture, a wink of the eye. Everything is
done on reflection and with a1acrity.n 7ltone de i'uniti unillme{k (1834), vol. I ,
p. 145." ibis n=mark shows very clearly how Fourier takes account of egoism.
(In the eighteenth century, workers who agitated wen= called CIlbaleun.)
[W13a,4]
"The earth copulating with itself engenders the cherry; with Mercury, the straw­
berry ; with Pallas, the black curranl ; wilh Juno, the raisin ; aod so Oil!' Armand
[W13a,5]
"A series is a regular classification of a gellua, species, or group of beings or of
objects, arrauged symmetricaUy with r espect 10 one or several of their properties,
and 011 both sides proceeding from a center or piVOI , according to an ascending
progression 011 olle side, descending on the other, like two fl anks of an army....
There are ' OIH!n ' series, in which the world (!) of subdivisions is not determined,
and ' measnred ' series, which comprehend , at vanous levels. 3, 12, 32, 134,404
subdivisions." Armand and Maublanc, Fourier (Pans, 1937), vol. I, p. 127 ,
[W13a,6]
According 10 Fourier, every passion corresponds to an orgau of the human body.
(W13a,1]
" In Harmony ... the relations ansiug from the series are so dyuamic that one has
liltle tillie for remainiug in one's roo m " Ciled in Annand and l\oIaublanc Fourrer
(Paris, 1937), vol. 2, p. 2 11. ' '(W13a,81
The four "sources of virtue" in the Little Hordes: "These sources are the penchant
for dirt, and the feelings of pride, inlpudellce. and insubordination ." Fourier, Le
NOIwe(l u Monde indliMriel et .societ(lire ( Paris, 1829), p. 246. )0 ~14, 1]
Work signal or Ihe Lit tl" Hordes: " T he charge ofthc Liltle Hordes is sounded in an
UJlrO/H' or Lells, chillies , drulIIs, and Irumpets, It hO\O!'ling of dogs and a bellowing of
hulis. T llcn Ihe Horelc>!, Iccl by thcir Khans II;lId Druids, rU51! forward with a great
sho • >
. UlI ·
asslIIg IJCfore t III! priests,
· .
"'ho sprlllkle tllem with holy water. . . . The
LllIlc lIorel!!s should he associalctl with th" prieslhood as member5 of a religious
Ilrotherhood . When lH!rforming lhc:i.r work . they should wear a religious symbol
 ' g. ,. " Althougll the Little Hordes perform the most all !tI
hin difficul s, includi ng
· CI01 Inn
o n I.IJClr
gat "Under the tenn 'opera ' I compre hend aU choreog ra phic exen:ise
the reeeive the least remune ratio n . They would acce pt not ind u.triel et so­
Q
. . .
AJI aut horities , even m ona rchs, Owe the thOfle of the rifle and the censer. " Four ier. Le Nouvea u Monde
. . • y . . . t'
that were IJerml u ed III 8880CI II 1011 . . . .
tRsks. . (W 14a,41
c;etoire (paris. 1829). p. 260.
· 'e HonIe8. With their pygmy horscs, the Little Hortles .
be COIll.
first salute to the Li lu . .

Pn.SI! the " 0 be'8 , aremo 8t re";men

... Ui of cavalry; 110 IIld u s.trla!
... army can
U k d II
Pu
The phaJanstcry is organized like a land of milk and honey. Even amusem
ents
.
. ll Without t h em. T h ey II Iso have the preroga
tive of initi a tin g
.Ia wor '" one music, growin g Bowers , perfonn ing in theatric als) are
ampalg (huntin g, fishing, making
. ),. "Ch al"1CI Fourier, IILe Nouvea u Monde indu&'ne et soc&et(u rc
[W' 14,2] [W14a.5]
cin the name of Untl remunerated.
(Pari8, 1829), I). 247-24 8 and 244-24 6.
FOurier dlXS not know the concept of exploit ation. [WI4a,6]
" JU ' ear mode" of the Little Hordes , in contras t to the
tiN! ta rrare- or ellrv ilin
til ' e mode" of the Little Bantls.. "The. Horde.L-: re­ preach wine
"maonoeu
noeuvr e modernc--(u- ree III ar In reading Fourier, one is remind ed of the sentence by Karl Kraus: "I
, . cavaliN u n::r
ogen.de
ers will tM [W14a,7]
semhies a square bed 0 va n.ega ted "red
tulips: one hund and drink water."
. h d - - .I colors , artistic ally contras ted. Founer, Le ouveau 0
[W 14,3]
,
dISplay two un n:u
p.249.3: Bread 1)lays only a small role in the diet or the Harmo nieTl$ . (WIh,8]

of the degen _
-~...
" Whoev er shall abuse quadru ,,,,,,,8, b'I rt Is, fish or insects, eithtr. b_.y hHarddusage or
ADd "The initiatio n or barbari ans in the use or tacticH i8 one of the signs
de sociolog ic phalon _
ill b liable to the tribuna l or the Litue . or et. eration . . . or civiliza tion. " E. Silherli ng, Dicrion naire
crue~, ~e
I
wo:ld be brough t berore this tribulla l or childre n , and [W14a,9]
by unneees.sar y Ilerienn e (Paris, 1911 ), p . 424 (s .v. " tactics" ).
whatever h~s ag~ m~y' I
treated as infenor 1Il mora sen JJ
timent to childre n themselves." Fourier. Le Nog..
[W14,4]
harvest ing, pas­
veal! Monde (Paris, 1829), p . 248. "The savage enjoys Beven natural righu ... : hunting , fis hing.
of whal belongs to other tribe&), the rederal
ture, externa l theft (th at ia, pillaging
insouci ance." Armand
BancU,
ed to look arter the concorde sociale; the Little [Wa,S] league (the intrigues and cabala interna l to the tribe), and
The Little H ordell are 0 bli g Ind Maubla nc, Fourier (Pa ris, 1937), vol. 2, p . 78.
(W14a,1 O]
the cha rme socia l.
and enoush to
h b way or the good, by lpecula
til I by ;It tive
[W14,6] The poor man speak!: " I ask to be advanced the neeena ry tools ...
" The Little Hordes will come to t e cau II live on , in exchan ge for the right to fIleal which simple nat ure h., given Ole." Cited
defLI ement. " Fourier , Le NOlwe« u Monde, p . 255. , 1937), vol. 2, p. 82. [WI 5,l]
in Armand and Maubla llc, Fourier (paris
h . D .d n d Druides ses, the Little Bands have
T he, abo h ave theiroWD ers . A
" Just as the Little Hordes have t ell' rUI 8 aC b
. _._ In the phalanstery, a caravan sary is outfitted for the reception of foreign
. ho are known as ory ants. building
their own ad ult aSSOCIates, w H , Wherea t the Lit&a<
. 8p"Uaure characteristic of the phalanstery is the "(ower of order." This
r ho travel about d armon
Advent urelltell, who beloae: and the
allie! among the groups 0 voyage r! W of houses the optical telegraph, the control calter for the signal lights,
. d h b' hordes orAdve nlurer san . _.I ith the big b and! [WIS ,2]
Hordes are allie 10 t e 19 teu w carrier pigeons.
. h Little Bands are assocla
to Ihe industr ial a rrmes, t e l h Ii Is .. Fourier , Le No..­
Errant , who a~e dedicat e( to t e me ar . [W l b,l] 800,000 copies.
Knights and Ladies The circulation or work8 uscIull o aU Ihe phalans terieR amount s to
ve(IU MOrlde (Paris, 1829), p . 254. ~ iqlle calu­
FOUrier think8, above all , or puhlish ing all Encycw paedie na tllro/og
[W15,3]
minee.
.
. n over 0rrenses agalllsi [W lb,2].
mea d ows and ,ardeM
The Liltle Bands h ave j u risdicllo
rations .
and over questio ns or languag e. Fourier loves to clothe:: the most n=asona ble sentiments in fanciful conside
fW15,4]
liis discour se:: resemb les a highe::r Bowe::r language::.3Ii
. I d the minds or the childre n concern inl
" Ir the vestalate is called uJ>~n to. nu,s ea r two setl or genital. urinary appar •• tion­
FoUrier would like:: to see:: the people who servc= no useful purpose in civifua
Bexual relation s , Ihe tact manifes t m t Ie use ,0sex"E ..
Silherli n, Diclion naire.
, ur­ to conunu nicate- circula ting
.. I t ',lIoran ce 0 " tact" ). Likewise , Ihe cO rhOS(: who merely gad about in search of news
~ong ~bles
tus leaves the child III comp e e .' 424 ( time
there fro m losing
sociuwg ie phala nMerie nne ~Pa,?s . 19~)\PBandfl8i ~Vde8igllt:d to
mask the meani.ol the of the Hanno nians, so as to keep people
the tl e [W14a,3] In reading newspa pers: a divinati on of radio, born from
the:: study of human
teflY Or the bOYfl toward the prlfl in
[W 15,5]
of saUallt behavio r aIDoug adult s. character.
Fourier : UEver y calling h 88 its countermorality and its I'rinciplell ." Cited in Ar.
mand and Mau blanc, Fourier (Paris, 1937), vol. 2, p . 97 . Fourier mentions, 8.$
examples , Ie mOllde g ulunt and the wurld of domestic II-Crvants. (W 15,6]
" After three generations of Harmo ny, two-thirds of the wOlnen will be unfruitful,
as is the case with all fl owers which. by the refinemellts of cultivation , have been
raised to a high degree of perfection ." Fourier, La F(IIlSse Indu.slrie (Paris , 183&­
1836), vol. 2, PI' . 560-561. 31 (W15,7]
The voluntary suLmiu iveneu of the savage, with his seven natural rights , would
be. according to Fourier, the touchstone of civilization. It is something finlt ob­
tained in Harmony. (W15 ,8]
"T he individu al ... is a being eSll-Cntially false, for neither by himIClf alone Dor
with another can he bring a bout the development of the twelve passions , since
these comprise a mechanism of 810 keys and their compleme.nts. It is therefore
with the passional vortex alone tha t the scale begin8, and not with the individual
P1lr801l. " Pltblicafion d es manuscrits de Foltrier, 4 vols. (Paris, 1851- 1858), 1857­
1858, p . 320 . (W"15,9]
After 70,000 years comes the end of Hannony, in the fonn o f a new period of
civilization, in descending tendency, which once more will give way to "obscure
limbs.n Thus, with Fourier, tranSience and happiness are dosely linked. Engels
observes: just as Kant introduced into natural science the idea of the ultimate
destruction of the earth, Fourier introduced inw historical science that of the:
- Harmonians need ver y little 81eep (like Fourier !). They live to the age of 150 at the
ultimate destruction of the human race.n Engels, Anti-Diihring, part 3, p . 12.·
[WI5a,l]
The mechanics of the passions: " The tendency to harmonize the five sensual pas­
sions-( I) taste, (2) touch , (3) 8ight , (4) hearing, (5) smeU-with the four affective
pau ions--(6) friendship, (7) ambition , (8) love, (9) paternity. Thia ha rmony takH
place through the medium of three little-kno""n and abused pauion8, which I shall
ca ll: ( 10) the cubalist , (11 ) the butteTjly, (12) the composite." Cited from Le NOIJ­
veuu Monde, in Armand and ~1aublanc, Fourier (Paris. 1937), vol. 1. 1). 242.M
[W15a,2]
" A lurge lIumher of universes (ilince one universe, a lollg with mall alld plane~ ,
constitutes the third echdon , ... Fouril:r calls it u " tri-ver se") go to fonn a quatn­
vene; and so 011 , up to the octi-verse, which represelllS ... lIulure as a whole, the
tutalit y of the beings of Ha rmony. Fourier enten into some minute calculatio lU
ulltl anllounces lhat the octi-vene is composed of 10'ili univ~:rse •. " Armand and
l\1aubIUIlC. Fourier (Paris. 1937). \'01. I . p . 11.2 . [W15a,3]
On " beautiful agriculture": "" his plow that toda y is so despised will be takeD up
by the you ng prince, jUl. t as b y the yuung plebeian ; they willtogcther compete iP a
sort of industrial tOllrnalllellt, where each of the athletell wiU test his vigor and
dexterity, anti where each ca n show off to an audience of lovelies, who will hring
the fes tivities to a close by l!erving lunch or a s!lack. to Charles Fourier, Ti-aite de
f'flS$ociation domestique-ag ricofe (Paris anti London. 1822), vol. 2, p. 584. To thill
be/III flgricole belong, furth er, the steles that are raised on Rower-covered ,M!de­
~ tuls and the husts of descrving farm lahorers or agricultu ris ts placed on altars
t.ha t arc scattered through the field8. ""The8e are the mythological demigods of the
UuJu.!!trial sect or serics." Cited in Armand and l\1aublanc, Fourwr (Paris, 1937),
vol. 2, p. 206. Offering>! of incense are made to them through tbe Corybants .
[W15a,4]
Fourier recommends gearing the experiment , in the triall)halanx , towa rd pre­
cisely the most eccentric characters. [W 16,1]
Fourier was a chauvinist: he h ated Engiislunen andJ ews. He saw theJ ews not as
civilized people but as barbarians who maintained patriarchal customs. [W16,2]
Fourier's apple-the pendant to that of Newton- which, in the Parisian restau­
rant F'evrier, costs a hundred times more than in the province where it is grown.
Proudhon, too, compares himself to Newton. (W16,3]
To the Ihrmonians, Constantinople is the capital of the earth. [WIO,4]
very least . [W16,5]
"The ' oper a ' stand8 at Ihe forefront of educational directives .... The opera is a
school of morality in outline: it is there that young people are imbued with a
horror of anything prejudicial to truth, precision , and unity. At the opera , no
favor can excuse the one whose note is false, whose timing, step, or gesture is off.
Tile prince's child who has a part in the dance or the choir must endure the truth .
must listen to die criticisms arising from the mane!. It is at the opera that he
;, lea rns, ill evcr y move he makes, to subordina te himself to unitary proprietiea, to
general accords." Cited in F. Armalld and R. ~1auhl a nc, Fourier (Paris, 1937).
10'01. 2, PI'· 232- 233. [W16.6]
"N
I OO IU~ ever dreallled , ill civilization , of perfecting that Jlortion of our dreu we
cil li ' atmospherc.' ... It does IIOt suffice tu change it merely in the rooms of certain
.idlc!"s \" " ·r I atmosphere
, ... . wc IllLl S IIllUUI Y tiC in gencr al a nd systematically." Cited
III 1'. Armand lind R. Ma ubl ullc . "·ourier (Paris. 193 7) . vol. 2, p. 145. [W 16,7]
foUrier's tcxts are ridl in stereotypical locutions comparable to the graduJ ad
PaT7UJ.jJum . ~ Almost every time he speaks of me arcades, it is to say that, under
prcs~nt circumstances, even the king of France gelS wet when he steps into his
carnage during a rairu;tonu. [W 16.8J
Ten million francl would be needed for the ere1.!tion of the complete phalaoatery;
th ree million , for the trial phala n' tery. [W 16,9)
All fl ower beds of the Ha rmonian, are " , hielded" from too much sun and rain .
[W16,IO]
Of the beauties of agriculture among the Hannonians, Fourier gives an aCCOUnt
that reads like a description of color illustrations in children's books: "The socie­
tary state will be able to establish, down to the most unsavory functions, a
species·specific luxury. The gray overalls of a group of plowmen, the bluish
overalls of a group of mowers, will be enhanced by the borders, belts, and plumes
of their uniform, by glossy wagons and inexpensively adorned harnesses, all
carefully arranged to protect the ornaments from the grime of work. If we should
see, in a pretty vale of the medleyed English sort, all these groups in action, well
sheltered by their colored tents, working in disseminated masses, circling about
with Bags and instruments, singing hymns in chorus while ~g; and should
the region be sprinkled with manor houses and belvederes enli~ ~ colon·
nades and spires, instead of with thatched cottages, we would verily believe that
the landscape was enchanted, that it was a fairyland, an Olympian abode." Even
the rape cutters, who lack high standing with Fourier, have a part in the splendor,
and are found "at work in the hills, raising their pavilions above thirty belvederes
crowned with golden rape." C ited in Annand and Maublanc, rourUr (Paris,
1937), vol. 2, pp. 203, 204. [W16.,I]
Forming a mesh- for example, between herding, plowing, and gardeniog: " It it
not necessary that Ihis interchange be total_ay, that all of the twenty men eo­
gaged in lending Rocks from 5:00 to 6:30 go off as a group to work in the fields (~m
6:30 to 8:00. All that is necessary i! for each series to provide the othen WIth
several members taken from its differen t groups. The exchange of a (ew memben
will ! uffice to establish a Linkage or me!hing between the different series." Cited in
Armand and Maublanc, Fourier (Paris, 1937), vol. 2, pp. 160-161 ("E!!or de la
, pap ill onne"') . ~l [W16a,2)
It is not just the despotism but also the moralism that Fourier hates ~ the great
Revolution. H e presents the subtle division of labor among .Harmoruans, as the
antithesis of ega/iii and their keen competition as an altemanve to jralmu/l.
, [WHia,3)
In u Nouveau Montie induJlrid (pp. 281- 282), Fourier's rancor against Pestaloz.:-i
is very evident. He says he took up PestalOUl., s ".mtultlvc:
.. me thod'" lo his 'fralle
~de /'(JJJociah"on domeJtique~gTi,ole) of 1822 because of the great success it had had
with the public. Lacking such popular success, it would have created an unfavor·
able impression on its readers.-Of Yverdon he recounts, ~t best, tales o.f ~~
calculated to prove that institutions of hannony cannot be mcroduced With unp
. lOto
ruty . Cl
'viliz"abOIl. [W11, 1]
Under the healling "Le GarantiSl11e d 'olli'e" <The GU8ranleeism of Hearing). and
ill cOlljunctioll with the amelioralion of popula r SI)CeCh ha bits and of the mu! ical
education of the people (worker-choi rs of Ihe theater of Toulouse!), Fourier IreaUi
of meas ures 10 be taken againsl noise. He wanlS the workllhopII isolated aud , for
1111" 1II0St part, tnlnsrerred to the s uhurh ~ , [W 17,2)
'('own-Planning: " A lIIan who wishes 10 have a brillianl drawing room is keeul y
aware that Ihe beauty or the principal room cannot do without that of the avenue!.
\\'lul l is one to Ihink of an elegant ! alo n that require. the visitor, on his way there,
fi~t 10 p as! Ihrough a courtyard littered wi th refuse, a stairwell full of rubbish ,
11 1111 all antecillllllher provilled wilh old and uncouth fUnlidlings? ... Why i! it,
then, Ihal the good lallte eviuced by each individual in t.he d ecoration of his private
Ilholle is nol met with , as well , ill our areh.itt.'d s responsible for those collective
abodes known as cities? And wh y has n' t one of the myriad princes and arli8t, ...
e,'er had the idea of ado rning, in appropriate degree, the three components: fau­
bourgs, annexes, and avenues ... ?" Charles Fourier, Cite! ouvnere.; Modifica .
tion. ii. introduire dan. l'architeclllre de. villes (Parie. 1849), pp. 19-20. Arnon~
mallY other prescriptions for urban planning, Fourier imagines some that would
allow one 10 recognize, from the increasing or decr easing decoration on the build­
ings , whether one was approaching or moving away from a city. [W17,31
Barbarian , civili1:ed, and harmonian town 1)lanning: "A b ar baria n town is fonned
of buildings h aphna rdl y assembled ... and confusedly grouped along streetll that
are tortuous, !larrow, badly constructed , unsafe, and unhealthy. Such , in general,
are the cities of France .... Civil..i1:ed town8 have a monotonou!, imperfect order,
a chet:kerboard pattern , as in ... Philadelphia. Arn8terdam , Nancy, Thrin , the
new parts of London and Marseilles, and other citie! which one know. by heart aa
800n as one has looked at th ree or (our stree ts. Further inspection would be
pointless and dispiriting." In contras t to this: " neulral harmony," "which recOil·
cile! incoherent order wilh a combined order." Fourier, Cites ouvnere•• pp. 17­
18 . [W17,4]
;. The lbrmonians neither acknowledge nor desire any holidays. [W17a,I )
In Die heilige f'amilie (where?)"2Marx refers 10 Fourier. [W17a,2)
Toltsseu,?l, in 1848, was a mong the founder s of the Societe Rcpuhlicaine Centrale
(Ulali'lui 's c1uh). [W17a.3)
Claut!c· NielJlas LcllollX: " Like aUlhe COllllllullal dwellings envisioned for Chaux .
Ill e hospice (a low-rise str uctu re ringed !Jy arcades and cnclosin g a 8tlua re court·
ya rtl) lias the task of furthering the moral d evation of humankind , insofar a~ il
ca refull y lesls.the people it shelter" allows the good their fTt.-etlolll , and Iletains Ille
"uti fo r ctJlIlpulsory luhor. To what l'xtenl the a rtiSI was gripped by the reforillist
idell8 of those Ilays can be seen in the pcculiar project of the ' oikcma.' Already
quite eccentric ill ils outward aspe-<:t , this elongated building with its Greco-Roman
veijtihule a nd windowless waU8 was to be the place wlJere a new sexual ethic Was
pioneered . To reach the goal of higher sexual morality. the SIH:Ctade of human
dissipation in the oikema, in the hou8e of uninhibited passions, Wat IUp)lOsed to
lead to the path of virtue and to ' I-I ymen 's altar. ' Later. the architect decided that
it would be better .. . to grant nat ure its rights .... A new, more liberated form of
marriage was to be instituted in the oikema, which the ar chite<:t wanted to situate
in the most beautiful of landscapes." Emil Kaufmann , Von LedQUX b;., Le Cor_
busier: Urspru"8 und Entwicklu DB der autonomen Architektur {Vienna and
Leipzig, 1933), I}. 36. (W17a,4]
" During a large part of his life, Grandville was much preoccupied with the general
idea of Analogy. " Cil. Baudelaire, Oeu vres, ed. Le Dantec, vol. 2 <PQris, 1932),
p . 197 ("Quelques caricaturistes fran~ai8").43 [W17a,5)
H. J. Hunt, Le &ci4lisme tI Ie RomantUme en France: Etude de In. prwe JociaIiJle de
1830 ti 18 48 (Oxford, 1935), provides, on p. 122, a notably concise and fdiQ.
tous statement of the main lines of Fourier's doctrine. The utopian element
recedes into the background, and the proximity to Newton becomes clear. Pas­
sion is the force of attraction as experienced in the subject; it is what maIr.cs
"work" into a process as natural as the fall of an apple. (W17a,6]
"'In contras t to the Saint-Simonians, Fourier has no use for mysticism in aesthetie
matter s. In his general d octrine he is certainl y mystical, utopian . messianic UYOD
will, but in speaking of art he never once utters the word ' priesthood. ' ... 'Vanity
takes over and impels artists and scientists to sacrifice their fortune [which they
would h ave needed to preserve their independence] to the phantoms of pride. '"
H. J. Hunt , Le Socialisme et I.e Romant;"me en France (Oxford , 1935). pp. 123­
rn. ~I~
x
-
[Marx]
The man who buys and selb reveals something about hinudf
more diRet and less composed than the man who discourses
and battles.
-Maxinlt Leroy, U J Spi{IJ/atirmJ.frmcU:rtJ de Saillt-SilJlO1l
e/ HJ qumf/(J d'ajfoirrJ awe J01I aJJw, Ie coIJI/e de &dern
(Paris (1925)), p. 1
" We see how the history of industry and the established obje<:tive existence of
industry are the open book of man', essential )lOwer s .... Hitherto this wa, con­
ceived not in its inseparable conne<:tion with man 's essential being, but only in an
external relation of utility. . . . Industry is the actual historical relation, hip of
nature-and therefore ofnatural science--to man ." Karl Marx. " Nationalokono­
ntie und Philosophie" (1844) [Karl Marx , Der h;"tor;"che I'tfatermlismw , ed.
Landshut and Maye r (Leipzig <1932 ). vol. I , pp. 303-304).1 (X I,I]
"Not onl y wealth but , likewise. the poverty of man- under the a88umption of
socialism-receives , in equal measure, a human and therefore lIOCiai sipllficance.
Poverty is the )lOsitive bond which causes the human being to experience the
greatest wealth- the other human being-as need. " Karl Marx . "Nationalokono­
mie und Philosophie" [Karl Marx, Der hiJtoriJche i'tfaterialiJmus , ed. Landshut
and Maye r (Leipzig), vol. 1, p . 305).2 [XI ,2)
"T he concl usion Marx draws for the capitalist economy: with the purchasing
power given him in the fornl of salary, the worker can purchase onl y a certain
anJount of goods. ",'hose production required just a fraction of the labor he himself
has provided . In olher words, if the merchandise he produces is to be sold by hia
1~ III Jlloyer at a profit . he must always he expending surplus labor. " Henryk Gross­
Diann, " F'iillfzig Jahre Kampf um den Marxislllus," WO rterbuch der Volk. wirt­
.chaft. 4th ed . , ell. Lud ...ig Elster, vol. 3 (Jena , 1933). p . 318. [XI ,3J
Origin of fw ae cOllsciousness: " Division of labor becomes trul y such only from the
mOlllellt when a llivisioll of material and mental lahor apl)Cars . . . . FrOl1! this
mOlllent onward, conijciousness can really fl atter itself that it is somelhillg other
than conscio usneu of existing I)rtlctic e. that it reaUy reprc8e IlU tometh Poiut of departu re for a critique of "cultur e": "The l)Qlitive
ing without Iransce ndence of
repre~e ntjllg somelhi ng real. " " Marl' ulld Engels ilber l?euerb ad.l: Aus
dem ~ter­ private propert y. a8 the approp riation of human life, is . .. the positive
transce n·
arische ll Nachla s8 von Man: und Engels, " in J\fnr.x-E ngeb Archil). (II'lIce of aU estrangement ; Ihal is to say. the return of man from
ed. D . RJaza­ religion . family,
nov. vol. I (Frank furt UIII Main <1928 ). p. 248. l stille. 111\(1 80 on , to his human- that is, social-e x.istenc e." Karl
[Xl ,4] Marx. Der his ~
torische Materi(l/ismus. ed. Mayer alltl Landsh llt (Leipzig). vol.
I , p. 296 ("Na.
A passage on the Hevolut ion as a " Last Judgme nt" oppose~ . to lion:.ii)koIlOlllie 111111 Philoso phie").!
the o~e Bruno [X1a,4]
Bauer dreamt of--one that would usher in the victory of cnbcal
conscio usness:
" The hol y futher of the ehurch will be greatly surpris ed when judgme A derinlti oll of class hatred Ihat ,Iraws 0 11 Hegel: "The annullin g
nt day over- of objectiv ity in
Ihe for lll of estrang ement (which has to advanc e from indiffer ent
ta ke8 h ·mi •... a d.y when the reflec:tion of burning cities in the sky will mark the foretgn ness to
dawn ; whcn togethe r with the 'celestia l harmon ies' t~e tunes of N.nl , antagon istic eSlrangemeut) means etlually or even primari ly,
" La ~t~rseillaise" ror Hegel , that
and " Carmag nole" will ec:ho in his ears accomp allled by the il is objeeti" it y which is 10 he annulle d , because it is not the detenni
requIsit e roar of nate charact er
cannon , with the guillotin e beating time ; when the infamo us 'masses uf Ihe object hut rather its obje<:tive charact er th at is offensiv
' will shout , e and constitu tes
estrangcment for self-con sciousn ess." Karl Marx. Der historis che
..,a Ira , ~a I.r • .' " .nd su6.....
"f"
,- - nd <aurhe
'J' bl) ' self-con sciousn ess' by the lamppo st." Materi4 lismlU
" Marl' und Engels tiber Feuerb ach: Aus denllite rarisch en Nachlas (Leipzig), vol. I. p. 335 ("Na tionalOkonomi e und Philoso phie").
s von Marx ~d ' [Xl a,S)
Engels, " in Murx-E ngcb Arclliv, ed. D. Rjazano v, vol. I (Frank
furt am Mam),
"D ~ Commu nism " in it~ fll"8t form ." "Comm unism is ... , in iu first fonn
, only agener­
I)' 2..... [Xl,S]
lIliz(ltiotl lind consuJllmation of this relatiol lship [ that is. of private
propert y] ....
for it . the sole purpo!le of life and existenc e is direct , physica l ponenw
Self-ali enation : ' 'The wo rker produc es capital ; capital pr~uces n. T he task
him-hen~, he of tile ltlborer is not done away with , but el'tende d to aU men . It
l)rOOuces himself, and ... his human qualitie s exist only lIIsofar wan ts to do away
as they ~t for byforce widl talent , and so forth ... . It may be said tha t this idea
'0
ca pi" a I (l /.Ien h;-
..... . . . The worker exists as a worker only . when'he exllIufo r
. "ity ofwom en gives away the .' ecret of this as yet comple tely crude
oftbe commu~
himself as capital; and he exists as capital only when som~ capital and thought less
en sts for.III~. commu nism. Just as woman passe8 from marriage to general prostitu
The existenc e of capital is h is existenc e, . . , since it detemu nee the tion , 10 the
tenor of bi,life entire world of wealth . .. panes from the relation ship of el'c1usiv
in a manner indiffer ent to him . .. , Produc tion ... produc e[s] e marriage with
man ~I a '.: . the owner of I)rivate propert y to a state of univers al prostitu tion
', d bein, " Karl Marx Der historn che Materia lismlU : D&e with the commu ­
d . h -~ . . ,
$chrifte ll , cd. Lnndsh ut and Mayer (Leipzi g) , vol. 1. pp. 361-36 ~. ~
FriUa­ nil Y· .. , HO\o<\' lillle this annulm ent of private propert y is reaDy an
approp riation is
2 abon­ ... proved by the abstrac t negatio n of the entire world of cwture
.
likonon ue und Pbiloso . hi ") 5 [Xla,l]
and civiliut ion,
p e . the regressi on to tlte unnatu raisinlp licity of the poor and undema
nding man. who
has not only failed to go beyond private propert y, but has not yet
On the doctrin e of revolut ions as innerva tions of the coUec:tive: even reached it."
"The transceD ­ Karl Marx, Der historn che Materia lismlU, ed. Landsh ut and
dence or private propert y is . . , the comple te ema ncipatio Mayer (Leipzig).
n of all ~um.ar; vol. I , pp . 292- 293 ("Natio nalokon omie und Phiioso phie"). ID
senses ...• but it is this emanci pation ... because ... the senses [X2,IJ
and IJlJ.Dds 0
..
other men have become my own ap propria t ion. BeSI'des d les e direc t organs '.there­
. It would be an error to deduce the psychology of the bourgeoisie from
fore social organs develo p, .. ; thus, for instanc e, activity .. ' d' t assOCl aUon the
an lrec od ( attitude of the consumer. It is only the class of snobs that represents
, the stand­
with odlers ... has hecome all organ (or exp reuHl '
8 Illy 0
wlIlire andam eo point of the conswn er. The foundations for a psychology of the bourge
""'. . wa ois class
approp riating hUlIIlJlI life. 11 is obvious thut the 1111111«11 eye enjoy~
dungs III a ~ are much sooner to be found in the foUowing sentence from Marx, which
makes
Ilif(erent from that of the crlule, nonhum an e)'e; the human e(~r ~eren
t ~ro;rUh ~ it possible , in particular, to describe the influen ce which this class exerts,
as model
cru de ear; aliiI so 011 . " K.,I Marx ' Dcr historis che Mnterw lumus: DIf! and as custom er, on an: ""A certain stage of capitalist produc tion dictates
.chrifle n (Leipzi g), vol. I , pp . 300-30 1 (" NationalUkonomie ulld
. h' ") . that the
Phlloso p ~1~,2J capitalist be able to devote the whole of the time during which he function
s as a
capitalist- lhat is, as personified capital- to the approp riation and therefo
re con­
trol of the labor of others, and [0 the selling of the products of this
labor." Karl
. Marx, Das Kllpital, ~vol. 1,) ed. Korsch (Berlin <1932» . p. 298. 11
"The nllture which de\'e1ops III human I II.story- ,I Ie ge·nesis
. of 1IIIIIIIIn society -is
gb . [X2 ,2j
y, even ~hou. ;:;
lIIan's relllllll ture; hence. nature as it develops through industr
. /
un es trullged forlll , is ,rue l1llthrol JOlogica nat ure. " Kar I Marx ' Der
nfC Frum Marl' .. K(lpitnl . vol. 3. part I (H amh urg, 192 1). p . 84: "Tht:
, .hulovol I. advice of the
J\fateri(liisnllls : Die fruhs chriften . ed . Lalltbh ut alld Maye r "linker ... more vBlll ahlt: thall dlat of tlte pril~8 1. " Ci ted in Hugo
(leIpZIg), ; 31 .' illcher. Karl
p . 30-1 ("NatiollaWkollomic IIl1d I' hilos0l' hie"). ~ M flrx IIntl $eill Verlliilw is ZII Swo t Will Wirucl mjt (Jena , 1932). p
. 56. 12
[X a, [X2,3j
Time in technology: " AI ill a gelluine political action , the choice ... of the ri~t
moment is cruci al. ' That a capitalist should commalld on the field of production is
now as indispen88hle al that a general should command onlhe field of battIe' (vol.
I , II . 278). 'l ... 'Time' has here, in technology, a meaning different from the one it
has in the hil lorical events of the era , where ... the ' actions all unfold on Ihe same
)Iane .' 'Time' in technology ... also has a meaning different from the one it has in
mooern economics, which ... meas ures labor-time in terms of the clock ." Hugo
Fischer, Karl Marx und sein YerhiUmis ;u Slaa l und Wiruchafl (J en a , 1932),
p . '12; citation from Kapilal <vol. I > (Berlin , l CT23). [X2,4)
" If you recall that Cournot died in 1877, a nd that his principal workll were con.
ceived during the Second Empire, yo u will recognize tha t, after Marx , he was one
of the most lucid minds of his da y.... Coumot goes well beyond Comte, who it
milled by the dogma of hi! Religion of Humanity; beyond Taine, who i! misled by
the dogma of Science; and well beyond the nuanced skepticism of Renan ... . He
utters thi! admirable senlence: 'From being the king of creation , man hal falleD_
or risen (depending on how one understands it) -to the role of concessionaire for
a planet.' The mechanir.ed civilization of the future in no way relJresenta for him
' the triumph of mind over matter ' ... ; rather, it represents the triumph of the
rational and general principles of things over the energy and 'Iualities proper to
the living orga nism." Georges Friedmann, La Crne du progres (Paris <1936»,
p .246. [X2a, l ]
-
"'fhe dead ma tter was a n adva nce over living labor power; second , it it consumed
in the latter's blaze; and third , il once again takes its place on Ihe throne .. .. For
even before Ihe entrance of the worker ' inlo the procell of production , hit own
labor is estranged from him , appropriated b y the capitalist , and incorporated into
capital; a nd during the process, it is continually materialized as an alien product.'
. . . The deadly thing that assails technology from all directions is economiC'.
Economics has, for its object , the commodity. ' The procell of production' th.t
begins in a blaze, as labor engagell its products, ' is extinguished in the commodity.
The fact that labor power was expended in itll fabrication now appears as a mate­
rial property of the commodity, as the property of possessing value' (vol. 2,
1' . 361)... . The action of a man, as the unique and 'entire connected act of pro­
duction' (vol. 2 , I). 20 1), is already more than the agent of this action. . . . The
action alrcady takes place in a higher sphere, which has the future for itself, the
sphcr e of tet;llIlics, while the agent of this action, as isolated individual , remains in
the spllere of economics, a nd his pro<luct is likewise bound to this sphere. . . .
Acroll thc Europcan continent , technology as a whole form s a single s illlultall eo ~1I
actioll . insofa r as it ta kes effCi;1 (IS technology; the ph ysiogn omy of the. earlh IS
fronl the outiicl transformed within the sphere of technics, lind the gulf between
city and country is IIltima tely spunlled . But if the deatlly force of e<:ollomics should
gain Illc upper hami. thclI the repetition of homoiogouli mllglliludes through abso­
lutely inter changeable exii lenccs, the production of commod ities through the
age ncy of t.he worker. prevaili over the singularity of the teclmologica I aello . n ."
Hugo Fischer, Karl Ma rx lind sein VerhiillnilJ %U Staat und Wiruchaft (J ena,
1932), PI" 43-45; the citations arc from Kapilal (vol. 2) (Hamburg, 1921 ) . 1~
[X2a.2]
'''The iame spiri t that conSlructs l'hiiosophic systems in the brain of philosophers
builds railroads with the hands of workers.' ... In the desert of the nineteenth
century, according to Marx, technology is the onl y sphere of life in which the
human being mo'·es al the center of a thillg." Hugo Fischer, Korl Marx und lJein
Verh iiltni&;11 S'aat und Wirtsch a/t (jena, 1932), pp . 39-40; the citation of Marx is
ap parently from Marx and Engels. Cesammeue Schriften, 1841- 1850 (Stuttgart,
19(2), vol. I , p . 259. 15 [X3,1)
On the di vwe forebears of the charlatan : "The various divine ancestors had by
now [at the end of the eighteenth century] revealed not onl y prescriptions for
elixirs of life but also methods of dyeing. indications for spinning silk, and secrets
of firing clay. The industry was mythologized. " Grete de Francesco, Die Macht de,
Charwlam (Basel <1937» , I). 154. [X3,2]
Marx emphasizes " the ,Iecisive importance uf the transformation of value and
price of labor power inlo Ihe form of wages, or into the value and price of labor
ili elf. This phenomenal form , which makes the actual r elation invisible, and,
indeed, shows the di rect opposite of that relation, form s the b asis of all the juridi·
cal notions of both laborer a nd capitalist, of all the mystifications of the capitalis­
tic mooe of prodnction , of all its illusions as to liberty." Karl Marx, Dos Kapital
<vol. I >.ed. Korsch (Berlin <1932 », p . " 99." (X3,3)
"H ad we gone further. and inquired under what circumstances all or even the
\ majorily of products take the form of commodities, we should have fouod that thi.s
ca n happen onl y with production of a very epecifi c kind : capitalist production."
Karl Marx, Dos Kapilal <vol. I ), ed . Korsch , p . 1 7 1 .'~ [X3,4]
""This race of peculiar commooity-owners," as Marx at one point calls the prole­
tariat (Kapital ( vol. h . ed. Korsch , p . 173). Compa re: " Natural instinct of the
eommodily-ownerS" (ibid ., p . 97). " [X3,5)
Marx opposes the idea that gold and silver are olily imagi nary values. " The fact
thai money can , in certain functions, be replaced hy mere symbols of itself gave
rise to 'th at other Illistakell Itotion : thai it is itself a mere symbol. Nevertheleu,
untler this error lurked a preseutimcnt that the money·form of an object is not an
inseparahle part of thai object hut is simply the form untler which certain social
~elations manifest themselves. In Ihis eense, every commodity is a symbol, since,
Insofar as it is va lue, it is on ly the material en velope of the human labor spenl upon
it. But if it be declared that ... the material forms ass umed by the social qualities
or labor under the r egime of a deHnite mode of production are mere symbols, it is
in Ihe same breath also decla red that these characteristics are arbitrary fictions
sa nctioned by t.he so-called universal consent of mankind ." Note after "spent upon
it": "' If we consiller the concept of value, we musllook on till} thing itlOclf as ollly a
symbol; il counu 1I0t as itselfbttt as whal it is ....orth ' (Hegel, Recht5p/lilo,ophie,
addition to paragraph 63)." Mau, DCl! Kapiwl ( vol. I ), ed . Ko rsch, )Jp. 10 1- 102
("Der Au stau schproze8"). '~ [X3,6]
Private property as origin of the aliellalion of huma" beings from olle another:
"Objects in themselves are external to man, and conseq uently alienable by him . In
order thai this alienation may be reciprocal, it is only necessary for men, by a tacit
understanding, to treat one another as private owners of those alienable objects,
and by implication as independent individuals. But such a state of reciprocal
independence has no existence in a primitive society based on prope rty in coin~
mono ... The exchange of commodities, therefore, fi rst begins on the boundaries
of such conUllunities." Karl Marx , Deu Kapital <vol. h, ed . Korseh (Berlin ,
1932), p. 99 C"Der Austa uschproze8"}.2O [X3a,11
" tn order that ... objects may enter into relation with one another as commodi~
,
ties, their guardians must place themselves in relation to one another, as persons
whose will resides in those objects." Marx , Das Kapital <vol. 1> , ed. Korseh
(Berlin , 1932), p. 95 ("Oer Austauschproze8,,).zl [X3a,2]
Marx recognizes a climax in the development , and in the transparency, of the
fetish character of the commodity: "'The mode of production in which the product
takes the form of a commodity, or is produced directly for exchange, is the most.......
general and most embryonic (onn of bourgeois production . It therefore makes iu
appearance at an early date in history, though not in the same predominating and
characteristic manner as nowadays. Hence, its fetish character is relatively easily
seen through. But when we come to more concrete forms. even this a ppearance o(
simplicity vanishe8." Marx. Do&Kapital <vol. 1), cd . Korsch (Berlin, 1932). 11 . 94
("Fetischcharakter").zz [X3a,3]
The model according to which the polytechnical education demanded by Marx­
ism must orient itself: "There are ... states of society in which one and the same
man does tailoring and weaving alternately, in which case these twO forms of
labor are mere: modifications of the labor of the same individual, and not specia1
and fixed functions of different persons" (Marx, Kapital, p. 57). These various
modified acts of labor on the part of one individual are not compared with one
another quantitatively, in tenus of duration; to the abstraction "mere labor,"
which we can educe from them, corresponds nothing real ; they stand within a
unique concrete labor-contat, the results of which bring no advantage to the
ol'l11er of commodities. Compare the following: "For a society based upon ~e
production of commodities, in which the producers in general enter intO sooal
relations with one another by ~ating their products as commodities . . . ,
whereby they reduce their individual private labor to the standard of homogene­
ous human labor-for such a society, Christianity with its cu/tUJ of abstract man
.
... is the most fitting fonn of religion." Marx, Kapl~al, p. 9 1 ("Fetischcharak.
ter") . [X3a,4)
.r.; The body of the commodity, which serves as the equivalent, figures as the
materialization of human labor in the abstract, and is at the same time the
product of some specifically useful concrete labor. 1bis concrete labor becomes.
therdore, the medium for expressing abstract human labor." In this latter i!
contained, as Marx believes, all the misery of the commodity-producing society.
(The passage is from Kapital, p. 70 ["Die "'"=nfonn oder der Tauschwenj.):N In
addition, it is very important that Marx immediately after this (p. 71 ) refers tc
abstract human labor as the "opposite" of the conCTete.-To formulate differ.
ently the misery at issue here, one could also say: it is the misery of the commod.
ity-producing society that, for it, "labor directly social in character" (p. 71) i.!
always merely abstract labor. U Marx, in his treatment of the equivalent form.
lays weight on the fact "that the labor of private individuals takes the form of it.!
opposite, labor directly social in form" (p. 71), then this private labor is precisel)
the abstract labor of the abstract comrnodity-owning man. [X4, 1:
Marx has the idea that labor ","'Quid be accomplished voluntarily (as lTavai
ptusionni) if the commodity character of its production were abolished. TIl(
reason, according to Marx, that labor is not accomplished voluntarily wouk
therefore be: its abstract character. [X4,2:
, "Value ... converts every product into a social hieroglyphic_ Later on , men try t(
decipher the hieroglyphic, to get behind the secret of their own social producu; fOI
the deflniti on of the object of utility as value is just as much their social product al
..
language." Marx , Das Kopital (vol. 1>, p. 86 ("Oer Fetischcharakter der Wart
\
und sein Gebeimnis").15 jX'"
"!he general value-form, which represents all products oflabor as mere congela
nons of undifferentiated human labor, shows by its very SDUCture that it is the
social expression of the commodity world. Thus, it reveals that within this worle
the generally human [that is, the impoverished and abstract] character of the
labor COIl.SOtutes at the same time its distinguishing fearure as social labor." Marx
Das Kapllal <vol. h , p. 79 ("Die "'"=nfonn oder der Tauschwert").~-The ab
SttaCt narure of the social labor and the abstract nature of the human being wh(
relates to fellow humans as an owner correspond to each other. [X4,4
"~Iow a re we to ex press the fa ct that weaving crea tes the value of the linen not b:
VirtUe of being weavi.ng, as such, but by reason of ils general prOIM!rty of beinl
hUnla n la bor? Simply by opposing 10 weaving th at ot her particular forlll of con
crete labor (ill this instance tailoring) , which produces the equivalent of the prod
uct of ",eavillg. Jusl as the coa t ill ils bodi ly form becamc a direct expression 0
' g. a concrete Iurm 0 I I/thor, appear as the direct /l llt
IIalue ' ·s0 now d OIlS ta il orln
Ilalllable embodiment of human labor gelleraUy" (Kapital (vol. I ), p. 71).z: Thil
is what Marx is referring to when he writes in the lentence precedillg this pas8age:
" In the value-e:w.:pn :u ion of the commodity. the lables are turned. " At this point a
1I0te: "Thi8 inversiOIl , whereb y the a.en8uous-concrete counts only a8 a phenome­
n al form of the a bs tract-general- rather t.han the abstract-general as a property
of the concrete-i8 char acteristic of the expression of val ue .... If I say: Roman
law and German law are both ,yetcms of law, my statement is perfectl y self-evi_
dent. But if I say: th e law, that abstract concept , realize", iuelfin Roman law and
in German law, thOle concrete legal systems, my context becomes mystical" (p. 71)
("Die Wertform oder der Tauschwert"). [X4a, l j
" When I state that coats or boots lIand in a r elation to lillen beca use linen ia the
universal incarnation of abstract human labor, the a bs ur dity of the proposition ia­
manifest. Nevertheless, when the producer s of coats and b oots compare those
article, with linen , or, what is the same thing, with gold or silver, as the universal
equivalent, they express the relation between their own private labor and the
collective la bor of society in precisely this absurd form." Karl Marx , DlU Kapitol.
( vol. 1 >, ed . Korsch ( Berlin , 1932) , 1). 88 ("Fetischchara kter"V · [X4a,2)
" Political econom y has . .. never ... asked the question why labor i8 represented
by the value of its product , and labor-time by the magnitude of that value. Theae
formulas, which bear it stamped upon them in unmis takable letten that they
belong to a state of society in which the process of production has the mas tery over
man, ins tead of being controlled b y him_ uch formulas a ppea r to the bourgeoia
intellect to be as much a self-evident necessity imposed by nature as productive
labor itself." Marx , DlU Kapiwl (vol. 1> , ed. Korsch , p . 92-93 ("Der
Fetischcharakter der Ware und sein Geheimnis").2'l [X4a,3j
An extremely important passage rdating [0 the concept of the "creative" u
Marx's conunent on the beginning of the first paragraph of the Gotha Program.
"Labor is the SOUTCt of all wealth and all culture"; "The bourgeois have very
good grounds for falsely ascribing Jupmw.tural (;1"tQtiue power to labor, since pre­
cisely from the fact that labor depends on nature, it follows that the man who
possesses no other property than his labor power must, in all conditions of
society and culrure, be the slave of other men who have made themselves owners
of the materia1 conditions of labor." Karl Marx, RandglOSStn lum Programm der
tUutJcnm Arbtit"/Jartn, ed. Korsch (Berlin and Leipzig, 1922), p. 22.:10 [X5, l j
" Within th t: cooperative socidy bused on common oWlier ship of the IIIcan! of
production , the producers do not exchange thd r products; just as little does the
labor employed on the product! a ppea r here at th e value of these products , as a
material qualit y possessed by them , since 1I0W, in contrast to capita lis t society,
individual labor exiijll! no longer in all indirec:: t fas hion, but directl y as a con1l)O­
nenl part of the tolal la bor. The phrase ' proceeds of la bor' . . . tllU S loses all
mea ning." The passage refers to the demand for " a fair dilltribntion of the pro­
ceeds of luh or." Marx , Rarllls iouen ::um Prog ramm der delltlu;hell Ar beiterpartei
(Berlin alld Leipzig, 1922), pp . 25,24.31 (X5,2]
·'111 a higher p hase of communist societ y. after the enslaving subordination of the
intli vid ualto the division of labo r, and therewith also the a nti thesis between mell­
tnl and physical la bor. has va nished ; afler labo r has become not onl y II means of
life bllt Life's chief lIecessity; aft er the productive forces have also increased with
the all-round development of the individual ...--olily then can the n arrow hori­
ZOIl of bourgeois r ight be crossed in its enti rety and society inscribe on its bannen :
'From each acco rding to his ability, to each acco rdillg to his needs!'" Marx,
Randg iouell :;um Prog ra",m (/er deutschen Arbeiterpartei (Berlin a nd Leipzig,
1922), p . 27,32 [X5,3j
Marx ill his critillue of the Gotha Program of 1875: " Lassalle knew the CommWl:is'
Manifesto by heart .... If, therefore, he has fal sified it so gro88ly, be has done so
only to pul a &ood face on his alliance with absolutist and fe udal opponenU a&ainst
the bou rgeoi8ie." Marx , Rands louen z um ProSramm der deutlcMn Arbeiter.
pflrlei, fed . Ko rsch ,> p. 28.M (X5,4]
Korsch directs attention to a "scientific insight that is fundamental to the overall
under standing of Marxist communis m, though today it is often looked upon by the
adversaries of Marxis m , and even by many of its proponents, as ' meanin&leu'­
the in8ight , namely, that the wasel a/labor are not , as bourgeois ~o n omis tsllke to
think , the value (or price) of the labor, but ' onl y a mas ked form of tbe value (or
price) of the labor power, which is lold as a commodity on the labor market well
before its productive utilit y (as labor) begin s in the operation of the capitalist
proprietor." Karl Korsch , Introduction to Marx, RantJslouen zum Pros ramm
derdeutschen A rbeiterpartei, ed . Konch (Berlin and Leipzig, 1922), p . 17.
(X5a,l j
Schiller: "Conunon natures pay with what they do ; noble natures, with what
they are.":U The proletarian pays for what he is with what he does. [X5a,2)
" In the cou rse of the labor process, la bor passes continually out of a s tate of un res t
into a state of being, out of the form of motion into the form of objectivit y. At the
end of one hou r's spinning, that act is represented by a defini te quantit y of yam ;
in other words. a definite qua ntit y of la bor, namely that of one hour, has been
objectified in the cottOIl . We say ' la bor ' be.:ause the work of spinning counts her e
onl y insofar as it is Ihe expenditu re of labor power in general, and not insofa r as it
is l he s pecific work of the spinner .... Raw material and product ap pear here [in
the I)roduction of surplus value) in quite a new Light , very different from that in
...·hieh ....e viewed them in the Jabor process pure a nd simple. The raw material
&en 'es now. merely as an absorbent of a definite (IUa ntity of labo r. . . . Definite
1IIIIllilities of product , these quantities being determined b y experience, now rel)­
resent nothing but definit e quantities of labor , deflnile lIIasses of cr ystalli"t.'(llahor
tinle. They are nothing more than tile materialization of 10 many hour~ or 80 many
days of social labor:' Karl Mau . DO li Ktlpiltll <vol. h , cd. Korsch (Berlin
<1932». p. 191 (" Wertbild ungsprozeB"}.» [X5a,3)
The petty-bourgeois·idealist theory of labor is given an unsurpassed formulation
in Simmd, for whom it figures as the theory of labor per se. And with this, the
moralistic element-here in antimaterialist form-is registered very clearly.
"One may ... assen in very general tenns that ... the distinction betv.·een mental
and manual labor is not one between mental and material nature; that, rather, the
reward is ultimately n:quired in the latter case only for the intemal aspect of
work, for the aversion to exertion, for the conscription of will power. Of course,
this inteUectuality, which is, as it ......-ere, the thing-in·itselfbehind the appearance of
work ... , is not n:ally intellectual but resides in emotion and the will. It follOWs
from this that it is not coordinated with mental labor but rather is its basis. For at
first the objective content ... , the result ... , the demand for reward is produced
not in it but in ... the expenditure of energy that it n:quires for the production of
this intellectual content. In that an act of the soul is revealed to be the source of
value ... , physical and 'mental' labor contain a conunon (one might say, mor­
ally) value-grounding base, through which the reduction of labor value as such to
physical labor loses its philistine and brutal materialistic appearance. This is
roughly the case with theoretical materialism, which acquires a completely new
and man: seriously discussible basis if one emphasizes that matter itself is also a
conception, not an essence which, . .. in the absolute sense, stands opposed. to the
soul but which in its cognizability is completely determined by the foons and
presuppositions of our intellectual organization." Of course, with these reRec­
tions « Philruophie des Geldes (Leipzig, 1900),) pp. 449-450), Simmel is playing
dew's advocate, for he does not want to admit the reduction of labor to physical
labor. Indeed there is also, according to him, a valueless lahor that still requires
an expenditure of energy. "This means, however, that the value of labor is
measured not by its amount but by the utility of its result!" Simmel goes on to
reproach Marx, as it appears, for confusing a statement of fact with a demand
H e writes: "socialism, in fact, strives for a ... society in which the utility value of
objects, in relation to the labor time applied to them, fonns a constant" «ibid.,)
p. 451). "In the third volume of CaPillli, Marx argues that the precondition of all
value, of the labor theory too, is use value. ~t this means that so many partS .of
the total social labor time are used in each product as come in n:lation to Its
importance in use .... The approximation to this complete1y utopian state of
affairs seems to be technically possible only if, as a whole, nothing but th~ ...
unquestionably basic life necessities are produced. For where this is exclUSively
the case, one work activity is of course precisely as necessary and useful as .the
next. In contrast, however, as long as one moves into the higher spheres in which.
on the one hand, need and estimation of utility are inevitably more individual
and, on thc other, the intensity of labor is mon: difficult to prove, no regulatio~ of
the anlounts of production could bring about a situation in which the relation­
ship between need and labor applied was everywhere the same. On these )Xlin ts ,
all the threads of the deliberatiolU on socialism intertwine. At. this point, it is clear
that the . .. difficulty .. . increases in relation to the cultural level of the prod·
uct-a difficulty whose avoidance, of course, must limit production to that of the
most primitive, most essential, and most aVtr.lge objects." Georg Simme1, Phi/ruo­
phie des Geldes (Le1pzig, 1900), pp. 451-453."" With this critique, compare the
counter-critique of this standpoint by Korsch, X9,1. [X6;X6a]
"The individual significance of different objects of equal value ill degraded
through their exchangeability-however indirectly or imaginary this may be....
The dilpar agement of the interest in the individuality of a commodity leads to a
disparagement of individuality itself. If the two sides to a commodity are its quality
alld its price, then it seems logically impossi.ble for the interest to be focwed on
only one of these sides; for 'cheapneu' is an empty word ifit does not imply a low
price for a relatively good 'Iuality.... Yet this conceptual impossibility ill psycho­
logically real and effective. The interest in the one si.de can be so poeat that ita
logically necessary counterpa rt completely disappear s. The typical instance of one
of these cases is the 'fifty-cent bazaar.' The principle of valuation in the modern
money economy finds its clearest expression her-e. It is not the commodity that is
the center of interest here hut the price--a principle that in fonner times not only
would have appeared shameless but would have been absolutely impossible. It hal
been rightl y pointed out that the medieval town ... lacked the extensive capital
economy, and that this was the r eason for seeking the ideal of the economy, not so
much in the expansion (which is possible only through cheapnese) as in tbe quality
of the goode offered : ' Georg Simmel, PhiloJophk dell Geltk, (Leip:tig. 19(0),
pp. 4l1-412 Y [X7,l j
"Political economy is now no longer a sci.ence of commoditiea. . . . It becomes a
\ direct science of eociallabor" : " in iUl present unambiguous , and definite, form of
labor producing a commodity for another penon-that is, of labor formally paid
tO,its full value but actually exploited ... , actually collective labor performed by
proletarian wage laborers ... to whom ... the productive power of what would be
under otherwise similar conditions the produce of an isolated worker. now in­
/" creased a thoulandfold by the eocial division of labor, stands opposed in the fonn
of capitalo" <Karb Korsch <Karlll1oI"X. manuscripo , vol. 2, p. 47.- Compare
XII,I. 1X7,2]
On the bungled reception of technology. "The illusions in this sphere are
re~ectt~d quite dearly in the terminology that is used in it, and in which a mode of
thinking, proud of its .. . fn:edom from myth, discloses the direct opposite of
these features. To think that we conquer or control natun: is a very childish
Supposition, since ... all notions of ... conquest and subjugation have a proper
meaning only if an opposing will has been broken.... Natural events, as such,
are not subiect to the alternatives of freedom and coercion_... Although ... this
seems to be just a matter of terminology, it does lead astray those who think
Super£cially in the direction of anthropomorphic misinterpretations, and it does
show that the mythological mode of thought is also at home within the natural_
scientific worldview." Georg Simmd , Phj/osophie deJ Gddu (Leipzig, 1900),
pp. 520-521.39 It is the great distinction of Fourier that he wanted to open the
way to a very different reception of tecimology. [X7a, l]
" The ... doctrine of'surplus value,' already largely anticipatet.1 ... b y the c1an ic
bourgeois economists and their earliest socialist adversarill8, . .. anti the reduc_
tion of the ' free labor contract' of the modern wage laborer to the sale of the
'commodity labor-power,' first acquire their real efficacy through the transfer of
economic thought from the fi eld of the exchange of commotlities ... to the fi eld of
material production ...- that is, through the transition from ... surplw value.
emting in the form of goods and money, to ... sltrpllU labor, performed by re..J
workers in the workshop under the social domination eJ{erted upon them by the
capitalist owner of the workshop ." Korsch <Karl Marx, manuscript> , vol. 2,
pp. 41-42 .- [X7a,2]
Korsch, vol. 2, p. 47, cites a phrase from Marx <Da.! Kapital, vol. 1, 4th ed.
(Hamburg, 1890), pp. 138- 139>: "the hidden haunts of production, on whose
threshold we are faced with the inscription: 'No admittance except on busi·
ness: "~ l C ompare Dante's inscription on the Gate of Hell, and the "one-way
strttt." (X7a,3]
Korsch defmes surplus value 88 the " particularly ' deranged ' form which tbe gen­
eral fetishism attached to aU commoditie8 a8sumes in the commodity called ' labor­
power. '" Karl Korsch , Karl Morx, manuscript , vol. 2, p . 53.4: [X8,1]
" What Marx ... terms the ' fetishism of the world of commodities' is only a scien­
tific exprenion for the same thing that he had described earlier ... a8 'human
self-alienation. ' ... The most important substantive difference between thi.H philo-­
sophical critique of economic 'self-alienation' and the later scientific exposition of
the same problem consi81s in the fact that , in Dcu Kapital. Marx ... gave hit
economic critique a deeper and more general significance by tracing back the
delusive character of all other « onomic categorie3 to the fetish character of the
commodity. Though even n ow that most obvious and direct form of the 'self-al.
ienation of the human being,' which occu rs in the relation between wage labor and
capita l, keeps its decisive importance for the practical attack on the existing order
of society, the fetishism of commodity labor power is , a t this stage, for theoretical
purposes regarded as a mere derivative form of the more general fdisltism which ia
contained ill the commodity itself.. .. Dy revealing all cconomic categories to be
mere fragments of one great fetish , Marx ultimatel y transcended ~ Il preceding
forms and phases of bourgeoi8 e<;onomic and social theor y. . . . Even the most
udvanced c1ussical economists remuincd caught in the . .. world of bourgeois ap­
IJearance, or fell back into it , because they hud uever succ(:eded in extending their
critical analysis either to the derived forms of economic fetishi8m [lIllnlasking of
the gold a nd silver fetislles, the physiocratic illusion Ihal relit grows out of the
earth, the interpretation of interest and ren t al mer e fra ctions of industrial profit]
or to that gener al fund amental form which aplJeara in the value-form of the labor
prodUC18 as commodity and in the value-relatio ns of the commodities themselves."
Korsch . Karl Marx . <vol. 2,) pp. 53-57 Y [X8,2]
"From the bourgeois point of view, the individu al citizen think8 of 'economic'
thillgs alld forces as of something entering into his private life fronl without ....
According to the new conception, however, individuals in all they do are moving,
fronl the outset, within definit e social circumsta nces that a rise from a given stage
in the tleveIOpnU!I.lt of material production . .. Such high ideall of bourgeois
society as thai of the free, seLf-determining individual, freedom and equality of aU
citizens in the exercise of their political rights, and equality of all in the eyes of the
law a re now seen to be nothing but correlative conce,)f& 10 the f etuhism of the
commodity. . . . Only by keeping the people unconscious of the r eal contenta of
those basic relations of the emting social order ... , onl y through the fetishistic
transformation of the social relations between the class of capitalists and the clan
of wage laborer8, r esulting in the ' free and unhampered ' sale of the 'commodity
labor--power ' to the owner of 'capital ,' is it possible in this society to 8peak of
freedom and equ ality." KONlch, Karl Marx, ( vol. 2,) pp. 75-77.'" [X8a, l ]
.....he individual and collective bargaining over the condition8 of sale of the com­
modity labor-power still belongs entirely to the world of fetishistic appea rance
<Schein >. Socially considered , and together with the material mean8 of produc­
­ tion , the propertyless wage laborer s selling, through a ' free labor contract,' their
individual labor-poweTli for a certa in time to a capitalist entrepreneur are, as a
class, from the outset and forever , a common property of the possessing class,
which alone has the real mean8 of labo r at its disposal. It was therefore not the
whole truth that was revealed by Marx in the Communist Manife,to when he . aid
that the bourgeoisie had ... replaced the veiled forms of exploitation practiced
during the ... Middle Ages hy an altogethe r ' unveiled exploitation.' T he bourgeoi­
, sie replaced an eXIJloitation embroidered with religious a nd political ilIusioru b y a
new and more refined system of concealed exploitation . Whereas in earlier epochs
the openly proclaimed relatiOlls of domination and servitude appeared aB the
immediate springs of production , in the bourgeois period it is ... , conver&ely,
production that is . . . the pretext . . . for the. . exploitation of laboren."
<Korsch ,) Karl Marx , <vol. 2, > pp . 64-65 ..tS [X8a,2]
~ the doctrine of value: "The idea that there is an 'equality' inherent in all kinds
of labor, by which economists are entitled to regard qualitatively different kinds
of labor . . . as quantitatively different portions of a total quantity of 'general
labor,' which fomu the basis of the economic concept of value is so little the
discovery of a natural condition underlying the production ar:d exchange of
con.unodities that this 'equality' is, on the contrary, brought into existence by the
SOcial fact that, under the conditions prevailing in present-day capitalist 'com­
modity production,' all labor products are produced as commodities for such
exchange. In fact, this 'equality' appears nowhere else tlum in the 'wJue' 0/ the
commoditieJ JO produced. The full development of the economic theory of 'labor
value' coincided with a stage of the historical development when human labor,
not just as a category but in reality, had long ceased to be, as it were, organically
COIU1ected with cither the individual or with small productive communities and,
the barriers of the guilds having fallen under the new bourgeois banner of 'free..
dom of trade: every particular kind of labor was treated henceforth as equivalent
to every other particular kind of labor. It was precisely the advent of these::
historical and political conditions that was expressed (unconsciously, of course)
by the classical economists when they traced back the 'value' appearing in the
exchange of commodities to the quantities of labor incorporated therein, though
most of them believed they had thus disclosed a natural law.... Those minor
followers in the wake of the great scientific founders of political economy, no
longer accustomed to such audacity of scientific thought, who have later patheti­
cally bewailed the 'violent abstraction' by which the classical economists and
Marxism, in tracing the value relations of commodities to the amounts of labor
incorporated therein, have 'equaled the unequal,' must be reminded of the fact
that this 'violent abstraction' results not from ... economic science but from the
real character of capitalist commodity production. '!he commodity is a bt'Jrn InMkr."
Korsch, Mrl Man:, vol. 2, pp. 66- 68. In "reality," of course, the "particu1ar kinds
of labor perfonned in the production of the various useful things are, according
to Marx, effectively different also under the regime of the law of value" (ibid.,
p. 68).~ This in opposition to Simmel ; compare X6a. [X9]
" Marx and Engels ... pointed out that the equality-idea resulting from the epoch
of bourgeois commodity-production and expressed in the economic ' law of value'
is still bourgeois in its character. It is therefore only ideologically incompatible
with the exploitation of the working class through capital, but not in actual prac­
tice. The socialist Ricardians • ... on the basis ofthe economic principle that 'it i.
labor alone which bestows value,' ... wanted to transform all men into actual
, had likewise thought of ' labor' in terms of the various forms of real work, though
workers exchanging equal quantities of labor.... Marx replied that ' this equali- .
tarian relation ... is itself nothing but the reflection of the actual world; and that
therefore it is totally impossible to reconstitute society on the basis of what it
merely an embellished shadow of it. In proportion as this shadow takes on sub­
stance again, we perceive that this substance, far from being the transfiguration
dreamt of, ill the actual body of existing society. '" T he citation from La MiJere de
w phiU,sophie. in Korsch . vol. 2, p. 4Y [X9a,IJ
Korsch: In the bourgeois epoch , " the production of the products of l a~or is pretext
and cover for the ... exploitation and oppression of the laborers . The scientific
method of concealing this stale of affairs is called political economy." Its function:
to shift " responsibility for all the waste and hideousness which is already found at
o,
the present stage of development of the productlve orcell 0 r society,' andwhich
cmergcs catastrop hically during e<!onomic crises, from the realm of human action
to the sphere of so-called immutable, nature-ordained relations between things."
Korsch . Karl Marx. vol. 2, p . 65." [X9a,2]
"The distinct.ion between lise value a nd exchange value. in the abstract form in
",·hich it had been lIIalle by the bourgeois economists, ... did not provide any
useful starling point for an . . . investigation of bourgeois commodity produc­
tio n . .. . With Marx, ... use value is not defined as a use value in general , but as
the u.Je vallie of a commodity. This use value inherent in commodities .. . is,
however, IIOt merely an extra-economic presupposition of their ' value.' It is an
element of the value.. . . The mere fact that a thing has utility for any human
bcillg-say. for its producer--does not yet give us the economic definition of use
value. Not until the thing has . .. utility ' for other persons' ... does the economic
definition of use value apply. Just as the use value of the commodity is economi_
cally defined as a social use value (use value ' for others'). so is the ... labor which
goes illto the production of this commodity defined economically as ... labor 'for
others.' Thus. Marx's commodity-producing labor appears as social labor In a
twofold sense. It has ... the general social character of being a ' specifically useful
labor,' which goes to the pr oduction of a definite kind of social use value. It bas, on
the other hand. the specific hi.storical character of being a 'generally social labor.'
which goes to the production of a definite quantity of exchange value. The capacity
of social labor to produce definite things useful to human beings ... appears in the
w e ooiue of its product. Its capacity for the production of a value and a Burplus
value for the capitalist (a particular characteristic of labor which derives from the
particular form of the social organization of the labor proceu . . . . within the
present historical epoch) appears in the exchange vallU: of its product. The fusion
of the two social characteristics of commodity-producing labor appears in the
' value-form' of the product of labor, or the form of commodity. tt Korsch, Karl
Marx ( vol. 2), pp. 42-44.49 [XIO]
"The earlier bourgeois economists, when speaking of labor as a source of wealth.
they did so onl y for the reason that their economic ca tegories were still in the
process of separation from their original material contents .... Thus, the Mercan­
tilists, the Physiocrats, and so on successfully declared that the true source of
wealth lies in the labor expended in the export industries , in trade and shipping, in
agricultural labor, and the like. Even in Adam Smith- who, from the different
hrallches of labor, definitely advanced to the general form of commodity-produc­
ing .labor- we find that concrete aspect retained , along with the new and more
formalistic definition which is also expressed in his system and was later to become
the exclusive definition of value in the work of Ricardo . and by which labor is
defined as an abstract and merely quantitative entity. This same abstract form of
labor, which he correctly defin ed as exchange-value-producing labor, he at the
Sanle time . .. declared to be the only source ... of the material wealth of the
cOllimunity, or use value. This doctrine, which still obstinately persists in ' vulgar'
socialism ... is, accordillg to Marx , economically false ." By its assumptions, " it
would be difficult to explain why, in In'cllent day ... lociety, just those persons are
poor who hitherto ha vc hatl that uniquc source of all wealtll at thcir exciul ive
dis posal, and even more difficult to account for the fact that tlle y remai n unem~
ployed and poor. instead of prod ucing wealth by their la bor.... Hut ... in p rais~
ing tile creative powcr of ' labor,' Adam S mitll was tllinking 1I0t so much of the
forced labo r of the modern wage laborer, whiell appean,l ill the value of commodi.
ties lIlid p roduces capita lis tic profit . as of the general na tura l necessity of human
labor . . . . Likewise, his naive glorification of the ' division of labor' achieved in
thele 'great manufactures,' by which he under stood the whole of modern capital.
ist production, refers not so much to the extr emely imperfect form of contempo­
r ary capi talistic division of labor . . . al to the general form of human labor
vaguely fused with it in his theoretical exposition ." Korsch , KarllUarx , vol. 2,
pp.44-46. 50 [XIOa]
Decisive passage on surplus vaJue, the final statement no doubt standing in need
of funher clarification: "Similarly, the doctrine of surplus fJll/ue, which is usually
regarded as the more particu1arly socialist Rction of Marx's economic theory, is
neither a simple economic exercise in calcu1ation which serves to check a fraudu~
lent statement of vaJue received and expended by capital in its dealing with the
workers, nor a mo ral lesson drawn from economics for the purpose of reclaiming
from capital the diverted portion of the 'full product of the worker's labor? The
Marxian doctrine, as an economic theory, starts rather from the opposite princi­
ple-that the industrial capitalist under 'no rmaJ' conditions acquires the labor·
power of the wage laborers by means of a respectable and businesslike bargain.
whereby the laborer receives the full equivaJent of the 'commodity' sold by him,
that is, of the 'labor-power' incorporated in himself. The advantage gained by the
capitalist in this business derives not from economics but from his privileged
sociaJ position as the monopolist owner of the materiaJ means of production.,
which permits him to exploit, for the production of commodities in his work·
shop, the specific we uaiue of a labor·power which he has purchased at its ec0­
nomic 'value ' (exchange vaJue). Between the uaiue oflhe new commodih'eJ produced
by tM we of lhe labor·power in the worluhop, and the prius paidf()r thu labor to .its
sellerJ, there u, according to Marx, no economic ()r other rationally determinable re~
wlllltever. The measure of value produced by the workers in the shape of their .
labor products over and above the equivaJent of their wages (that is, the mass rf
'Jurplw /abo'; expended by them in producing this 'surplus vaJue') and the quan'
titative rdation between this surplus labor and the necessary labor (iliat is, the
'rate o/Jurp/us value' o r the 'rate 0/exploitah'on' holding good for a particular ~
and a particular country) do not result from any exact economic calculatlon.
They result from a battlc between sociaJ classes." Korsch, Karl Marx, vol. 2,
~n~ ' ~ II J
"The ultimate meaning of thjs law of value, as 8 110WII ill its wo rki ngs by 1\1111"", •••
docs not GO n ~i8 t ... in suppl yi ng a theoretica l iJasis for the practical calculation.
of the busineuman seeking his private ad va ntage, or for the economic_politicai
mCaSUrei taken by the bourgeois statesman concerned with the general mainte­
nance and furt hcra m:e of the capitalist s urplul -ma king machinery. T he fin al
scientific pur p05e of the Marxian theory is , rat hcr, ' to revea l th e economic law of
motiOl1 of moder,1 society. II lI d tllis mea ns. at the sa lllC time. the law of its his torical
development .'" Kursch , Karl Morx. vol. 2.1" 70.;': [Xll a,l ]
"Co llipl et~: determination of the ac tu al social character of that fUDIl ament al proc­
ess of modern capitalist prOtluctioli which il one-sidedl y III'esclited (,y the bour­
geois et:ollomists, al by their adversaries frOIll the ca mp of vulga r locialil m ,
sonletimes as productioll of conlumer goods, and sometimes, by contrast , as pro·
duction of value or as simplc profi t making": a " prod uction of s urplul value by
'lleans of the production of vallie by mcans of the production of consumer goods­
in a society in which the material goods of production enter al ca pital into the
I'roce1ls of production run by tile capitaliltl, wbile tbe act ual producers enter as
the commodity labor-power." Korscll , Karl Marx, vol. 3, pp . 10-11. [XlI a,2]
The experience of our generation : that capitalism will not die a natural death.
[X ll a,3]
The confrontation of Lafargue withJaures is very characteristic for the great
form of materialism. (X l h ,4]
Sourccs for Marx and Engels; " From the bourgeois historians of the French Resto­
ration, they took the concept of social clasl and of c1au s truggle; from Ricardo,
the econom.ic basis of the claSH antagonism ; from Proudhon , the proclamation of
the modern prolctariat as the onl y real revolutionary class; from the feudal a nd
Christian allailants of the new economic order ... , the r uthless unmasking of the
liberal ideas of the bourgeoisie, tile pier cing hate-fiUed invective. Their ingenious
dissection of tile unsolva ble contradictionl of the modern mode of production they
took from the petty-bourgeois l ociaiism of Sis mondi; the humanism and the phi.
losophy of actio n , from earlier companions among the left Hegelians, especially
from Feuerbaeh; the meaning of political str uggle for the working clall, from the
contemporary labor parties , F rench Social Democrats and Englis h Chartists; the
doctrine of revolutiona ry dictatorship , from the French Convention, and from
Blanqui and his followers. Finally, they look fro m Sa int ~Simon , Fourier, and
Owen the entire content of their socialist and COllllllunist agenda : the total up·
heal'al of the found atio ns of existing capitaiisl society, the abolition of classes .. . ,
and the tra nsform atio n of the Slate into a mere administration of production."
Korsch , Klir/ MlIrx , vol. 3, p . 101. ~ [XI2 ,1]
'"Through Ilegel. the new materialis m of proletarian theory linked itself to the 8um
of bourgeois social thought of tile prece<ling historical period . II did 10 ill the same
alltith.,.ical f01'l1l in wllich . 011 II prac tical level also, the sodal action of the prole·
taria t continued Ihe previous ~ocia l movemcnt of the ho urgeois class. " Korsch ,
l( a rlMlI I"X. vol. 3 , p . 99 .~ IXI2,2]
Korsch says very juscly (and one might weU think of de Maistre and Bonald in
this connectio n): "To a certain extent, that ... 'disenchantment' which, after the
conclusion of the great French Revolution, was first proclaimed by the early
French theorists of the counterrevolutio n and by the Gennan Romantics . .. has
in fact exerted a considerable influence upon Marx mainly through Hegel, and
has thus directly entered into the . . . theory of the modem workers' movement."
Knrsch, Karl Marx, vol. 2, p. 36.» [XI2,3)
Concept of producti,'e force: '" Productive force' is, in the ftrst place, nothing else
than the rt!al eHrthly lHbor-powt!r of living melt : the force ... by which .. , tbey
produce ... , under capitalistic conditions. ' commodities .' , .. Everything that
increases the productive erfect of human labor-power ... is a new social ' produc­
tive force.' To the material forces of prO(luction belong nature, technology, aDd
science; but to these forces bdong, above all , the social organization iu eU and tbe
. . . social forces created therein by cOOIHlration and the industrial division of
labor. " Korsch , Karl MCI~ , vol. 3 , pp . 54-55 .~ [X 12a,l )
Concept of producti ve force: " The Marxian concept of 'social' productive foreet
h as nothing in common with the idealistic abstractions of the old and new ' techno­
cra ts ,' who jillagi ne they call defin e and measure ~he prO(luctive powen of society
... in terms of natural science and technology... . ' Tedm ocratic' prescriptioDl
are not suf6cient in themselves to remove the material obstacles which oppose aoy
important change in present-day capitalistic society.... There iJ; more power or
resistance in the mute force of economic conditions . . . than well-meaning techno­
crats have ever drealllt of." Korsch , Karl MClrx . vol. 3, pp. 59-60 Y [X12a,2)
I.n Marx-"Das philosophische Manifest der historischen Rechtsschule," Rhein­
u che Zeitung. 221 ( 1842}--there aplHlars, as a point of refer ence, " the correct ......
idea ... that t.he primitive conditions are naive ' Dutch pictures' of the true condi­
,
lions." Cited in Korsch , vol. I , p. 35 .... [X12a,3)
Against Proudhon, who looks on machine and division of labor as antithetical w
each other, Marx emphasizes how much the division of labor has been refined
since the introduction of machinery. Hegel, for his part, emphasized that the
division of labor, in a certain sense, o pened the way for the introduction of
machinery. "This parceling o ut of their content ... gives rise w the dirtisUm .of
labor. . .. The labor which thus becomes more abstract tends, on one hand, by Its
unifonnity, to make labor easier and to increase production; on another, to ~t
each person to a single kind of technical skill, and thus produce more uncondi·
tional dependence o n the social system. The skill itself becomes in this way
mechanical, and becomes capable of letting the m achine take the place of ~u·
man labor." H egel, Em.yRlopiidit: der philOJoplwcht:n Wwt:nJchajlt:n im GrundrisSt:
(Leiploig, 1920), p. 436 (paragraphs 525-526).w [X 12a,4)
The critique ClI. rried out by the yo ung Marx on the " rights of man," ai separa ted
from the " rights of ~he' citizen ." '"' None of the so-called rights of man gOCi beyond
egoistic lIlan .... Far from the rights of man conceiving of man as a sJ>eciet-being,
species-life itself. society, appears as a fra mework exterior to indi viduals .... The
onl y bond that holds t.hem togethll.r is natural necessity. nt!e d and private interest ,
lilt: conservation of their property and egoistic person . It is . .. paradoxical . .
Ihat citizenship, the political community, is degraded by the political emancipa­
IOrs to a mere means for the preserva tion of these so-called right ~ or mall ; that the
citizen is declared to be the servant of egoistic ma n ; that the s phere in which man
be hal'es as a communal being is d egraded he low the sphere in which man behaves
as a parti al being; fin ally dl at it is not mall 8S a citizen hut man as a bourgeois who
is called the real and true Illan .... The r iddle has a silllple solution .... What was
the character or the old society? ... Feud aljsm. The 0111 civil society had a direccly
political character .... The 1)Glitical revolution ... abolished tile political ebarac-'
ter of civil 8ociety. It shattered civil society ... on the olle hand into individuals,
on the other hand into the lIIater ial a nd s piritual elements that make up tile ...
civil position or these individu als .... The formation of the political state and tbe
dissolution of civil society into independent individuals, who are related by law
just as the estate and oor))Gration men were related by privilege, is completed in
one and the eame act . Man a s member of civil society, unl)Olitical man, appean
necessarily as natural man . The rigbts of lIIan aplJear R8 natllral rights. because
self-conscious activity is concentrated upon l)Olitical action . Egoistic man is the
Ilassive , given result of the dis80lved society, ... a n at ural object . Political revolu­
tion's ... attitude to civil society, to the world of need, to work , private interesu,
and private law, is that they are ... its natural basis. Finally, man as a member of
civil society counts for true man , for man as distillct from the citizen , because he is
Dian in his sensuous ... existence, while political man is only the abstract ...
man .... The abstraction of the politicallllan is thus correctly described by Rous­
seau : ' He who d ares to undertake the ma kin~ of a people'. institutions ought to
feel himself capable ... of changing human n ature, of transfonning each individ­
ual, who is by himself a complete and solitary whole, into part of a greater whole
from which he ... receives his life and being' (ContrOl $ocial [London, 1782] , vol.
2 . p . 67)." Marx . " Zur ludcnfrage." in Marx a nd Engels, Ge$anuausgabe. vol. I ,
section 1, 1 (Frankfurt a m Ma in , 1927). PJl. 595-599.611 [XI 3]
The property appertaining to the commodity as its fetish character attaches as
well [0 the commodity·producing society-not as it is in itself, to be sure, but
more as it represents itself and thinks to undersWld itself whenever it abstracts
from the fact that it produces preciscly comm odities, The image that it produces
of itself in this way, and that it customarily labels as its culture, corresponds to the
concept of phantasmagoria (compare "Eduard Fuchs, Collector and Histo rian,"
section 3)." The latter is defined by Wiesengrund "as a consum er item in which
there is no longer anything that is supposed to remind us how it came into being.
It beco~es a magical object, insofar as the labo r stored up in it comes to seem
Supem arural and sacred at tlle very moment when it C'\Jl no longer be recognized
as labor" (T. W. Adomo, "Fragmeme liber Wagner," Zeitschrffl for SoIialfor­
Jchung, 8, nos. 1-2 [19391, p. 17). In connection with this, from the manuscript o n
Wagner (pp. 46-47): "The art of Wagner's orchestration has banished ... the
role of the inunediale production of sound from the aesthecic totality.... Anyone
(ully able to grasp why H aydn doubles the violins with a flute in piano might well
get an intuitive glimpse into why, thousands of years ago, men gave up eating
uncooked grain and began to bake bread, or why they started to smooth and
y
polish their tools. All trace of its own production should ideally disappear from
the object of consumption. It should look as though it had never been T!UJde, so as [Photography]
not to reveal that the one who sells it did nOt in fact make it, but rather appropri­
ated to himself the labor that went into it. The autonomy of art has its origin in
Sun, look out for yourself!
the concealment of labor.no [X13a]
- A.J . \V'tertz. o..-uvra litl(r'airts (ParU, 1870), p. 374

If onc day the sun should sputter out,

'Twill be a mortal who rek.indles it.
- Laurencin and C1aiJ'\-illc, I.e RDi DaFt Ii l'txposition tk 1844,
l1\atre du Vaudeville. April 19, 1844 (Paris, 1844), p. 18 [lines
spoken by the Genius of Industry]

A prophecy from thc yca r 1855 : " Only a few years ago, there was born to UI a
machine t.hat hal since il«ome the glory of our age, and that da y after day amaze8
the mind a nd sta rtle8 the eye. f Thil machine, a century hence, will be the brush ,
the palette, the colors, the craft , the practice, the I)atience, the glance , the touch ,
the paste, the glaze. the Irk k . the relief, the finish , the rendering. f A century
hence, there will be no more bricklayers of painti.ng; there will be only architect&-­
painters in the full senle of the word . f And are we really to imagine that the
daguerreotype has mllrder ed a rt? No, it kills the work of patiel1cc, but it does
homage to the work of thought . I Whel1 the daguerreotype, tm8 titan child, will
have attained the age of maturit y. when all its power and potential will have been
unfolded , then the g(lIillS of a rt ,,;lI l uddenl y seiT-e it by the coUar and exclaim :
' Mine! You are mine now! We are going 10 work together .... A. J . Wiertz, Oeuores
/ittemire8 (Paris, 1870), p . 309. FrOIll an article, " La Photographie," that ap­
pea red for the first time in Jlllle 1855, in ta Na tion, and ended with a reference 10
the new illvention of photographic enla rgement , which makes it possible to pro­
thh'C life-size pllOt08. Bricklayer-pai nter8 a rc. fur Wierlz , those " who apply them­
selves to Ihe material pllI·t on ly," who a l'e good al " rclulering." [Y I,I]

liit/ustrializa tioll ill lih~ralll rt· . On 51·rihe. " Although he malic fun of the big indus­
tr ialists a nd mo neymell . lit' picked up tlw secret ofthcir success. II did not escalJe
his eagle eye thai, ill tilt: lastltll ltlysis. all wt~aith res ts 011 the art of getting others to
work fur 11 8. So then . gr ollllllhrea king genius that hc was, IIC tra nsferred the
I,rinciplc of the llivillion of la),or fro", tim ,,·ur kshops of lailors. cahilletmakers,
alld manufact urers of IHlII nihs to the ateliers of dramatic artists, who, before thi8
 reform , working wil.1I o nl y the ir one Ilead a nd o Tle I)CO, ha d earned merely the
proletarian wage. of the isola ted worke r. An e nti re gene ration of theatrical gen~
iusell we re in his deb t for their training a nd de velopment , their awards, and. not
1
..
infrelluentl y, even the ir riches and reputa tion . Scribe chose the lI ubj e<!I, ske tched
out the mai n lines of the plot, indicated the places for special effects and brilliant
exits, and his apprentices would compose lhe 81l1)roprilltedialogue or ver ses. Once
they had made 80me progreu, their n a me would appear o n the title page ( next to
that of the finn) as a jUl t ruompense, unti) the best would break away and begin
turning oul dramatical works of their own inve ntion , perhaps al80 in their turn
recruiting ne w assistants. By thclle means, and under the protection afforded by
the French publishing laws, Scribe beeame a multimillionaire." Friedrich Kreys.
sig, Smdie n zur /rcmzosischen Cultur· und Literaturgeschichte (Berlin, 1865)
<pp.56-57). [Y l ,2J
Beginnings of the revue. "The French fairy playsl currently in vogue are practi.
cally all of recent origin; they derive, for the most I)art, from the revues whicb
were customarily put on during the first fortnight of the new year, and which were
a sort of fantastic retrospective of the year preceding. The character of the.e
theatricals was initially quite juvenile; they were tailored specifically to schoolchil.
dren, whose new year's festh'ities would be enlivened by productions of this kind."
Rudolf Gottscball, " Das Theater und Drama des Second Empire," Umere Zeit:
Deuuche Revue-l'tfonalllchri/, zum Kon verl otwmk:cikon (Leip~g . 1867),
p.93 1.
From the stan, to keep this thought in view and to weigh its constructive value:
{y1 ,3J
- tunnels would bring on mo rtal chills and fevers." Dubech and d'Espezel, His/oire
the refuse- and decay·phenomena as precursors, in some degree mirages, of the
great syntheses that follow. These worlds <?> of static realities are to be looked for
everywhere. FUm, their center. 0 Historical Materialism 0 [Y I ,4J
Fairy plays: "Thus, for example, in Parisiens Ii Londre. (1866), the English ind...
trial exhibition is brought to the stage and illustrated by a bevy of naked beautiet,
who naturally owe their appear ance to allegory and poetic invention alone."
Rudolf Gottschall , " Oas Theater und Drama des Second Empire," Uruere Zeit:
Deutsche Revue-l'tfonaellchriJt zum Kon verlaliotlJiexikon (Leipzig, 1867)
p. 932 . 0 Advertising 0 [y l a,IJ
"' Fermenters' are catalytic agents which provok~ or acceler ate the decomposition
of relatively large quantities of other organic 8ubslances .. .. These 'other organic
substances,' however, in reaction to which the fermenting agents nianifest their
destructive power, are the historically transmitted stylistic forms. " "The fenneo­
ters ... are the achievements of modern technology. Tiley . .. can he groUI)C{!
acc()rding to three great material divisiolls: (I) iron , (2) the art of machiner y, (3)
the art of light and fire." AlIred Goullold Meyer, Ei,ctlbmuetl (I<: "lingen, 1907).
from the preface (unpaginated). [y l a,2j
The photographic reproduction of artWOrks as a phase in the struggle betv.-een
pholOgraphy and painting. [Yl a,3)
" In 1855. within the frlllllCWork of the grca t exhihition of ilUlustry.slH!cial sections
011 photogr aphy were opened , making it pon ible for Ihe first lime 10 fa miliarize a
wider public with the Ih"W ill\·ention. Tilis exhibition was, in fa ct , the overture to
Ihe induSlrial dc\'dopment of photogra phy. . .. The puhlic at the exhibition
throngetl before the 1lI1illCrOUS portraits of famous and nolOO pe rsonalities, and we
can onl y imagine wll at it 1II11s 1 have mea nt to that epoch suddenly 10 soo before it ,
in so lifelike a fo rm , the celebrated rlgures of the stagc, of the ,HNlium- in short. of
puhlic life--who, up until then, could be gazed at a nd admired only from afa r."
Gisela freund , " Entwicklung der Ph oto~raphi e in Frankreich" [manuscript].
oExhibitions 0 [Yla,4J
\l\brthy of mention in the history of photography is the fact that the same Arago
who made the famous cxpen repon in favor of photography submitted, in that
same year (?), 1838, an unfavorable repon on the railroad constructio n planned
by the govenunent: "In 1838, when the government sent them the bill autho­
rizing construction of railroad lines from Paris to Belgium, to Ie Havre, and to
Bordeaux, the parlianlentary reponer Arago recommended rejection, and his
reconunendation was approved by a VOte of 160 to 90. Among other arguments,
it Was claimed that the difference in temperature at the entrance and exit of the
de Pans (Paru, 1926), p. 386.
Some successful stage pl ays from midcentury: Dennery, La Nou.!rage <Ship·
[Y1>,5]
wreck) de La Perowe (1859), Le Tremblement de terre de Martinique (1843), Le,
Bohemiens de Paris (1843); Louis Fran\".ois Clairville, Le, Sepf ChiiteUlu du di·
abfe (1844), Les Pommel de terre maf(lde! (1845), RotllOmago (1862), CendriUon
<Cinderella ) (1866). Ot hen by Duveyricr, Oartois. A Kaspar Hower by Den­
nery?! (Y la,6J
i ''The most fa nt astic cr eations of fairyland are nea r to he ing reaLiillw berore our
\·ery eyes .. .. Each day our factories lu rn 0 111 wolltlers li S great as those produced
by Doctor Faustus Witll his hook of magic." Eugene Buret , De 10 Misere del classel
laborieu$es ell f"rtlll ce et en Angieterre (Paris, 1840), vol. 2, pp . 161- 162 . [Y2, IJ
From Nadar's splendid description of his photographic work in the Paris cata·
combs: "With each new camera serup, we had to test our exposure time empiri·
cally; certain of the plates were found to require up to eighteen minutes.­
Remember, we were still, at that time, using collodion emulsion on glass nega'
tives.... I had judged it ad visable to animate some o r these scenes by the use of
a human figure- less from cons iderations of picturesqueness than in order to
give a sense of scale, a precaution too often neglected by explorers in this medium
and with sometimes disconcerting consequences. For these eighteen minutes of
 exposure time, I found it difficult to obtain from a human being the absolute,
inorganic immobility I required. I tried to get round this difficulty by means of
mannequins, which I dressed in workman's clothes and positioned in the scene
1..
with as little awkwardness as possible; this business did nothing to complicate
our task .... This nasty ordeal o f photographing in the sewers and catacombs, it
must be said , Iaste:d no less than three consecutive months. . . . Altogether, I
brought hack a hundred negatives .... I made haste to offer the first hundred
prints to the collections of the City of Paris put together by the eminent engineer
of our subterranean constructions, M. Belgrand." Nadar, Qyand j'ilau photo­
go-aph, (Paris <1900.), pp. 127-129.' (Y' ,']
Photography by a rtificial light with the aid of Bunsen element8. '" then had an
experienced electrician install , on a solid part of my balcony overlooking the
Bouleva rd dcs Ca pllcine•• the fifty medium-sized elemenls I' d been hoping for and
which proved sufflcienl . . . . T he regular relurn, each evening, of thifl light (flO
liliJe utilized al lhal time ( 1860-186 1» arresled Ihe crowd on the boulevard and.
drawn like moths 10 the fl ame. a good lIIany of the curious--both the fri endly and
the indifferent--came to climb up the stairs to our studio to flOd oul what wa.
,
going on therc. Thcsc visitors (some weD known or evcn famou s) r epresented every
social class; they werc the more welcome insofar as they furnished U8 with a free
suppl y of models. va riously disl)Osed toward the novel experience. It was thus that
I ma naged to photograph . during these evening affairs, Niepce de Saint­
Victor•... Gustave Dore, ... the fin allciers E. P ereire, Mires, H alphen, and
nlany others." Nad ar, QU(Hldj'elais pholOgraphe (Paris), pp. 113, 11 ~ 11 6.
(Y',3]
At the end of the grand prOSIH!dus Nadar offers on the state of the sciencel: " Here
we a re, well beyond even the admira ble assessment of l' our croy, at the hour su­
\ Lark-mirror, r~f of ila dalliances,
preme when the genius of the nation . in mortal danger, calls for discoverieA."
Nad ar. Quand j'erais photographe. p. 3. [Y2.4j
Nadar reproduces the Balzaoan theory of the daguerreotype, which in tum
derives from the Oemocritean theory of the ddola. (Nadar seems to be unac­
quainted with the latter; he never mentions it.) Gautier and Nerval would have
confomled to Balzac's opinion. "but even while speaking of specters, both of
them ... were among the very first to pass before our lens." Nadar. Qyandj'itaiJ
photographe, p. 8. <Compare Y8a,!.> [y2a,l j
From whom does the cOllception of p rogress ultimately stem? From Condorcet?
At any rate, by the end of the eighteenth cenntry it does not yet appear to have
taken very firm root. In thc course of his eristic, amo ng various suggestions for
disposing of an adversary, H erault de SCchelles includes the followi.n~: "~a~
him astray through questions of moral freedom and progress to the Infinite.
Herault dc $echetles, Thion·e de l'ambih·on (<Paris,> 1927), p. 132. [y2a,2j
1848: "Tile revolution . . . a r08e in the midst or a very severe economic crisis,
provoked , on the one hand . by the speculatioll.s occasione<:1 b y railroad con, truC""
tion Bud , on the other h and . hy two COllijccutive bad harvests, ill 1846 and 1847
Once again the city or Paris•... as far oul a~ the faubourg Saint-Antoine. was tOrt
by hunger riots. A. Malet aud P. Grillct, XIX' Siecle (Paris. 19 19). p. 245.
II
[Y2a,3
Declaration regarding Ludovie Ha lcvy: " You may attack me on an y grounds yo~
like-hut photography. no, that is sacred ." J ean Loi1:e . " Emile lola photogra.
phe;' Aru er meticr$ graphitlllcs , 45 (Jo'chrllary 15, 1935) <j). 35>. [y2a,4:
"Whoever, at some point in hil lire. has had the chance to slip his head under tht
magic mantie of the photogra pher, anti has peered into the camer a so as to calcb
sight of Ihat extraordinary minia ture rep roduction or the natural image--such ,
person will necenariJy ... have asked himself what is likely to come of our modern
painting once I)hotogral'hy has succt.w ed in fixing colors on its plates as well al
rorms." Walter Cr ane, "Nachahmullg und Ausdruck in der KUlIst ," <t rans. Olt~
Wittich ,> Die neue Zeit , 14. 110. 1 (St ultga rt <1895-1896», p . 423. (Y2a,S:
The eETon to launch a systematic confrontation between art and photograph)
was destined to founder at the ou tset. It could onl y have been a moment in (thel
confrontation between an and technology-a confrontation brought about by
history. [y2a,6]
The passage 0 11 photograph y from Lemercier's La.mpelie et Daguerre:
Al, menaced hy Ihe hirdcalcher's pitilenneUl,
The meadowlark. rouaing the mUIIH or morning.
t-luUere and roolishly come. 10 alighl on a
So LamllClie'l (_ sunlight'l) flight ilClll ahort
By the chemical 8nal"1') of Oagl.lerre.
The race ola cryslal. conve" or conca'·e.
Will red uce or enlarge every object it markB.
It. fine , lucid rays, through Ihe depth! ol lhe tral"
Calch the afl>ecl of place, in rapid inllCriplio n:
The image impri&Oned wilhin the gla88 plate.
PreiiCrved from alllhrealening I'onlacl,
Retainll its hrightlire: and certain rell erli on~
Break th ro ugh 10 Ihe most distanl 81,ho:: r<'lI.
Nc pomucene Lclllcrcicr. Sur /(1 Decouverfe de / 'i"Berlieux peilltre rlu diorama
[Annulil Puhlic Scuion or thc Fi vc Acatlcmics, Thursda y, Ma y 2, 1839 (Pa ris.
1839). PI'. 30-3 1]. <CompilreQ31l.I. ) [Y3,1]
"Photography ... was first adopted with.in the dominant social class ... : manu·
facturers, factory owners and bankers, statesmcn, men of letters, and scientists."
Gise1a Freund, "La Photographie au poim de vue sociologique" (manuscript,
p. 32).ls this accurate? Shouldn't the sequellce be reversed? [Y3.2]
 Among the inventions that predate photography one should mention. in particu­
lar, the lithograph (in~nted in 1805 by Alois Senefelder and introduced into
France some years later by Philippe de Lasteyrie) and the physionoO'ace, which,
}.. for its part, represents a mechanization of the process of cutting silhouettes.
" Gill~ Louis Chretien, ... in 1786, ... su ccessfully invented an apparatus which
... combined twO different modes of making portraits: that of the silhouette and
that of the engraving.... The physionob'ace was based on the well-known prin­
ciple o f the pantograph. A system o f paralldograms was articulated in such a way
as to be capable of transfer to a horizontal plane. With the aid of a dry stylus, the
operator traces the contours of a drawing. An inked stylus traces the lines of the
first stylus, and reproduces the drawing on a scale detennined by the relative
position of the two styluses." Gisela Freund, "La Photographic: au point de VUe
sociologique" (manuscript, pp. 19-20). The apparatus was equipped with a
viewfinder. Life-size reproductions could be obuined. (V3,3]
The reproduction time with the physionotrace was on e minute fOT nonnal sil­
ho uettes, three minutes for colored ones. It is characteristic that the beginnings of
the technologizing o f the portrait, as instanced in this apparatus, set b ack the art
of the portrait qualitatively as much as photography later advanced it. "One can
see, on examining the quite enormous body of work produced with the
physionOtrace, that the portraits all have the same expression: stiff, schematic,
and featureless .... A1though the appararus reproduced the contours of the face
with mathematical exaetirude, this resemblance remained expressionless becawe
it had not been realized by an artist.n Gisela Freund, "La Photographie au point
de vue sociologiqu e n (manuscript, p. 25). It would have to be shown here: just
­ Fre und (manuscr ipt , p . 105).
why this primitive apparatus, in con trast to the camera, excluded "artistry.n
[Y3a.l]
, length, half-length, or bust. The background is filled , according to the social rank
" In Marseilles, arou nd 1850, there were at most four or five paintera of mini­
atures, of whom two, perhal)S, h ad gained a certain reputation by exeeuting fifty
portraits in the coune of a year. The3e artists earned jus t enough to make a
living. .. . A few years later, there were fort y to firt y pbotographera in Mar­
seilles .. .. They each produced , on the ave rage, between 1.000 and 1,200 platee
l>er year, which they sold for 15 francs apieee; this made for yea rly r eceiptl of
18,000 fran cs. so thut , together. they constituted a n industry ea rning nearly a
million . And Ihis same development can be seen in all the major cities or France."
Gisela Freund . "La Photographic au point de vue sociologi,«uet> (manuscript ,
pp . 15-- 16), citing Vidal. Memoire ele fa seance elu 15 nouembre 1868 de fa Socie te
SlcIlislique de Marseille. Rt!p roduced in I.he Bulletin de fa Soc~le fraru~aise de
Photog raphie (1871), PP ' 37,38, 40. . [y3a,2]
0 11 the iuterli nking of technological in ventions: " Wllen he wa nted to experiment
willi Ihhogt"aJlh y, Nicpce. who lived in the COllntry, ra n into the greatest difficultiell
ill procur ing the neceUDry stones. It was then that he got the idea of replacing tbe
Siones wit.h Ii metal plale and the crayo n wilh s unlight ." Gisela Freund . " La Pho­
lographie au point lie vue sociologi1lue" ( ma nuscript . p . 39). in reference to Victor
fOUII'II~ . Niepce: lAI V4'l rite !. IIr f'i,'I14'l lllivfl (Ie lu piloto8 rO I)I, ie (Ch:l.lons 811r Saone.
1867). [Y3a.3]
fo llowing Arago 's n 'port to the Chamber: " A rew hours luter, opticia ns' shops
wcrt' besicg('li ; then' wc,·c lIot enough lellses, nol cllough camc ra obscuras to sat­
isfr the zca l or so lIIu ny cagcr amateurs. They watched wil h regnltful eye the
~el t i ng s un on the horizon , a ~ it carried away the raw ma tcnal or the experiment .
But 011 the IIlOrrow, ,luring the first hours of the day. a great number of these
t'xpc rimcntcrs could be seell a t their windows, striving, with all sorts of anxio us
pret:a utiollll. to ca pture on a pre pared plate the image of a dormer-window oppo­
site. or the view of II group of chimneys." Louis i'\guier, L(I P/lOt08 r(lpliie: Exposi­
tio1l et II istoire des prillcipedes e/ecolI l/crleS scielllifjques m()(lemes (Paris, 185 1);
cited, without pagt' rererence, by Gisela Frcund ( ma nuscript , p . 46). [Y4,1]
In 1840, Mau risset publis hed a ca ricature of photogra phy. [y4,']
" In the area of portraiture. II conceru wilh ' situ atio n ' and the ' position' of a man .
a cOllcern that demands from the artis t the representation of a 'social condition'
ali(I all 'altitude,' can be satisfi ed . in the end . onl y with a full-length portrait. "
Wil helm Wii t7.old , Die KIIII.!t des Portriits (Leipzig, 1908), p . 186; cited in Gisela
Photography in the age of Disderi: "The characteristic accessories o f a photo­
[Y4,3]
graphic studio in 1865 are the pillar, the curtain, and the pedestal table. Posed
there. leaning, seated, or standing up, is the subject to be photographed : full­
of the mood, with other p araphernalia, symbolic and picruresque.n Further on
comes a very characteristic extraCt (without page reference) from !:Art tk la
pnotograpnie (Paris, 1862), by Disderi, who says, amo ng other things : "In making
a portrait, it is not a questio n only ... of reprod ucing, with a mathematical
t' accuracy, the forms and p roportions of the individual; it is necessary also, and
above all, to grasp and represent, while j ustifying an d embellishing, ... the inten­
tions of nature toward this individual." Gisela Freund, "La Photographie au
point d e vue sociologique" (manuscript, pp. 106, 108).- The p illars : emblem of
a "well:rou nded education." 0 HaussmannizatiOIl 0 [Y4,4]
Ciscla FrCUlld (manuscript . p p . 11 6-- 11 7) provi de ~ the rollowing citatiun from Dis­
Iltri"s L 'Ar t ell' ICl I)llOtog mphie: "Could 1I0tthe p hotogr ap her who was a mas ter of
all Ihe t'f£t!c ts of lighting, who IHld at his disposal II large a ud jJerfectl y t!(luipped
slIl,lio wit h !Jlilld e l'~ 1I1111,·t! AeClors, who WU 8 providell willi bac kdro ps of 11 11 kimls,
...·itl. setl.ings; prOI)Crtieil, coSl umes-coul,1 he not. gh'en intelligent a nd ilkiUfull y
dressed models, compose tabfe(llu ele genre, his torica l ilcenes? Could he not aspire
to SClllimCllt . like Scheffer, or 10 style. like I.ngres? Could lie not treat of history,
 like Paul Dela roche in his I)ainting The Death af the Due de Glli"e?" At the wOrld "Slea m"-"Last word of him who died on the Cross!" MaJUme Du Camp, Les
exhibition of 1855, I.here were 80me photogr aphs oflhis ' ort produced in England . ChtIDt. moderne, ( Paris, 1855). p. 260 (" La Va lM: Ur" ). [y5,"]
(Y4a,l]

1.. The paintings ~ r Oelacroix .escape the compe~tion with photography, not only
because of the unpact of thelJ" colors, but also (m those days, there was no instant
photography) because of the stanny agitation of their subject matter. And so a
benevolent interest in pho tography was possible for him. (y4a,2j
III " La ValM:Ur," part 3, 011 Camp celehra tes sleam, chloroform , electricity, gas ,
photography. Maxime Ou Camp, Le. Chants mooerne. (Paris, 1855), pp . 265­
272. " La Fa ub:" <The Scythe> celebrates the reaper.

The firs t 1","0 stallzas , and the fourth , from "La S obine" <T he Bobbin ):
(Y5,5)

N~a r thfl cascadillfl ri"flr'­

What makes the first photographs so incomparable is perhaps this: that they
Each of ill b",akwatert
present the earliest image of the encounter of machine and man. {y4a,3]
A lwirling ",lay Ilado n-
In Ihe midst of green mfladow.,
Onc of the-often unspoken-objections to photography: that it is impossible And Ihfl f10Wfl ring alfalfa.
for the human countenance to be apprehended by a machine. This the sentiment ThflY havfl raillfld up my Iialact':­
of Delacroix in particular. (Y4a,4]
My palace of a thoun nd windowi.
My palace of ll1stic vin"
" Yvon, ... pupil of Delar oche, ... decided, one d ay, 10 reproduce the Batde 01
Which climb to thfl rooft opl.
Solfenno.... Accompanied b y the photographer Bino n , he goes to the TuiJerie., My Iialace wherfl, without rfll)QlIfl.
gets the emperor to strike the right sort of pose, has him turn his head , and bathe. Thfl nimble wheel booml oul ils lOng,
everything in the light he wis hes 10 reproduce. The painting that r etulted in the Thfl wheel of rackety voicfl!
end was acclaimed under the title Th e Emperor in a Kepi." Following thill , a
Lib thOifl vigilanl fllvfla of Norway
court roo m hattie between the painter and Bisson , who h ad put his photo on the
Who waltz acl"OSll thfllnow.
mar ket . He is convicted . Gisela Freund , " La Photographie au point de vue eoci­
ologique" (manuscript , p . 152). [yb,S] - To escape Ihfl Bprilfl thai . tal.k.. thflm,
I turn , Ilurn, I turn!
Through the houl"ll of day, nflver reding,
Passing by the house of Disderi , Nal)Oleon III halts a regi ment he is leawnr; down Ilurn. and Ilurn Ihrough Ihfl nighl!
the boulevard , goes ups tairs, and has himself photographed . [Y4a,6j
\ Maxime Ou Camp . Les Cha nt. mo<lerne. (Paris, 1855), pp. 285-286. [Y5,' 1
In his capacity as pre5ident of the Societe des Gens d e Lettres, Bab-ac propoeed
that aU of the works of the twelve greatesl living French authors should automat­ UL.a Ux:omotive": " One day I s haU be named a sainI. " Maxime Du Camp , Le,
ically be bou ght by the state . (Compa re Daguerre.) [Y4a,7] Churus modernes (P aris, 1855), p . 301. This poem , like others, from the cycle
" Chants de 10 matiere." [Y5,7J
" At the Cafe Hamelin , ... some photogra phers and nighl owls." Alfred Delvau ,
Les Ileu re, parisienne, (Paris , 1866), p . 184 ("Une Heure du matin"). [yS,l j "'T he press, Ihal immense and sacred locomolive of p rogress." Victor Hugo ,
speech at Ihe bll lliluel of September 16, 1862 , organized by the publishers of Le.
On Nepomucene Lcmercier : "The man who s poke t.his pedantic, a bsurd , and bom­ Milerables in Brussels. Cited in Georges Batauh . Le Poruife de la demugogie:
baslic idiom certainly never understood the age in which he lived ... . Could an y­ Viclor.//llg o ( Pa ris. 1934 ), p . 131. [y5,8)
one have Iione a heller j ob of distorting COlltempora r y events with the aid of
OUlmoded images alld expressions?" Alfred Michiels, lIisloire rle. idees litleraireJ It is a cCll lllr)' Ihal d Ofl' u. honu r,
en France au XIX' sieck ( Paris, 1863). vol. 2, pp . 36-37. . [yS,2J Tho: co:nlu ry of im'enlions;
Ullforlullilidy. it iSlllso
Thfl centu ry of rflvolulion•.
On the rise of p ho tography.-Communications teclmology reduces the informa'
tional m erits of painting. At the same time, a new reality unfolds, in the face of . Louis) Cluirville IIl1d Jules Cordier. Le Po/nis (Ie Cr is lclt. Oil Le. P(l r isielis (I
which no on e can take responsibility fo r personal decisions. O ne appeals to the Lomlres. Thilh re de la Porle Saini -Ma rlin, May 26, 185 1 ( Paris, 185 1), p . 3 1.
lens . Painting, fo r its part, b egins to emphasize color. [y5,3] (Y5a, I)

J..
Self-portrait by Nadar. Counesy of the]. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angdes. See Y5a,5.
A locomoth'e pulling "severa) elegant coac hes" ap"cuTI on the s tage. Clalrvi1le lite
elder and DclHlollf, 1837 ullxc,,!en . T heatre tlu Luxembourg, Decembe r 30. 1837
(Paris, 1838) <po 16 ), [y5a,2]
To be demonstrated: the influence of lithography on the literary genre of pano­
r.unas. What, in the case of the lithograph, is perfunctory individual charac­
terization often becomes, with the writer, equally perfunctory generalization.
[y5a,3]
FOurnel, in 1858 ("Ce qu'oll vail dans les rues de Paris") , reproaches th~ da­
guerreotype for being unable to embellish. Disden is waiting in the wings. On '
the other hand, Fournel condemns the conventional poses that relied o n props
such as Disderi had introduced. [y5a,4]
Wi thout indicating his source. Delvau cites this description of Nadar', 8IJI>ear­
alice: " His hai r has the reddish glow of a setting s un ; itll reflec tion spreads acron
his face, where bouquets of curly and contentious locks spill this way and that,
unruly a8 fireworks. Extremely dilated, the eyeball raUl, testifying to a truly un­
appeasable curiosity and a perpetual astonishment. The voice is strident ; the
VilUres are those of a Nuremberg doll with a fever." Alfred Delvau , Le, LWru du
jour (Paris, I867), p. 219. [YSa,S]
Nadar, speaking of himself: "A born rebel wbere all bondage is concerned, impa­
tient of all proprieties, having never been able to answer a letter within two years,
an outlaw in all houses where you cannot put your feet up before the fire , and
finaUY--80 that nothing should be lacking, not even a la8t phY8ical defect, to
complete the mea8ure of all theR amiable qualities and win him more good
friend&-nearsighted to the point of blindnelS and consequently liable to the m08t
in8u1tiog amnesia in the pretence of any fa ce which he has not seen more than
twenty-five time. at a di8lance of fifteen centimeters from his nose." Cited in Al­
fred Delvau, Le. Liow dujour (Paris, 1867), p. 222. [YSa,6]
InventioDl from around 1848: matches, 8tearin candle., 8teel pen•. [YSa,7]
Invention oCthe mechanical prel' in 1814. It was fiNt utilized by the TIme•.
[Y5.,.]
Nadar'8 self-characterization: "Formerly a maker of caricatures ... , u1timately a
refugee in the Botany Bay of photography." Cited in Alfred Delvau , Les LWnI du
jour (Paris, 1867) , p. 220. [Y6,l ]
On Nadar: " What will remain , one day, of the author of Le lI1iroir aux aloueue8
<Lark-Mirror>, of La Robe de Dejanire, of Quand j'etau euulianl ? I do not
know. What I do know is that , on a cyclopean pile on the i81and of Gozo, a Polish
poet, Czeslaw Karski , has engraved in Arabic, but with Latin letters, 'Nadar of
the fi ery locka palSed in the air above thi8 tower,' ami that the inhabitanta of the
i81and very likely still have not lefl off worshiping him a. an unknown Cod. "
Alfred Delvau , Le5 Liow dujour (Paris, 1867) , pp. 223-224. [Y6,2]
Genre photography: the sculptor Callimachus, on viewillg a ll acanthus pla nt, in­
Vents the Corinthian capital.- .u..'Onardo paints the MOlla Lisa.-La Cloire el k
POt uuf~ (Clary and Beef Stew). Cabinet des Estampes, Kc l64a , J . {Y6,3]
An Eliglish etching of J775, a genre Icene, I howl an arti81 ma king a silhouette of
<her> model by following the shadow which the lalter CHstl 0 11 the wall. It is
elltitled The Origin ofPaintifllJ..C.binet des E8Iampes, Kc l64a , l . [Y6,4J
 qui.n=:d of the images forming the material for this stereoscope would correspond
more readily to photography than to painting. [Y6.5}

1..
The apparent affinity between Wiertz and Edgar Qvinet needs to be studied.
{y·,·1
'"The lens is a n instrument like the pencil or the brush. and photography il a
process like drawing or engraving; for what the artist creates is the emotion aDd

i
NADAR. ' I".nl I. Pholograpl\I, aIa Qul,ur de I'M
Nadar in his balloon. Lithograph by HonoR: Daumicr, 1862. 11K caption reads:
"Nadar raising photography to the level of an." See Y6,2.

There is a certain relation between the in~ntion of photography and the inven­
tion of the mirror-stereoscope by Wheatstone in 1838. "It displays twO different
images of the same object : to the right eye, an image representing the object in
perspective as it would be seen from the viewpoint aCthe right eye; to the left eye,
an image of the object as it would appear to the left eye. nus gives rise to the
illusion that we have .. _before us a three..wmensional objea" (Egon Friedell, ~ Origin ofPaillling. Elching by an EngI.ish artist, Ins. Counesy of the Bibliothequc
Kulturgeu hi€hte tkr N nluil, vol. 3 [Munich, 1931], p. 139). The exactness re­ Nationale de France. See Y6,4.
 1I0t the pfoceu. Whoever POUC88C8 1Iul llt.,t :eu nry skills a mi ha ppy ins pi.ration will.
he able to ohtain tin: s ame effccu (ro m all y one of these meaus of rt!production."
Loui!) Figuier. La "J.% g r(lphie (Ill S(llo1l de 1859 (I"uris . 1860), PI)' 4-5. (Y6,71
I..
" M. Quinci ... seemed to wunt to introduce into poetry the 80rt of gcn re thai the
English painte r dolm ) Martin inuugufnlcd in art .. . . The poet . . . did not
shrink from lun.'ing tile catllt!tlrals kllt.'C1 Lefore the seplllcilc r of Our Lonl, and
s huwing the 10 WIIII a bllorbed in co m.bing out upon t.heir s huulde rs, ",ilh a comb of
gold , their trease, of blo nd colullllls, while the lower!! ,la ncet! a s trange roundelay
",·jlh the mo untains." Alfred 'ettemcnl , Hi$IOire de 10 litt erulure!rUlu;aue lOW Ie
gouvernemellt cle )uiJIe t ( Paris, 1859), vol. I , p. 13 1. [y6a,I] .
" At the world exhibitioll of 1855 , photography, despite it ~ lively claims, could gain
110 e ntry into the 8anctuary of the hall 011 the Avenue Montaigne; it was condemned
to leek a8ylum in the inunense bazaar of auo rtet! proouct8 that filled the Palai8 de
l' lndus trie. In 1859, under ,;:rowing prell8 Ure, the museum committee .. . ac­
corded a place in the Palais de 1'I11dus trie for the e xhihition of photography; the
e",hihitioll s ite was on a level with thai made available 10 paintillg and engravin,;:,
bUI it had a separate entrance anti was sct , 80 10 s peak , in a tlifferent ke y." Louis
Figuier, Lv. PllOtogrullhie Ull Sulo n de 1859 (Paris, 1860), p. 2. [Y6a,2)
" A 8killful pholographe r always has a dis tinc tive st yle, jus l like a draftsmaD or a
painte r ; ... and , what ', more, ... the d istinc tive cha racter of the artistic spirit of
each nalion is clearly r evealed . . . in t.he works produced in different COUD-
tries . . . . A French photographer could never be COllfU8(:d .. . with one of hie
colleagues from ac ron the Channel." Louis Figuier, Lu PllOtog niphie au Salon de
1859 ( Paris, 1860), p . 5. [Y6a,3]
The beginnings of photomontage come out of the attempt to ensure that images
of the landscape retain a painterly charaCter. "M. Silvy has an excellent system
for producing his pictures.... Instead of inlposing, on all his landscapes indiffer­
ently, one and tile same sky fonned from a unifonn negative, he takes the
trouble, wherever possible, of separately enhancing, one aftcr the other, the view
of the landscape and that of the sky which crowns it. H ere resides one of the
se~ts of M . Silvy." Louis Figuier, La Photographie au Salon de 1859 (Paris,
1860), p. 9. [Y6.,4)
It is significant tllat Figuier's bookJet 011 tllC Salon of Photography of 1859 begins
with a review of landscape photography. [Y6a,5)
Al the Sa lo n llc PllOlographie of HI5!) . Ilume rous " voyagl·s'·: 10 Egypl. to J erusa­
lem. 10 Gn:-ece, lu Spai n . In his aceuunt, Fib'1 lie r o b!icn'e>I: " Ha nll y had ti,e IJrlu:·
lil.:al pn.. ·.·"".·" ..f pholugraph y 011 (Japer eome to he ulllie rstoot! than a whole hand
of o p/·rators rus hell for th ... in :,11 directions, 10 bring 11 8 bae k \·iew" of 1II0nu­
mcnts, bllildhlg>l. "1I.I I·lliIiS tllkc n in 1111 kllOWIi lalltls of Ille world ." He nce the lIew
voyage, pho,ogropltique,. Louis Figuier . La Pholog rapllie au Salon de 1859,
p.35. [Y6a,6)
Among the work, of r eproollc tion to whic h Figuier give, ' I)eeial attentio n , in his
Photogropllie (III Sa lon, are the reproduction of the Raphael cartoon from H amp­
IOn Court- "tlte work ... tbat dominates the e nlire photographic exhibition of
1859" (p. 5 1}--a nd that of a ma nll8cript of Ptolemy', GeoSrophy dating from the
fourteenth cenlury a nd ke pt , althal time, in the monas te ry of Mount Alhos.
[Y7,1)
The re were porlraits s pecifically dcsiglled to be vie",,·ed through the 81ereoscope.
Tltis fa shion was curre nt in England , a bove all. [Y7,2)
Figuier (pp. 77- 78) does Ilot omit to mentio n the possibility t hat " microscopic
photogra phs" couJd be used ill time of war to transmit secr et messages (in the fonn
of nt.in.iatu re telegrams). [y7,3J
t'One tbing . . . made clear by a carefuJ inspection of the exhibition . . is the
present pe rfection ... of the positive proof. Five or six years ago, pholography
was almos t exclusively concerned with the negative, . . . and it was rare indeed
that a nyone gave thought to Ihe utilit y of printing from a positive image." Louis
Figuier, La Pholos raphie au Salon de 1859 (Paris, 1860), p . 83. [Y7,4]
Symptom, it would seem, of a profound displacement: painting must submit to
being measured by the standard of photography: "W: will be in agn=ement with
the public in admiring ... the fme artist who ... has appeared this year with a
painting capable of holding its own, in point of delicacy, with daguerrian prints."
1his assessment of Meissonnier is from Auguste Galimard, Exmnm du Salon de
1849 (Paris <1850.), p. 95. [Y7,5)
" Photograph y ill ver se"--tYllonym for a description in verse. Edouard Fournier,
Chroniques et lCge ndes des rue, de Pllris (Paris, 1864), pp. 14-15. [Y7,6]
''The world's first movie tbeate r opc ned 011 DecemJ)e r 28, 1895 , in the basement of
the Gra nt! Cafe, 14 Boulevard des Ca pucines, in Paris. And Ihe first receipts for a
hrand of s pt!c tacle IIiat wo uld late r net billions amounted to the conside rable , urn
of Ih.irty-fiv e francs!" Hola nd Villiers. 1.£ Cine mu c t sc, merveilk, (Paris ( 1930 »,
pp.I8-19. [Y7,7]
"1'h e year 1882 mll ~ t be mentioned as a turlling poinl ill tile history of pholO­
gra pllic reportage. It was the year ill whic h the photographer OUomar AnschUtz,
from Les:mo in Poland , ilweuled Ihe focal-plane , hUlle r IIl1d thus made lH>u ihle
trul y instantaneOIlS photograph y." EllrOI)iiische I)okum em e: f1istoris clle Photos
Q" /q den JlIhren 18" 0- 1900, ed . Wolfguug Schu{le (Stuttgart. Berlin , Leipzig),
.~ [y~
 The first photogra phic inte r view was conducte,1 by Nmiar wilh the nine t y-seveD_
year-o ld Fre nch che mist C hc vrcuL ill 1886. Europiiilcile Do/':lI/lIlllltc: Historilche
PliOt05 (,IllS den }oliren /8" 0- / 900 , e(1. Wolfgang Schade (Stuttgart , Berlin,
1..
Leipzig), p. 8-9..' [Y7,9}
" The first cxpc rilllcni to la ullch researc h into scie nlificllll y produced motion ...
was that of Doctor Pares in 1825. The details are well known: on one side of II small
slluare of carllhoard , he had drawn II cage, alltl on the other side, II bird ; by
turning the piece of cardboard briskly 011 8 11 IIJ(is , .. . lit: caused the Iwo images to
apl)ear in s uccession, yet the bird seellled to be in the cage, just as though there
hali been only olle dra....ing. This phenomenon , which in itself is the basis of aU
cinema , depelld s on the principle of the pe rsiste nce of retinal impressions. . . . ~
Once this principle is a dmitted , it is easy to understalltl that a movement decom~
posed , and presented in a rhythm of te n images o r more per second , is perceived
by the eye as a perfectly continuous mo ve me nt. The first apparatus that actuall y
....rought the miracle of artificial motion is the Phenakistiscope, constructed by tbe
Belgian physician P late au as early as 1833. Still known today as an optical toy,
this apparatus . . . consilS ted of a disk on ....hich were mounted drawings repre­
se nting the successive phases of a n a ction , which c'ould be observed as the disk was
rotated . . . . There . . . is a n o bvious relation he re to the animated cartoons of
toda y.... Researche rs quickly saw ... the interest in ha ving ... a successio n of
photographs substituted for the drawillgs . Unfortlluately, ... only images running
a t the minimum speed of a tenth of a secolld could work ....ith such a design. For
this, we had to a ....ait the gela tinobromide plates that permitted the first instanta­
neous expos urC1l. It was astronomy t hat initially provided an occasio n for testing
c hronophotograph y. On December 8 , 1874 , thanks to the passage of the pla net
Venus past the Sllll, the as trouomer <Pierre> Janssen ....as able to tryout his
invention of a photographic revolver, ....hich took a picture every seventy sec­
onds .... But the process of chronopho tograp hy was soon to become much more
r apid .... It was . .. wheu Professor Marcy ente red the lists ....ith his pho tographic
r ifle ... that the result of t....elve images per secolld was obtained . . . . All these
e)(perimenls were, up to the il , purely scie ntifiC (!) in c haracter. The researchers
who conducted them ... saw iu c hrono photogra phy a simple ' means for analy:llng
the movemellts of humans and animals.' ... At this point , in 1891 , ....e meet with
. . . Ediso n , ....ho had constructed two devices. One, the Kinetograph , was for
recording; the other, the Kinetoscope, was for projection .. .. Meanwhile, in 1891,
Mal'cy's collabo l'alOr, <Georges > l)e meny. ha d built a ma chine t hat allo....ed for the
reconling of pictures aud sound at the s ame time . His Phonoscope . . .....as the first
talkie. " Uoland VilLicrs , Le Cine rrl(l et se.~ merlleWes ( Paris <1930 », pp . 9-- 16
(" Petite lIi~toire tlu l;inclllll"). [Y7a,l )
"Lei li S ta ke as a ll cxample of tedlllic lli progress , which act ua lly is regrcss , the
p.,rfl,.'Ctio n of photogra phic d eviccs. The y lire muc h 11101',· scnsiti ve In light than the
old IIO)(e8 with which dabruerreotypcs we re pro,lu eed. One hanll )" need COlice rll
one~cLf ahout lighting whcll opcratiug the m now. They have a 111III111c r of olhe r
adva ntages 10 boot , especially whe re pholographing fa ces is concerned, a ltho ugh
the portraits which one ma kes with them are douhtless much poorer than before.
With the older, less light-se nsitive appa ratus, multiple expressions would appear
o n the plate. which was exposed for rather long periods of tjme; heuce, on the final
image there would be a livelier and more uni ve rsal exp ression , alld t his had ilS
fun ction as well. Neverthe less, it would 111 0st certainly be false to r egard the new
(tevices as ....o r se than the olde r o nes . Perhaps something is missing from them
which tomorrow will be found , and one can a lways do other things with them
besides photogra phing faces. Yet what of the faces? The newe r devices no longer
work to compose the faces-but must faces be composed? Perhaps for these d e­
vices there is a photographic method which would decompose faces. But we can he
quite slIre of ne vc r finding this possibility realized .......itho ut first having a new
fllnction for s uc h photography." Brecht , Ver,mche <8- 10 (Berlin , 1931) >, p . 280
("Der Dreigroschenproze6" <The Threepenny La....suit». [Y8,1)
The Bisson brothers, on the occasio n of the visit by Napoleon III to their photo­
gra phic studio on December 29, 1856-a visit which they say coincided with the
eleventh anniversary of the opening of their business-published in pamphlet
form a poem entitJed, " Souve nir de la visite de Leurs Majestcs l'Empereur e t
I'Impcratrice aux magasius de Messieurs Bisson freres." The pa mphle t comprises
four pages. The first two pages contain a nother poem , "La Photogra phie. " Both
texts are unrelie vedly fa tuo us. [Y8,2j
" It is ....orth noting that the be tte r photographers of our day are Dot concerned to
belabor the question . . . : 'Is photography a n a rt?' . . . By their a ptitude for
c reating the evocative shock , [these photogra pher s ] prove their power of expre8­
sion , a nd that is their revenge for the skepticism of Daumier." Geo rge Besson , La
PhologrnphiejraR(iaUe (Pa ris <1936» , pp. 5-6. (Y8,3)
The famous statement by Wiertz on photography can very likely be elucidated
through the following statement by '\Ney (of course, it becomes clear by this that
Wiertz's prognosis was mistaken): "In reducing to naught whatever is inferior to
it, the heliograph predestines art to new forms of progress ; in recalling the artist
to nature, it links him with a source of inspiration whose fecundity is unlimited."
Francis '\Ney, "Du Naruralisme dans I'an" [La Lumiere, April 6, 1851 ]; cited in
Gisele Freund, La Photographie en Frame au XIX' siecie (paris, 1936), p. Ill .
[yB ,' ]
" If w~ co nside r only the practical s ide of divillation , thcll to believe that previous
tlVe nts in a man 's life ... ca n be directl y represe nted by the carlls he shuffles allli
cuts, al\(I ....hie h arc thcn stacked by the fortuneteller in accorda nce with some
lllystcrio us la ws, is to be lieve the a bs nrd. But this criterio n of absurdit y once rulC(1
ou t tile harnessing of stcam; it still rules ont acrial naviga tion ; it ruled o ut many
ill\'Clltions: gunpowde r, prilltillg. the te lescope, engrltving, and a lso the mos t re­
Cellt grtlltt discover y of our tjme, the da gue rreotype. If a nyolle had come a nd told
Napoleon tha t a ma n o r a huildillg is illces~ antly, ami at all hour s, represe nted h y
an image in the atmosphere. that all existing objec:t.s have there a kind of specter
which can be capturetl and l.lCrceivetl. he woulll have consign ed him to Ch arenton
as a lunatic.... Yet that is wha t Daguerre's discovery proved ." HOllore de Balzac,
Le Cousin Pon•• in Oeuvres comp Mles. vol. 18. La ComMie humlline: Scenes de m
vie pflri. ie nne, 6 (Paris. 19 14). 1'1" 129-130. " Just as physical oLjec:ts in fact
project themselves onto the a tmosphere. so that it retai ns this slH!f:ter which the
d aguerreotYlle can fix and capture. in the same way ideas, , , imprint themselvea
0 11 what we must call tile almosphere of the spiritual worlil , . , . a nd live 011 in it
speclmlly (one mllst coin words in order to express ullnamed phenomena). Uthat
he grunted , certain crcatures cndowed with ra re facultie s are lK! rfcctly capable of
discerning these forms or IIlese traces of ideas" (ihid .. p, 132), ~ [Y8a, I)
" Degas was the first to a ttempt , in his pictu res, the reprcllenl ation of r apid move­
ment such as we get in instan ta neous photography," Wladimir Weidle, Le, AbeilleJ
d 'Aristee (Paris <1936), p . 185 ("L' Agonie de I'art"). [Y8a,2)
What a uthor is lleing ciled b y MonteS(lIliou in the following pauage, which is taken
from a handwritten text formin g part of a richly ornamented volume of memora­
bilia shown in a display case allhc Guys exhibitioll, ill Paris, in the spring of 1937?
" And that . in a few hasty words. is how it was: the fi rst exhibition of Constantin
Gu ys-newest surprise 10 be ser ved up to us fro m his treasure-box of malice by
M. Nadar,6 the famous aerona ut and (should I say?) illustrious photograpber,
Surely. this ingenious spirit . 8tet!IJed in the p as t, has a righ t to that title. in iu
noblest acceptation , and according to the admirable definition provided by a pow­
erful and subtle thinker, in the course of some sublime pages: ' Humanity bas aho
inve nt ~l , in its evening peregrina tions-that is to say. in tlle nineteenth ceDtury­
the symbol of memory; it has illvented what had seemed impossible; it has invented
a mir ror that remembers, It has invented photography. '" [Y8a,3)
"At no time in the past h as art responded to aesthetic exigencies alone, The
Gothic sculptors served God in working for his faithful; the portraitists aimed at
verisimilirude ; the peaches and the hares o f a Chardin had their place in the
dining room, ab ove the family d umer table, Individual artists in certain cases
(and they were few and far between , to be sure) may have suffered from this state
of affairs; art as a whole could only profit from it. 1bis is the way it has been
lhroughout all the great artistic epochs, In particular, the naive conviction that
they were o nly 'copying nature' was as salutary for the painters of those fonu­
nate epochs as it was theoretically ul~ usti6able , The old Dutch masters looked
upon I.h cmsclves less as anists than as photographers, so to speak ; it is only
today that the photographer is absolutely determined to pass for an artist. ror­
mcrly, an engraving was above all a document, less exact (o n the average) and
more anistic than a photograph, but having the same function, fulfilling by and
large the same pI<lctica1 role," Together with this importan t insight we have, from
tills autllOr, another no less importan t. according to which the photographer is
distinguished from the graphic artist no t through the fundamentall y greater rea1­
ism of his works, but through a more highly mechanized technique, which does
not necessarily diminish his artistic activity. None of tllls prevents me author
from going 0 11 to say: "What is urifortunate [m y italic.s] is nOt that today's pho tog·
rapher believes himself an artist; what is unfortunate is that he actually has at
his disposal certain resources p roper to the an of the painter." WIadimir 'M:idle,
Ul Abeilles d'Aristte (Parisl. pp. 181-182, 184 ("I.:Agonie d e ran") . Compare
Jochmann on the ep ic poem: "The general interest which such a poem excites,
the pride with which an entire people repeats it, its legislative authority over
opullons and sentimcn ts-all tills is grounded in tile fact that it is nowh ere taken
as a mere poem." [Carl Gustav J ochmann,] Ober die Sprache (Heidelberg, 1828),
p ,271 ("Die Riickschriue der Pocsic"). [Y9.l )
In the lK!riod arOllnd 1815, illustrations are already appearin g in advertisements.
On July 6 ofthi ! yea r. the Societe Generale des Allnonces , which handled publieili
for Le Journal de1l di b<lts, Le Co n1lfitUjiontlel, and Lt, Preue, publishes a pro­
spectus that says: " We call , , , your attention to the illustratio ns which , for some
years now, a great many businesses have been in the habit of joining to their
a nllouncements. The power of captivating the eye hy the form and disposition of
the letters is perhaps less decisive than the ad vantage to he gained by Iilling out an
often arid eXIJOsition with drawings and designs," p, Datz . Hi. ,oire de mpublicite,
vol. 1 (Paris, 189" ), PI). 21 6-2 17. [Y9,2)
In his " Morale du joujou" <Philosophy of TOyln, Baude.laire mentiOD!, together
with the stereoscope. the phenak.istiscope, "The " henakistiscope. which is older, is
less well known . Imagine some movement or other-for example, a dancer 's or a
juggler 's performance-di vided up and decomposed into a certain num ber of
movements, Imagine that each one of these movemcllts-as lIIany as twenty, if you
, wish- is re prescntcd by a complete figure of the jugglcr or dancer, and that these
are all prinled roulllithe edge of a circular piece of ca rdboard ," Baudelaire then
describes the mirror mcchaniSll1 that enables the viewer to see, in the twenty
olK!nings of an ollter circle, twenty lillie figures moving rh ythmically in a continu­
ous actioll. Baude.laire. L 'Ar t rOil/antique (Paris). p . 146,: Compare Y7a, 1.
(Y9a,l )
It "'"as the pa ntogrllph . whose principle is ei.IU ally at work in tile physiognotrace.
tllal ulidertook to tra nscrihe automatically a linear schcme originally traced 0 11
palK!r ,to a plas ter mass . as required by the process of photosculptu re. Serving as
Illudd in this prOI'CS8 we rc twclit y-folll' simultUIlCOus villws taken from differcnt
si(les. Gautier forC8~' S 11 0 tlircatt o sculpture fl'OIIi this prot'esli, ~I hat ca n preve nt
the ~c ll ipt o r from IIrti.'> ticlI lly c.nlj,·clling the IIIccllllllica lly pro<luced fi gure and itll
ground? " But tItCI'.' is mOI'e: fIJI' all i(.-;; c.xtravllgallce. 11..- ct'ntury remains economi­
cal. I~ure art se('IIIS to it something expcnsi,·e. With tlu~ dll.-ekiIlClLiI of a parvenu , it
Somc!imes da rcs to haggle o'"cr master....orkll. It is terrified of marhle and
h ron:t:e.. , , But pltotosculpture iii lIot so daunting as slat llar y. , , , Pltotosclilptlire
is used to morlest pro portiolls alld is content with a !Jet of sheh"es for pl.'(lclltal.
happ y 10 l!II ve flljlMull y rcproduccil a he loved counlcnance.... It doell not dis.
dllin an uver coat, IIml is 1101 cmbarrasscd by crinolines; it accepl8 natu re and the
wurld all they ure. h I sincerit y accommodate/i ever ything, anti though its plaster
casts of 8tea rin cun he tra!lsp08cII into marble. inlo terraco tt a, into alabaster, or
into brollze • ... it !lever asks. in re turn for its work , what it s ehler sister would
demand in p uymc nt ; it retluesu only the cost of material8." Thw l)hile Gautier
" PhotollcuJpture: 42 Boulevard de l' Etoile," <Le MOrliteur Imil/er 8eh (Pari,:
(january 4,> 1864). pp. 10-11. The essay includes . att.he elld , a woodcut witb
photosculptu relI, one of which portrays Gautier. [y9a,2)
" He refined the illusiona ry art of the p anorama and invented the Iliorama . He
joined forces with another paillter. ami 0 11 July II , 1822 , on the Rue de Sall80n ~
Paris ... , he opened an exhibition whose fame lluickl y s pread .... This inventor
and entrepreneur ... was dubbed a knight in the LegiOIl of HOllOI'. Midnight Mau ,
the Temple of Sololllon , Edinburgh in the sini8ter glow of a conflagration, and
Napoloon 's Tomb tranllfigured naturally by the aureole of a rOIlY sunset : such are
the wonders that wcre 8hown her c. A transla tor of Daguerre's own account of h.ia
two inventions (1839) portrays very nicely the multiplicil y of lighl8 involved , great
and slllull . s plendid , st.-.:re t , a nd tcrrifying: 'The spectator sits in a small amphl _
theater ; the 8tage St.'ems to him covered Ly a curtain which is still bathed in dark­
ness. Gradually, however, this darkne8S yields to a twilight ... : a landscape or
prosl)ect emer gell more clea rl y; the dawn is beginning .... Trees stand out from
the shadows; the contours of mountains, of hou8es, hc<:ome visible ... ; the day
has hroken . The 811n climbs ever high er ; through the open window of a house one
sees a kitchen stove slowly fl a ming UI), while in a corner of the land8cal)e a g'oup of
ca llipers is ra nged round a cooking pot , under which the campfire is be~ to
blaze; a forge hccolllt.'i viswle. iu furna ce giving orr sparks as though ... from
continuous 8l0killg. After a while, ... the daylight begins to wane, and the reddi,h
lusler of the artificial flalll e grows 8tronger ; once again there is ad va ncing twitipt,
and fili ally nocturnal gloom. Soon , however, the moonlight ane rts its rights, and
the region is visihle anew in the sofl tinl$ of Ihe illumina ted night : a mariner'.
lallterll fl are8 up on board a ship that is a nchored ill the foreground of a harbo r; in
the background of an admirable l)ers l~ctive of a church , the candles on the altar
are lighted , allli the previously invisihle p arishioner s are now illuminated by the
rays streuming down from thc a ltar ; or grief-strickcll men a re standing at the edge
of u lumlslide, its devustations lit up hy the moon at the ver y s pot where, 8hortly
bcfore, the Rumbcrg had formed the background to thc luvel y Swiss llliulscape
of Goldau .... Citcil liS "OIH:r'sctzcl" VOII Dagller res Sc!u'ift iiher seinc heillcn Er­
findungen ( 1839)," in Dolf Sternhcrger, " ,>as wUllllcr'hurl: Licht : ZUlli 150 Ge­
hurtstag Dugucrres," Fn/llkjllrtcr Zeit/wg (2 1), NovemlJCr 1937. (y 1O,IJ
nrc entrance of the temporal factor into the panoram as is brought about
through the successio n of limes of day (with well-known lighting tricks). In t:his
way, thc panorama transcends painting and anticipalcs photography. Olving to
its tcclmological fonnalio n, the photograph, in contrast to the painting, can and
rollst be correlated with a well-defined and continuous segment of time (exposure
time). In this chronological spccifiability, the political significance of the pho to­
graph is alread y contained in nuce. [yIO,2J
-'In these deplorable times, a new industry has developed . which has helped in no
slIlall way to confirm foo ls ill their faith and to ruin what vestige of the d ivine might
5till ha \'e remai ned in the French mind . Of course, this idolatrous multitude was
calling for 8n ideal worthy of itself and in keeping with its own nature. In the
domain of painting and statuary, tire presen t-da y credo of the worldly-wise ... is
tlLis: ' 1 believe . . . Ihal a rt is, a nd call only be, the e:-:act r eproduction of na.
lure .... Thus, if all industrial process could gh 'e us a result identical to nature
Ihat Yo'ould he abllolute art. ' An avenging God ha8 lreard the prayen of this multi~
tude. Daguerre was his messiah . And then they said to themselves: 'Since photog­
raph)' provides 11 6 with every desirable guarantee of exactitude' (they believe that ,
poor madnlcll!), ' art ill photograph y.' From thaI moment onward, our loathsome
society rushC(I, like Narcissus, to contemplate its trivial image on the metallic
plate. A form of lunacy, an extraordinary fallaticism. took bold of these new
sun.worshippers " Strange ahominaliolls manifested themselves. By bringing to.
gelher and posiug a pack uf ra8cals, male and female , dressed up like carnival.
time butchers and washerwomen, and in lH! r sllading these ' heroes' to ' hold ' their
improvised grimaces for as IOllg as the photographic process required, people
really believed they could represent the tragic and charming seenes of ancient
history.... It was 1I0 t long befo re thou8a nds of pairs of greed y eyes were glued to
the peepholes of the stereoscope, a8 though they were the skylights of the infinite.
The lo\"e of obscellit y, which is as vigorou8 a growth in the heart of natural man as
self-love, could not let slip such a g1oriOU! 0PIJOrtunit y for its own satisfaction ....
[ po 223] ... I am convinced that the b adl y applied advances of photography-lilr.e
all purely material progreu, for that malter-have greatly contributed to the
iml)O\'erishmcnt of French a rti81ic genius, already 80 ra re . . . . Poetry and pro-­
gress are two a mhiliouli men who hate each other with an instinctive hatred and
whell they meet along the same road one of them musl give way." Charles B~ude­
laire, Oeuvres <ed . le Dantec •• vol. 2 <Paris, 1932>, pp. 222-224 ("Salon de
,. 1859: Le Puhlic moderne et la photograpILie").8 (y10a, 1]
Ba.~dclaire s peaks, in " QueilluC8 Ca rica turistes fraru,a is" (apropos of Monnier).
or tile cruel and s urpdsing cha rm (If Ilaguerrt.'Olypes.·' Charles Baudelaire, Oeu­
vres, etl. Le Dnlltce, vol. 2. p . 1 97.~ (yIOa,2]
"." octr"y and Ill"ugrC8ll arc two nmhitious nl(~1l who hale euch ot her with an instinc­
11\' 1'Ilat rCI. I . ant' w
" lell I rey 1IIt.>(: t II ,ong the lIallle ruud , (IIiC of them musl give way. If
pholograph y i$ ullowed 10 8npplellleul a rt in SOIll C of its functions, it will soon have
8uPIJlan tCt ' l ur currnpleu". It. a , logd.lier. th ullks 10 the stupidit y of tilt: multitude
....Ilidl
I i, "t , " , lIS
>i I ~ natura U y.
- tUlle.
- t ,IC Il , for 1110
­ rel nr ll 10 its Irue dut y which ill to
:>e the serva nl of t.he ~ciellces a lill urt8-hul Ihe vc ry humhle servanl , I;ke printing
or shOr II la" n(, Yo_'lie - "I la ve nelt. - "IeI' Crt:II!CI 1101' ~ lIppl eIllC n!ed lilerature"
_ Let it
 haste n to enrich the 10Urilll ', album and relltore to his e ye the precillion which bia
memory may lack : lei it adorn the n a turalist', library, and enlarge microscopic
unimals; lei it e vc u provide information to corroborate the astronomer's hypothe_ z
-[The Doll, The Automaton1
1
ses. In short, let it be the secretary aud clerk of whoever need, absolute fa ctual
ell&clitude in his pro(el8ion- ul' 10 tha t point nothing could be bette r. Lei it resCUe
from oblivion thOle tumbling ruins, those book" prints . and manuscripts which
... lime is devouring, precious things whose form ia ditso)ving and which d emand •
place in the archives of our memory- it will be thanked and applauded . But if it I was always, among human ~ings , the: only doni with a heart.
he aUowed to encroach upon the domain of the impalllsble and the imaginary,
-Am alie '.\limer, /I1(111oir(1l riMf &rlin" PIIppe.,for Kindn IID1I 5 bi.! 10
upon II.llything whose value depends solely upon the addition of something of II ]o.hrm undfiir Mm Muller (Leipzig. 1852). p. 93
man'lloul, then it will be 80 mucb the worse for u.!" Charle. Baudelaire, Oeuvret,
ed . Le Dantec, vol. 2 , p . 224 ("Salon de 1859: Le Public moderne et la pno­ Where, instead of the clock, the eyes indicate the hours.
tographie"). IO [Yll ,l J - Franz Dingdslrol, Ein RI1mIJ.II; citro in AdolfSuodtmann, DicAkr-­
profik, vol. I (Stuttgart, 1879). p. I II
Cocteau'$ LeJ Marib de fa tour EiffiJIl can perhaps be considered a "critique of
the snapshot,n insofar as in this piece the rnro aspects of shock-its technological
function in the mechanism and its sterilizing function in the experience-both
come intO play. [yll.2J

"The clever Pari8iennes . ..• in order to disseminate their fa shion8 more ea8ily,
made use of an cSJ>et!ially cOll8picuous reproduction of their new creations­
namely, tailor s' dummies .... These doUs, which still enjoyed considerable impor­
tance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were pven to little prls as
playthings when their career as fashion figurin es bad elllled ." Karl Crober, Kin­
derspielzeug au.! alter Zeit (8 erlin , 1927). pp. 3 1-32 . 0 Fashion 0 Advcrti8ing 0
{ZI ,I)

They are the true fairies of these arcades (more salable and more worn than the
life-sized ones): the fonnerly ",",orld-famous Parisian dolls, which revolved on
their musical socle and bore in their anns a doll-sized basket out of which, at the
t' salutation of the minor chord, a lambkin poked its curious muzzle_ When Hack­
lander made use of this " newest invention of industrial luxury" for one of his
fairy tales, he too placed the manrelous dolls in the dangerous arcade which sister
Tlrlchen, at the behest of the fairy Concordia, has to wander in order finally to
rcs~c her poor brothers. "Fearlessly, T mchen stepped across the border into the
enchanted land, all the while thinking only of her brothers. At first she noticed
nothing unusual, but soon the way led through an enonnous room entirely filled
with toys. She saw small booths stocked with everything inlaginable-c.arousds
\\ith mini:uure horses and carnages, swings and rocking horses, but above all the
IllOSt splendid dollhouses. Around a small covered table, large dolls were silting
on easy chairs; and as Tmchen turned her gaze upon them, the largest and most
~autiful of these dolls stood up, made her a gracious bow, and spoke [ 0 her in a
little voice of exquisite refinement." The child may not want to hear of lOYS that
 arc bewitched, but the evil spell of th is slippery path readily takes the fo rm, even
today, o f large animated do lls. 0 Advertising 0 [Z I,2]
" Tile fllshion is lI upposed to ha\'c heen in" ented hy Longdullnps. , " 'e not leen
an ything new. !Jut to nlOrrow ill their bulletins all the " Friellllly Sprite!!." aU the
" Peli.,. Cou rien des Dames:' all the " p "yclles" wiU report on lie"" anire that wal
alreally Ile!!iglled 1111(1 availahle before Longcllamps ever ca nlC on the scene. I
strongl y s uspeel Iha t in IIIl1n y of Ihe coaches, instead of Ihe lady who woultl seem to
be seated inside. there wus olil y a dummy which the owners of Illese fine vehicle.
•
F
had dressal accordi ng to their own taste in shawl!! and satins and silk,." Karl
Gut:l:kow. Briefe au" Pllris (Lcip:l:ig, 1842), \'01. I . pp. 119-120. IZI,3]
" From the Ombrc, Chifloisc' <Chinese Shad ows) of the Palais-Royal: "A ...
demoiselle gave birt h 0 11 stage, and the children could immediately scaml>er abo ut
like moles. T here were fou r of them, and they danced togetJler a few nlomenl8 after
Ihe b irt h in a plealla llt q uadrille. Another you ng woman started tou ing her head
vigo rou ~ l y, and ill the twinkling of lin eye a se<:ond dellloiselle had slepped fuUy
clotilc.1 from out of hcr heud. T his laller at once began dancing but, the next
minute. was seized ill turn with hcad ·shaking; these wcre labor pains, and a third
demoiselle stepped Ollt of her head. She. too, immediately hegan dancing but sooD
look to t os~ ing her hcud like the ut hers, ami out of her arose the fourth demoiselle.
It continued ill this mUllllcr until eiglll generations were there 011 Ihe 8tage--aU
relatcd 10 one IInother through spontaneous generation. like lice." J . F. Henzen·
berg . Briefe gescll rieben (Utj einer Reise nuch P(lriJ (Dortmund , 1805), vol. I.
1' .294. [ZI ,4]
- had procured it for him; it served as a model for Deruchette.
At a certain point in time, the motif of the doll acquires a sociooitica1 sig­
nificance. For example: "You have no idea how repulsive these automatons and
dolls can become, and how one breathes at last on encountering a full·blooded
being in this society." Paul Lindau, Dn' Abend (Berlin, 1896), p. 17. IZl.S]
" III a shop on the Hue Lcgt'IHlre, in Butignolles . a whole ser ies of fema le busts,
without hca ds or legs. wi th curtain hook5 ill pl uee of arms and a percaline skin of
arbitrary 11I1t'- lwan hrown , gJuring pink. h urd black- arc lincd up like a row of
oniOll8. im puled on rods. or set oul 0 11 tables .. , . T he sight of this ebb title of
hosoms. til is MUSL't: Curtius of brcusts. puts one vaguely in mintl of those va uits in
the Louvn' ""ilt're dU8sica i sculptures ure hOllsed , when: Olle autl the sallie torso.
etel'nall ), Tl·PI·UtC.!. Iwguilcs lilt! tillle fOI' those who lovk il ovcr. with a yawn , 011
ru ill )' ,1 :IY8 .. .. I-low supl'ri ul' 10 the {11'cu r y stlt tues of Vellus II,ey :1 rt.~lh cse Ilress­
IIIlIkcrs' m U llll el,u ill ~. with thcir lifelike comportmcnt ; how much lIIore ,irovoea­
ti" e Ill e~ I ' plul,lcti hu ~ t8. which _ cXIJOst..tJ Ihere. bring 011 a train of rcverie.:
lihcl'lille re\"'rics, illspin'd liy cphchk nilJpl,'s alltl slightly hruiSCl1 hubs: c1.urita­
hll: revcries. recallilll!; viII h l·casu. shril'c1C11 with " hl o ro~ is or "Ioalell with fa t . ­
Fvr VIl1' thinks or the SOITUWS of wu mcn wlm . . , expcriCllct· the growin g
imlifferClice uf a hu ~ l lIuJ{'- or Ihe immi ncnt {ICiicrtioll uf u Ju,'cr. or t.he final dill­
ar millg of Ihose char ms which allowed them once to cOlllluer, in the unavoidable
hall ics the)' wage for the c1used -up wa llct or I.he mall ." J ,· K. Huys mans, CrfJquu
pMisiens (Paris, J886), I'p. 129, 13 1- 132 (" '"' Ellage" <Ehb Tide». [Zla,l )
"Not 10llg before tile elld of the Empi re. a ver y special question arose; tbat of the
PUIHl.zzi. People wanted thelle wooden marionettes to perfonn I.e Roi Prudhomme
at tht" Theatre des Varietes. The cast of charaClers for this playlet included the
En11}Cror_ Emile Olivier, ... V. I-Iugo•.. , Gambetta •... and Rochefort.... T he
piet:e had heell performed in drawing rooms and even in tbe Tuileries. But these
private performallt:es did not ill the least prepare for the effe<:l!I of an y public
performallce. alld the aut horities refu sed to allow ... the theater to embark on
thi.!! path ." Victor l-I aUay.-Dabot , La Censu re dramatique et Ie thiatt'e (lBSQ­
1870) (Paris, 1871), p . 86. [Z l a,2]
" In the competitions surrounding the material orllament .. , of attire, the popu­
larity of dolls is pul to use . . . , T he Little Hands (in which girls make up the
majority) are entrusted wilh the prese ntation of d oUs and nlannequins, among
which a choice is to be made." Charles Fourier, I.e NO ll vcall Monde indu"triel e t
sociewire (Paris, 1829), p . 252. IZ1a,3]
While writing Le, Tra vlIilleurs de la mer <The Toiler s of the Sea), Victor Hugo
kept l>efore him a doll dreued in the antique garb of a Guernsey woman. Someone
[Z l a,4]
Marx explai ns tha i " the two material base. on which the preparations for ma­
chilie-olJe rated industry proceeded within manufactu re during the period from
the sixteenth to the midd.le of the eighteenth century (the period in which ma nufac­
\ ture "" as developing from handicraft into large-scale industry proper) were the
clock and Ihe mill (at first the corll mill . spc:cificaUy, the water mill). 8 0th were
inlu:riled from the ancienu .... T he clock was the fi rs t automatic device applied
10 practica l purposes; the whole theory of the prod uction of regular motion was
developed through it . It! natu re is s uch that it is based 0 11 a combination of semia r­
listie handicraft and diret:tlheory. Cardanus, for instance, wrote about (and gave
praClical form ulas for) the construction of clocks . German authors of the six­
h...nlh century ca lled c10ckma kiug ' learned (nonguild) handicr aft' and it would be
Ilossihie tu show fro m the devclupnll'nl of the clock how entirely different the
rcla lioll helwccll science anti practice was ill the conlext of lIandicraft from what it
is. f(lr inslance , in mOllcrn lar ge-sca le industry. T here is also no douht that in the
cightt'I'1II 11 century Ihe i.lea or applying automat ic devices (moved by springs) to
prl), luction was firsl suggcste!1 by the clock , It can he proved historically that
\'Uu,'ansoll 's eXIICrimcnts ulong these lines had a tremcndous influence on the
illHlb-illaliol) of English ilH'cntorli. On the OilIer IlUntl , from the very beginning. a8
SOOn as the Wilier mill was invented . the IIlill possessed the cssential e1emenll! of t.he
organi.i111 of a lIule h.inc. T ilc mech anieaJlllolive power. fint , the molor, on which
il ,I.::pends; Ihen tile trallsmillllion meehanislll; alld filially the working machine,
which deals with the material---each element existing independently of the other•. Mensonge. " -In the same section , Baudel aire cites the cOllcept of " the f emilla
T he theory of friction. and with it the investigations into the mathematical fornu simplex of the RonllHl satir ist" (L 'A rt roman/iqlle [Parill]. p . 109). ~ (Z2a.2J
of gear-wheeb, cogs. and so forth, were aU develolH!d in connection with the mill .
•
the same applies to the theory of measurement of the degree of motive l)Ower. of the Beginnings of la rge-Icale indu str y: " We fiml great numbers of peasauts emigratin
best way of employing it, and so on. Almost aD the great mat hematician s since the I
to tie . .
clheli, W Ilere steam energy permiu the concentration of factories th at for­•
middle of the seventeenth century, so fa r as they dull with practical mechanica lIIerly were sca llerell along t.he banks of ri vers. " Pierre-Maxime Schuhl . tUa ­
and worked out its theoretical side, started from the simple water-driven corn chinisme el philosophie (Paris, 1938), pp. 56-57. (Z2a,3J
mill. And indeed tM wal wh y the name Miih le. ' mill: which ar ose during the
manufacturing period , came to be applied to aU mechanical forots of motive power "Aristotle d(:clarel that sla\'ery would cease to be necessar y if onl y the sbuttles and
adapted to practical PUrpose8. But in the case of the mill, as in that of the press, plectrlllllll coultl set themselvC3 going on their o...·n . The idea accords adrnirabl
the forge, the plough. a nd other implement8. the work p roper- that of beatins, widl his definition of the slave as animated instrument .... By the same token th~
Cru8hing, grinding, pulverizing. and so on-ha8 been performed from the very ancient lwet Pherecyd es of Syr os had told how the Dactyls, after building a 'new
first without human labor. even though the moving force W88 human or animal. house for Zeus. had fa shioned for him male and female servan ts as weU. We ar e in
This kind of machinery is therefore very ancient . ... Hence, it is p racticaUy the the realm of fable.... Yet before three cCllluries have p assed , an Anthology poet ,
onl y machinery found in the manufacturing period. The industrial revolution Antiphilos of Byzantium . offers a response to Aristotle by singing of the invention
begins as soon IU mechanisms are employed where, from ancient timC3, the 6nal of the water mill , which W>erates women from the arduous task of grinding: 'Spare
reA ult h88 required human labor; hence not where, 88 with the tools mentioned the halld tha t grinds the corn , 0 miller girls, and softly sleep . Let Chanticleer
,
above, the material actu aDy to be worked up h as never been dealt with by the announce the morn ill vain! Demeter has commanded that the girls' work be done
human hand ." Marx to Engels. J anuary 28 , 1863, from London [in Karl Man. and by Nymphs, and now they skip lightly over the wheels , so that the shaken axles
Friedrich Engels, Alugewahlte Br~fe. ed. V. Adoratski (Moscow and Leningrad, revolve with their spokes and pull round the loud of revolving stones. Let us live
1934), pp . 118-119).2 (Z2J the life of our fath ers, ulld let liS res t from work and enjoy the gifts that Demeter
sends us." (Note: "Anthologie Pal<ltine, vol. 9, p. 4 18. This epigram . .. hal al­
ready beell related to the text of Aristotle. and for the firs t time, it would seem, b y
In his stud y " La Mante religieuse: Recherehes sur la nature et la signification du
mythe" <The Praying Mantis: Investigations into the Nature and Meaniq of - Marx"-presumably, in Kapit al, vol. 3 <tr ans. Molitor [Paris. 1924]) , p . 6 1.)
Pierre-Maxillie Schuld, iIIachinisme ell'hilosophie (Paris, 1938), pp. 19-20. $
Myth >. Cailloil refere to the slriking a utomatism of reflexCII in the prayin@; mantis
[Z3[
(then! is ha rdl y a vital fun ction that it does not also perform dec:apitated) . He linlu
it , on account of its fateful l ignificance, with the baneful a utomatonl known to us
from myths. Thus Pandora: " automaton fabricated by the blacksmith god for the
ruin of humankind, for that ' which aU shaD I take to their heam with delight, an
evil to love and embrace' (H eliod, Works ond Days, line 58). J We encounter lOme­
thing l imilar in the Indian Krtya- lhose doUs, animated b y sorcer ere , which brinl
about the death of men who embrace them. Our literat ure al well, in the motif of
femmel fatales, pOS8enes the concept of a woman-machine, artificial, mechanical,
at variance with aUllving creatures, and above aU murderous. No doubt psycho­
analysis would not hesitate to explain this representatiou in its own term. by
envisaging the relationl bctween death a nd sexuality a nd , more precillely, by
finding each ambiguously intimated in the otller." Roger Caillois, " La Mante re­
Iigieuse: Recherchel sur la nature et la signification du luylllll," Me$lIre$ . 3, no. 2
(April 15, 1937), p. 110. {Z2a,IJ

Baudelaire, in the st:dion, "Les Femmes etles filles" <Women and Prostitutes> in
hit essay on Guy •. cites the wor ds of La Bruyere: "Some women pOlle88 an ar­
tificiaillobilit y which is associated wit.h a movement of the eye. a tilt of the head , a
manner of deportment . and which goes no further." Compare Ba udelaire', " J.,e
a -
[Social Movement]
promote unceasingly in the face of feudal and hierarchical powers, and that we be
clear about the fact that the movement itself comprehends mystical elements as
well, although of an entirdy different SOrt. It is even more important, narurally,
not to confuse these mystical elements, which pertain to corporality, with relig.
ious elements. [al ,2)

Reveal to these depraved,
o Republic, by foiling their plots,
\bur great Medusa face
Rffig<d by mlliglnning.
- French workers' song around 1850, ciled in Adolf Stahr, .QM
Ml11UIlt in Paris (Oldenburg, 1851). vol. 2, p. 199
Rabble of the faithles5, the 5OuUess, the rootless,
Who want to wipe out every an and industry,
10 crwh Wlderl'oot the cult of the Cross,
And drown in an ocean of blood and flames
- Its waves have risen round the fian1u of Paris­
Temples, palaces, priests, peoples, and kings!
-Edouard d'Angiemont, L'lntematifIMle (Paris, 1871). p. 7
Palermo ha! Etna; Paris, fa pnu/t.
-VICtor Hugo, Paris [Littt'rlzt'lm tt P"iIowpll~ lllilk (Paris, 1861), .
pp. 466-467}, cited in Georges Batault. u
Vaetor Hllr;o (Paris. 1934), p. 203
PrmIift tit r.~;
Episode orthe Februa ry Revolution. On the twent y- third , at eleven o'clock in the
evening, a fu sillade on the Boulevard des Capucines: twenty-three dead . "The
coqJses are illlllledia tely paradet:1 through the " reds ill a masterl y, romantic m ;"'e
en 5cim e. ' Midnight is about to sound. The boulevards are still faintly lighted by
the fading illumination [the celebratory illumination occasioned b y the retreat of
Guizot]. T he doors alld windows of the house. and 8hops ar e s hut, ever yo ne
ha\oing returned home with heavy hear ts .... All of a sudden , a muffled rumbling
is heard on the pa ving atones, and some windows are cautiously opened.... In a
cart drawn b y a white horse, with a hare-armed worker holding the reina, five
cadaver s are arranged in horrible symmetry. Standing on the shaft is a child of the
working class, sallow of complexion, a fixed and a rdent look upon his face. his arm
extended , nea rl y imnlObile, as though to represent the Cenius of Vengeance ; lean ­
ing backward, this boy lights up, with the beama of his torch, the body of a young
woman whose livid neck and bosom are stained with a long traiJ of blood . From
time to time another worker, positioned behind the ca rt , raises this lifeless body
with a muscular a rm and- his toreh aU the while emitting sparks and fla kea of
- fi re--cas ts his savage gaze over the crowd , shouting, " Vengean ce! Ven­
geance! They are sla u&htering the people!"""o Arms!" re. pond some voicetlj and
the corpse falls b ac k into the bottom of the cart, which continues on its way. , ..
(Daniel Stern). Dubech and d ' Espezel , lI;"'toire de Paru (Paris, 1926), p . 396.
o Lighting 0 [a l ,3)

The massea of workera mobilized by Haussmann were compared- unfavora bly_

to those incorporated in the national workshops of 1848. 0 H aussmann 0 [a l ,41
"SO th Surrealists constantly confuse m o"u
_ 1 _. r ·
noncoruonrusm with proletarian
met: e . f th odc:m world, to "The favorite readings of the working~lass tailor are the histories of the Revolu­
revolution, they attempt. instead of followmg the c~urse 0 . e m . """,,,,h Ie.
rdocate themselves to a historical moment when this confuSion was still Y"""'~ f tioll of 1789. lie like, it "'hen these texts develop the idea tha t this re volution was a
a moment anterior to the Congress of Tours, anterior even to the d~O~:: good thing, and thai it inlproved the condition of the working class . He is inspired
Mo-;·m· the pen"ad of the 1820s, '30s and '40s." Emmanuel , . by the au ra of drama lent to men and events b y several fam ous authors .... Not
-~ . d th . nainly no aca­
Pamphlet," Europe, 75 (March 15, 1929), p. 402. An at IS c~cal materialism. l)crceiving th ut the prillcipal cause of his social inferiorit y lie8 within himself. he
dent. For, on the one hand, we have here elements-an~pologt. the other likes 10 think Ihal these men are the models for those who, in forging a new
hostili toward progress-which are refractory to MarxISm, while, .on . volu' Ilrogrcss. will preserve hilu from all kiud8 of culaluities.·' F. Le Play, u s OIl IJriers
hand le will to apocatastasis speaks here, the resolve to gather agam, rmthIe " toO europeeru <PuriSt 1855>, p . 277. [a l ,5J
' action
tionary . . revo Iuoonary
and m ' thinkin g, p recisely the elements 0 e [ 1 1)
early" and the "too late," of the first beginning and the final decay. a , "s treel warfare tod ay has its own Iet:hllique; it wa~ perfet:tetf , aft er the armed
lakeo \'u of ,!-\ tullich <1848?>, in a curiOU!I little confidentia l work published with
. bearing
' poIenu' <aI
It is really imperative that we unde~tand., in pre.WeI y Its ~the
w ~eat secrecy by tilt: government in Berlin . One 11 0 longer advances through the
apotheosis of o rganization and of rationalism which the Conunurust party 8trCCts; they are left empty. A pa th is opened within tile iUleriora of houses. b y
 brea killg through walls. A.II 800 n 118 olle has ta ke n II .IIlrect , olle organize1I it ; line. of
comlllunication are laid through the ho les in the wa Us, wlille, to prevent the return
of the adversary, o lle immedia tely mines lhe conque red gro und. .. P erha p. the
clearest sign of progrcu, he re, is that one need nol concern o neself at a U with
J sparing houses or Lives. Compared with civil wars of the futu re, the Cl'i8ode of the
Rue TranSlion ain <lee a lOa,5) will seem quite ... innocent a nd a rchaic." Duhech
] a nd d ' E, pezel, Hi.stoire (Ie Poris (Paris, 1926), p . 479. 0 Haussmann 0
• Family budget of a Parisian ra~ i cker, 1849-1851, according to F. Le Play, Le.
Ouvrier. europeefU (Paris. (855), pp. 274-275. An excerpt : "Sectio n 4 . Expen8et
for mo r al impro ve ment , recreation, aDd health.... Instruction for the c hildren:
ICh ool fee l p a id b y employer, 48 francs; books purchased . I franc 45 centimes;
relief and alms (workers at this level ordinarily give no alms at all). Ret:reation and
festivities: meal taken together by the entire family at one of the bar~rel of Pam
(eight excursions per yea r), including wine, bread, and fried potatoes, 8 franc.;
meal of macaroni . with butter, cheese. and wine, taken on Christmas, Mardi Gra.,
Easter, a nd Pentecost : expenses included in the first section; chewing tobacco for
the worker (cigar butts collected by the worker), 6.8 kilos worth 5-34 fr anc.; snu£(
for the wife h)Urchased}, 2.33 kilos worth 18 franc s 66 centimes; toys and other
gifts given to the child . 1 fra nc .... Correspondence with r elatives: letters from
the worker 's brother s living in Italy, on average one per year.... Note: The main
reso urce for the family, in case of accidents, is private charity... . Savinge for the
year (the worker-altogether incapable of prudent habits , and desirous, above
all , of giving his wife and little girl all the comforts they desen e--never managea to
save anything; he slHmds, day b y day, all he earns). " [ala,2)
"The damage done to the mor ality of the improvident worker b y the . ubl titutioD
of antagoni. m for solidarity conl ists p recisely in the los. of all opportuaity of
exercising his natural virtues in the only way that "" ould be practicable for him.
T he devotion dil played in the wish to do well , in the concern for the interelta of the
employer, or in the l acriflce of needs and desires irreco ncilable with the regularity
of work is, in fact, more feasible for the worker than the devotion which would
lead to a.sisting his comrades with a sum of money.... The faculty of giving aid
and protection of any consequence belongs to the upper classes; it can manuelt
itself among the workers as an immediate and short-lived enthusiasm, but the
virtue most within their reach is clearly the performance of their task for the
employer. " M. F. Le Piny. Les Ouvriers curopeem (Par is. 1855), " Printed by
authority of the Emperor and the Imperial Press," p. 278. [al a,3)
The "small land owners of the suhurhs." "They cultivate vines ... that produce a
wine of inferior quality, for which the consumption tax in effect inside the capital
ens uru a profit ahle mnrket in the suburbs.... F. Le 1)lay. Les Ouuriers europeefIJ
(Paris, 1855) , p . 271. [ala,4J
"Ther e is a tropical plallt that for yea rs remainll unrema rkable and bringe forth
11 0 blossom, Ulltil fi.nally, one d ay, an explosion reso unds like a rille 8hot aud. lome
dayS later, from out of this thicket a wonderful giant of a flower arises, whose
growth is so rapid that one can witneu i18 unfolding with the nnked eye. Just 80
paltry a nd stunted remained I.he French working clan in a corner of society, until
su<ldeniy the explosion of the Fellruary Revolution was heard . But with that , a
giguuLic Llon om shot up from the unreullirkable bushes, and this bloom full of lap
alld "itaLity, full of beaut y IIntl l ignifica nce , was ca lled the association <a term
[a1a,l] <Ieri-'ed from tile Saint-Simonians >." Sigrnulld Englander, Geschichle der fran ­
:oj ijcl!en Arbeiter-Auociationen (Uamburg, 1864), vol. 4 , p. 217. [&2,1)
Organization of the ",tate workshops (ateliers nat.ionaux) by Thomas. " It suffices
to mClltion th at Emile Thomas divided the workers into brigad e. and companies,
and that their chjefs were elected by universal suffrage of the workers. Every
company had its fl ag, and Emile Thomas made use, for this organUation , of other
civil engineers and of students from the Ecole Polytet:hnique. who, through their
yo uth , exerted a mor al influence on the worker s ... . NeverthelClls, although the
minister of public works ordered the atate engineers to come up with proposals for
works ... , the engiueers in chllrge of bridges IIlId roads decided not to comply with
the minister's order, for in France there had long been a great rivalry between
state engineers lind civil cligUleers. 1 li nd it was the latter who directed the national
workshop~. Tholllas was therefore left to his own reso urces. and he never could
assign to such an army of worker., whose ranks were daily swelling, any sort of
useful work. T hus, for example , he had trees from the outskirts of Paris brought
into the city to be planted along the boulevards , because during the struggles of
- Febr uary the old trees on the boulevard had been cut down . The workers with the
trees paraded slowly acron Paris , singing as they went .... Other worken, who
had the j ob , for example, of cleaning the railings of bridges, became an object of
derision for passersby. and so the majority of these workers also wound up passing
, their time in mere cardplaying, singing, and the like . ... The national workshop.
hefore long became .. . the gathering )Jlace for all sorts of vaga bonds and idlers ,
.....hose labor consisted exclusively in marching through the streett with their stan­
dard bearers, her e and there mending the pavement or turning up earth. but on
the "'IIOIe-singing and shouting, ragtag and unruly--tloing whatever came into
i their heads .... One d ay, tllere suddeuly ap peared on the scene 600 actors, paint­
ers , artistt, a nd agellts. who together II lIuounced that , since the republic was
guanHlleeing work to all citizens, they too were )Juttin g forward their claim.
Thomas lIIade them illspector~ . " SigmulI<l Englander, Geschichte der Jran%olIi­
lIchen ~rbeiter-AlJIJoci(ftiolUm (Hamburg, 1864), vol. 2, pp . 26&-27 1. 0 F1aneur 0
[a2,2)
" Ncither tile mu yurll nur the police cOltlluissioners, who Ilad to sign the certiflcate8
attesting tu the hearen' digihilit y to work ill Paris. coul<l maintain the slightest
CIJllt rol ill \·iew of the threats circulating aga inst t.hem. In their anxiety. they even
ga ,·,· certificates to tell-year-old childrcn. who . with these in hand , presented
tllclnseh 'es for admission to tile national work"hul)S," SignlUnd Englander,
Cesc"ichte tier JrulI::.osische fi Arbeiter-AuociatiQnen (Hamburg, 1864), vol. 2 ,
11 . 272. (a2a, l )
 Episodes in the June ins urrection : " Women were leen pOllring boj(jng oil or bot
water on the 80ldienl while II hricking and bellowing. In many place•• insurgentt
were given brandy mixed with vanoul ingredieolll . 80 that they would be excited 10
madneili... . Some women CUI off the sexual organs of several imprisoned guard&­
J men, and we know that an insurgent dressed in woman', clothing beheaded a
number of captured officers ... ; people saw the head, of .oldiers on pikes that
] were planted atop barricades. Many things recounted were pure invention_for
example . that the insurgcn18 had pinioned captured guard8men between two
• boards and sawed them. while alive, into piece•. On the other hand , things did in
(act occur that were no leIS horrible.... Many insurgents used bullets of a type
that could not be removed from wound, after shooting, because a wire had been
inserted into these bullets which sprang out from the l ides of them on impacl.~
Behind numeroUi barricadel were spray gunl, which were used to apray l uJphurie
acid on auaclringloldiers. It would be impossible to detail all the fi endilh barbari­
ties perpetrated by both l ides in thil action; we shall merely observe that world
history can point to nothing comparable." Englander, vol. 2, pp. 288-289.
June Insurrection . "On many closed shops, the inl nrgenll would write: 'Resped
ProlHlrty! Death to Thievel!' Many flags on the barricades bore the word,: ' Bread
and Work.' On the Rue Saint-Martin , on the first day, ajeweler 'l Ihop Itayedopea
without being threatened by any l ort of harm , while, a few stepl beyond, a Itore
with a l upply of &erap iron wal plundered .... Many iwurgentl, during the bat­
tle, had assembled their wives and children on the barricadel , and cried: 'Since we
can DO longer feed them, we want at least to die all together! ' While the mea
fought , the women made gunpowder and their children cast bulletl, usin« every
piece of lead or tin that feU into their handl . Often the children molded the bulleta
with thimbles. At night, while the combatants were l looping, girls wouJd dr.
paving stones to the barricades." Englander, vol. 2, pp. 291,293 . [a2a,3]
Barricades of 1848: " More than 400 were counted . Many. fronted by trenches and
battlemenll, reached a height of two Itoriel." Malet and CrilIet , XIX' Siecle
(Paris, 1919), p. 249. la2a,4]
" In 1839, some workers in Paris founded a newspaper with the title La RucM
populaire.2 ... The editorial office of thil pubLicalion was located in the poorest
section of the city, on the Rue des Quatre Fils. It was one of the few worker-run
newspapers to have an audience among the general population , which can be
explained by the tendency it followed . That is, it took as its program the goal of
bringing hidden misery to the notice of wealthy bellefaclorl.... hi the of6ce of
thil journal a regisler of misery lay opell. in which every starveling couJd inscribe
his name. It was imposing, this regil ler of misfortulle, a nd since at thil period LeI
Mysteres de Pam. by Eugene Sue, had brought charil Y into Cashion within hiP
society, one often saw priva te ca rriages puU up beCore the dirty premises of the
editorial office and blase ladicl step forth to secure add.res8d of the unfortunate;
they would then deliver alml personalJy to these people and , in this way, derive a
novel stimulus for their jaded nerves. Each number oCthil workers' review began
,",'ilh II summary enumeration of the poor people who h ad registered with the
editor ; details of their plight could be found in the register itseU.... Even after
Ihe Febr uary Revolution, at a time when all social clalSes looked on one another
.,.dlh distrust, ... La Ruche JJOpulaire continued to facilitate personal contacll
between rich and poor .... Thil is aU the more r emarkable in Light of the fact that ,
e.'en during this lH!riod , aU articles in La Ruche populaire were written by actual
"'orkers engaged in some practical occupalion. " Sigmund Englander , Geschichte
der !ram:.osi,chenArbeiter-Au ociationen (Hamburg, 18M), vol. 2 , pp. 78-80, 82­
a. ~, l ]
"The expansion achieved by industry in Paris during the past thirty yean hal
gi\'en a certain importance to the trade of ragpicker, which occupiel the lowe(lt
level on the industrial scale. Men, women , and children can all easily devote them­
selves to the practice of this trade, which requires no apprenticeship and calli for
tools that are as simple 88 itl method8-a basket , a hook , and a lantern comprising
the ragpicker's only equipment. The adult ragpicker, in order to earn 25-40 soue
per day (depending on the season), is ordinarily obliged to make three roundl , two
during the day and one at night ; the Arst two take place from Ave o'clock in the
morning unlil nine o' clock, and from eleven o'clock unlil (here, there are four
pages missing from the copy in the BibLiothi!que Nalionale! 1. Like salaried work­
ers , they have a habit of frequ enting taverns ... , Like them, and more than them,
they make a Ihow of the expenditures which thi, habit entails. Among the older
ragpickers and particuJarly among the older women, ' pirill hold an attraction like
nothing else . . . . The ragpickers are not alwaYI content with ordinary wine in
these taverns; they like to order mulled wine, and they take great offenle if tbU
drink does not contain , along with a strong dose of l ugar, the aroma produced by
the use of lemonl." H.-A. Fugier, Des Claues dangereU$e, ck la population
<da", le, g rande$ viile$ el des more", de le$ rendre meiUeures >(Paris , 1840), vol.
Itllp. 104, 109. [a3,2J
Fregier speakl at length about the public scriveners,' who mUl t have Itood in the
"'"orst repute, and from whose circles emerges one Lacenaire, esteemed for his
beautiful handwriling.-"l heard teU of an old sailor endowed with a remarkable
talent for fine handwriting, who , in the depths of the winter, had nary II shirt on
his hack. and would hide his nakedness by Castening his waistcoat with a pin . Thie
indi vidual , who was scarcely clothed , and who was not only ragged but nauseat­
ingly filthy, ","ould on occasion spend five to six fran cs 011 his dinner." H.-A.
Fregier, Des Cluues da"s ereu,es de ia population (Paril . 1840). vol. I , pp . 11 7­
118. [a3a.IJ
'"'If it happens that an entrepreneur reproachel a worker in the presence of his
comrades, and in a manner he feell to be unjust, ... then the worker laYI down hie
tools and heads for the tavern .... In many industrial e,tahLi, hmcnls Ihat are not
 rigorously m Olliton..I, the worke r is not satis fi ed with going to the tave rn before
lh., hour when work begin' a nll at his mealtimes, which are al nille o'clock and two
o' clock; he goes there also at fou r o'clock and in the evening, 0 11 the way home ....
There are women who have no conlpunctions about foUowi ng t1lcir husbands to
J the barriere. in company with their children (who a re already able to work), in
order, as they say, to live it up.... There they spend a la rge l)Urbon of the income
] of the entire fanlily, and return home Monday evening in a &tate bordering on
drunkenne... Indeed. they often pretend- the children no JellS thau their par­
• ents--to be more inebriated than they really are, 80 that e\'eryone will know
they've been drinking, and drinking well.'''' H.-A. Fregier, De5 Claue. do,,_
gerewes de Eo p opulo,io" (Paris, 1840), vol. I , pp. 79-80,86. [a3a,21
On child la bor among textile workers: "Unable to meet the costs of food and of
caring for their children on their modest salary, which oft en does not exceed forty
sous per da y ( not even when added to the salary of the wife, who earns b arely half
that amount ), ... workers find themselves obliged ... to place t.heir children, a.
800n as they a re old enough to work (ordinarily, at age seven or eight). in the
establis hmenu of which we are speaking. . . . The workers keep their children
working in the fa clory or mill until the age of twelve. At that poinl. they see that
the children make their fir81 Communion , and then they secure them an appren­
ticeship in a shop." H .-A. Fregier, vol. I , pp. 98- 100. [a3a,3J
-
There', hrau in our pocket•.
Pierre, let'. go live it up;
On Mondays, don ', you know.
I love to knock about.
I know of a . ixpenny wine
That', not h. lfbad.
So let', h. ve some fun ,
Let',go up to the barriere.
H. Courdon de Cenouillac, Les Refrairl!l de Eo rue , de 1830 a 1870 (Paris, 1879),
p . 56. [a3a,4]
"And what wine! What variety- from bordeaul{ to burgundy, from burgundy to
full-hodied Saint-Ceorges, 10 Lunel and the South's Frontignan , and from there to
sparkling champagne! What a choice of whites and reds-from Petit Macon or
chablis to Chambertin , to Chilteau Larose, to sauterne. to Vin du I{ollssillon, and
AI Moussellx! Bea r ill mind th at each of these wines produces a different l ort of
intoxicatio n , and thllt with a few bottles one can pass through 1111 the inwrvcllillg
stages from a Mlisard Iluadrille to " La Marseillaise," from tile Wl.lntoll pleasures of
the ca ncan to the fi er y ardor of revolutionary fever, thence to return , with a bottle
of champagne , hI the cheeriest Cll rni val m()O(l in the world ! An(1 onl y .' ranCe hal a
Paris , a city in wiJich Euro pean civilization all ai ns its full esl fl owering, in which
all the ner ve fihcr1l or Europeau his tory are intertwined , and from which arise, at
regular intervals , those tremo rs which shake l.he terres trial globe; a city whose
population IInitea, like that of no oth cr city on earth , the passion for enjoyment
with the passion ror historical action, whOle inhabitanU know how to live like the
nJost refined of Athenian e picures and to die like the most uliRinching Spa rtan_
Alcibiades and Leonidas rolled up into onei a city which really is, as Louis Blanc
.sa),s, the hea rt and brain of the world ." Friedrich Engels, " Von Paris nach Bern:
Ein Reisefragment ." Die neue Zeit , 17, no. I (Stuttgart , 1899), p. 1O.- 1n his
foreword to this publication or the IJOs thumolis manuscript , Eduard Bernstein
",-rites: "Although a fra gment , t.his travel sketch gives us. perha ps, a better picture
of its a uthor than does any other of his works" (ibid ., p . 8). [a4, 11
A song, "J enn y the Worker," whose refr ain was inspiring 10 women :
In aj!;arden, ' neath a fragra nt bower,
You may hear a ramiliar bird:
'Tis the singing of Jenny the worker,
At heart content , content with little.
She could be ricb, but prere ...
The thingl Ihe haa rrom God.
H. COllrdon de Genouillac. Les Refrains de 10 rue, de 1830 a 1870 (Paris, 1879),
pp.67-68. [a4,21
A reactionary song, after the J line In. urrection :
See, ace thil funeral prOCfl.llion!
It', the arehbishol_rriendl , remove your hatl;
Victim, alas, of 'aeriiegioul combat ,
He i.e raUen ror the hnppilH!u of all. »I
, H. Gourdon de Genouillac. Les Refrains de Eo ,-ue, de 1830 a 1870 (Paris, 1879),
p .~ -~
"The proletarians have ... comPOled a terrible, bitter " Marseillaise," which they
, sillg in unison in the workshol)S . and which may be judged b y the refrain : 'Sow the
field , all you proles; l it's the idler who will reap.·.. " Die socialistischen lind com­
munistischen Bewegungen seit <ler dritten fra nzosischen Revolution," opening of
Stein 's Sociufi8mw tmd Communismu.J des heutigen Frankreich8 (Leipzig and
Vicnlla, 1848), p. 210 [ from V. Considerant , Theo,-ie du droit de propriete et du
droit de trovail ( 1848)]. [a4a,21
Buret reports 0 11 a story in l.o Revue britcl/IlI;que of December 1839 (?), 1" 29 (?):
" The associated workers of Brighton consider machines to be absolutely
l}tlleficial. ' Bllt ,' they add , ' the y are fatui as applied in the current regime. I.n­
stead of dutifull y servi ng. as the elves serve{1 tile slu>C!maker in the German fai ry
tale, the machines have beha ved like "' ra nkells tein's mons ter (German legend),
Who, after acquiring life. employed it ollly in persecuting the man who had given it
 10him .'" Eugene Burel . La Misere de, cla.ue, laborie u.,e, en AnSleterre et en
Frnnce (Paris, IMO), vol. 2, p. 219. (a4a,3]
" If Ihe vicetl of the lower classes were limited , in Iheir eUecu . 10 those who in_
dulged in them, we may suppose thai the upper clalles wouJd cease to concern
themselves with all these dismal questions, and would happily leave the world at
large to the sway of good and bad causes that rule over it . But ... everything it
linked together. If poverty is the mother of vices. then vice is the father of crime;
• and it is in tms way that the interests of all the classes a re conjoined ." Eugene
Buret , La Muere de. classe.labor i4!weJ en Ansleterre et en France (Paris, 1840),
vol. 2, p. 262. (a4a,4)
" J enny the Worker b rings to Life one of the most terrible afRictions of the lOCiaJ
organism: the d aughter of the working class ... constrained to sacrifice her virtue
for her family, and to sell herself ... in order to provide bread for hed oved
ones .... As for the I)rologue to Jenny the Worker, it acknowledges neither the
play's I)oint of depa rtu re nor the details of poverty and hunger." VIctor HaUay._
Dabot, La CenJure dramatiqlW et Ie theatre. 1850-1870 (Paris, 1871 ), pp . 75-76.
(ab,5]
" In the mind of the fa ctor y boss, workers are not men but foroos , and expensive
ones at that- in81ruments more intractable and leu econ omical than tools of iron
and fire ... . Without being cruel, he can be completely indifferent to the suffer­
ings of a cla81 of men with whom he has no moraJ commerce, no sentiments in
common. Doubtless Madame de Sevigne was not an evil woman , ... yet Madame
de Sevigne, while detailing the atrocious punishments meted out to tbe people of
Brittany who had rioted over a tax , Madame de 5evigne. the impallioned mother,
speaks of hanginp and of thrashings ... in a light, cavalier tone that betrays not
the s.lightest sympathy. . . . I doubt that , under the rule of the current law. of
industry, ther e could be an y more of a moral community between employers. and
their workers. than there was, in the seventeenth century, between poor pean nts
and townsmen and a fine lady of the court ." Eugene Buret , De la ftfilere de.
claJJes klbori4!we. en Ansleterre et en France (Paris, 1840), vol. 2, pp . 269-27 1.
(a5,1]
" Many gi rl! ... in the factories often leave the !Shop as earl y as six o' clock in ~h"
evening, instead of leaving at eight , and go roaming the streets in hopes of meetlllS
some stranger whom they provoke with a sort of calculated bashfulness.- In th"
factories they call this doing one's fifth (Iuarter of the da y." Villernlll, Tableau de
l'etat ph;,iIJu e e t moral de' ou vri4!rs. vol. I , p. 226, cited in E. Buret , De la MiJe re
des elaue, laborieuJea (Paris , 1840), vol. I , p. 415. [a5,21
The principles of philanthropy receive a classic fommlation in Buret : "H~ty,
and indeed decency, do not pennit u S to allow hwnan being! to die like animab·
One cannot refuse the charitable gift of a coffin." Eugene Buret, De la Mism deJ
da.sses 14borieum (Paris, 1840), vol. I, p. 266. [as,3]
"The Convention , organ of the sovereign people, aims to make mendicancy and
poverty disappear at a single stroke .... It gu arantees work for aU citilllen. who
need it .... Unfortunately, the section of the law that was designed specifically to
(leal ~;t h mendicancy a8 a crime was "lore easily enfor ced than that wmch prom­
ised the benefi u of national generosity to the poor. Repres.s.ive measures. were
taken, and they have remained within the letter a8 well as. the s.pirit of the law,
whereas the system of charity that motivated and justified these mealures has
lIe"erexistcd , except in the decrees of the Convention!" E. Buret, De la Miser-e cia
elolSeJ laboriewe, (Paris.. 1840). vol. I , pp . 222_224. Napoleon adopted the po. i­
tion described here with his. law of July 5, 1808; tbe law of the convention dates
from October 15, 1793. Those convicted three times. of begging could expect depor­
tation for eight years. to Mad agascar. (as,4]
Hippolyte PalSY, ex-minister, in a letter addressed to the temperance ltOCiety of
Amiens (see Le Temps, February 20, 1836): "One is led to r ecognize that , however
meager the share of the poor might be, it i8 the art of ap plying that share to bit real
needs, it is. the capacity to encomllan the future in his though ts, that the poor man
lacks. His plight is due mor e to this lack tha n to any other." Cited in E. Buret, De
10 Miser-e des elrusea klborieu.,es (Paris, 1840), vol. I, p . 78. (a5a,l]
"There was a time, a nd it was not so long ago, when-all the while effu sively
singing the prais.es of work-<lne never let on to the worker that the means by
wmch he derived his subsi8lence was not his freely willed labors but, in fact , a tax
levied on him b y certain persons who fattened themselvetl b y the sweat of his
brow.... It is what it called the exploitation of man b y man. Something of this
sinister and deceptive doctrine b .. remained in the songs of the street. . . . Work is
still s.poken of with respect , but this respect h as something forced about it, some­
thing of a grimace.... It is nevertheleaa true that this way of viewing work it an
~xception . More often. it is praised like a law of natu re. a pleasure, or a benefit . ..
~ain8 llhe las)" let us alwayt do bailie­
Great enemies of our society.
i For if they complain of . Jeeping on straw,
It is only what they delH:rve.
In our 81ock)"ards, our factories, our miUJI,
Let us answer the caUat d. y't daw ning:
While ....e ...·ork our Jlrodigious machines.
Let us hymn a fra ternal refrain ... "
- Antoine Hem)"
Charles Nisard , Des Chtltlsons p opuklire, (Paris . 1867), vol. 2. pp. 265-267.
(aSa,2J
"The fifteen years of the Restoration had been years of great agricultu ral and
industrial prosperi ty.... If we leave as.ide Paris. and the large cities., we see that
the institution of the preu, along with tlle various. electoral syllems, engaged omy
part of the nation , and the I~as t numeroua p art : the bourgeois.ie. Many in thia
 bourr;eoillie were already fearful of a revolution ." A. Malet alld P. Grillet, XIX' lion . The enemy of the workers bad brought into clear relief the international
Siecle( Paris, 1919), p . 72. [a5a,3] s ign ifi ca ll c~ of the Lyons symptom. Neither the republican nor the legitimist press.
however. Wished to present the <Iuestion in such dangerous terlll8 .... The legiti _
" The crisis of 1857- 1858 ... mar ked a sudden end to all the ililiSioll8 of im l~ rial nlists ... protested for purely demagogic r eason8, since at that moment it was the
socialism. All efforts to maintain wages at a level that would have corresponded in intelltion of this )larty to play the working class off against the liberal bourgeoisie
some degree to the eve",rising I)rices of food and h o u s in~ proved futile." ill the interests of reestablishing the elder line of Bourbons; the republican8. on the
D. Rjazanov. Zur Ge$chichle der er$len l ntcrn«tiotlure, ill Marx - Enge~ Archiv, other halld , had an interest in playing down . as far as possible, the purely prole­
vol. I [t' rankfurt am Main ( 1928 )]. p . 145. [a5a,4] tarian cast of the movement ... in order ... nol to lose the working class as a
• future ally in the struggle against the July mon archy. Nevertheless, the immediate
"'In Lyo ns, the economic crisis had caused a reduction in the salary of the silk ililpressioll produced by the Lyons uprising was so wholly incommensurable, so
weavers-t he famolls canuU- to eighteen sous for a workda y of fift een to sixteen IJainful for contempora ries, t.hat for this rea80n alone it has already attained a
hours. The prefeet had tried to induce the workers and bosses to agree to establish special place in history. The generation which had witllessed the Jul y Revo, ubon .
a minimum salary level. The attempt h avinr; failed , a n insu rreetion broke out on : .. was .thought . ~ eff~.t , to have nerves of steel Yet they saw in the LyoDs
November 12. 183 1; it was nonpolitical in character, represe nting an uprising of IIlsurre£ tlon something enbrely new ... , which alarmed them aU the mo re lII80
. rar
the poor. 'Live Working or Die Fighting' read the black banner which the canu" as the workers of Lyons themselves seemed manifestl y not to see or understand this
carried before them.... Mter two d ays offighting,5 the troops of the line, which ne~ dimen s io ~ ." E . Tarle, " Der Lyoller ArbeiterauCstand," in Marx-Engels Ar­
the Garde Nationale had r efu sed to support , were forced to evacuate Lyo ns. The ell/V, ed . D. RJazanov, vol. 2 (Frankfurt am Main, 1928), p. 102. [a6a,l]
workers laid down their arms. Casimir Perier sent an army of 36,000 men to
reocc upy the city; furth ermore, he removed the prefect frOm offace, annulled the
Tarle cites a passage from Borne on the Lyons insurrection , in which this writer
tariff which the latter had succeeded in foisting upon the bosses , and disbanded
vents his indignation over Casimir P erier heeause, a, Tarle writes, " P erier re­
the Garde Nationale (December 3, 183 1) .... Two year s later, .. . char ges brousht
joices at the lack of political motive for the uprising in Lyons, satisfied that thie is
against an association of Lyons workers , the Mutualists, were the occasion for an
only a war of the poor against the rich ." The passage-in Ludwig Borne, Guam­
up rising that las ted five days." A. !\falet and P. Grillet , X IX· Siecle (Paris, 1919),
pp . 86-88.

" A study of working conditions in the textile illdu8Iry in 184(1 revealed that, for
[a6,IJ
- ~'te Schriften (Hamburg and Frankfurt am Main, 1862), vol. 10, p . 20-nme:
It is said ~o be nothing more than a war of the poor against the rich , of those who
ha~e nothing to lose against those who own IOmething! And this terrible truth
which , because it if a truth , ought to have been buried in the deepest of well, the
one fift een-and-a-haLf-hour day of active work, the average salary was leu than
luna~c raises alof~ ~nd flaunts before all tbe world!" In E . Tarle, "'Ocr Ly~ner
two francs for men and b arely one franc for women . The sufferinr; ... ~o t wo rse, \
Arbe,terauCs tand, w Marx-Engels Archil), vol. 2 (Frankfurt am Main , 1928),
especially beginning in 1834, because, civil unrest being finall y queUed, indUlltrial
p . 112. [a6a,2]
enterprises multiplied so ra pidly that , within ten years, the population of the cities
incr eased b y two million solely tllrough the influx of pea8ants to the factories."
A. Malet and P. Grillet, XIX' S~cle (Paris, 19 19), p . 103. [a6,2] Buret was a student of Sismondi . Charles Andler credits him with an influence OD
l\~a rx(AndJer, Le Manifelte communute [Paris. 1901])-somethinr; which Meh­
" In 1830, mallY believed that Catllolicism in Fra nce was 011 its Ileathbed and that rlllg ("'Eill methodologisches Problem," Die neue Zeit [Stu ttgart] , 20 , no . 1,
the political role of the cler gy was fmi shed for good .... Yet ... 011 February 24, PI)· 450.-4 5 1) firml y denies.
{a6a,3]
1848, the insurgents who commenced the sacking of tile Tuilerics removed their
hats in front of the Crucifu: ta ken fro m the chapel aud escorted it all the ....ay to the
Influence of Ro
.
ti · 1: ' , h
man cism on poubca p raseology, explaining an attack on the
Eglise Saint-Rocll . With tile proclamation of the Rel>uhlic, univerSll1 suffrage sent
to the National Assembly . . . three bishops and twelve priests . . . . This could
CO l1 gregatlOlls
. . " We are at th e eg.llnmg 0 r Rorna nbCISIIl
b . . .. , and we clearl y recognize
II by the 111
'. • b· h · , .
a nner 111 w IC It ( ramatlzes everything. A crOS8 W88 set up atop Mount
happen because, during the reign of Louis Philippe. the clergy had 50tleh closer to Valen en · this
. . cross ... 18 . denounced as symbolizing the ascendancy of religious
the people ." A. Malct lind P. G rillet. X IX~ Siecle (Puris. 191 9). pp . 106, 107.
la6,3) SOCiety ov " 1 . , ., J . .
, er C1VI society. Ie eSUlt nOVitiate refers to itself onl y as ' the den of
1 10 ntro · A · b·' .
uge. . JU I ee IS anno unced for 1826, alld already men of the cloth are
On l>t!Cember 8, 1831. the procapita list JournClI del debCl/$ takcs a stand on the :ho U ght to be loomillg on all sides." Pierre de III Gorce, La R e5toll ration (Paris
Lyo ns inllur rection . "The a rticle ill i.e Journa l des debuts produced a great sellsa­ 1926- 1928), vol. 2, Charle,X. p . 57. la7, 1]
 We are nothing but mae hine•. FaubOllrien : JOllrnnl de In c(ltwille, cited in Cllriositel revolution/laires: Le,
Our Uabel$ mount to the 8ky. Jour/WI/X rougel, by a Giromiisl ( P-olr is. 1848), p . 26. (a1a,2)
Rerrain: Let ue lo.·e and. when we can.

1] Let U8 meet 10 dri nk a round. Th('UI·y of A. Granier (Ie Cauagnac. lIiJloire riel clfl uel olulriere.! et <Ies cifluel
Let the cannon fall silent or erupl­ bQ/lrgeoi$es ( Paris, 1838): the proletarians were de8ceuded rrom thieves a nd pros­
We drink . we drink. we drink titutes. [a7a.3]
To Ihe independenee of the world!

Pierre Duponl, Le Chant des Ollvrier, ( Paris, 1848). ·· Believe lIIe, I he wine of tile burrieres has prest'rvell tile gO"erlllllental fram cwork
• [a7,2]
from lIIall Y a sllock ." Edollard Foucaud , ,J(lris i'llumteur; Pllysiolos ie de {'im/us­
Last ver se and refrain : trie frrmr;(lise (puris, 1844), p . 10. [a7a,4}

!C, in truth, a deapieahle mob,

Char ras. from the Ecole Polyteclmillue, with reference to Gener al Lobau, who
Having: fire and iron in its 8tore,
had nol wis hed to sign a proclamation : ''' I will han: hinl s hot. ' - '\lilh at are yo u
Wants to shackle the hody and lOul
Of the people, true ehild of Cod, Ihinking of?' dema uded M . Mauguin, incensed . ' Have General Lobau s hot! A
Reveal to theee depraved, member of Ihc Pro"isional GOl'ernment !' - 'The "ery same.' responded the slu­
o Republie, by foiling tbeir plots. dent , while leading the deputy 10 Ihe window and s howing him a hundred men
Your great Medu88 faee outside, veter ans of the fi ghting at the barracks in the Babylone district .· ' And
Ringed by red lightning! wcre I 10 order these brave mcn to s hoot the I...o rd God , they would do il !'"
G. l)iJlet , lIistoire de {'Ecole IlolytedlllilJue (Pllris, 1887) , p. 158 [ evidently a lit­
o tUlelar-y Republie, eral citation frOIll Louis Blanc]. [a7a,S}
Do not aaeend to the ekie.,
Ideal inearnated bere on earth lkon Guillemill : "There are Iwo sorts of p rovidence, . . . God and the Ecole
By uni verul euffrage. Polytcc:hnique. If Olle s hould be found wa nting. the other will be there." In
G. Pinet. p . 161. [a1a,6)
From the fourth verse:
Ah! Let no nOClurnal eurprise Lamennais and Proudhon wanted to be buried in a mass grave (Delvau , Heures
Break in on the polle!
Pf.ruielllies ( Paris, 1866 ), pp . 50-51 ). [a7a,7)
Stand guard round the hallot hox:
'TIs the areh of our destin y.
Scene frOIll the February Re volution. The Tuilcries were plundered . " Neverthe­
Pier;e Dupont, Le Chant du vote (Paris, 1850). [a7,3}
iess, the crowd had stopped , as a sign of respect . in front of the chapel. A student
look a{h-anl age of this momenl 10 steal the sacred vessels, and in the evening he
In chapters like "Le Vrai Sublime," "Le Flls de Dieu," "Le Sublime des sublimes," had them ta ken 10 Ihe Eglise Saint- Rocll. lie chose to carry, by himself, the mag­
"Le Marchand de vms" "Le Chansonnier des sublimes," Poulot trea[S of types nificent sculpted Chris t th at fo und a place on the altar; u group of people followed
intermediate between ~rker and apache. The book is refomlist; first published quietl y in his steps. Iheir hals re mo.'ed a nd heads bowed . This scene . . . was
in 1869. Denis Pou1ot, Qyestion sociaIe: "I.e Sublime," new ed. (Paris). [a7,4] re produced on a stump t.hat could be seen , for a long time afterwa rd , in Ihe
wi ndow, of all the merclUlllts who sell rclib>ious icons. The I}olytechnician was
A proposal from Louis Napoleon 's Extinction dll paupiru me (p . 123), cited in rep resented hol(lillg Ihe Chri st in his a1"l1l5. dis playi ng it before a kneeli ng crowll ,
Henry Fougere. Les DcMSlIfions olwrieres /lUX exposition, tmi verse/les .!OIU Ie while lIe exciai mCII : ' Here is the master of us nil! ' These word s were not actunll y
Seco nd Empire (Montlu~on , 1905), p. 23: " All managers of fll ctories o~ farms, all spoken . hUI they I'onform to the senlimcnts of the populalion at a time whcn ...
entre preneurs of any kind . wouJd be obliged b y law, as soon a8 they had employed thc d ergy ilself, peri ecuted by the Voitaireull killg. greeted the revolution with
more than ten workers, to have a n ar bitrator who wuuld govern tlleir affairs, and ellthllsiasm:' G. Pillet . lIiJfoire de "Ecole po lyter/Illil/lle ( P·olris. 1887). PI'. 245­
to whom they would pay a salary d ouble tha i of the simple workers." [a7a,l } U~ ~Q

""This people, victorious, who Slrod e bareroot upon gold I Strewn ac ross their path, T he l)olytcc:llll iciIlIlS '·ohservetl the procL"t!tiing.! or the U1aml uisl c1uL Ihal met ill a
and did not succumb" (lJcgcsippe Moreau). Motto of the neWSllalH: r L 'A imable haUon the ground fl oor. where demagogic Oralor s, agilati ng ror lhe mos t sinis ter of
 incendiary deeds. spoke already of pulting the Provisional Government on trial:'
G. Pinet . Hi3loire de I'l£cok polytechniqlle (Paris, 1887). p . 250. [a8,2}
During the February R evolution, students from the Ecol~ ~lytechniq~e bu~ed
papers in the Tuileries which appe~d to them comp ro~mg for the ~Ignatones.
but which would have had great lllterest fo r the revolutIOn: declarauons of loy.
alty to Louis Philippe (pinet, p . 254). [a8,3}
• Lissagaray, in an essay on Le& !tfuerables, in La Batailk: " One need onl y be in
touch with the people to become r evolutionary" [Victor H ugo devant l'opinion
(Paris, 1885), I)' 129]. [a8,41
" Around 1840, a certain !lUmber of workers formed the resolution to plead their
cause directly before the public .... From that moment , ... communism, which
until then had been on the offeU8ive , took prudently to the defense." A. Corbon,
Le Sec ret da peuple de Paris (Paris, 1863), p. 117. In question are the communiat
organ La Fraternite. which began publishing already in 1845, the a nticommuniat
L'Atelier, L'Union , and La Ruche popltlaire, which was the earliest. [a8,51
On the worker : " He is, in general, incapable of understanding practical affaire.
The solutions that swt him best are therefore those which seem likely to exempt
him from incessant preoccupation with what he considera the humble sphere , the
drudgeries of life. . . . Let us take as a virtual certainty, then , that any system
which would tend to rivet . .. our worker ... to the fa ctory- though it promise far
more butter than bread- ... would be r epugnant to him ." A. Corbon , pp. 186­
187. [a8,61
"The qUC5tioll of worker s, like the question of the l}(JOr. was planted at the ~try­
way to the Revolution . Since the children of the families of workera and artisaPl
could not cover the needs of a labor--starved industry. fa ctories made use of or­
phans a& well .... The industrial exploitation of children and women ... is o~~of
the most glorious achievements of philanthropy. Cheap food for worke~, Wl. a
. hi! th IC nollon
. . . view to lo.....ering wages, was likewise one of the ra~ont e p an rop Wh n
of the factory owners a nd political economists of the eighteenth ceutllry. . . . .e
the Jo"rench finally stud y the Revolution with a cold eye and without class preJ~­
dice. they will realiJ:e that the ideas which made for its greatneu came from SWlt­
. . f . from Geneva
J:erla nd , .....here the bourgeoisie was already dommant: IR act, It WB8
• . , I .ch created suc
P
lh.1 A . . Candolle imlwrted the so-called economic SOIl I) ••• W 11
bl" k ' Viney
a furor ill the Paris of the Revolution .... Even the dry and UII III IIIg 0 bl
could not help being moved ' at the sight of this alliance of men of .respecla e
. . f " -T , .. Paul Wargue,
position eagerly occupie.-I in 8ul)CrvlSlllg a l)Ot 0 .....1 109 80UI)· 149.
" Die christliche Liei)c8tiitigkeit ," Die n~ue Zeit , 23. nO. I (Stuttga rt). pp . 148- II
[a8 a,
"S hould th ree men ha plte n to be in the street talking togeth<:l r Mhou! wagel. or
should they happen to as k the entrepreneur who h as grown n.c h 0 11 t helr
' labor for
a raise of olle sou , then the bourgeois becomes terrified and cries out for strong
measum .... Most of the timc, our govemment4 have exploited this sad progress
of fear.... Alii can say here is that ... our grand Terrorists were b y no means
men of the IJeo ple. They were bourgeois and nobles, men with cultivated, subtle.
bizarre miud&-8ophists and scholastics." J . Michelet , Le Pel.lpk (Paris, 1846),
PV' 153- 154. 7 [a8a,2)
Fregier, the author of I~s Cla.ues dongerewel, WB8 head clerk at the prefectu re of
police. [a8a,3)
On the d escription o f the February Revolution in H aubert's Etiucahtm Jenhmm·
tait'-which needs to be reread-one finds (with reference to Stendhal's descrip­
tion of the Battle of Waterloo):1 "Nothing of the general movements, nothing of
the great clashes, but rather a succession o f details which can n ever form a whole.
nus is the model which M. Haubert has imitated in his depiction of the events of
February and J une 1848; it is a model of description from the standpoint of the
J.:J.
idler, and of politics from the standpoint of the nihilist." Nescio, LA Lilliralure
sow les tkux Empires, 1804-1852 (Paris, 1874), <p. 114). [a8a.41
Scene from the July Revolution . A woman donned men 'l clothing to fight alongside
the others. and then afterward , as woman again, nursed the wounded who were
lodged in the Stock Exchange. "Saturday evening, the cannoneers who were trans­
ferring the artillery pieces remaining at the Bourse to the H otel de Ville enthroned
our young heroiue on a cannon crowned with laurels and brought her with them .
This eve.ning, at around ten o'clock. they brought her back in triumph to the
bol1r8e by the light of lorches; she was seated on an a rmchair decorated with
garlands and laurels." C. F. Trieotel, Eaquuae de qlUlqlUs acen.el de l'inteneur de
to BOl.lr5e pendontlea journus dea 28, 29, 30 et 31 jl.lillet dernier: Au profit dea
bleue5 (Paris, 1830), p . 9 . [a9,11
Lacenaire composed an "Ode a la guillo tine," in which the criminal is cdebrated
in the allegorical figure of a woman, of whom it is said : "1b.is woman laughed
• ,. with horrible glee, I As a crowd tearing down a throne will laugh." The ode was
written shortly before Lacenaire's execution- that is, in January 1836. Alfred
Ddvau, Les LionJ du jour (Paris, 1867), p . 87. (a9,21
h
A charity supper at the Hotel de Ville, where unemployed worker&--in winter,
above all conuruction workcrs-gatllered . " The hour for the public meal h as just
souJI(led. And now Little B1uecoat hauds his ivory-tipped cane to one of his aIISis­
taniS, lakes from hi.s buttonhole a silver place-setting which is attached there, dips
the 8»00 11 iuto one pot after another, talltes, pays the servers, preslliC8 the out·
Stretched hands of the poor, takes up his cane, refastens his spoon , Mnd goes
trallquilly' on his way. . . . He is gone. The lIerving o£ the food begins." Little
Bluecoat was the nickliMme of the philanthropist Edme Champion, who had risen
OUt of ver y Diodes! cir cunulances. <See aI2a,1.> The passage from Ch .-L.
 Chassin, 1,.« 1~8ende du Petit Manteau Bleu , cited in Alfred Delvau , l..et LWnt du
jour (Paris. 1867). I)' 283. [il9,3J
The author. in ms pamphlet condemllillg the rural exodus. turns to tile country
girl: " Poor, lovely child! The journeyman 's tou r de Fran ce, wmch is of question_
able utility to your brothers, is always an evil for YO Il . Do not-if need be, until
you are forty-let go of your mother 's apron strings ... j and should yo u be foolish
enough to set out on your own , aud should you find yourself sllaring your unfur_
• nisbed room with intransigent unemploymeut and hunger, then call (like a virgin I
knew once), call a last guest to your side: CIlOLERA. At least in his fl eshleas arms, at
least on rus ghastly chest, you will no longer fear for your 1I0nor. I t And immedi_
ately followin g this passage: " You men of conscience who will read this. I implor<tl
you once more, on my hands and knees. to make known , in every way possible , the
substance of this IMmuitimate chapter." Emile Croilat , La Malodie d" lacle, ou
Le, Suitel Juneltel du declouement , ocial: Ouvrage h ri' lOUS leI trute. ifllpiro.­
tioIU d 'un o vocot JOIU cause, d 'un nOloire e t d'hn ot/oue safll clientele, d'un
mkdecin sans protiqlWs , d 'un negociant sans capitaw.:, d'un ouvrier lans fravoU
(Bordeaux , 1856). )I . 28. [a9,4)
lnsurreetionist movements under Louis Philippe: " It was then . in 1832, that the
red flag appeared for the first time." Charles Seignobos, lIutoire sincere de 10
nafion/ron~aue (Paris, 1933), p. 418. [a9a,I)
" In 1848 , ther e were only four cities with a population above a hundred thousand ___
souls-Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, a nd Rouen; and only three with a population
of seventy-five thousand to a hundred thousand-Nantes, Toulouse. and LiIIe.
Paris alone was a great metropolis with more than a million inhabitants. not count­
ing the faubourgs (annexed in 1860). France remained a country of small towru."
Charles Se.ignooos. Hutoire sincere de 10 nationfront;a ue (Paris, 1933). pp . 396­
397. (a9a,2)
I.n 1840, the pe tty bourgeoisie makes a push toward the right to vote, by demand­
ing it for the Garde Nationale. [a9a,3)
i
National Asse.mbly of 1848. " MJle.-- asks to borrow 600 francs from the Na­
tional As&embly to pay her rent." Historical fa ct. Paru ! OUS la Republique de
1848: Expo!ition de 10 Bibliotlleque et de! Tra vUlu hiJtorilJue! de la Ville de Paris
(1909), p. 41 . [a9a,4-]
" As soon as they heard tell of a battalion of womell , the designers sel about 10 find
them a uniform .. .. Eugenie Niboyet. editor of La Voix de! femmes • ... pro­
nounced on the matter : 'The titJe " Vesuvian ,'" she writes, 'means that everyone
of these conscripts is harboring. in the core of her heart , a volcano of revolution­
ary firell.· . . . I-:ugcnie Niboyet t1l cn Slimmolle(1 her '~ i8 t cr8' to the dOWll8lairs
galleries of tilt: BOlllle-Nouvelle bUl\uur und 10 the Sail" Taranne." Paris JO UJ to
Republi(JIIe cle 18'#8: EXIJO! ition tie il, Bibliotheqlle et des Travaux historiqlleS de
10 Ville rle Puris ( )909). I). 28. [a9a,5)
Social subjects occupy a very large place in lyric poetry at midcenrury. They take
all possible fomls, from the UUlOCUOUS variety of a Charles Colmance ("La
Chanson des locataires" <The Tenants' Song>, "La Chanson des imprimeurs"
<"111e Printers' Song» to the revolutionary lyrics of a Pierre Dupont. Inventions
are a favorite theme of such c/Ul1IJOfIJ, and their social significance is underscored.
Thus was born a "poem in praise of the prudent entrepreneur who first re­
nounced the manufacture of a noxious product [white lead] to adopt 'the white of
iIuJocent zinc.''' Paris sous fa Ripub/ique de 1848: ExpositifJn de la Ville de Paris
(1909), p. 44. (.9. ,61
Apropos of Ca bet : " It is toward the end of 1848 that the discovery of the deposits
became known in Paris, and almost immediately companie were formed to facili­
tate the enliva tion of prospectors. By May )849 , fifteen such companieA had
begun to ol.erate. T he ' Colllpagnie Parisienne' had the honor of transporting the
fi rst group of t.ravelers, and ... these modern Argonauts entrusted thelllselveA to a
blind Jason who had never evell seen California: one Jacques Arago • .. . whose
account .. . of a voyage rOlilld the world was in part developed from another's
notes .... Newspapers were found ed : La Cali/ornie , a general-interest paper on
the Pacific Ocean ; the 'gold-bearing' Aurifere, monitor of the gold mines; L 'Echo
du Sacramento. Joint-stock com)lanies offered shares of81ock at exceptionally low
prices . only five fran cs. on the floor of aU tbe stock exchanges." Many cocottes
make the trip overseas-the colonists ar e eXIJeriellcing a shortage of women . Paris
SOliS la ReJJublifJlle de 1848: Exposition de 10 Ville de Paru ( 1909), p. 32. <On
Jacques Arago, Sl.'"C a12 ,S. > [aIO,I)
There's a comparison to be drawn bet"\t:een Cabet and the following verse, which
, is, of course, directed against the Saint-Simonians. It comes from A1cide Centy, A
Moruieur de Chateaubriand: Pones tt prruateurs.frallfais-Sab"rt (Paris, 1838), cited
in Carl LocIewijk de Liefde. Le Saint-Simonisme dam fa poisit.franfllist entre 1825
tt 1865 <Haariem, 1927>, p. 171 : "The insinuating Rodrigues will peddle to the
Iroquois J Bareme and some unsmoked cigarettes." [a IO,2]
DeJphine Gay (Mme. E. de Girardin) shows herself, in her poem "Les Ouvriers
de Lyons" (PoisitJ comp/ettS [Paris, 1856], p. 210), to be a precursor of the philoso­
phy of innkcepulg: "The poor man is happy when the rich has his fun ." [a 10,3]
Wi th Iwo arms or iron a magnili eenl Ir ac k
Will hegi r(1 my re IOU"'i,,: Pe kin g to Parill.
t\ hundred (Iirrer ent IteO llle•. mixing thei r to ngues.
Will ma ke one colossa l ca r Ii Dabcl.
There, " 'ith ... heel of lire. hum a ni ty's coac h
Will ...ea r 10 Ihc hone the nmll<:le. or the ea rll, .
From alo l' this gleami ng ",:~ ... I. me n . all anlll?.·d,
 WiUlook out on an ocean of eatablet.
The world will become a fi ne china bowl
Filled up for thi! human menagerie;
And the c1ean-,haven globe. without beard or hair-

I] A monumental pumpkin-will revolve through the . kies.

Alfred de MUllet , Nomouna (Paril), p . 113 ("Dupont et Durand"). [al0,4]

• Saint-Simonian poetry-Savinien Lapointe, Ihoemaker, " L' Emeute" <The

Riot ):
No. the (uture will dispenNl with barricadet!

You great one•• while your hand. are buildinl ac.croldl,

Mine are lICauering ftowerl over the gravel.
To each hU million or hi, painfulta, k:
To the poet. the 10"1; to power, the ax!

Olinde Rodrigues , Poe'~1 .oeiole. de. ouvner. (Paria, 1841), pp. 237, 239.
{a10~1 U1I~,UI"""""

Rut 1fansnonain, It 15 avril 1834 (Government Reprisal on the Rue Transnonain, April
From Alfred de Vigoy."La Maison du berger" <The Shepherd'. HoUle) , treatinc 15, 1834). Lithograph by Honori Oaumicr. Sec ala.,l ; al0a,5.
of the railroad:
May God guide the thunderin& ,team to it. end
'CrOll the mountaina travened by iron railil.
"An opuscule in verse (Les Principes du Pe.i. Manteou Bleu sur Ie sy.teme de la
Let an aJllCI be perched on it.loud..eJankin&; boiler
oommunoute (See a9,3 ) , by Loreux, conlmunist [Paris, 1847J) is a species of
When it head. underground or I'1)Cka bridv-.
dialogue between a partisan and an adversary of communism .. .. In order to
Turn away (rom these tracU--tbey laek Vace. alleviate all , .. s uffering, tbe communist Loreux appeals not to envy or to venge­
Their iron linea will take you \ ance, but to kindne.. and generosity." J ean Skerlitch , L 'Opinion publique en
With the . peed of an arrow throul h . pace, France d 'oprel la poelie poutique et IOCWIe de 1830 a 1848 (Lausanne. 1901).
Shot whi8tlill(! from bow to bull',-eye. p. I94. [a IOa,3]
Thul hurled like a bolt, human beinp
LoNl their bru th, lose their li8ht,
In the , motherinl cloud rent by lightning. ~ 1847, a famin e; ma ny poems on the subject . [a IOa,4]

Diltance and time are now conquered by Science,

Which encircle. the world with it. road ,ad and . traight.
The World iI red uced by our experiment;
The equator i. now but a tight-fiuing hoop.
Alfred de Vigoy, Poel~' comp~te., new edition (Paris , 1866), pp . 218, 220-221.
[a10a ,l]
To be compared with Cabel: the remarkable, beautiful poem "Le ~avre~ t.'Y
Elise F1eury, embroiderer (Olinde Rodrigues, PoiJi(J Jocia/eJ deJ ()U~ .[PariS,
1841], p. 9). It describes an ocean steamer, cont:rasting the luxury cabms Wlth the
lower deck. [a10 a,2]
August 1834, uprising of Mutu alists in Lyons, nearly contemporaneous with the
uprising on the Rue Tra n s nonajn .~ At Lyo ns: " The army repo rted 115 men killed
and 360 'W ounded, a nd the workers reported 200 killed and ,WI) wounded . The
government wanted to grant indemnities, and a t;ommissiun was named , which
proclaimed the fo llowing principle: ' Tile government does not want the triumph of
the social order to cost a ny tears or revelS. It knows that time, whicll gr aduall y
effa ces the anguish occasioned b y t.he costliest personal losses, is powerless to
redrcss lhe blows of fortune.' ... The whole morality ofthe Jui y Monarchy can be
roulld in these' words," J ean Skerlitch , L 'Opinion pllbliqlle en France d'opre. W
Poelie polilique et lociole (Lausanne, 190 I), p . 72. (alOa,5)
 "I will rouile Ihe l}tlople wilh Ill y unvarnished truth ~; I I will proplwsy on eVery
~ trcct l:orncr.,. ItcgcsipJle Moreau . d iCit in J ea n Skerlitch , I. 'O/Jinion /Jltblique en
f ' rilll e!! tl '(jl}rC~ itl/'oC5 ie ,W/i1if/ue el 50ciuie de 1830 ii 18,,·8. I'. 85. [a ll ,I)
" In the lll1 YS ill1l11t."tliulcly following the Re\·olution of 1830, a song made the rounds
ill Paris: ' Ht"tlucte Irun ollnier it lin Juue-Milieu .' Its refrain waa l,articuJari y
ex pressive:
• I am hUlIgry!
Well. thell . eat YOllr fi st.
Sa\'e the olher for tomorrow.
And Ihal', m)' n:(raill .
... Bll rtlu! lemy ... sayl ... that .. . tile unemployed laborer hali no choice but to
work in ' the ya rd of uphea \'III. ' ... In Barthelemy's Neme5u ... the pontif Roth·
schild . with a multitude of the faithCul , chants the ' Mass of stockjobbing,' l inga the
'psa lm of IInnuit y. '" J ean S kerlitch , L 'Opinion publique en France d 'opre. to
p oesie(LlIu sanlle, 190 1), pp. 97-98, 159. [a ll ,2)
" During the da y of J \Inc 6, a sea l'eh of t.he sewers iJad been ordered . It was feared
that they would he IIsed as a refu ge hy the vanquished. Prefect Cisquet was to
r ansack the "i lillen I'uris. while Gene ral Dugeaud was sweeping the puhlic Paris­
a CO Illlt'CIt·tI tlouhle operat ion which demanded a double s trategy on the part of
public power, rc prcscntcd a bove by the army and below by the police. Three
platoons of officers alld sewermcn inves tigatC(1 the subterr anean s t.ree18 of Pari....
Victor Hugo , Oeu vres compleles. novels, vol. 9 (Paris, 1881 ). p . 196 (La
Miser(lbles). III [a11 ,3}
Unfolding it~ wing>! o( gold .
M illion · a rm~1 indu~ tr)'.tl( uliant,
Tra\'ersefl our (lomai n5
Anel 8eClb Ihe: fi eM$.
The d~r1 i~ l>f"oJileei at thl" iOund of il. \·oi<:e.
TIlI~ arid lOil tl"l".n_
Anll (or the "'o rM '~ bounl~'
It gives I.he "'orM l aw~ . « 1.205)
Refrai n: All honor 10 U 8. Ihe ofr~ pring of ineluslr)'!
Honor. honor to our works!
[n 1IIIII.e II rb "'e: ha ve r.Otl(IUI"f't:(1our rivals-­
A",I wu ulell,c thl' hope. thl' I.riele. of our counlry. <I" 204)
Cillqll/lflre (.' 11(1111 8 !rulIf; lIis. lyrics by \'al'io us aut hors; set III music, ,with piano
accoml'al1i IllCI1I , by Hougel de Lisle ( Paris, 1825) [ Dibliothellue Nationale.
Vm7.4454J . (I. 202 (110. 41). "Chant (Ies imlustricis." 182 1.1c)( 1 by lie Lisle). In the
" '"
sa llie \ ' 0 I tllll e . 110 . :.:. 'II ' "
' ... ~a l urs('1 nl SC,
Hevolul.iolllll'Y IlIcti,'s a llli ha ll.lcs on Ihe barricades. according to Le. Mi&erobte,.
The night hcfore the \'arricade fi ghting: "'The invisihle police of the erne"'·
watched everywhere, and I11l1illt ained order--that is , night. ... The eye which
might have looked frOI11 ahove illto that l11ass of s hadow would have caught a
glimpse in the distance here and there. perhal)S, of indistinct lights, bringing out
brokcli lind fanta stic lines. outlincs of l ingular COlistructions, something like
ghos tl y gleams coming a nd goillg among ruills; these were the barricades." Oeu·
vres compli tes, novel ~, vol. 8 ( Paris, 188 1). 1'»' 522-523. -The foUowill g passage
is from the clla pter "'Faiu d 'o'-' I' his toire sort et que )' histoire ignore." "The meet.
ings were sometimes IJerioojc . At some. there were never more than eight or ten ,
all1l always the sa me IJerson!. I.n othen, any body who chose to entered. and the
room was so full that they were forced to &tand . Some were there from enthusiasm
and passion ; otl1en because 'it was on their wa y to work .' As in the time of the
Re\'olution , there were in these wine shops some female patriots , who embraced
the ne,,·comers. Ot h erexp res~ive facu came to light . A man entered a ~ b op , drank,
and went out, sayi ng: ' Wine merchant , whatever l owe, the revolution will pay.'
.. , A worker, drinking with a comrade, made him put his hand on him to see how
warm he was; the other felt a pistol under hi~ ves t .... All this fermentation was
"tlblic, we might almost say tranquil .... No singularity was wanting in this cri­
sis-still s ubterranean , but already per ceptible. Bourgeois talked quietly with
workers about the preparations. They would say, ' How is the uprising coming
along?' in the same tone in which they would have said , 'How is your wife?'" Vic·
tor Hugo , Oeltvres completes, novels, vol. 8 (Paris, 1881), pp. 43, 50-5 1 (Le,
Miserables). II [a ll a,I)
­ Barricade fightin g in Le, Mueroble5 . From the cha pter "'Originalite de Paria...
"'Outside of the insurgent quartiers, nothing is usuaUy more strangely calm than
the physiognomy of Pari~ during an uprising .... There is firing: at the Itreetco r·
ners , in an arcade, in a cul-de--sac; ... corpses litter the p avement. A few streets
a wa y, yo u can hear the clicking ofbiUia rd b aDs in the cafes .... The carriages jog
along; people are going out to dine. Sometimes in the very quar.icr where there is
fighting. In 183 1 a fu sillade was ~ u~ pcnded to let a wedding party pan by. At the
til11e of the insurrection of May 12 , 1839, on the Rue Saint-Martin, a little infirm
old man, drawi ng a handcart surmounted by a tricolored rag, in which there were
i decanters filled with Some Ii'luid , ....ent hack and forth from the barricade to the
troops a lld frOI11 the troops to thc barricade, impartiaUy offering g1asliC8 of <:0­
coa. , .. Nothing i~ more str ange; and thi~ i~ the peculia r characteris tic of the
uprisings of Paris . which is not found in allYother capital. Two things are requisite
for it ; the greatness of Pa ri~ and its gaicty. It rC(luire~ the city of Voltaire and of
Na poleon . ,. Victor lIugo , Oeuvres compUites, Ilovels. vol. 8 <Paris, 1881 ) ,
Ill'. 429-43 1.'2 [alla,2)
Oil the motif of exutids m. conjoined wil h Ihat of emancipation :
[all ,4)
.AlI lire: ~cragli oB are: op'e:l1l:d.
The imam fin d ~ hi~ iltSJlira lion in wille.
The: Orienl learn, 10 re:ad.
Barn uh crOMe. lire 1IoCl8l.
 Jule. l'o1ercit:r, " L'Arche de Dieu ," in Foi nouvelle: Cha n', e' cha nson, <k Bar.
r(l'llt , Vin{"fl r,' . .. 183 1 iJ 1834 (Pari., January I , 1835), book I , p . 28. {aI2,1J
Forge Ihe liberty of the Orient :
A ery or Woman . on the da y of deliverance,
Travels rrom the harem by repeated « ho
To break the horrid silence of the West.
• Vincard , " l...e P re mier Depart pour l' Orient ," in Foi nouvelle: Ch(lnts et charuoru
de Barraull , Vin{ard . .. 1831 Ii 1834 ( Paris, January I , 1835). book 1, p. 48.
[a I2,2]
A strange stanza from "Le Oi:pan," by Vm~:
Cast off from a universe of serfdom,
The old swaddling cJothc:s 13 and the jargon;
Lt:am the coarse and plain speech of the Ptople,
The light ditty and the oath.
RJi MUlJelle, 1831 a 1834 (Paris, j anuary 1, 1835), p p. 89-90. [d2,3[
Our flag haft loat palience wilh the Iky of France:
Over the minarel8 of ~pt il now mUl t wave.
Then will they see us, workers adept .
With our ribbon. of iron
Suhduing the desert .andl:
Citiet, like palmB. will spring up everywhere.
F. Maynard , "'A l' Orient ." in Foi nouvelle (P aris. January I , 1835). pp. 85, 68.
{aI2,'l
In jacques Arago's pamphlet of 1848, "Aux juges d es i.nsurg6;~" d~portation
appears as an instrument of colonial expansion. After the author, m PI~
language, has summoned up in tum each of France's ov~as ~essIO.ns wnh­
Out finding a single one suited to be the land of deportatIon, ~ e~ li~[$ on
Patagonia. H e gives a very poetical d escription of the land and Its inhabitants.
"These men, the tallest on eanh; these women, of whom the youngest are so
alluring after an hour's swim; these antelopes, these birds, these fish, these phos­
phorescent waters, this sky alive with clouds cou rsing to and fro like a 8~ of
wandering hinds . .. -all this is Patagonia, all this a virgin land rich and tnde­
pendent.... Do you fear that England ~ cam~ and tell yo~ .that you have n~
right to set foot o n this part of the Amencan cantment? ... CItIZens, let EnF
grumble, just let it, ... and if it should arm, . .. then ttanSport to Patagorua the
men whom your laws have smitten. When the d ay of battle arrives, those you
have exiled will have become staunch mobile barricades, standing implacable at
the outposts." (aI2,5)
EdDIe Champion : self-made ma n ,14 plilla nth rollist ( 1764- 1852). " Whenever he
had occasion to go ae ro.s town. he wou ld never forgel to look inl o t.he morgue"_o
repo,"•• Cha rles-Lo uis Chassin , I..., U getlde d,j Petit MClll te11ll I1leu (Pu ris, ca.
1860), p. 15. Cham pioll had been 1\ goldsmith a nd . during the Revoiutioll . pro­
u:eted noble-born former cus tomer8-which endangered hill OWII life. {a 12a,l J
Balzac, in EIIghiit Grmu/tl, with reference to the miser's dreams of the futu re:
"That futu re which once awaited us beyond the requiem has been transported
into the present." 151bis is still more true with reference to poor people's fears of
the furore. [a I2a,2)
From an analysis of the situatio n arol1l1tl 1830, by police prefoct Gi8(luet . At iuue
are the workers: "Unlike the well-to-do c1allllefl of the oourgeoisie. they ha ve no
fear that, through a broader e)(tellllion of liberal principles. they will be compro­
nusing an established fortune.... Just as the Third Estate profited from the . up·
pression of the nobilit y's privileges ... , the working c1alls would profit today from
. 11 thai the bourgeoisie would lose in itll turn ." Cited ill Charles Benoist.
"L' Uomme de 1848." part I , ReVile de5 deux monde5 (July I , 191 3). p. 138.
[al2a,3)
"The great mob and the holy ra bble I Made a rus h at immortality." From a revo-­
lutionary song around 1830. Cited in Charle& Benois t , "L' I-!omme de 1848,"
part 1, ReVile des deux monde5 (Ju ly I , 1913). p . 143. [a 12a,4)
Rumford . in his economic essays. assembled recil>Ci designed to lower the cost of
lIoup. kitchen fare by ulling subs titute ingrediellts. " HilisOUI)S a re not too e)(pen·
. ive, seeing that for 11 francs 16 eentimcs, one hall enough to feed 115 per soDli
twice a da y. The onl y question is whether they are being prol)Crly fed .... Charltl
Benoist, "De I'Apologie dll travail a I'apotheose de )'mlvrier.... R eVile des deux
mondes (J anua ry IS, 19 13). p . 384. Charity soups were va riously introduced by
FrCllch industries at the time of the great Revolution . (al2a,5J
1837-the first banquets for IInivt:rsal suffrage a nd the petition with 240,000 sig.
1I!1IlireS (etluivalent to the !lumber of rcgis tert...1 \'oters at that time). [a12a,6J
Around 1840, suicide is familiar in the mental world of the workers. "People are
~king about copies of a lithograph representing the suicid e of an English worker
In despair at not being able to eam a living. At the house o f Sue himself, a worker
Comes to commit suicide with this nOte in his hand: 'I am killing myself out of
despair. It seemed to me that death would be easier for me if I d ied under the roof
of one who loves us and defends us.' The working-class author of a little book
much read by other workers, the typographer Adolphe Boyer, also takes his own
life in despair." Charles Benoist, "I.:Homme de 1848," part 2. Revut des deux
tI10ndes (rebruary I , 19 14), p . 667. {aI2a,71
 From Rober t (tlu Var), Histoire de La clane ouvnere <depuill'etcwvejwqu'OV
proletaire de not jourl) ( 1845- 1848): " You have Been it witnessed in thi. hil tory,
o worker ! When , at , hive, yo u embraced the gospel , you beeRDle, unhesitatinpy,
a serf; when , 81 serf, you embraced the eighteenth-ccntury philo,aphe" yo u be­
J came a Ilroletarian . Well , today you have ta ken up socialism . . . . What it to
prevent you from becoming a pa rtner ? You are king, pope. and emperor­
] your fate. in this regard , is in your own hand.... Cited in Charles Benoitt
" L'H omme de 1848,'" part 2, R evlU! de, deu.x monde, (February I , 19 14), p . 668.'
• [a 13,l)
A comment by Tocqueville on the spirit of the 1840&: " Wealthy proprietor'S liked to
re<:all that they had alway, been enemies of the bourgeois clan aDd alway. been
friends of the people. The bourgeoisie themselves recalled with a certain pride that
their fat hen had been laborer., and if they could not trace their lineage . .. to a
worker ... , they would at least contrive to descend from Bome uncouth penon
who had made his fortune on his own." Cited in Charles Benoist , " L' Homme de
1848," p art 2, Revue des deux mondes (February I , 19(4) , p . 669. [a I3 .2)
" The question of povert y ... has, in a few years, paued through extremely varied
phases. Toward the end of the Restoration, the debate turns entirely on the uline·
tion of mendicancy, and society tries leu to alleviate poverty than to ... forpl it
b y relegating it to the shadows. At the time of the July Revolution, the situation iI
reversed by means of polltics. The republlcan pa rty seizes on pauperism aad _
transfOrnL8 it into the proletariat. ... The workers take up the pen.... Tailon,
shoemaker s, and typographers , who at that time constituted the revolutioD&I'J
trades, nlarch in the extreme avant-garde. . . . Around 1835, the debate iI .....
pended in conllequence of the numeroUll defeats dealt the republlcao party.
Around 1840, it res umes, ... and bifurca tes ... into two schools, culminating, OD
the one ha nd , in communism and, on the other, in the alliociatioDJ deriving froID
the mutual interests of workers and employers ." Charles Louandre, " Statittique
Ilueraire: De la Production intellectuelle en France dupuis quinze aRll," Revue "­
deux mondes (October IS, 1847), p . 279. (al3,3)
l the rh),thms of Lamartine and Victor Hugo" (p. 966). And the class-bound ch arac·
The Blamluist Tridon : "0 Might, queen of the barricades , ... you who fl ash in the
lightning and the riot, ... it is towa rd you that prisoners . tretch their manacled
hand•. " Cited in CharieR Benoist, "Le ' My the' de la classe ouvriere," Revue du
deux mondes (March I , 19 14), p . 105. [a I3," }
Against workhouses, and in favor of lowering the lax on the poor: F. ·M.·L.
Naville, De Ia Cha rite Ugale et spkialement des maisons de tra vail et de fa pro-­
scription de fa mendicite . 2 volumes (Paris. 1836). (al3,5)
A coinage of 1848: " God is a wo rker." la l3a,l]
Charles Benoist claims to find in Corhon . Le Secret (1IttJ(!llple de Par is , the proud
consciousness of numerical superiorit y over the olher c1assel!. 8 enoist . " I.e
'1\I)'the' de la classe ouvricre." RellUe del clell.x morldel (March 1, 1914), I). 99 .
[a I3a,2)
Pamphlets from 1848 are d ominated by the concept of organization. la l3a.3)
" )n 1867, it was poiSible to hold conference8 in which 400 worker delegatefl, be­
louy ng to 11 7 profellsions, ... discussed ... the organiza tion of Chambers of
jointl)' uniollized workerll .... UI) until then . however, workers' unions had been
ver y ra r e--though on the other Ride, allied with the bOl!8es, there had been fort y.
twO Chambers of unionized workers . . . . Prior to 1867, in the margins and in
defian ce of the law, there had been associations onl y of typogra pher s (1839), mold­
ers ( 1863), bookbinden ( 1864), a nd hatten ( 1865). After the meetings held in the
Passage Raoul , ... these syndica tell multiplied." Charles Benoist , " Le ' Mythe' de
la classe ouvriere," ReVile del deux mondes (Ma rch I , 191 4), p . III . (a 13a,4J
In 1848, TouS8enel was a member of the Commission of Lahor over which Louis
Blanc presided in Luxembourg. (aI3a,S)
To present London in its significance for Barbier and Gavami Gavami's series
Ce quon fX)jl gratis aLondm <What Can Be Seen for Free in London>. (aI3a,6]
In Der acht:ehnte Brunlaire. Ma rx says of the cooperatives that in them the
proletariat " renounccs the revolutionizing of the old world by means of the latter 'lI
own great, combined reso urcCll. and seeks . rather, to achieve its salvation behind
society'& back , in Ilrivate fallhion , within it. limited conditions of existence.""
Cited in E. Fuchs, Die Karikatllr des ellrO/Jiiischen Votker, vol. 2 <Munich, 1921>,
p.472. la l3a,7)
On Poi,ie, socialel de. ollvriers , edited b y Rodrigues, La Revue del deux mondes
writes: "You pau from a reminiscence of M . de Beranger to a coarse imitation of
ter of thi&critillue enlerges unabashedl y when its author writes of the worker : " If
he aims to reco ncile the exercise of his profesRion with Iltcrary studies, he will
discover how uncongcnial to intellectual development ph ysical exhaustion can he"
(p . 9t?9). III support of his point , the author rehea rses the fate of a worker poet
who was dri ven mad . Lerrninicr. " Dc 18 Litteralurc lies ouvriers," Revue des deux
"'ondes. 28 (Parill, 184 1). (aI3a,8]
Agricol Perdi bruier's Livre du compagno1llwge st.'t:ks to ma ke use of the medieval
guild-forms of alliance betwt.'t:1I worken for dIe new form of association . This
untlertaking is cur tl y dismissed by Le rlllinicr in " De la l..iu eralUre des ouvriers,"
in Revue des deux mundes, 28 (Paris. 184 1), PI). 955 IT. [a I4 ,1 ]
 Adolphe Boyer. De fE'a' des Oll vrjer5 et de "on amelioration par l'organuario,.
du 'ra vail ( Paris. 1841 ). The a utho r of Ihis book was a printe r. It was unsucceaa.
(ul. lie CO ll1mi t1l s ui cide 1I 11d (according to Lerminier ) caUs 011 the workers to fo Uow
his e xample. The book was publis hed in German in Strasbourg, in 1844. It wal
J ve r y moderate and sought 10 make usc of COfflpag nonnage for worker auoeia.
-~ ~~
"Anyone who considers the harsh and burdensome life which the laboring
• classes have to lead remains convinced that, among the workers, the most re­
markable men ... are not those who hurry to take up a pen .. " not those who
write, but those who act.... The division of labor that assigns to some men
action and to others thought is thus always in the nature of things." Lcrminier,
"De la Liuerature des ouvriers," Revue des deux 11W1Ilies, 28 (Paris, 1841), p. 975.
And by "action" the author means, first of all, the practice: of working overtime!
[a I4,3]
Worker associa tions deposited their fund s in sa vings banks or took out tre.lury
bonds. Lerminier, in " De la Litterature des ouvriers" (Revue des deux monda
[ Paris. 1841] . p . 963). praises them for this. Their ins urance institutions. he •• y.
furth er on, lighten the load of public assistance. [aI4,4]
Proudhon receives an invita tion to dinner from the financier l\tillaud. " Proudhoa
managed to extricate himself ... b y r eplying that he lived entirely in the boaom 01
his family and was always in bed by mne P.M. " Finnin Maillard . La Cue da
intellectuel! (Pa ris <1905», p . 383. [al4,5]
From a poem by Dauheret on Ledru-Rollin :
The red nal! reve,.w by the French everywhere
, Auguste Barbier represented the doleful pendant to Saint-Simonian poetry. He
I. the ro~ in which e hritt wa. attired .
Let U 8 all render homal!e to hrave Robespicrre,
And Maral who made him admired .
Cited in Auguste Lepage. Le, Cafts poutiques et litteraire, de Paris (Paris <1874>.
i
p. II. [aI4,6]
Georg Herwegh , " Die Epigollt!n von 1830," Paris, November 1841:
Away. 'Wll), with the Tricolor,
Which witnened Ihe d eed s of your falhen,
,\ 1It1 wrile on Ihe ga tes U II warning:
" Ilere hi Freedom's CaJlua!"
Geor g Uerwegh , Gellichteeines t ebendiBen, vol. 2 (Zurich and Winterthur, I844~,
p . 15. lal4a, ]
Ucinc on the bourgeoisie during the February Revolution : " The §everit y with
which the IJe(l pie dealt with ... thieve, who wer e ca ught in the act seemed to lIlad1
rather excessive, and certain people became uneaB), on learning that thieves
~.:;e shot 0 11 the s pot. Under such a regime. they Raid 10 themselves, who could be
su rf: of
his own life in the end?" Heinrich Heine , " Die Februarrevolution ."
Sii mtliche Werke. ed . Wilileim 8 0lsche (Leil)zig). vol. 5. 1)' 363.17 (a I4a,2]
Alnerica in the Hegelian philosophy: " Uegel ... did not give direct expression to
thi ~ con.st:iousllcss of terminating an epoch of history; rather, he gave it indirect
·',on . He ma kes it known by the (act th at , in thinking, he casts an
. eye. over
expres~
t.he past in ' its obsolescence of spiri t,' even as he looks about for a possible discov­
er . in the do mai n of s pirit , aU the while expressly relle rving the awareness of sucb
di!cO\'ery. The rare indicatiolls concerning America-which a t this period seemed
the future land of liberty [note: A. Ruge, Awfriiherer Zeit, vol. 4, pp . 72-84.
Fichte had alread y thought of emigrating to America at the time of the coUapse of
old Europe (letter to h is wife of May 28. 1807). }-and concerning the Slavic world,
ell\'ision the possibility, for univenal spirit , of emigration from Europe as a meaDS
of preparing new protagonists of the principle of spirit that was ... completed
with Hegel. ' America is therefor e the land of the future, where. in the ages that lie
before us, the burden of the World's History shaD reveal itself-perhaps in a
contest between North and South America .' ... But ' what has taken place in tbe
New World up to the present time is only all echo or the Old World-the expression
or a foreign Life; and a8 a La nd of the Future, it h as no interest for us here.... In
regard to Philosophy . .. we have to do with ... that which is· n [Hegel, Philos6­
phie der Cesehichte. ed. Lasso n , p. 200 (and 779?)] .18 Karl LOwith, "'L'Acheve­
ment de la philosophie classique par Hegel et sa diu olution chez Marx et
Kierkegaard '" [Recherches philo'Qphique., founded by A. Koyre. H .-Ch . Puecb ,
A. Spaier, vol. 4 (Paris, 1934- 1935). pp. 246-247]. (a lb,3]
ctisavows this relationship as little in his works in general as in these closing lines
orIUs prologue:
If my verse is 100 raw, its tongue too uncouth,
Look to the brazen century in which it sounds.
Cynicism of manners mwt defile the word,
Alld a harred of evil begets hyperbole.
Thus, I can dery the gaze of the prudt::
My ungentle verse is true blue at heart.
Auguste Barbier, Pobi(s (Paris, 1898), p. 4. (a I5, 1]
Call 1lea u publishes " Waterloo" (Puris: Au Bureau des Publications [ vadiellnes .
1843) a noll ),lIIolIsly. The pum phlet is Ilellicated to the apotheosis of Napoleon­
"J esus the Christ·Abel. Napoleon the Christ-Cain" (p . 8~and concludes with the
in\'Ocatioll of "Evadiun Unit y" (p. 15) and Ille signature: " III the name of the
Cran,l E,·udah. in the name of God on High . Mother and Father .. . . the Mapa h"
(1'. 16). <SeeU I2 ,7.) [aI5,2]
 Ganneau ', " Page prophetique" was publis hed for the fi rst time in 1840, and again
during the Re volution of 1848. The title page of the seeond edition bean the
foUowin g announcement : " Thi, ' Prophetic Page: seized on July 14, 1840, Wa,
j discovered b y citize n Sobrie r. form er d eputy in the " olice De parlme uI , in the
dossier of citizen Ganneau (The Mapa h).-{The official report is labe led: ' Revolu.
tio nar y page, one of 3,500 copies distributed unde r carriage e ntra nces. T' [a I5,3]
] Canneau', " Bapleme, marisge" inaugurates the era of the Evadah , commenc~
• on Augusl 15. 1838. The pamphlet is published at 380 Rue Sainl. Den is, Pau ap
Lemoine. Signed : The Mapah. It proclaims: " Mary ia 11 0 longer the Mother: III he i.a
the Bride; Jesus Chris t is no longer the Son: he is the Bridegroom. The old world
(of compression) is finished ; the new world (of expansion) begins!" "Mary~Eve ,
female Genesiac unit y" and "Christ-Adam, male Genesiac unit y" appear " under
the name Androgyne Evadam ." [a I5,' ]
"The 'Devoir Mutuel' of Lyon8, which played a crucial role in the insurrections of
183 1 and 1834, marks the transition from the old Mutualite to the Resistance."
PauJ Loui8, Hi!toire de hl claue ouvrwre en Fra nce ch hl Revolutwn a no,
joun
(paris, 1927), p . 72. [a I5,5]
On May 15 , 1848, revolutionary demonstra tion of the Paris workerl for the liben­
tion of Poland . [a I5,6]
"J esus Christ ... , "'ho gave us no vestige of a political code, left hie work incom­
plete." Honore de Balzac, Le Cure de village (letter from Gerard to Grosset&e),
editions Siecle, vol. 17 , p . 183.1' [aI5a,ll
The early inquests into workers' circumstances were conducted , for the most part,
by entrepreneurs, their agents, factory inspectors, and administrative officiab.
" When the doctors and philanthropists who were conducting the inquest went to
visit the famili es of worker s, they were gellerally accompanied h y the entrepreneur
or his representative. Le Play, for example, advises one, when visiting the fami1iel
of workers, ' to utilize the reco mmendation of a carefull y chosen authority.' He
counsels the adoption of utmost diplomacy in rega rd to individual members of the
family, and even the payment of small indemnities or the distribution of gifts : one
sllOuld ' praise with discretioll the sagacity of the men , the grace of the women , the
good behavior of the children , a nd, in suitable fas hion , di.spense little presentl to
all ' ( I.e! Oltvriers europeens [Paris] , vol. I , p . 223). In tile course of the detailed
criti(IUe of inquest procedures which Audiganne prolilOtes in the discussions of lUI
workers' circle, I..e Play is lipoken of in the following terms: 'Never was a faDer
path marked out , despite the hest intentiolls. It is purdy a (Iuestioll of the sysU:dI.
A mistaken point of view, an inadequate method of observation give rilC to •
wholly arbitr ar y train of thought havillg 110 relation li t all to tile reality of lucielY
and evincing, moreover, an incorripble propensity for despotism and rigidity'
(Audigalllle, p . 6 1). A fretluent error in t.he conduct of the inquests. accordan« to
Audiganne. is the air of ceremony with which the inve&tigators ca rry out their
"isits to the homes or the worker$: ' If not a single special inquest undertaken
during the Second Empire yielded concrete result! of any kind , the blame for this
rests. in large part , 011 the pomp with which the investigators paraded aro und'
(p. 93). Engels and Marx describe further the methods hy which the worken wer e
induce<! to express themselves on the occasion or these recherche! sociale, and
I: \' CII to present petitions against the reduction or their work time." Hilde Weiss,
" Die ' Enquete ouvriere' von Karl Marx" [Zeit5chrift flir Sozialforschung, ed .
Max Horkheimer, 5, no. 1 (Paris. 1936), p". 83-84]. Tile passages from Audi­
ga llile lire tllken from his book iUbrlOires d 'un ou vrierde Pa ri! (Paris, 1873 >.
[a15a,21
In 1854, the affair of the carpenters took place. When the carpenters of Paris
decided to strike, proceedings were instituted against the leaden of the carpenters
ror violation of the ban on coalitions. They were defended , in the first insta nce and
in the appeal, hy Berryer. From his a rguments before the court of appeals: " It
cannot be this sacred resolve, this voluntary decision to ab andon one's work
rat her than not deri ve a just income from it , that has been ma rked out for punish­
ment by the law. No, it is the determination, instead , to restrain the freedom of
othen; it is the interdiction of work, the hindering of others from going to their
place of work.... In order, then , for there to be a coalition, in the proper sense,
there must be sonIc sort of restraint on the liberty of persons, a violence done to
the freedom of others. And , in fact, if this is not the true construction of articles
415 and 4 16, would there 1I0t be, in our law, a monstrous inequality between the
condition of the workers and that of the entrepreneurs? The Jatter can take coun­
lei together to deeide that the cost of labor is too high .... The law ... punishes
the coalition of entrepreneurs only when their concerted action is unjust and
\ ab usive. , .. Without reproducing the same set of words, the law reproduces the
same idea with respect to workers. It is by the sound interpretation of these arti­
cles that you will consecr ate the e<luality of cOlldhion that ought to exist between
these two classes of individuals ." ( Pierre-Antoine) Berrye r, OeltVre5: Phlidoyers.
vol. 2, 1836-1856 (Paris. 1876), pp . 245-246. [3 16,1)
,
~fllir of the ca rpenter/!: " M. Berr yer concludes hi/! plea by rising to considera­
tiOlls ... of the currellt situation , in France, of the lower c1asse8---(!ondemnoo , he
says. to see two-fifths of their member s dying in t.he hospital or laid out in the
m?rgue:" Berryer. Oeuvres: Pl«idoyers. vol. 2, 1836-1856 (Paris, 1876). I)' 250
~1 he principal8 accused in the trial were sentenced to three yeurs in prison- a
Jlidgment tll ut was uplleld 0 11 appeaL) [a I6,2]
"Our worker-poe ts of late have been imitating tile rhythms of Lamartine•... too
oftcl! sacrificing whatever folk originality they might have .. . . When thcy write,
Ih,:y ....·ca r a Ii{U1., ' pllt on gI oves, t IIUS IoSlllg
allll ' t. IIU 8uperIOnt
. . y that strong hands
IIlld Po.....erful arms givc to the people .....hen they kllOw how to use them."
J . Michelet , Le l'eupJe, 2nd ed. (Paris. 1846), p . 195. At allothcr point (p . 107).
 the a uthor accentuates the " I~ uliar character of meekne88 and melancholy" at.
taching 10 dus poetr y.1(I [a I6,3]
" 'II Paris ... Engel8 jotted down the 'creed ' which the Io<:al branch or tile Conunu _
1] nillt League had as ked him to compose. He obje<:ted to the te rm 'creed ,' by whicb
Schapper a nd Moll had designated their draft , and he d ecided that the question _
and-answer form which was usual in s uch programs, and to which Considerant
and Cabet had u1timately had recourse as well , was no longer in place he~."
• Gustav Mayer, Fri£drich Enseu, vol. 1 (Berlin <1933» , p . 283. ~1 la16,41
Legislative repression of the working class goes back to the French Revolution.
At. issue arc laws which punished any as~mbling and unionizing on the part of
workers, any collective demands for higher wages, and any strikes. "The law of
June 17, 1791, and that ofJanuary 12, 1794, contain measures that have proved
sufficient, up through the present, to repress these offenses." Chaptal, De ['Indus­
triefiaTlfoise (Paris, 18 19), vol. 2, p. 351. [aI6a,l]
"Since Marx was officially exiled from France, Engels decided , in August 1846, to
shift his residence 10 the French capital 80 Ihat he could meet with the German
proletarians who were living there and recruit them for the cause of revolutionary
communism . As it happened, however, Ihe tailors and cabinetmakers and leather­
workers whom Grun W 88 trying to convert had nothing in common with the prole­
tarian type on whom Engels was counting. .. Paris W88 Ihe headquarters of
fashion and of the arts and crafts; most of tbe German workers who had come
Ihere to better their position in the trade, and then return home as master craft&­
men , were 8till deeply imbued with the old spirit of the guild ." Gustav Mayer.
Friedrich Ense", vol. I , Friedrich Ense" in .einer Friihzeit , 2nd ed. (Berlin
<1933». pp. 249-250.:1: [al6a.21
Tbe Brussel8 "Communist Correspondence Committee" of Marx and E~b in
1846: " Marx and he ... bad tried in vain to convert Proudhon . Engels now under­
took a fruitleu mission to win over old Cabet , the leader of experimental utopi..
communism on the continent , ... for participation in the Corres pondence Com­
· ·th the..
mittee .... It was some months ... before he established closer reI allons Wl
Reforme grOUI), with Lows Blanc and particularly with < Fe rdinal:d .~ F1~on .
Gusla v Mayer, Friedrich Ensel$, vol. I , Friedrich EDge" in .einer frllh zell , 2nd
.
ed . (Berlin " A t3
(1933» , p . 2~. [aI6a.3]
Gui;(.ot writes afler the February Revolution: " I have long hcen subject to a dou­
ble suspicion:' one, that the disease is much more serious than we think and say;
and , two , that our remedIes. a re futil. e, scar ce Iy more I.han s k·III (t."ep
I . While I held
the reills of nly country and di rectC(1 ilS affairs, this double awarelless gr~""
. Iy III
. proporllon . as I SUCCeet
· , eu
~ . , 1111 reillaiued. In
stronger IIY the tla y; an( I preCise
power. I ca nle to fed that neither my success nor my tellure in offi ce was hav)nl!
Dluch errect , that the defeated enemy was willnin5 out over me, and tiaat , ill order
u-uly to defeat him . one would have had to do things which it was impossible even
to mention. " CitC(1 ill Abel Bonnard . I.e' Mo</eres, in series enutle(1 Le Drame d.l
present, vol. I (Paris <1936 », pp . 3 14-3 15. [a I6a,41
"If an agitator is to ac hieve Jasting results, he Dlust s peak us the representative of
~n
body of opinion .... Engels lllust have reaJi:I:ed this during his first visit to Paris.
his second , he found that the door8 at which he knocked opened more easily.
French socialism still refused to have an ythillg to do with political strugglee.
Therefore, he could look for aUies in the cominl! battle only amo ng those demo­
cra til conllected ,,;th W Reforme who advoca ted state socialism in some degree.
Under the leader ship of a Louis Blanc alld a Ferdinand Flocon , these men be­
Iiel,ed, as he did , that it was necessa ry to garner political power through democ­
racy before a ttempting any social transforma tion . Engels was prepared 10 go hand
in hand with the bourgeoisie whenever it took a confirmed democratic direction ;
he could not refu se to associate himself with this part y whose program included
the abolition of hired labor, although he mllst have known to what extent iu
parliamentary leader, Ledru-Rollin, was averse to communism . . . . He had
learned from experience; he presented himself to Blanc as ' the official delegate of
the German democrats in Londoll, in Drun d s, und on the Rhine' and ' the agent of
the Chartist movement. '" Gustav Mayer, Friedrich Engell. vol. I , Friedrich
Ensel$ in seiner Friihzeil (Berlin ( 1933», pp . 280-281 .:4 [a I7, 1]
"Under the Provisional Government it was customary, indeed it was a neceu ily.
combining politics and enthusiasm at once, to preac h to the generous workers who
(as could be read on thousand.!! of official placards) had ' placed three montlu of
'"'-'ery at the dUp01101 of the republre,' that the February Revolution had been
waged in their own interesu , and that the February Revolution was concerned
above all with the interests of lhe worker•. But , a fter the opening of the National
Assembly, everyone came down to earth. What was important now wus to bring
'labor back to iu old situation, a8 Mini8ter Trelat said." Karl Marx . " Oem An­
denken der Juni-Kampfer " [in Karl Marx all Denker, Mensch lind RevolUlionor,
ed . D. Rjazanov (Vienna alld Berlin <1 928». p. 38; first published in the Ne~
i
rheinuche killing, ca . June 28, 1848 V~ [a I7,2)
Final sentence of the essay 0 11 the JUlie combatlints. coming directly after the
descriptio n of the measures underlaken by Ihe stale to honor the memory of those
victims who belouged to the hourgeoisie: " But the plebeians are torlured with
hunger ; reviled hy the press; ubuluiolled by doctors; ahust,'{1 hy hOliest men liS
thie,·es , incendiaries, galley slaves; their WOlIll!n a nd chillircn thrown into slill­
det:l)Cr misery; their best sons deported overseas; uIIII it is Ihe privilege. it is the
rlshl of ,lie democra tic fJreu 10 ent,,;ne the laurels r ound their stern and dlreat­
eUing brows." Ka rl Marx. "' Oem Alulenken der J uni-Kampfer" [in Karl Marx all
Denker, AJensch ufI(l Reoolutiollur, cd . D. Hjazanov (Vienna and Berlin), p . 40 :
flfijl published in I.he Nelle rheinuche Zeit/mg, ca. June 28 , 1848).2· [a 17,3]
 011 Buret's De la Mi.fer e dell clauell laoorieluell en Anglelerre et en France and
Engels' Lage der a rbeilenden Kla ue in Eng lllnd: "Cha rles AndJer would like us to
see in E ngels' book only a ' recasting and sha rpening' of the book b y Bure t. In Our
view, hO"'ever, there is grounds for comparison here only in the faci that both
hooks .. . partly draw from the same source material. ... The evaluative criteria
of the ~' rellcll writer re rna in allchored in t.he concel)t of natural right ... , while the
German autbor . .. adduces tbe tendencies of economic and social development
... ill his explana tions. Whereas Engcls looks to communism as the sole lIHlvation
• frolll the wor sening situation of the preseut , Buret places his hopes in the complete
1II0biUzation of lauded "roperty, in a social politics and n constitutional system of
industry. " Gustav Mayer, FrU!drich Engel.f , vol. I , Friedrich Engel.f in ' einer
Friih::eil (Berlin <1933 », p. 195. [8178,1) -
Engels 0 11 the June Insurrection. " In a dia ry lIIeant for publication on the literary
page of the Neue rheinillcile Zeitung, he wrote: ' Between the old Paris and the new
lay the fifteenth of May and the twenty-fifth of June.... Cavaignac's bombshelU
bad effectively burst the invincible Pa risia n gaiety. " La Marseillaise" and "Le
Chant du de part" ceased to be heard , and only the bourgeois still hummed to
themselves their " Mourir pour la patrie,'" while the workers, unemployed and
weaponless, gnashed their teeth ill supp ressed rage." Gustav Mayer, Friedrich.
Engel.f, vol. I . Freid rich Engel.f in seiner Frijhzeit (Berlin <1933», p. 317.21
[aI7a,2]
Engels, during the June lIl8urre£tioll , referred to " Paris East and West as symhole
for the two great enemy camps into which here, for the fi rs t time, the whole sociely
­ ceed beyond ... abstract formul u, and he takes the greatest care to avoid broach­
splits .... Gustav Mayer. Friedrich Engels. vol. I , FrU!drich Engel.f in seiner
Friih::eit (Berlin <1933». p. 3 12 . (aI7a,3]
Marx caUs the r evolution "our brave friend , Robin Goodfellow, the old mole thai
can work in the earth so (ast , tbat worth y pioneer-the Revolution .... In the same
speech , at the concl usio n: ""0 avenge the misdeeds of the ruling class, there eJI..
isted in t.he MiddJe Ages ill German y a secret tribunal ca lled the Vehmgericht. If a
red cross was St!ell IIIQrkcd on a house. people knew thai its owner was doomed by
the Vehm . All the houses o( Eurol)C lire flO W ma rked with tile mysterious red cross.
Ilistury is the judge; its execntioner, the proletarian." Ka rl Marx , " Die Revolu­
I.iollen \'011 18-18 und das Proleta riat ." spc!ech del.h-ered on the fourth annivenary
of the fouudation of n,e {'caple's l'uper. Publislll!d in 1'he People 's Paper, April
19, 1856~H [ill Karl M(lr:c '1/11 Dellker. Mensch I/m/ R evo/utiofliir, cd . D. Rja:u nov
(Vieull u II I1tI Ilcrlin <1928 ». pp . 42. 43)' • (a17a,4]
Marx defends Cabel against Proudholl as " worthy of resl~t for his practical
altitutle tn ward the prol1"l uriat ." Mar x III (J ohallll > Schweit:wr, London , January
24 , 1865, in Kurl Murx und Friedrich ElIgcls, A ,uge wijMle Brie/e. cd . V. Adoral­
ski (Moscow a nd U:ningr utl. 1934), p. 143.:!'I [a I 8,1]
Marx on Proudhon: "The February Revolution certainly clime at a ver-y inconven­
iell t moment for Proudhon , who had irreful ably proved only a few weeki before
Ihat the 'era of revolutions' w a~ ended forever. Hill speech to I.he National Assem­
bly. however little insight it showed into existing conditions, wu worthy of every
praise. Corning after the June Insurrection , it was an act of great courage. In
addition , it had the fortuna te consequence that T hiers--b y his reply (which was
then issued .11& a special booklet), in which he opposed Proudhon's proposal&-­
proved to the whole of Europe what an infantile catechism formed the pedestal for
Ihis illielleclual pillar of the French bourgeoisie. Compared with Thiers, Proud­
hOIl's slatu re indeed seemed that of an antediluvian colossus .. . . His attacks on
religion , the church , and so on were of great merit locally at a time wben the
French socialists thought it desirable to show, b y their reUgiosity, bow superior
Ihey were to the bourgeois Vohaireanism of the eighteenth century and the Ger­
nlan godJennen of the nineteenth. Just u P eter the Great defeated Russian b ar­
barism by b arbarit y, Proudhon did his best to d efeat French phrase-mony:ring by
phrases." Marx to Schweitzer, London , Janua r-y 24 , 1865 , in Karl Man: and Frie­
drich Engels. Aw gewahlte B,w/e, ed. V. Ador atski (Moscow and Leninsrad ,
1934), pp . 143-144.- la18,2]
" You ' ll be amused by the following: Journal des economute., August of this year,
contains, in an article on ... communism, the following: 'M. Marx is a cobbler, as
another German cOlllIQunist , Weitling, is a tailor .... Neither does M. Marx pro­
ing any truly practical question. According to him [llote the nonsense), the
emancipation of the German people will be the signal for the emancipation of the
human race; philosopby would he the bead of this emancipation , the proletariat ita
hear!. When all h u been prepared , the Gallic cock will herald the Teutonic resur­
rec tioll .... Marx say! that a universal proletariat mwt be created in Germany
[!!] ill order for the philosophical concept of comrnunism to be realized . , .. Engels
to Ma rx , ca. September 16, IM6, in Ka rl Mar x and Friedrich Engels , <B,w/wech­
.el, > vol. 1, 1844-1853, ed . Marx-Engele-Lenin Institute (Mo&cow, Leningrad ,
<and Ziirich ,> 1935). pp. 45-46.]1 [a I8,3]
,
" It is a necessa r y result of every victorious reaction that the causes of the revolu­
tion alld eSI)Ccially of the counter revolution should pass into utter obUvion."
Engels t o Marx, Manchester, De.:ernber 18. 1868, apropos of Euge.ne Tenot's
hooks o.n the coup d 'elat of 1851; in Karl Ma rx and Friedrich Engels, Awgewiihlte
Urie/e, ed . V. Atloratski (Moscow and Leningrad . 1934), p . 209.u [a I8.4]
On national holidays, certain objects could be redeemed gratis from the pawn
shops. [a I8a,l]
Lartiue ca lls. himseU "a citizeu with possessions." Cited in Abel BOllllurd . Le,
Moderes, ill series entitled Le Drame dll pre,ent, vol. I , (Paris ( 1936» , p. 79.
[a I8a,2]
 " Poetry ... hat 8allctiont!(J the greal error of separating the force of Labor frora
Art . Alfred d e Vigny·s J ellunciation of I.he railroads is succeetled by Verhaeren'.
inn't:live again81 the ' lcnlacll,.'{1 citie8. ' Poelry has taken Right fro m the forma of
modern civilizatiuli . . . . It has not untlerstuotl Illat the clements of art call he
foulIJ in any human acti vity what8oeVer. ami thai ils U""1l powers a re diminished
by ils refusal to entertain the possibility of inspirlltioll in the thing!! act ually SlIr.
ruumlillg it ." P ierre Hamp , " I..a Littcrature, image tie 13 societe:' Encyclopedie
Jram;tli!e . vol. 16. Aru e! litferafltres dtltls la !ociete cOllteml'or(line, I <Paris,
• 1935>, p . 64. [aI8a,3)
" From 1852 10 1865, France lellt four anti a half billion fran cs abroad . ... The
worker s were even more Ji ret: tJ y affeclCd than the bourgeois republicans by cco--•
nomic developments. The consequence of the trade treaty with England and the
unemployment in the cotton induslry caused by the American Civil War inevitably
made them realize their OWII J epelldence upon the international economic situ.
a lioll ." S. Kracaller, Ju cflues Offenbacll lind dtl! I'{lris !einer Zeit (Amaterdam,
1937), pp . 328, 330.33 [aI8a,4)
Pierre OUPOllt 's hymn to peace was still sung in the stret:ts during the world
exhibition of 1878. , [a 18a,5)
In 1852 , establishment of Credit MobiJier (P ereire) for fina ncing the railroad..
Eal1lhlishmellt of Credit Foncier <laml bank> and of Au Bon Marche. [aI8a,6)
" In 1857, a yea r of crisis, a series of bi~ flllan cial tr ials sta rted, under the inftueaee
of the opposition to Ihe Saint-Simonian democr alil;ation of credit ; they diAclosed
an enormous amount of corrupliou alltl sh ady practice, !Ouch aH fraudulent bank­
ruptcies, abuse of cOll6dence, and artificial Jriving up of prices. An enormoua
lICnsation was caused by the Irial of Mires , which started in 186 1 and dragged OD
for yea rs." S. Kracauer, Ja cques Offenbach und da! Paris seiner Zeit (Amsler-­
dam , 1937), p . 262 ." [al8a,7)
Louis Philipl~ to Cuizot: " We shall never be a ble to effect any thing in France, and
a da y will come when my children will have no "read ." S. Kracauer, Jacquu
Offenbach /lnd da s Pari! seiner Zeil (AmstcrJam. 1937), p . 139.3.\ [a 18a,8)
The manifesto of the Communist party was prece(ied " y mallYotllers. ()&' 3: Cop·
sitihalll's " Manifeste de la Democralic pI.ICifiqllc ..•) [al 9,l)
Fourier speaks of cubblers as " me.n 11 0 less poLile thall other s whell the.y gather in
association:· Fourier. Le Nou vea u MamIe illflustriel et socicllIire (Pari8. 1829),
. [aI9 ,2]
p.22 1.
III 1822. Fra nce had 0 111 )' I().()()Q l'assi" e d l,.'Ct u~ and 110 ,000 aClh'e cleetoN.
Acc'ortling 10 Ihe law uf 181 7. a lIIali WIIS a passi'·e eh.'t:tor <cLigi"le for clt.'t:tiOIi to
the Chamber of Deputies) ifhe had rt:ached the age of forty and paid 1.000 francs
_ ,-,.-....I taxation . He was an active e1et:tor <eligible to vo te for deputies > if he had
1111
.,1 tile age ofthirt y ami paid 300 f rallcs.)<> (Defaulting taxpayers IHld a llIall_
re aC ",
II BoIJier?_luartercd with thelll , ""hom they haJ 10 maintain ulltil such time as
they had settled their J ebt. ) [a 19,3)
£' rolldholl on lIegel: "The anlinomy is not resolved : here is the fundamelltal flaw
of all Hegelia n philosophy. The two terms of which the antinomy is composed
biliallceollt .... A b alallce is by no meanBa synthesis ." " Let us not forget ." adds
Clu'illier, " that PrOlldholl was for a long time II bookkeeper." Elsewhere, Prond·
hOIl s peaks of tbe ideas determining his own philosophy as " elementary ideas,
COllunOIl to bookkeeping and meta physics alike." Armand CuvilLier, "'Marx et
!' roudhon ;' Ala Lumiere du marxi! me, vol. 2 (Paris, 1937), pp . 180-)81.
[aI 9,4)
The foUowing premise o£ Proudhon 's, claims J\larx in Die heilijJe FamiJie <?>. had
been previously advanced by the English economist Sadler in 1830 . Proudhon
says: "'This immense l)Ower that results from the union and harmony of lahorer s,
from the convergence and simuJlaneity of their efforts, has 1I0t been recompensed
by the capitaLi8l.' Thus it is that 200 grenadiers s ucceeded , within several hours,
in rai8ing the obelisk o£ Luxor on the Place de la Concorde , whereaa a sinye man
working for 200 da ys would have obtained no resnlt al aU. 'Separa te the laborers
from one another, and the amount paid daily to each would perhaps exceed the
value of each individuail}rOOucl , but this is nol what is at issue here. A force of a
tholl8and men working over a period of twent y days h as been paid whal a single
man would earn in fifty -five years ; bnt this force of a thousand has produced, in
twent y Ja ys, what the power o£ a single man , multiplied across a million centuries ,
\
could not achieve. Is there equity in the marketplace?'" Cited in Armand Cuvil­
lier, " Marx et Proudhon ," A la Lumiere du mtlrxi.lme, vol. 2 (Paris, 1937), p . 196.
I [a 19,5)
Unlike Saint·Simon and Fourier, Pro ucihon was not interested in history. "The
i history of property amo ng ancient peoples is, fo r us, nothing more than a matter
of erudition and curiosity" (cited in C uvillier, "Marx et Proucihon," p . 20 1).
Conservatism bo und up with a lack of historical sense is just as petty bourgeois
as conservatism bo und up with historical sense is feudal. [a l 9a, I)
PI·outllwll 'S a pology for the coup 11';:tat : 10 be found ill his letter to Louis Na poleon
of Ap ril 2 1. 1858, where it is saill of the d ynastic principle " Ihat tlus principle,
Which before '89 was simply the inca rlllltion . ill une choscn family, of J ivill" right
or rcli b';ous tlwlIght , ... is or ca ll I", Ileflll etl today liS ••• the incarllatioll. in olle
c11t18ell fami ly, of humall right or the rationaltlw llght of the revolution ." Cited in
Arnland Cuvi Uier, " Marx et Proud llOn ," A la Lumiere clu marxistne. vol. 2. pa rt I
(Paris, 1937), p. 2 19. [a I9a.2)
 Cuvillier presents Proudhon as a precursor of "national socialism" in the fascist
sense. {aI9a,3]
" Proudhon believed that one could abolish s urplus val ue, along ""ith unearned
J income, without transforming t.he organization of production .... Proudhon Con­
ceived thi8 pre po8lerou8 dream of 80cializing exchange within a context of nonso­
] cialized production ." A. Cuvillier, " Marx et Proudhon." A la I..umiere du
marxume, vol. 2 , part 1 ( Paris, 1937), p. 210. [a I9a,4]
• "Ulilier the Empire--to its \'cr y end . ill fael- there was a rellc",·al lilid de" elop ­
"Value meas ured by labor ... is ... ,in Proudhon's eyes, the very goa l of pro­
p-en . For Marx , it i8 quite otherwise. The detenninalion of value by labor is not
an ideal; it is a fact. It exists in our current sociely." Armand Cuvillier, " Marx et­
Proudhon ," Ala Lamikre du morxume, vol. 2, part I ( Pari8, 1937), p . 208.
{a I9a,5]
lYoudhon spoke out extremely maliciously against Fourier, and he spoke no leq
derogatorily of Cabet. This last provoked a reprimand from Marx, who saw in
Cabet, by reason of his political role in the working class, a highly respectable
man. [a I9a,6J
Blamlul '8 exclamation, on entering the salon of Mlle. de Montgolfier on the evcnill8
of July 29, 1830: " The Romantics are done for!"JT [aI9a,7]
Be.pnning of the June In8urrection : "'On June 19 , the diuolution of the national
work8hops was announced 88 imminent ; a crowd gathered a round the I-lUtel de
Ville. On June 21 , Le Moniteur an nounced that , the following day, worker8 a~
seventeen to twenty-fi ve would be enwted in the army or conducted to Sologne aDd
other re.pons. It was this last expedient that most exa8perated the Paris worken.
AU these men who were used to doing detailed manual work in front of a work­
bench and vise rejected the idea of going to till the earth and layout roads in •
ma rs hland . One of the crie8 of the ins urrection was: ' \lfe won' t go! We won 't go!'"
Gustave Ge£froy, L 'En/erme (Paris, 1926), vol. I , p. 193 . [3.20,1)
,. the worl.!. "
Blanqui in Le Liberateur, March 1834: "'He demolishes, b y a comparison, the
notorious commonplace, ' The rich put the poor to work. ' ' App roximatel y.' he
saY8, ' as plantation owner s put Negroes to work , ""ith the tlifference that the
worker is not ca pital to be hushalllietl like the slave. '" Gustave Geffroy, L 'En­
/erme (pari8, 1926), vol. I , p . 69. [a20,2]
Garat 's theme of April 2. 1848: " Establishment of a corllotl 5(mitflire urotlnd the
dwellings of the rich . who are destinelito die of hungcr." Gusta\'c Geffro y, L 'En­
f erme (puri8, 1926), vol. I , p . 152 . [a20,3]
Hefrll in of 1848: " Ha t in hllnd whcn facin g the CU I), I Klu:d tlown Iw fore the
worker! " [a20,41
Fifty thou8and ""orker s in thc June IIIStll·'·t...:ti,," in Paris. [a20,5)
Proudhon tie/inc,. himself ItS "11 II CW ma n , a man uf Iloll'mics ami not of thc " a rl"i­
clI,lcs: a ilion who woult! know Ito"" to n'al;h hi ~ goal IIy Ililling c\·cr)' .Iay with the
pl~ rec t of police 111111 taking for Ilis co nfi.l a nt ~ 11 111111' Ot· la Hoddes of tluo world ."
This in 1850. Cited in C,·ffroy, I.. 'Ellfe rme (p:lris. 1926). \ ' 0 1. I . pp . 180-18 1.
(a20,6]
ment of the ideas of till' eigillccnth cen tury. . Pcopll!. in those days, readil y
caile,1 themsd \'es atheists, llIaterialis t8. positil'is ts; and th e vaguely religious or
lIIanifcs tl y Clltholic republican of IS.UI bt...:amc a ... curiosit y:' Gustave Geffroy,
L'En/erme (paris. 1897). p . 2,n . la20,7]
Blan<fui. ill the proccetlingl> takcn agains t till' Societe ties Amis du Pe uple, under
questioning by thc presiding jutJge: "' What is YOllr profcssion'!' Biamlui: ' Prole­
tarian. ' JUllge: 'That is nut II profession .' Blalltjlli : 'What ! No t a professioll? It i8
the profession of thirty million F'rCliclUllen who live by their labor and who are
depri\'ed of politicul right8.' Judge: ' Well , so be it. Let the c1crk record thai the
accuscd is a prolctarian.'" De/elise till eiloyen LOllis Auguste BlcJ1I(IUi devunl h,
COl'" d 'ussises, 1832 (paris, 1832) , p. 4. [a20,8)
Baudelaire on Barhier'8 Rimes heroi"qucs; " 1I1're, to Sllea k frank ly, all the folly of
the ccntury appea rs, resplendent in iu unconscious lIakedness. Under the pretext
of writillg sonncts in hOllor of great men , Ihe poet has cele bratal the Lightning rod
and the automaleli loom . The prOtligious absurdities to which this confusion of
ideas and fun ctions could leall us is obviou8.·' Baudelai re, L '..1rt romuntique , ed.
Hachelle, \'0 1. 3 ( Paris), 1' . 336.:111 [a20a,l )
81allllui, in his De/elise tlu eita)'e,. l.ouis Aug uste Hlllllqlli clellant la cour d 'as­
SUes, 1832 ( Paris, 1832), fl . 14: " You ha\'e conf....ca ted the riRes of July- yes. But
tile bullets have been fired . E" er y bullet ofth c workers of Paris is on its way rouud
(a20a,2J
"1'1 Ie l1Ian of gClIIlIS
. n!l'resents ut 0111'" tl ... gr eatest ,;tn'lIl;llI alld tilt" greatest weak­
lIess of humanit y. . . . He "·11,, tile lIutiuns that till' inten'sts of the weak and tllc
ill"'r~$ts of genills l'o:llescl· . II UI'lI thai tilt' one ca nnot lIe cluluugered wit llOut ell­
II:m l,;"l"Ing the 011... 1", slidl tllUt tl1l: IIltimutc limit of pCdCdihilily ",ill bc reached
ollly wlwlI thc right uf the wl·uk,·~t wi.1l hU \'e rCl'lal·l.d. lin tilt" thnn\\". the l'igllt of
Ihc stroll!;cst .·' Au gusit. OIulltlui . Critique suciu/e (f':lri 5. 1885) . \101. 2. fm g mellt s
et I/O/I·S . p. 46 (" Prlll'l"ietc illll.III.I·IIIt'Il'· ... 1867---condIl5ion! ). [a20a,3]
0 11 1111" compliments pnitJ hy L:lIIl:lrtirw to II II,1I5..1lilol : " ~1. lie L:llnurtinc . this
C:l1'tuin Cook of ocea ngoing politil's , thi" Siullll,1 t Iw Suilo'· of 1111' lliIWI I~'llt II ,·,·n­
h,r),. . .. tllis ~' oyagt'r 11 0 less rO\'illg Ihull UIY88Cs. tlwugh hup pi'·I·. wllo has ta ken
 the Sirens to he crew of his ~ hijl and aired upon the shores of all the parties the
evcr-vllrictl lIlusic of his cOllvictions, M. de Lamartine, in his nt:vel'-fl.nding OOY8.
sey. hll8 jUlIl gentl y heached his aeolian hark under t.he porticoes of the Stock
Exchange." Auguste OIal1tlui , Crili(llIe 50ciale (Paris, 1885). vol. 2, I). 100 ("La.
martine et Rothschild ," April 1850). [a20a,4)
Doctrine of Blanqui : "No! No one has access to the secret of the futu re. Scaredy
possible for even the most clairvoyant are certain presentiments , rapid ~impses, a
• vague and fu gitive coup d ' oeil. The Revolution alone. as it clears the terrain , will
reveal the horizon. will ~radu aU y remove the veils and open up the road•• or
rather the multiple paths. that lead to the Dew order. Those who pretend to have in
their pocket a complete map of this unknown land- they trul y are madmen.-"
Auguste Blan«ui . Critique 50ciale (Paris. 1885). vol. 2. pp . 11 5-116 ("Lei Seetes
et la Revolution ," October 1866). [a20a,5)
Parliamellt of 1849: " In a spt.'Cch delivered to the National Assembly on April 14.
M. COll8itlerant . a disciple ... of Fourier, had this to say: ' The time of obedience
is pa8l : !lien feel that they a rc equal, and they want to be free. They do not be·
Iieve any 10llger. alltl they wish to enjoy themselves. There you have the lIate
of 8ouls .·- 'You mea n the ~ t a t e of hrutes !' interrupted M . de La Rocheja'lue-.
Iein. " L. B. Bonjean, Socialisme el sens commun (Paris, May 1849), pp. 28-29.
[02 1,11
" !\t . Dumas (of the Il18titut) exclaims: ' The blinding dust of foolish theories railed
by tile whirlwind of Febr uary has dissipated in the air, and , in the wake of thit
vanished cloud . the year 1844 reaplH!ars with its shining countenance and iu
sublime d octrine of material interests .'" Auguste Blanqui , Critique sociale (Paris.
1885). vol. 2, p . 1M ("Discour'S de Lamartine," 1850). [a2I,2)
In 1850, Blalltlui pens a polemic: " Rapport gigantes«ue d e ThieN sur I' assistance
pliblitille." [a2 1,3)
,. Mery, L'Insurrection (Paris, 1830), p. 5 1.
" Will mailer ... assume the form of a single point in the sky? Or he content with.
thousa nd , ten thousa nd , a hundred thousand points that would barely enlarge its
meager domain'! No-its vocation, its law, is infinity. It will not in the least allow
itsclf to be outflanked hy the voitl. Space will not become its dungeon. " A. OIanqui,
t 'Et erflih~ p(lr/es (litre! : IIYIJOl/lese aMrOIlOmi(lue (Paris, 1872). p . 54 . [a2 1,4)
At the end of II meding in the early days of the Third Republic: "Louise Michel
anlloliliCetl that lUi effort would be Inalle 10 cOlltact Ihe wives anti children of
imprisolled comrudcs. 'What we ask of yo u ,' she said. 'is 1I0tlin lIet of ehllril Ybut
an acl of solidarit y; for thol!\' who bestow cha ril Y. when they do bestow it , are
proud alltl sclf· llatisfiCtJ . hUI we-we arc l1 e~'er satisfll"d .··· Dallicl Halt': vy. p(lyl
I)llri&iens (paris ( 1932 ~). p . 165. (32 1,5)
Nouvelle Ntmisis, by Barthelemy (Paris, 1844), contains, in chapter 16 ("The
n
\l\brkers ), a "satire n which very emphatically takes up the demands of the
working class. BartM:lemy is already acquainted with the concept of proletarian.
[02 1,61
Barricades: " At nine o'clock in the evening. on a beautiful summer night . Paris
without streetlights. without shops, without gas. without moving vehicles, pre­
sented a unique tableau of desolation. At midnight , with its paving stones piled
high, its barricades. its walls in ruins, its thousand ca rriages stranded in the mud
its boulevards devastated , its dark streelll d eserted . Paris was like nothing eve:
aeen before. Thebes and Her culaneum are less sad. No noises. DO shadows, no
living beings-except the motionleas worker wllo guarded the harricade with his
rifle and pistols . To frame it all : the blood of the day preceding and the uncertainty
of the morrow. " Barthelemy and Mery. L 'lnsurrection: Poeme (Paris. 1830),
pp. 52-53 (note). 0 Parisian Antiquity 0 [a2 l a,I)
" Who would believe it! It is said that, incensed at the hour, I Latter--day Joshuas ,
at the foot of every c1ocktower. I Were firing on clock fa ces to make the day stand
still. " At this point a note: "This is a uni1lue feature in the history of the insurrec.
tion : it is the only act of vandalism carried out by the people agaiost public monu­
ments. And what vandalism! How well it expreues the situation of hearts and
minds on the evening of tile twenty-eighth!:J9 With what rage one watched the
shadows falling and the implacable advance of the needle toward night-just as on
ordinary days! What was most singular about this episode wu that it was ob.
served, a t the very same hour. in different parts of the city. This was the I!Xpres.
sion not of an aberrant notion. an isolated whim , but of a widespread. nearly
general sentiment." Barthelemy and Mery, L 'lnsurrection: Poeme tUd~ Bwr
Parisiens (Paris, 1830), pp. 22, 52. [a2 1a,2)
During the July Revolution, for a shon time before the tticolor was raised, the
Hag of the insurgents was black. With it the female <body> was coven=d, presum­
ably the same one carried by torchlight through Paris.4G See Barthelemy and
[a2 Ia,3)
Railroad poetry:
To a ~tation ·neal.h Ihe rail~ e\'erybody is hound.
Wherever Ihe trai n <: rill&cronest he land ,
There'l no more ~lis lin<: li on twixt humble IInri grllnd ;
All c1assel are elJulll six ret:! underground.
Ilar thelemy. Nouvelle Neme5is. no . 12, " Lu Vapeur" (Pari8, 1845) <I" 46>.
[a22,I)
? I>e.ning of the preface to 'I'issot 's De hi Mall ie dtl suicide et de i 'espri. de re uoile:
It · · .
IS Impossible not to be struck by two moral phenomena which are like the
 aym ptoma of a disease that today, in its own particular way, ia ravagi ng the body
ami limbs of aociety : we a re speaki ng of . uicide alld revolt. Impatient with aU law,
discontentetl with all position , the individuul r ises lip (:. Iuuliy ugainst human na­
ture and agains t munki ml , against hillUlelf and agaiust society. ... T he man of Our
tillle. and the "' rend ullan perhapa more than any other. having ,'iole ntly broken
wit h the pust ... alld looked witl. fear toward a futlln! whosc hori:..:on already
~et!rlls to !tim so glOOlllY, kills himself if he is weak , .. , if he lacks faith in . . . the
betterment of men and , above all, lacks fa ith in a providence capable of deriv~
• good from evil ." J . Tissot , De la Manie du SILicide el de l'esprit de reVOile (Paris,
1840) <p . V ), The author claims 1I0t to have known the books b y Fregier, ViUerme,
and Degeraude at the ti me he drafted his work . [a22,2)
Concerning Flora Tris tan 's " Mc phis": "This proletarian name, which now is 80
readily inteUigible , ... sounded ext remely romantic and mysterious in those d ays.
h marked the pariah , the gaUey slave, the carbonaro , the artist , tbe regenerator,
the adversa r y of the J esuits. From his encounter with a beautiful Spalliard wae
born the inspired woman who must redeem the world." J ean Cassoll , Quararlte­
h ui, ( Paris ( 1939» , p . 12. {a22,3}
With regard 10 the exo tic enterprises of Considerant and Cahet, 81anqui speaks of
experimentil carried out " in a corner of the hunlan species." Cited in CU!!Ou ,
Qua rante-Ilui" p. 41 . [a22,4}
The uDemploynlent rate in Engla lld between 1850 and 19 14 rose only once above 8
pe rcent. (In 1930, it reached 16 1>cn:ellt .) {a22,5]
" The typographe r Burgy, in hiil book Pre,em et a venir des ollvners, preaches ...
celibacy to his companions: the picture of Ihe proletarian condition would not be
complete if one left oul the s hadows of resign ation and defeatism, " J ean Cauou,
QlIllran,e-huil (P aris <1939 », p . 77 . [a22a,11
Gui1.ot , ill 011 Mouvemelll e! tlu resishlllce en polilique: " Au y man of above-aver­
uge intelligence who has neither property nor business-that is to say, who is
unwilling or unable to pay a tribute to the lita te--should be considered dangeroul
fro m a polilical sialltipa int. " Citt!.1 ill Cassou, Quarmrte-hllit . p . 152. [a22a,2]
Guizot ill 1837. to the Chamber: " Today- apart fro m force of law- you have but
one effectivc gt;aruIII{',' against Ihis revolutionary dis position of the poorer classes:
. y 0 r ....or k , "C·Ilc. I III
work, Ihe e'lIIstalit nCt:c.'I81I · C nssou , I'p . 1.0)-.,- 1'3
... . [a22a3]
,
U1 all((ui. in his leiter to Maillurd : "T hunk hea vclI there are ilO many bOllrgeoill ~
the calliI' uf ti m pl'oll'la riut. It is tllcy ....ho I'e prcsellt the chief strcllb>1h of t1u~
calliI' , or al least illl moSI lus ting strcnglh . They prm·itlc it wilh a cUliting.ent o~
Iliminarieil ljllch us tht. 1.eol'Ic themselves, unfortunately. "anllot ycl furnISh . 1
WII S tllC hOllrgeois ...IUI fint rllisc.1 Ihe fla g of the prolcillrint , ...·hu formulated,
propagated, ali(I maintained the egalitarian doctrines, and who restored them
ufter Iheir downfuU. Everywher e it is bourgeois who lead the I>cople in their battles
agui nst thc buurgeoisie. ,. A pUilsuge immediutdy following deals with the buurgeoi­
sit" iI ellpioitation of the proletariat ail political s hock troopil. Maurice Dommanget,
a
IJlaliqui Heile-lie (PliriS, 1935 ) . 1'1'. 176-177. [a22a,4]
"'fhc terrible scourge of poverly, 80 relentless in ils lorments, requires a no less
lerrihle remt.'tly. and celilJacy apl>ca rs the mosl certain amo ng those pointed oul to
liS hy social science." In connection with Ii reference to Malthus: " In our day the
pitiless Marcus [evitlelltly used for " Mahhus"1, unfolding the dismal conl5e(luences
of a limitleils incr ease in l)Opulalion . , , , lias venl ured to propose as phyxiatinr;
those bahies ho rn to indigent families that already have three child re n , and then
compensating Ihe mothers for suffering an ac t of s uch cr uel necessity, . , . Here we
ha\'e the last ....ord of the economis ts of England!" [ J uJes Burgy.1 Pre.ent et avenir
des OlllJrier. (Paris, 1847), pp. 30, 32- 33 .
[a22a,5]
There e:ltistt on earth an infernal vat
Named Paris; it is one large oven,
1\ ~to n y "il or wide circumference,
Hinged by thr~ bends or a muddy yellow ri ver.
h il a seethinll volcano that never flol18 erupting;
It. shock ...aves tra\'e!through human mailer.
Auguste Barbier, lambe. et poemes (Paris , 1845), p. 65 ("La Cuve" <The Vat ».
[>23,11
The Paris purebred is this pale guttersnipe,
, Stunted growth, yellowed like an old penny,
'Th.is boy hooting. out at all houn
Strolling indolent down unfamiliar lanes,
Routing the: skinny mutU, or, all along the high walls,
Chalking a thousand unchaste figurc:s , whistling the while,
TIm child, believing nothing, who turns up 1m nose at mother;
t lllC: admonition to pray is for him a bad joke.
Auguste Barbier, lambes d ponneJ, p. 68 ("La Cuve"). Hugo had already re­
touched these traits in the figure ofGavroche . {a23,2}
b -
tllIscrl11>u lo us s lJec uJato r a nd promoter." 1 Edua rd Fuell8. Die Ku rik u lllr tier
ell ropiiilcilell VOlker (Mullic h). \'01. 1. p. 354. [b I,7)

"T llI' lust issue of IAI CtlriClIfllre. daletl Augus l 27 . 1835. wa~ ... Ilc \'otetl ... to
[Daumier] Iht' pl"olllulga lion of t he ... Septemhe r Laws •... which ... we n~ represent t.'(1 in
tin: f01"1II of pca n." Eduard Fuchs. Die Karika'" r tier ellropiiisclu!.II Volker. vol. I ,
~m /bl~

Travics , the crca tur of Muycllx; Gavurni . the creator of Thomas VirclOIIUtl; DUII­
lIlicr, thc (·rcator of Ha la poil- Ihe UUII Ulla rtist IUlllpe nprolctarian . [bI ,9]

0 11 JUIlUUI'Y I, 1856, Phili llon rebaIJt.ize. I.e ) a,, ,-ou/ po ur rlre

. a8 I.e ) ol/nlt,[
A paradoxical description of Daumier's art: "Caricature, for him, became a son
unUM allt .
of philosophic operation which consisted in separating a man from that which /b1 ,101
society had made of him, in order to reveal what he was at bottom, what he
could have been under different circumstances. He extracted, in a word, the ""Whenevc r a priest ... exho rted the girls of II viUage never to go to the dance, or
latent self." Edouard Dnunont, UJ HiroJ d Ie; pitre; (Paris <1900» , p. 299 ("Dau­ the IJeaBlIlI ls never to fre<lucnt the ta\'ern , Courie r 's epigrams would climb the beU
mier"). [bl ,l] lo ...·er a nd sound the ala rm , proclaiming the adve nt of die Inquisition in Fra nce.
His pa mpllJels, mclln ...·hile. would ma ke tile whole country listen to the sermon."
On Daumier 's bourgeois: " This Olllified , inert , crystallized bein~ who waiu for the A1fretl Ncttemelll , Hisloire de la litterafllre!raru;(file sou..! ta Re51UIlr(lli<m ( Paris.
omnibus leans on an umbreUa that expres&ee some unutterable idea of absolute 1858), vol.l , p .42 1. [bh,l )
petrifaction." Edouard Drlllllollt, Les lIeros et U!' pitrea (Paris), p. 304 (" Oau.
mier"). [bl ,21 " Mayeux ... is aClua Uy an i.mita tion . Under Louis XIV, ... II particular costume
da nce cau800 8n uproa r : children made up .118 old me n , a nd s porting e nor mOU8
" Many writers ... acquired fame and fortune by mocking the fault. and infirmi­ hunchbacks, cJl:et!lIted grotesque 6gures. It was kn own 8 S the "Ma yeux of Brit­
ties of others. Monnier, 0 11 the other hand. did not have 10 go very Car to find bit tan y" dance. The Maycux who was made a memher oftbe C a rde Naliolluie in 1830
model: he planted himself before the mirror, listened to himself Ihinking .ad was me rely a ve ry ill· bred descenda nt of these old Mayeux." Edolla rd Fournier
talking, a nd , findin g himself highl y ridic ulo us, he conceived this c ruel incarna­ Enigme, tIcs rue, tie Paril (Paris. 1860), I). 35 1. [b l a,2j
tion , tlus prodigious satire of the French bourgeois, whom he named Joseph Prud­
homme." Alphonse Daudet , Trente ans de Pa m , p . 91. [b 1 ,3~ ,::til Da Ulllicr : ....By 110 one mo re tha n Da umie r lias the bourgeois been known a nd
IO\·etl (afler the fashion of a rtists)--thc bo urgeois. this last vestige of the Middle
" Not only d oes caricature greatly accentuate the techniques of drawing, .. . but it Ages. thi, C othic r uin that dies 80 ha rd . this t yPtl at once 80 commonplace and 80
t.'CCc nl r ·IC.. "CIla r Ies 8 aUf Ie Ia .ln!,us
Deuills de DlIllmier ( Pa ris <1924» . p . 14.2
has always been the means of introducing new subject ma tte r into art. It wu i
thro ugh Monnier, Ga varni , a nd Da umie r that the bourgeois societ y of this century [bl a,3)
was ope ned up to art. " Edua rd Fuchs, Die Kurikutur der eltropiii&chen VOlker.
4th ed . (Munich <1 92 1» , vol. I , p . 16. [b1,4) 011 Oa umiel"". " II Ilj · ca
.. rll;aIUl'c Ilas r01"11111· 111 IJle lirca dlh . but it is quile witllOlil bile
or rU IlCUI·. III all Ilis "'.ur k ,I II. rc, IS . a rU tili( Ia tlOlI
· 0r deccncy a mi ho nhonnc.. \'1i'e
""On August 7, 1830, Louis Philippe was . . . proclaimed . .. kin g. O n Novembe~" should
. . 1101., Ihat
. I I r r I I
Ie las 0 tCIi rc u ~,~ to la ndlc certain \'er}' finl' a nd violcllt
811 111'1I"1I 1Ihl'lliCS I ., . I, · 1 I · . . .
of that same year. the fi n t iu ueof La Curicafure a ppeared , the journal c reated Y • It eU II ~ e. II "HilI , I. ICY c xccI·de.llllC IlIIlIti> of the comlt· lultl 1:0111(/

PhiliJ>o n ." Eduard Fuchs . Dk Kurikatur de r ellropiiuchell VOiker'(Mwucb), vol. . nt/ ll ... fl"eli IIg80 r III"
...·uU · ' r1' II. 0 .... me n . "CIlad es n a uddllirc . /--es Deuitu tie Dtw .
I , p . 326. [bI ,5) "1I1'r ( 1':lri ~ ( 1924 »). p . 16 ..1 [b I:JA)

M..ichelet wa nted to 8t.'e Ollt' of hi8 wor ks illus tra ti!(1 by Da llmicr. 11>1,61 0 " MUlJllil·r. .· ." nul ...'1la· , a grcill
" S(l urec I.Iu'sc m.· rcl. .
l l·s~. IIn pI_' rlu rba Mc cummClll a­
't00l"!! rCulaill ! Balzac look til e· " "a mc... 'C·1.I' 0 0' r.I U III " 0 1111 11'
. ''. a.o; ....cll lls II... II11me8
" Philipoll inve nlcd a lIew c hll l""ln:ler t ype, . .. which was sa id to havc hrought him c~ "OCh C8' ..
." , {I ' 0 esculIlgs.
. , A III I I \ nlllo I"
e rU llce I<HJ k from Ilim the IIl1me ' Mil '
nearly a8 muc h . . . popula.rity 88 hi8 pean: '!tobe rt Macaire; the type of the 1IlIlIle llcr· '0 ' JusI
gcn :. · a8 "lIuuc.
I ' r ll& I d la k ell , wlth
. a \'c ryslighl altcral.ioll . llic na me

( who ruined Troy, the ardent Sappho, patroness of hysterical women-all were
Honore Daumicr, ca. 1857. PhotO by Nadar. Collection Societe Fran~ de
Pho<ognphi'.
' Monsieur Pep;uchet. · .. Marie-J eanne Durry, "De Monnier II Balzac ," Vendredi,
March 20. 1936, p. 5. (b la,5]
When does Gavroche first appear? Who are his forebears? Is his first appearance:
in Lei MiIirabfes? Abel Bonnard on the hommt ji-tfilli <adulterated man>-"good
only for provoking events he could not control7' "nus type of individual, origi­
nating in the nobility, has undergone a descent-and lost all his gilding in the
process-through the whole spectrum of society, to the point where what was
bom in the foam at the surface has come to rest in the slime at the bottom. What
began in persiflage has ended in a sneer. Gavroche is, very simply, the marquis or
the gutter." Abel Bonnard, Lei ModiriJ, in series entitled Le Drame du prisent, vol.
1 (Pan. <1936» , p. 294. [b",6)
" Everyone kntlw Daumier'a mythological caricatures. which, in the words of
Baudelaire, made Achilles, Odysseus, and the reet look like a lot of played-out
tragic actors, inclined to take pinchea of snuff at moments when no one was look­
ing." S. Kracauer, Ja cque, Offenbach wuJ. dm Paris seiner Zeit (Amsterdam,
1937), p. 237.' (b2,1]
Fourier. " Not content with extracting from his works the innumerable amusing:
inventions to be found there, the gazetteers add to them-for example, the btl8i­
DCSS oftbe tail with an eye O D ill! tip , supposedly an attribute ofmeD of the future.
He protests vehemently against tIm maliciow f.brication ." F. Armand and
R. Mallblanc, Fourier (Paru. 1937), vol. I , p. 58. (b2,2]
The Pagan School is opposed not only to the spirit of Christianity but also to the
spirit of modernity. Baudelaire illustrates this, in his essay "UEcoJe paienne," with
the aid of Daumier: "Dawnier did a rc:markable series of lithographs, L'Huloire
anciennt, which was, so to speak, the best paraphrase of the famous saying, 'Who
.will deliver us from the Greeks and Romans?' Daumier pounced brutally upon
antiquity and mythology, and spit on them. The hotheaded Achilles, the prudent
Ulysses, the wise Penelope, that great ninny 1elemachus, the beautiful Helen
POrtrayed with a farcical homeliness that recalled those old carcasses of classical
a~rs who take a pinch of snuff in the wing3." Charles Baudelaire, I.:Art roT1ldn­
hqUt, ed. Haebette (Paris), vol. 3, p. 305.$ (b2,3j
Ty~: Mayeux (Travies), Robert Mac-u ire (Duumier ). Prudhomme (Monnier).
[b',' )
d
nO\·e1ist his owu ." Palllin Limayrac, " Du Roman actuel et de U08 romaucierfl,"
ReVile del deux nlf.Jllliel, 11 , 110.3 (Paris. 1845), pp. 955-956. [dl .5]

"Citizen Hugo made his tlebut al the tribune of the National Assembl y. He was
[Literary History, Hugo] "'hal we expected ; a phrasemaker and a gesticulator, full of empt y, high-fl own
oralory. Continuing alo ng the perfidious a nd sla nderous p ath of his recent broad_
8ide. he spoke of the ullemp loyed , of the indigent , of the idlerfl and do--nothinp,
the 8coIlJldrds who are the praetoriaus of the uprising, the cotldoltwri. In a word ,
he ran the metaphor ragged to arrive at all attack 011 the national workshops." Le,
HOlllel ,-ollgej: Fellilk till club pacifique des droit, tie l'homme. ed . Petiu , ht
ycar. J line 22-25 [ 1848] ("Faits divers"). [dI a,l]

, a rgued 1h at, Since

" Thien ' , d., .lion was ' the beginning of ease, and l inceeaaewu " It is as though Lamartiue had made it his miu iou to implement Plalo's teaching
• h '" uca ' I"0 n should not he within reach of aU . Moreover,
not reserved for all, t en t:\I on the necessit y of ba nishiug poets from the r epublic, and one cannot help l miling
. e8 . .... nllible for the events of June ... and deeta.nd as one reads dus a llthor '8 account of the worker who was part of the la rge demon_
he held lay Instructors ... r ...- . . '" A Mal t aDd
himlelf ' ready to put the clergy in char ge of all pnmary educab on . . c[dll) stration in frout of the Hotel de Ville, aud who I houted at the speaker: 'You ' re
P. Grillet, XIX' Si«.le (Paris, 1919). p. 258. , nothing but a lyre ! Co sing'''' Friedrich Szarvady, Paris , 1848-1852, vol. 1 (Ber­
lin , 1852), p . 333. [dla,2]
' " Durin, the afternoon, armed mobs demanded that the red
February 25 . 1848 . L tin a.....:l to
Aag replace th e IncoIor fl', . . . . Aft er a violent debate, anlllr
' d' e maD-e"'"
d h Chateauhriand : " He hrings into fashion that vague sadness, ... 'Ie mal du siecle'
turn them back WIt ' II an unprov
. i.sed address' whose
. conclu
., IRShitwor8 II rave
blood re­ <the infir mity of the century ). A. Malet and P. Crillet, XIX~ Sieck (Paris, 1919),
. ed famous: 'I shall repudiate 10 the very death . he cned . t ag 0 ~ p, 145.. (d1 a,3)
mam I F his edftag that yo uwave be(orew
'P~~::8~;=::ou8:r:r;;ei~ =I~~eo~:~e Ch:::P d:Marl,loaked Wld'~ tbheblood o:y: - "'U we couJd have our wish ... ' This desire, this regret- Baudelaire was the firet
Ie in ' 91 and ' 93, wherea8 t he tn'co Ior fl a , has bee
~ n pa ra cut 1d
.. eworalet aad• to interpret it , twice giving voice, in L 'Art romantiqu.e, to uuexpected praise for a
peop the name , the glory, an d t.h e libert y of the Fatherland.
with A. M [dl,21 poet of his da y. the author of a "Chant des ouvrierfl," that Pierre Dupont who, he
P. Grillet , XIX' Sieck (Pari8, 19 19), p . 245. tells us, ' after 1848 ... attained great glory.' The specification of this revolution­
ary date is very important her e. Without this indication, we might have trouble
" In an admirable article entitled 'Le 0 epar ' t , ' Balzac lamented
d th the of the
. fallh of the understalldiug the defense of popuJar poetry, and of an art ' inseparable from
80.,bo D8 which for him meant the death knell of the arts an lci e. tnumP ., utilily,'1 on the part of a writer who couJd Jlan for the chief architect of the
, . h el I 'chthe ng wa8 depart
......Idlerfl of political n08trum8. Invoking t e vess on ~ n b the stonDI. ,.. rupture of poetry and a rt with the masses, .. , 1848: that is the hour when the
....... . I d I ' . beyond this bttlc oat are &treet beneath Baudelaire's wi.ndow begins in ver y truth to tremble, when the
ing he exclaimed : ' There IS awan oglc, . 1927 233. [dl,3)
J . Lucas-Duhreton . Le CornIe d 'A,-tou. CfuJ,-k, X <Pans, ), p . ,. theater of the illterior fIIU SI yield him up in all magnificeuce, to the theater of the
exterior, as SOmeone who incarnates. at the high est level, the concern for human
k h bear the n ame of M. Dumas? Does be
" Who knows the titles of all the b00 s tat . d " h debits and ernallcipation in a ll its forms . as well as the consciousness, alas, of everything thai
know them himself? IJ he d oes not ee
k P a two-column ref:or Wit
I f those children
of is ridiculously ineffectu ul i.n this aspira tiou aloue. whereby the gift of the artist
I I
credit8 he will no dou)t lave org
f otten
. . .
more I Hili one 0
I If ther His output alit! of the IIllin hecollies total- Baudelaire's anon ymous collaboration on u SOlid
• f h II latunl falh er, or t Ie gOt a . public of f'ehruary 27 lind 28 effectively proviug the IKlint. .... This comm union of
whom he is the legit.imate a t er, or I e I . I . " Paulin Limayra c•
in recent months has amounted to IIOt less than t1urt y vo ",1111:8. del 11 no. 3 the poet, of till: a uthentic IIrtisl , with a "'asl class ofpeoplc impelled b y their ardent
"Du Roman actuel ct de nos romanClers, . " R eVile del (eux mOtl • • [dl ,4] hllnger for fn...·doul . ,'V"n partial fn-cdo m. haij every chance of t:mergiug sponta ue­
(Parill, 1845), pp. 953-954. ousl)' at ti meH of grl'al sociu! ferment . ""hell reservatio"8 call be laid asitle. Rim­
bllllt! . in wllolll the d aims of the human tcud . nOIlNhcleu . . , . 10 folio". an iufinite
__•. ....allan t
1 Olu cal' " What a hap py thought un t IIe p art o
f M. tic Balzllc-to
. I'rel.u. ct. ag yin­ that? COUrse. plact>JI , from the olllsct . Il ll hi.s confidence allli elan vital in the Commune.
r . ff d r t Whlltuilosu rpnsln
n:\'olt and demand the rt.."Cstahlishment u ell a Ism. 11\1 S )"k wise To eacb M")'llkovsky goe~ to grellt Icnph8 to silence in himliClf- bottUng it up to the l)Diul
It is lUll idea of socialism. Mme. SlIml has a nother. all( . lie I e · of explosion--t:...erytIaillg horn of individ ual feelin g that nught 110 1 com'uce to the
exclusive glory of the triumphant Boillhevik Revolution." Andre Breton, "1..
Grande Actualite poetique," Minotaure, 2, no. 6 (Winter 1935), p. 61. [d2, 1]

"Progrelll il the very fOOtilep of God." Victor Hugo, " Anniversaire de la revolu_
-
tion de 1848 ," February 24, 1855 (on Jersey), p. 14. [d2,2]

" Victor Hugo it the man of the nineteenth century, 81 Voltaire wall the man of the
eighteenth ." "The nineteenth century thull comel to a c10le before its end. ItJI poet
it dead ." Obituary notice. for Hugo in Le National Republicain th l'Ardeche and
Le Phare de. Charente. [VICtor Hugo devant l'opinwn (Pa ril, (885), pp. 229,
••4]. [<12.3)

Student, or the IJChooh or France,

CheerfuJ voluntf!en ror provell,
Let UI rouo" the people in it, wUdom;
Let u,turn our back. on Malthu and hit decree.!
Let UI up.t up the new road"aYI
Which labor Ihall open;
,
For lJOCiali, m &oar, on two winp,
The . tudent and the worker.

Pierre Dupont, Le Chant de. itudian'. (Parill, 1849).

A. Michiels, HisJoin des idieJ liJtlraire.s en R-ana au XIX' Jiic/e (Paris, 1863h
vol. 2, provides, in his portrait of Saime'Beuve, an outstanding description of the
reactionary man of letters at midcentury. [d2a,IJ

I cau&ed a revolutionary wind to blow;

I made the old luicon don the inlurtenu' red cap. ,
No more word., Senator! Commoner, no more!
I raised a ' torm at tbe bottom or the inkweU.

Victor Hugo, cited in Paul Bourget, obituary for Victor Hugo in Le Journal_
dibou [Victor Hugo devant l'opinwn (Paris , (885), p . 93]. [d2a,3)
i
Viaor Hugo, ca. 1860. ~Ioto by Etierme Ca!jat. Courtcly, Mweum ofFme Arts,
On Victor Hugo: "He wall ... the poet not of hil own l ufferings ... but of tile ~t~n. Rtproduool with pomission. 0 1999 Museum or Fme Arts, Boston.
panion, or thOle around him . The nlOurnfui voicel or the victiml or the Terror .• • nghts reserved.
made their way into the Ode•. Then the trumpet bl8ltl of the Napoleonic victone.
resounded in other odes. . . . Later on, he felt obliged to let the tragic cry cl
militant democracy pass through him. And what i8 J.a Ugellde de• • iede• ... it
not the echo of the great turmoil of human hil tory? ... It often seems 88 thouPt be
had coUected the sigh8 of all families in hi8 domestic verse, the breath of aU lov~
in hi8 love poems . . . . It is for !hill reallon that , ... thanks to some mysteno lP
quality in him that ill alwaYIL collective and general , Victor Hugo'l poetry po~
an epic character." Paul Bourget, obituary notice for Victor Hugo in Le Jourrutl
del debatl [Victor IIuso devant "opinion (Paris, 1885), pp. 96-97]. (d2.,.)
It is worthy of no te that the preface to Matkmoi.stlle de M aupitf already seems to
be pointing the way to ['art pour /'ar/. "A stage play is not a railroad train."
[d2i,5]
Gautier on the prtl8ll : " Charleij X a lone h u understootl the question rightly. III
ordering the suppression of the newspapers. he rendered a greal .erviee to tbe artt
and to civil.ization. Newsp apers are akin to courliera and go-betweens. those who
interlJOSe themsclvell between a rtiliU and the pubUc. betwcell the king and the
peuple.... Theile IJC rpctual yelping! ... crellte such 11 11 atmosphere of mi8trutt
thllt ... r OYlih y allli poetry, the two greatest thing/! in the world , become impo8li.
ble. " Cited in A. ~1i Chiel 8. llistoire des idees liueraires en France au XIX' siecle
(Paris. 1863). vol. 2. 1). 445. Thill attitude earned Gautier the friendship of BalQc.
[<13,1)
"'In the transports of hi. hatred [for the critics1. M . Theophile Gautier dew ell aU
progress . especially in the a rea of Ute ra ture a nd art, as docs his master, Victor
Hugo. " Alfred ~1iehieJ s , Histoire des idees lilleraircs en France au XIX' .ieCM
(Paris . 1863), vol. 2, p . 444. [dJ,21
"Steam will conquer cannon. In two hundred yeari -well before. perhaps--g-eat
armies from England. France, and Americil .. . will descend upon old Aliia under
the leadership of their general•. Their weaponll will con. ist of pickaxes, and their
horse8 will be locomotives. Singing, they will fa ll upon these uncultivated, u.nuaecl
lands .... It is thus, perhaps, that war will be waged , in the futu re, againJt aD
unproductive nations, by virtue of that a,uom of meebanics which appliet to aD
thingtl: there mus t be no \o<\' alited energy!" Maxime Du Camp, Le, Chonu modema
(Paris, 1855), p . 20 (" Preface"). [d3,3)
In the )lrt:face to UI Co medw hilt/mine, Balzae declares himself on the 8i~~ of.
B088uet a nd Bonaltl , and affirm s: " I write by the failltlight of two eternal ventlel: .
ReUgion and Monarchy." [d3.'1
Bubac on the press, in the preface to the fi rs t edition of Un Grand Hom",: ~
a
province Paris: " The public is unawa re of how many evils beset literature lJl.tI
commercial transforma tion .... 1.11 the old d ays, newspapcrl! ... rctluired a ~r­
lain number of copie!! ... Tlus was over a nd above pa yment for articles attracUve
to ... bookseUen-paymellt oft en made without an y guara ntee that these articl:
would aplJCa r ill print . . .. Today, this douhle lax has heen dr ivclI up ~y t ~
exorbi tant price of ad vertilling, which costs as much as tllll at:lUal prociuctJOn ~
1 [or 'm00 ern W"t­
the hook ... . One ca n ollly conclude that newspa l)CrI! a re [ala . r a nge'lIelils of IIwats. T itle: Les Arts et In misere <Povert y and the Art!!). " Oedi­
ers:' Cited in GeorgclI Bata uh , Le I'ol.tife (Ie 10 ,/emf/gogie: Victor H ugo (~;j
1934) . p . 229.
III thc d.·hale ill the Cha mber un NO \'cmher 25. l&l8-J uIiC rcp "cssioll- Victo
r J IlCtlltUI tic MireeOtlrl pu!Jli~ llcli AieX(IIl(l r e 1J,,,mu et Cie, fa briqlle lIe rOllllln"
[d3,6)
Hugo vuted against Cava ign ac.
" The nlUhiplica tion of readcrs is the muhjplication of loaves. On the da y Christ
,lisco\·ert...1 titis !!ymbol, he foreshadow ....1 the printing p ress." Victor Hugo . Wi1-­
/iom Sh(""e~/,c(lre , cilt...1 ill Bata ult d~ POlltife de UI (/Cmllgogie (Paris, 1934).
~Ia ~~
Maximc LislJUnlle commentll. ill t 'Ami du /Jell/,Ie . 011 Victor Hugo's will . Beginning
alld cOllclusion of tlus statemeut : "Victor Hugo di vide8 his fortune of 6 million
francs as follows: 700 ,000 fra ncs to the memhers of Ius fam ily; 2.5 million francs 10
J eatHIt' II ml Georges, his grlllHlchildr cn . . . . Alltl for the revolutionaries who,
siuce 1830, !!lIcrificed "'ith him for the republic . and who a re 8till in this world . a
Lifetime alllluit y: twenty IIOU!! pe r day!" Cited in Victor IIlIg o devont I'opinion
(I'"aris. 1885), pp. 167- 168. [d3a, IJ
In the debate in th e Chamber o n November 25, 1848, Victor Hugo voted against
Cavaignac's repression of theJune revolt. But onJune 20 in the Chamber, during
the discussion of the national workshops, he had coined the phrase: "'The Mon·
archy had its idlers; the Republic will have its do-nothings." [d3a,2]
Seigneurial elcments still o btain in nineteenth·century education. Saim-5imon's
declaration is characteristic: "I used m y money to acquire knowledge. Good
food, fine wines, much alaoiry vis·a·vis the professors, to whom my purse was
opened-these things procured for me all the opportunities I cou1d d esire." Cited
in Maxime Leroy, La Vie umtaiJle du cornie Henri de Saint·SirnfJTJ (Paris, 1925),
p.21O. [d3a,3]
As regards the physiognomy of Romanticism, attention might focus , first of all,
on the colored lithograph in the Cabinet des Estampes, Sf. 39, vol. 2, which
undcnakes its allegorical represen tation . [d3a,4]
Engraving fro m the RestoratiolllJCriod , showing a crowd gathered before Ihe shop
of a publisher. A placa rd an nounces that the Album po"r 1816 bas a ppeared.
Caption: " Ev" rything new is beautiful ." Cabinet des EstallllJes. [d3a.5]
i
Lithogr aph . A poor (Ievillookll on dolefull y as a young gentleman signs tbe p icture
"'hich the fOrllle r has painted . T illc: L'A rtiste et l'tlmtlteur dll XIX' siecie. Cap·
tio ll : "" It is liy me. liecing th at l liign il. " Cahinet des Esta mpe.. [d3a.6]
Lit h<Jg~a ph , /·\·I.r·,·selltillg a painter walking lliong and ca rr ying un(ler his a rm two
10llg 1I ~II'ruw "hUlks, 0 11 each of whicll he has painted va rious garnishes ami ar­
C""'tIto (\It'lisiellrs the Purk Butchers." Ca ption : " The lIlan of art in the toil!! of Ius
trade:' CII \'illet lles ESlampl·lI. [d3a.7]
<Alexa .u lre Dumas 111111 Co. • Manufactory of Noveu> (Parill, 1845). (d3a.8)
 CasteUane pointedly que.tioDed the logic of entru. ting a lICienti6c mi88ioD . . • to.
journalistic entrepreneur: the French fla g had deb ased iudf in granting ' that
feUow' ila protection; 40,000 franc, had been spent for no reason, and the ridicuJe
was clearly audible on aD sides." The affair ended in Duma.' favor after hU
challenge to a duel was dec::lined by Ca.teDane. J . Luca.-Dubreton, La Yre d 'Alex­
(I,wre DumaJ per c (Paris <1928 », pp. 146, 143-149. Id4,1]

Alexandre Dumas in 1848. "Hi. proclamations ... are ... a.tonisbing. In one of
them, addrel8ed to the working people of Paris. he cnumeratee bia 'worb for
worken, ' and proves, by citing figu res, that in twenty yean he has composed four
hundred novels and thirty-five play., which have enabled him to provide a livins
(or 8,160 person. , including tYpe!letters, (oremen, machinUtI, wherettes, and

............. ~ .

r
<J1.-~-/-rr
.
~··r
£'Artiste et l'amatnJr du dix-ntUWme JiicJe (The AnUt and the Amateur of the Nineteenth
Cc:nnuy). Courtesy of the Bibliot:heque Nationale de France. Sec d3a,6.

Dumas pere. " In September 1846, Minister Salvandy proposed to him tba' ~
travel to Algeria and write a book about tbe colony.... Dumas, ... 'who wa:::.,
by five million Frenchmen at tbe very leal t , would give 80mefifty or aixt y tho the
of them 8 talte for colonialism .... Salvandy offered 1O ,(M)() franca to cover
C08t of the voyage; Alexand re d em alliJed , in addition to this, ... a 8tate VeIIse) ....• l.'1!0I1I.me tk ·/art dans l'tmharr4S ~ Jf)/'I mltier (The Man of An in the
Why bad the Ve:Joce. which was charged with picking up freed, p~50Deri in M~ ~il.s of His li'ade). Coonesy of the BibliothCque Nationale de France.
gone to Cadiz ... ? Memhenl of Parliament .eized on the meldeD!. And M. d3a,7.
 professional applauders. " J. Lucas-Duhreton , La Vw d 'Akxandre Duma$ pere
(Paris), p. 167. [d4,2]

" Tile bohemian of 1840 .. . is dead and gone.­ Did he really exist? I have heard it
said that he did not . -Whatever the case may he, you could comb through aU of
Paris at the present moment, and not come upon a single example .... There are
certain neighborhood s, and a very great number of them, where the bohemian has
never pitched his tent . . .. The bohemian flourishes along the boulevards, from
the Rue Montmartre to the Rue de la Pail: .... Less frequently in the Latin Quar­
ter, formerly his main abode .. .. Where does the bohemian come from? Is he a
product of the social or the natural order? ... Who is to blame for the develop­
ment of this species-nature or society? Without hesitation, I answer: nature! .. .
As long as there are idlers and fop s in the world , there will be bohemians. " Gabriel
Guillemot, Le Boheme, in the series entitled PhY$i.onomie$ parisienne$ (Paris,
1869), pp. 11 , 18-19. 111-112. Something similar on the grisettea in this series.
[d4,3[

It would be useful to trace historically the "theses" of bohemia. The attitude of a

Maxime Duchamps <Du Camp?>, who holds success to be a proof of the lack of
artistic quality, stems directly from that which is expressed in the statement,
"There is nothing beautiful but what is forgotten," which occurs in Lurine's
Trritieme ammdwemenl de Paris <Paris, 1850>, p. 190. [d4,4]

The RaIaier s' Club (Cer cle d es Rafales) : "No famous names there. Should a mem­
ber of the Rafalers ' stoop so low as to make a name for himself-whether in
politics, literature, or the arts-he would be mercilessly struck from the list."
[Taxlle Delord ,1 Paris -Bo~me (Paris, 1854), pp. 12-13. [J4.,5]

Victor Hugo's drawings, in his house at 6 Place des Vosges, where he lived from
, 1832 to 1848: Dolmen W/rm tire Voice ofShadow Spoke 10 Me; Ogive; My Destiny (a
giant wave); 1M Sail Recedes, the Rock Remains (gloomy rocky seashore; in the
foreground a sailing ship); Ego Hugo; VH (allegorical monogram); La«work and
( Specter. A sail with the inscription "Exile" and a tombstone with the inscription
"France" (pendants, serving as homemade frontispieces, to two of his books) j
Alexandre Dumas perc, 1855. PhotO by Nadar. Counesy of the Bibliotheque Nationa1e The Borough of ArigelI; Village irl Moon/ig"t; Practa Sed ImJicta (a wreck) j a break­
de France. Water; a fountain in an old village, around which all the stonns on earth seem to
have gathered. [d4a,l ]

;'We have had novels about bandita purified by imprisonment- the tales of Vau­
trin and of J ean Valjean ; and it was not to stigmatize t.hem ... that the writers
eVoked these melancholy figures .... And it is in a city where 120,000 girls live
seCretly from vice and 100,000 individuals live off gi.rls. it is in a city infested with
hardened criminals, cutthroats, housebreaker s, carriage thieves, shop breakers,
shoplifters, rabble rousers, COli men, pickpockets, predators. shakedown artis18,
guardian angels. 3 swindlers, and lockpickers-in a city, I say, where aU the wrec::k­
age of di80nlcr alul vice rUIiSaground , ulIll where the dightcst spark call set fire to the sea for the roar of applause." " He spent flrty years draping his love of confu­
the suhlima tell populucc. it is hcre that this corrupting litcruture-- . . . L.e" sion--<Jf a ll confusion , provi{lt:d it wu rhythmic-in his love for the pe<l1)le." ikon
iUy3feres de ' Juris. I(OClllllboie. allli u s Miserabies-is IIrulluccd ." Cha rles Daudet , l.es Oeu vres dalls tfM hommes (Paris, 1922), PI). 4 7~ , II. [d5,3)
LoUlintire, l.es Idi.'es sub ver sives de nOire lemps (Paris. 1872), III). 35-37. [d4a,2}

A saying ofVacquerie's about Victor I-IlIgo: "The towers of Notre Dame were the H
" The incomplete copy in tJu: Dihliotha lue Nationale is ~ uffi ciellt for us to jud ~e of
of his name." Cited in Leon Da udet , u s Oeu vres dam ies homme" (Paris, 1922),
the holdnC8s and novdty of the I)rojeet cOllceived by Balzac .... u
f'euiileton de.
p.8. [d5,4)
journaux politillue" aimed at lI othin~ less than the elimina tion of booksellers .
Din:ct sale from publisher to purchue r was the plan ... b )' which everyo ne would
benefit- the Imblisher ami the a uthor b y ma king a profit , the purchaser b y payin~ RellOuvier ....rote a book on Victor Hugo's philosophy. [d5,51
less for books. Tbis a rrangement ... met with no success at all, doubtJc s bec:a uae
the booksellers were against it ." Louis Lumet , introduction 10 Honore de Bahac,
Victor Hugo in a letter to Baudelaire-with particw ar reference to " Les Sept
Critique litteraire (pa ris, 19 12), p . 10. [d4a,3} Vieillards" and " Les Petites VieiUes" (both poems were dedicated to Hugo, and, at
Baudelaire indicated to Poulet-Malassis, for the second of them Hugo't work
The three short-lived periodicals founded b y Babac: u f'euilietoll des joltrnaw:
served as the poet 's model): " You have endowed the sky of art with an indescrib­
politiques ( 1830), L.a ChroFlique de Paris (1836-1837), La Revue poriAienne able macabre gleam . You have cr eated a new frisson .''6 Cited in Louis Barthou
(1 84<)), [db,4] AldOllr dc Baudek.ire (Paris, 1917), p . 42 ("Victor Hugo et Baudelaire") . (d5,6j

" Recollection has value only as pretliction . T hus, Ilistory shouJd be classed as a
Maxime Leroy, I.e; Premier; Ami;franfai; de Uilgner, suggests that a revolutionary
scicllce: practical " ppliCalion constantly proves ils utility." Honore-de Bahlac,
impulse played a very large part in Baudelaire's enthusiasm for Wagner; indeed,
Critique lifteraire, intrmJuctio n b), Louis Lumet (Paris, 1912), p . 117 (r eview or
Wagner's works inspired an antifeudal Fronde. The fact that his operas dis.
Les Deux foIlS . by P. L. J acob , bibliophile). (d4a,5]
pensed with ballet infuriated habitues of the Opera. [d5,7)

" It is not by telling the l)(H)r to cease imitating the luxury of the rich that one will
make the lower class happier. It is not by telling girls to stop permitting themselves From Baudelaire's cesay on Pierre Dupont: " We had been waiting so many yean
to be seduce.1 that one will suppress prostitution . We might III well tell them. for some solid, real poetry! Whatever the p art y to whieh one belongs, whatever the
' ... Wben yo u have 110 bread . yo u will be so good as to cease being hungry.' Bul prejudices one has inberited , it is inlpossible not to he moved b y the sight of that
Christian charit y, it will be sa id , is there to cure all tbese evils. To which we reply. \ sickly throng breathing the dust of the workshops . swallowing lint, becomin, satu­
Christia n charit y cures \'ery littJe and pre\'ents nothing at all. " Honore de Baiue, rated with ....hite lead, mer cury, and all lhe poisons nccenary to the creation or
Critu,ue litteraire , introductioll by Louis Lumet (Paris. 1912), p . 13 1 (review or fA masterpieces, sleeping among vermin in the heart of districts wbere the bumblest
Prerre [Pa ris, 1830 )). (dS,l ] and greatest virtues live side by aide with the most hardened vices and with the
~regs from prisons. That sighing and Janguislting throng to whicb the earth owes
" In 1750 , no hook- not even ~ 'Esprit des lois ' -reacbed more than tbree or four .- u, ma rvels, .... hich feels flowing in irs vein, an ardent red blood, which looks long
thollsand pt..'Qple .... In our day, some thirty thousand copies of La martine', Pre­ and sadl y at lhe sunshine and shade of the great parks and, for illl only comfort
mieres medilll/iotis ami some sixt), thollsand books by Bcrangcr have been sold and consolation , bawb al the top of its voice its song of salvation : Let /.IJ love one
over the past len yl'lIrs. Thirt y thousand volumes of Voltairc, MonlcStluieu , B.nd «noth e r . . . " - " Th er e ....''II COllie a lime ' when Ihe accents of this workingman 's
Moliere IHlve cnlighlcncil mcn 's mbllls." Balzac. Critillll€ iiI/entire, introductIOn Marseill alsc · " '·11 ' I I' k
I clrcu ate I e a Masomc ' password and ....hen the exiled the aban­
h y Louis LUlllct (Paris. 191 2), p . 29 ("Dc l' Etat aclud de III lihruiric" ( On th~ d~lled , 'allli the lost , whcther under the devourin'g tropical sky or in 'the snowy
Currenl Stutc of thc Bookstnrc) , sample from I.e f'cuilleton lIes j OllrnllUX 1'011­ ....lltlcrlless, will be able to 8a)" ' ( ha ve nothing more to fea r- I am in France!' a8 he
titllles, published in t 'Ulli verM:I, Ma rch 22-23 . 1830). (d5,2j heurs this virile melody perfume the air wi111 its primordial fra grance : 'Nolls dont
la .lallll", 1e matlll ' f A u c Ialron
' I coq se rallume. I Nous
(u ' tous qll 'un salaire incer ­
Victor Ilugo heu l·kens lo till' inner voice of the cro ...·d of his a ncestors: "The cro.....d laIn
" Wh I R, ' I' I ' I'
melle avallt au >e a CIIC lime. . . I "--0 n the "Chant des ouvriers":
to ....hiell 11Il lish'nell allmiringi), i.n himself. a nd which ht: hea rd as the IJerald of his en I heard that wonderful cr y of melallcholy and sorrow, I was awed and
popll.la rit y. inelilll'd him , ill fact . towanl the exterior crowd- to ward the Idolo Iilolled . "~ C'lied Ill' "" IIXlIllC
' ,ue ro y• I.es Premlers
, Amis fra m;a is de Wag ner (Paris
<192-;») ) , pp.5 1-53,5 1. [d5a. lJ
Fori,S to ....a nl the inorga nic hod y of the masses .... lie searcln..'tl in the IIIlIlult or
 On Victor HU50: " He placed the ballot box on tur ning ta bles." Edmond J aloux
"L' Uomme du XIX' siecle,'" u Teml'S, August 9. 1935. (d5a,2]
" Eugene Sue ... was in certain reslH:cts ... simiJar 10 Schiller-not only i.n h ill
preference for tales of crime, for coll)()rtage , for black-and-white depictions, but
also in his predilection for ethical a nd social issues ... . Balzac an(1 Hugo viewed
him as a competitor." Egon FriedeU. Kullurgeschichte der Neuzeit , vol. 3 (Mu­
nich, 193 1), p. 149. Foreigner s, such as Itellstab, dought out the Rue aux Feves
where w MYlferes de Paris was begun. [d5a,aj
On Victor Hugo: "This Ancient , this unique genius, this unique pllga n, this man of
unparalleled gcnius was r avaged by, at the ver y least, a double politician: a politi­
cal polltician that made him a democrat , and a literary politician that made him a
Romantic. Thi. genius was corrupted by talent(I). " Cha rles Pe~y, Oeuvre. eom_
p~ te., 1873-1914: Oeu vres de prose (Paris, 1916). p. 383 (.. Victo ....Marie. comte
Hugo"). [d6, l j
Ap ropos of Victor Hugo, Baudelaire "believed in the coexistence of genius and
foolishness." Louis Barthou, Aldour de Baudelaire (Paris, 19 16), p. 44 (" Victor
, Hugo et Baudelaire"). Simila rl y, before the planned banquet for the t€rcentenary
of Shakespeare's birthday (April 23, 1864). he speaks of the "book by Victor H ~
on Shakespea re, a book which- full of beauties a nd 8lupidities like all his books.­
is almost certain to vex even the most ardent of his admirers" (cited in Barthou,
p. SO). And: " Hugo, p riestlike , with his head always bent- too bent to see any-
thing except hill navel" (cited in Barthou, p. 57).' [d6,2j
T he publishers of Balzac's Feuillelon des journaux p o/itiques offered certain
books at 10we....than.oClicial prices by byp assing book retailer s. Balzac h i.nueli
ta kes pride in this initiative, which he defends against criticisms from without , and
which he expects will create the immediate bond between publisher and public that
was his aim . In a sample i88ue of the newsp alH:r, Balzac sketches the history oftbe
book trade a nd of publishing since the Revolution of 1789, to conclude with the
demand : " We must finally lee to it that a volume is prod uced exactJ y like a loaf of
b read , and is sold like a loaf of bread , 80 that there would be no intermediary
between an author and a purchaser other than the bookseller. T hen this business
will be the most secure of a U.... When a bookseller is requi red to layout .ome
twelve thousand fr anca for ever y project, he ",,; U no longer engage in any Ihat are
risky or ill-conceived . T hey will realize, then, that inst ruction i8 a necellsity of
their profession. A clerk wllO has learnw in whnt year Gutenherg printed the
Bible will no longer imagine th at being a hookseller is only a mailer of having one',
name wrille.n over a shop." Honore de Balzac, Critique litteraire, introd uctiOn by
Louis Lumet (Pa ris. 191 2). pp . 34--35. [d6,a]
Pelin Jluhlishes the leiter of a publisher who dedares him~l f rea<ly to bu y the
malluscript of a n author 0 11 the cond ition tha t he can Jlublish it under the nallIe of
some otht'r author of his choosing ("on the condition . . . Ihat il be signed by
someone whose name would be. according 10 my calculations. a sp ur to , ueee88").
Gabriel PHin , us l..aideurs d u beew I'llris (Pa ris, 186 1). PI', 98-99. [d6,4]
Fees. Victor H ugo ~ceives
300,000 francs from Lacroix for u;
Misb"ahle;, in
exchange for rights to the novd for rn'C!ve years. "It was the first time Victor
Hugo had ~ccived such a sum. 'In rn'enty-eight years of furious labor: PauJ
Souday has said, 'with an oeu vre o f thirty-one volumes ... , he had made a total
of about 553,000 francs.... H e never earned as much as Lamani.ne, Scribe, or
Dumas pe~....' Lamartine, in the years 1838 to 1851 , mad e close to five million
francs, of which 600,000 we~ for the Histoire de; Girondin.s. n Edmond Beno it.
Uvy, "u; MiJ&ahles" de Victor Hugo (Paris, 1929), p. 108. Connection between
income and political aspiration. [d6a, IJ
"When Eugene Sue, followillg upon . . . us Mysteres de Londre, <b y Paul
Ftivah , ... conceived the p roject of writing u. lUystere. de Paris, he did not a t all
propose to arouse the interest of the reader with a descri ption of lIOCiety's under­
world. He began b y characterizing his novel aB an histoire fan ttuliq u.e . ... It was
a new. p aper article that decided his future. La Phamnge praised the beginning of
the novel and opened the author's eyes: ' M. Sue has just set out on the mon
penetrating critique of society.... Let us congratulate him for having r ecounted
... the fri ghtful sufferings of the. wor king cia.. a nd the cruel indifference of soci­
ety.' The author of this a rticle ... received a visit from Sue; they talked-and that
-­ is how the novel already underway was pointed in a new direction .... Eugene Sue
con vinced himself: he took part in the electoral b attle and was eJected . . .
(1848) .... The tendencies a nd the far-reaching effects of Sue's novels were such
that M. Alfred Nettement could see in them one of the. determining cau.e. of the
Revolution of 1848." Edmond Benoit-Levy, "us Miserables" de YK: IOr HU80
(Paris, 1929), p p. 18-19. [d6a,2J
A Saint-Simonian I)oem dedicated to Sue as the author of us lUy.ter e. de Poria:
Savinien Lapointe, " De Mon Echop pe" <l\fy Workshop>.' in Une Vou d 'en baJ
(Paris, 1844), pp. 283-296. [d6a,3]
"After 1852, the defenders ofthe educator 's a rl are much less numer ous. T he most
important is Maxime Du Camp." C. L. de Liefde, u Saint-Simonisme daM m
poesi~frlln('(lise dharlem, 1927 ). p. 11 5. [d6a,4]
" f.Als J esuite•• b y l'Itichelct uud Quillet , d ates fro m 1843. (Le luif errant <The
Wandering J ew> a pIH:areti in 1844)." Charles 8 r un , u Roman socill l en France
all XIX' siecle (P aris, 1910), p . 102. [d6a,5)
" /..e CO II Sli! u,iQnnel going fro m 3,600 subscriLers to more th ull 20,000 ... 128 ,074
\'Oles giving Eugene Sue a ll elector al mandate 10 become a del)Uty." Cha rles Brun .
i.e Roma n social en Frernee au X IX" siecle (Pa ris . 19 10), p. 105. (d6a,6)
The novels of George Sand led to an increase in the nwnber of divorces, nearly
all of which were initiated by the wife. The author carried on a large correspon_
dence in which she functioned as an adviser to women. (d6a,7j
Poor, but cleanly-is the philistine echo of a chapter title in UJ MiJ&abltJ: "La
n winds up its penctrating and audacio us analyses with a gloomy reSection : "Since
Bou e, mais l'i m e <Mire, but $oub .LO [d7,1]
Balzac: " Mutual education produce8 100-solls pieces made of human flesh. Indi_
viduals disappear in a population leveled by instruction ." Ci ted in Charles Brun ,
Le Roman , ocial en France a.u XIX' ,iecie (Pari8, 1910). p. 120 . (d7,2]
Mjrbeau anti Natanson, Le Foyer <The Hearth> ( 1, 4), Ba ron Courtin : .. 1t is not
desirable that education should he extended any further. . . . For education is the
beginning of ease, and ease is not within ever yolle's r each." Cited in Charles Brun,
Le R oman social en France all XIX' sieck (Paris, 1910), p. 125. Mirbeau merely
repeat8 here, in satirical vein , a sayill!; of Thien <cited in d I , I >. (d7,3)
" Babao-unbridJed romantic by virtue of the 1yricaltirade8, the bold simplifica­
tion of characte rs, and the complication of plot- is at the same time a realist by
virtue of the evocation of place and social milieu. and a naturalist by virtue of his
taste for vulgarity and his scientific pretensions." Charles Br un , Le 80man social
en France au XIX' sieck (Paris, 1910), p. 129. (d7,4]
Napoleon's influence on Babac, the Napoleonic in him . "The spirit and mettle of
the Crande ArmCe in the form of greed , ambition , and d ebauchery: Grandet,
Nucingen, Philippe Bridau , or Savaru8. "11 Charle8 BTlIII . Le Roman social en
France au XIX' ,ieck (Paris, 1910), 1). 151. [d7,5]
"Balzac . . . (Iuotes as a uthorities ... Geoffroy Sainl-Ililaire and Cuvier," Charlet
Brun , Le Roman social (Pa ris, 19 10), p. 154. [d7,6]
Lamartine ami Nupoleon. " In Le! De81inees de la poesU!, in 1834, he speaks of ...
his contempt for this age .. . of calculation and power. of nu~ ~s and t~e
8word .... It wa8 1.he uge in which Esmenard sang tile praise8 of navIgatIOn, Gudio
of astronomy. Rkard of spheres. Ajme Martin of physics and chemistry.... La~
martine said it very well: ' Number alone is allowed , honored , prote<:ted, aD
recomlJensed . Since number does nOI think , since it is a n ... instrument .. . th.at
never asks ... whether it is made to serve Ihe oppre8sion of hUl~ a llkill ~,.ore:~
de)........ J
Iv..ran"", . . . ,h'"... military leudcr of Ihis era wunted no oliler ellussar y. 19(1)
Skerlitch . L 'Op inioll publique en Fmnce (l'apre, la lwesie (La uS1\nlle, Id7,7j
p. 65.
" Romanticism proclaims the )')
1 H 0'
!rty tI , art. th e etluu I ," ~ y gcnres , and the frat er­..
nily of wonb (all under one entitlemenl as ci tizens of Iile Frcnch language).)
Georges Hcnnnl , I.AI Methode !ciell'ifjqlle d e "1181Q1re , ' .Uenure
" ' ( p.ar i8. 1900,
"
pp. 2 19-220, ciled in J ean Skerlilcil , L'Opinkm IJublilflle en fi"n," ce d '(lpre8 m
pot!, ie(La usannc, 1901 ), PI). 19-20 . [d7.8)
The magnificent seventh book o f the fo urth part of UJ M iJir-ahleJ, "I..!Argot,n
'89, the entire peop le has b een expanding in the sublimated individual; there is
no poor Illall who, having his rights, has not his ray; the starving man feels
within himself the h onor of France; the dignity of the citizen is an interior armor ;
he who is free is scrupulous; h e who VOtes reigns.n Victor Hugo, OeuureJ com­
pleteJ, novels, vol. 8 (Paris, 1881 ), p. 3 06 (UJ M u&ablu).LI {d 7a, l]
i\'ettellleni on the digressioll8 ill I.e, Mi,erable!: "T hese bils of philosophy, of
lIistory, of social ccononlY are like cold-waler taps lha t douse the frozen and
discouraged reader. It is hydrotherapy ap plied to literature." Alfred NeUement ,
I.e Roman contemporain (paris, 18M), p. 364. [d7a,2J
MM . Sue. ill Le Juif erra nt, hurls illl Uh8 at religion in order 10 serve the
antipathies of Le Con8fitlltionnel . ... 1\1 . Dumas , ill LlI Dame de Momoreau,
heaps scorn 0 11 royalty .. . to accolllmod ate the passions of this lIame newspa­
per, .. . while in La Reine Margot he conforms 10 the taste of the gilded youth at
La P rette for ... ri8tlue pa intings , ... and . .. in Le Comte de Monte-Cristo he
deifies money and inveighs against the Restoration to please the world of civil
servants who congregated around I.e J Ollrnal de! deoou." Alfred Neuement,
Elude! critique, 'IIr kjeuilietoll -roman , vol. 2 (Paris, 1846), p . 409. [d7a,3]
Victor Hugo: owing to a law of his poetic nature, he has to stamp every thought
with the fonn of an apotheosis. {d7a,4]
A wide-ranging remark by Drwno nt : "AlmOSt all the leaders of the movement of
the school o f 183 0 had the same sort of constitution: high-SbUng, prolific, enam.
ored of the grandiose. Whether it was a matter of reviving the epic on canvas, as
with Delacroix, of portraying a whole society, as with Balzac, or of putting four
l thousand years o f the life of Humanity into a novel, like Dumas, all . .. were:
POssessed of sh oulders that did nor shrink from the burden.n Edouard Drumo llt,
UJ HiroJ (/lu pitre.! (Paris <1 900», pp. 107- 108 ("Alexand re Dumas peren).
[d7a,5J
;'· J.'or Illtl pl.l~t fift y year~,' suill Ooclor Ol·murquay to Dumas fil s one d ay, 'all our
IlIorilJlUld plilicnts luu·c dicd with one of YOll r falh er's novds under their pillow. '"
E:douard DTlIIIIOII I, I.e, Heros e t ie, pitre, (Paris <19(}(} », p . 106 C'Ale): alldre
OUlllas l>erc·'). [d7a,6)
) I ­
n t Ie preface to I.e, PO )"8l1l1,. HuhlUC ~peaks reproachfu lly of the year 1830,
......Ilich Ili{lnOI remelllber Illa l NUllolcon hud preferred ttl risk failure rathcr thun
arm the massell. " CiI L't1 in CII . Culillpe. Balzac : Ses Idees sodale, (ltdllls and
Puris (1906 » . p . 94. (d7a,7]
" Bourget has relllurkcd that Balzac's characters . . appcured in reul life even
more fret:(uently ufter til(' death of the novelist : ' Balzac,' lIe ~ ays . 'SL't!ms lesa to
have observed tile aociety of hill age thun to have contributed to the fornlution of
a n age. Certa in of his char acten were more true-to-life in 1860 t.han in 1835.'
Nothing more just: Balzac deserves to be c1a!sed among antici patol"8 of the first
order.... Thirty yean later, reality arrived 0 11 the terrain that his intuition had
already crossed in a single bound. " H . Clouzot and R.-H . Va lcnsi, Le Pa ris de la
Comedie humai,le (Paris, 1926), p. 5 ("Balzac et SC8 fournisseurs" ). [d8,1]
Orumont , too, inclines to the view Ihat Balzac's gift was a prophetic one. Occa­
sionally, however, he reverieS tbe terms of the equation: " The pt.'Ople of the Secolld
Empire wa nted to be ch aracters from Balzac. " Edouard Orllmont , Fie"re, ck
brom~e 011 shltlles de " eise (Paris (1900», p . 48 ("Balzac" ). [d8,2]
Balzac, speaking thro ugh his coulltry doctor: "The proletarians seem to me to be
the minors of the nation . a nd should always remain ill a IItate uf tutelage."" 's Cited
in Abbe Cllllrlcs Calippc, HU/zll c: Ses Idees soci(lle, (Reims and Paris <1906» ,
p . 50. [dB,'[
Balzac Oike Le Play) was opposed to the p arceling out of large estates : "M y God,
how could anyone fail [0 realize that the wonders of art art impossible in a
country without great fortunes! " (cited in Charles Calippe, p. 36). Balzac likewise
draws attention to the disadvantages that result when peasants and petty b0ur­
geois hoard their money, and ca1culates how many billions art in this way with­
drawn from circulation. On the other hand, the only remedy he can recommend
is for the individual, by hard work and wise economy, to become a landed
proprietor himself. H e thus moves within contradictions. [d8,4)
George Sand bei:a llle aCI(ua inted with Agricol P erdiguier in 1840. She sayl: " I wal
struck by the moral illlportance of the topic, a nd I wrote the 1I0Vel Le CompoSnon
<III tOllr de Fmnte out of sincerely progressive ideas." Cited ill Charles Senoilt,
'"'L' Honunt: tie 1848," pln·t 2, ReVile des deux mo"de" (February I , 19 14), pp.
66&-<>66. [dB,5[
Olllllas pere occupied almost simult aneously, with thn'C uf his novels. the feujlJe­
ton sections of IAI Presse, I-e Constillltiollllel, and l.e JOIIl"fwl de5 (/ebll/$. [d8,6)
Nellclllcnt un Ihe style uf Oumas perc; " It is usuall y natura l ami relatively rapid,
but it lacks fon:e beclI Llse Ihe Ihought it eXIJl"esses does not go ver y llecJI. It i8 to the
style of grellt wrilers what lit hogra phy is to engraving." AUrCII Ncttclllcnt . lJillOire
de III liu ernturejrutl(;ui,e "0'/.1 Ie GOllvernement de JI/illet (Paris. 1859). vol. 2,
PI" 306-307 . [d8,l )
Sue, compared wit.h George Sand : "Once again we have a protest against the state
of society, bUI , this time. a collective protest .. . undertaken in the name of the
plIssions and intere8ts of the largest ciassea of society." Alfred Nettement . Hiltoire
lie la litteraturejmll(;(li,e SOli' Ie COlI lJerllement de JlliUet (Paris, 1859), vol. 2,
p.322. [d8a,I)
Neltement (>oints out that Sue's novell, which sought to undermine the July Mon­
archy. ""ere published in newspapers, (i.e Journal des deoot, and Le COllltitution_
nel) that were on its side. [d8a,2)
Regular customers at the brasserie on tile Rue des Ma rt yrs: Oelvau , MUl'ger,
Dupont , Malassis, Baudelaire, C uys. [d8a,3)
Jules Bertaut sees Bauac's importa nce in terms of the action of significant figu res
in a milieu determined by the tYI)es ofthat day 's society- wbich is to say, in terms
of character study lK!rmeated by the stud y of manners. Apropos of the latter, he
writes! " One need ollly peruse the innumerable physiolosies ... to lee how far this
literar y vogue has come. From the Schoolboy to the Stockbroker, and taking
account of the Dry Nurse, the Sergeant , and the Seller of Countermarkl in be­
tween, it is an endlell8 lIuccession of petit, portraits . ... Bauac knowil the genre
well ; he has cultivated it. Small wonder, then , Ihat he leeks to give UI , through
these mean s, the picture of an entire society." Julea Bertaut , "i.e Pere Corio' " de
Bahac(Amiens, 1928), pp. 11 7- 118. (d8a,4]
- "'Victor Hugo,' sayl Eugene Spuller, ' had gone along with the viewl of the reac­
tionaries .. . . He had consilllentiy voted on the right .' ... AI for the question of
the national workshops , on June 20, 1848, he declares them a doubleerror-from
a political as well as a finan ciai llta nd point .. .. In the Legislative Alsembly, on the
other hand , he turns to the left , bei:oming one of ill ... most aggressive orators. Is
thU because of an evolution . .. , or il it due to wounded pride and personal
bittem ess against Louill Napoleon , under whom he supposedly wiahed--even ex­
pected-to become minilller or public instruction?" E. Meyer, YlCtor Huso fa. a
,. tribulle (Chambiry, 1927), pp. 2, 5, 7; cited in Eugene Spuller, Hillo;re parlemen.­
tuire de la Seco llde Repllblique. pp. 111 , 266. [d8a,5)
"1\ diScussion having opened between Le BOIl -Selll and La Preue over the ques­
tioll of Girardin 's forty-fra nc newspalJers. i.e NlI tiollal intervened . Because La
Preue had taken this opportunit y to mOllnt a l)Crsonal attack on M.. Carrel, all
enCOUnter took place bctwcenlhe latter a nd the editor-in-chief of La Preue. "-"It
was the politica l press dlat fell , ir.1 the l)Crson of Carrel, before the industrial
Ilress: ' AJfred Netlement . Ili!loire de I I I tilterlltllre jran{lIile 5011., Ie COli verne­
merit de Jlliller (Paris, 1859). vol. I . p . 254. [d8a.6]
~Comruunism , .. . that .. . logic of democr acy. is already boldly attacking society
In its moral assumptions. whence it is evident tha t the proletarian Samson, grown
prudent , will henceforth sap the "illars of society in the ceDa r, instead of sha killfl:
them in the banquet hall ." Balzac.1A1 PaYl onl;" (cited in Abbe Charles Calippe,
Bohac: Sel ldeell ,oci(Jie, (Heim, and Paris (1906 » . p . 108. [d9, 1]
Travel literature: .. It is France that fi rs t ... reinforced it s armies with a brigade of
geographers. naturalists, a nd archaeologists. The grea t ac hievements in Egypt ...
marked the advent of an order of works previously unknown .... The Expedition
scientifique de la lUorb? and the Exp/,orolion ,cientifique de I'Algerie are worth y
additions to this great line .... Whethcr scientific in spirit, serious or light, ...
accounta by travelcrs ... have, in our time, found a considerablc vogue. Alons
with novels, they form the staple fare in reading rooms, numberi ng, on average,
some eighty works per year, or twelve hundred publications in fifteen yean."
Thill, on aver age, is not much more tha n in other field s of n atural science. Charle.
Louandre, "Statisti'lue litteraire: De la Production intellectueUe en France depllis
quinze an8," Revue del deux monde, (November I , 1847), pp. 425-426. [d9,2]
From 1835 on, the n erage number of novels produced annually is 2 1O---approxi_
mately the lIame al the number of vaudeville productions. [d9,3]
Travel literatu re. It fmdll an unexlJeCted application during the Chamber 'a debate
on del)Qrtations (April 4 . 1849). " Far conet , who was the first to oppose the proj­
ect , brought up the question of the salubrity of the Manluesas Islands . . . . The
member who had presented the report replied b y reading some trave1 accounlt
which depicted the Marquesas as ... a veritable par adise .... This. in turn, drew
. . . the angry response: 'To offer idylls and bucolics on a subject so grave i.
ridiculous.'" E. Meyer, Vic tor HUlJo ii la tribune (Chambery. 1927). p . 60. [d9,4)
The idea for La Ccmldie humaiM came to Balzac in 1833 (the year in which Ie
Mititcin tit campagne was published). The influence o f Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire',
theory o f types was decisive. To this was added , o n the literary side, the inBuencc:
o f Scott's and Cooper's cycles of novels. [d9,5]
In its 8econd year of publication , in 1851, the "Alnaanach des re!ormateurl .. . •
in which the government is pre8ented as a necessar y evil , bring8 together the
expose of communi8t doctrine with ve rse translatio ns of Martial and Horace, witb
sidelightll on astronomy and medicine. and with all sorts of useful tips." Charles
Benoist . "Le ' Mythe' de la classe ouvrier e," Revue del deux monciel (March 1,
1914), p. 91. [d9,6}
Derivatio n o f the feuilleton n ovel, whose appearance in newspapers iJ.nmediate1y
entailed dangerous competition for periodicals and a marked d ecline in the pro­
duction of literary criticism. The periodicals, in tum, had to decide whether to
publish novels in installments. The first to do so wen: La Revut tit Paris (edited by
Yeron?) and La RtlJut dts dtux montlts. "Under the old state of affairs, a joumal
with a subscription rate exceeding eighty francs was supported by those whose
political convictions it expr~d .... Under the new arrangem ents, a jo urnal had
to live by ad vertisements, ... and in order to have lots of advertisements, the
fourth page, which had become a publicity display, had to pass befon: the eyes of
a great many subscribers. In order to have lots of subscribers, some bait had to be
fou nd that would speak to all opinions at the same tim c, and that would substi­
rule, for politica1 interest, an item of generaJ interest. ... lb.is is how, by starting
from the fOr1)'-franc newspaper and proceeding 011 to the ad vertisement, we
arrive, almost inevitably, at the serial nove!.n A1fred Nettement, Histoirt de fa
littiraturejranfaise sou.s It Goulltf7ltmenl dt JUlllet (paris, 1859), vol. 1, pp. 301­
302. [d9a,l ]
Sometimes. in 1111blishing a no vel in scrial form , one would leave out part of the
work in order to get the n ew 8 1)a per- readin ~ public to buy the hoo k . [d9a,21
In the edito r's preface to J oumet's Poisies et chants hannoniens, Uncle Tom's Gahin,
by Harriet Beecher Stowe, is quite appropriately placed on an equal footing with
Les Mysteres tit Paris and us Misirahles. [d9a,31
" From tillle to tillie, one could read , in 1.£ Jou rnal d es debats, a rti cl~ by
M. !'IUchel Chevalier or M. Philar ete Chaslell, ... articles of a socially progre88ive
tendency... , The progressive articles in the Debatl were customaril y published
during the fortnight preceding subscription renewals, which occurred every four
months. On the eve of large renewals . Le Journal des debau could be found
fli rti ng with radicalism. This helps to explai n how Le Journal del debats cou1d
undertake the bold publication of Le, My"eres de Parill ... -but this time. that
imp rudent newsp aper had gone further than it r ealized . As a consequence, ma ny
wealthy banker s withdrew their support for the Debatl ... in order to found a
ne"," palH! r, ... Le Globe. This worth y pred eceilsor of L 'Epoqll.e ... W 88 aimed at
doing justice to the inccndiary theories of M. Eugene Sue and of La Democratie
p(lcifique." A. Toussenel , l.el Juifi, rou de l 'epoqlle, cd . Conet (Parill ( 1886».
vol.' 2. pp. 23-24. [d9a,4)
The boheme. " With Un Prince de la boheme (1840), Balzac wanted to l)Qrtray a
... characteristic of this nascent boheme. T ile amorous preoccupations ... of
HlIsticoli de la Palferine are onl y II Ba lzacian expansion upon the triumphs of
Marcel and H ()dolphe.'~ which would soon folio",".... Thill novel contai ns a gr an­
dilOt:luent definition of bohcmianism • . . . the first . . . ; ' The bolleme-what
shollli;! be called the doct rine of the Bouleva rd des lt a l ic lI ~oJl ili s t s of young
pcople, ... all men of gCllius in thcir way, mell as yc t little known . but soon to
bccome known .... Here one meets writers. udministratoril. soilliers. journalists,
artists! If the empe ror of Rusilia purchase(l this hohemi a for twent y million
fra llCS, ... and if it ","ere ubseq llcntiy tleportc!1 to O,lcilsa, t.hen ill a yea r Odessa
Wo uld be I~ rill. ' ... During t.his sa me pt:"iod , Goorge Su nd ... Mild Alphollse
Ka rr ... initiatc,l hohcmi all ci rcicil.... But th c~e wcre imagi na ry hoilelllia8; and
that of Ba lzac ","ail entirely fa ntas tic_ The bo ilemianiSIll of Theophile Gautier, on
the other hand, a nd that of Murger, have been talked aoout 80 much . . . thai
today we can get a n idea of what they were. To teU the truth , Gautier and hit
frien d! ... did not realize right away, in 1833, that they were bohemian!. they
wer e content with calling themselves 'J eune France' <Young France> .... Their
poverty wal merely relative .... This bohemianism ... was the boheme gaian'e; it
could just as well be called gilded bohemianism , the boheme doree . ... Ten or
fifteen years later, a round 1843, there wal a new bohemia ... , the true boheme.
Theophile Gautier, Gerard de Nerval, Arsene Houssaye were then approachi~
forty ; Murger and his friendl were not yet twenty-6ve. This time, it wal a genuine
intellectual proletariat. Murger was the liOn of a concierge tailor; Champfleury's
father was a secretary at the town hall in Laon ; ... Delvau '8 father was a tanner in
the Faubourg Saint-Marcel; Courbet'a family were quasi-peaaants. . . . Champ­
fl eury and Chintreuil wrapped packages in a hookttore; Bonvin was a working_
e1att typogr ap her. " Pierre Martino, Le Roman reamte lOW Ie Second Empire
(Paris, 1913), pp. 6-9. (dIO,I]
In the early )840s. there was a copying procells known as the Rageneau preaa,
evidently hased on lithography. (dIO,2J
Firmin Maillard, La Cite des intellectueu (Paris <1905 », pp. 92-99, offen an
ab undance of infonnation aoout au thor '8 fees. [dlO,3]
" Balzac ... compared his critique of Parisian j ournalism to Moliere'. attaclu OD
6oancien , marquis, and doctort." Ernst Robert CuMius, Balzac (Bonn, 1923),
pp. 354-355. (dIO.f]
On Balzac: " What enables UI to say that he W 88 perhap! not very truthful alter
1820 is the often expreued view that he wondrously painted in advance. and
prophellied, the society of the Second Empi re." Edmond J aloux, " Les Roma ncien
et Ie temps," Le Temps. December 27 , 1935. [dIO,5)
From Lamartine's "Leure en vers a M. Alphonse Karr":
Every man can proudly 8e11the aweat of hi8 brow ;
I tell my bunch or grapt'8 as you do your Rowe".
Ibppy when its nectar. under the cnleh of my loot.
flows in amber etreaml throush an my ...·orkll.
Producinlil for its mas ter, drunk with its big. price.
Much [Sold with which to buy much freedom!
Fate has reduced IU to counting our wagu;
Day-wagea you, night-wage. me: two mercenariea.
But bread well earned i. bread well broken. too:
o the glory ollree men beholden 10 none for their u lt !
Veuillot. who ci tes this text , haa thia to say: "Until now, it waa felt that tbe fr eedom
th at can be purcha8ed with money is not the sort that mell of conlcience are in the
lIabit o(pursuing.... What! ... You don ' t know that the way to be free is to heap
Icorn on gold? To lecu re thil freedom aC(luired through gold . .. you prod uce
your bookl ill the same me rcena.ry (ashion 88 yo u prOtluce vegetablet and wine.
You wiu dellland of your facultiel a double or a triple Il arvest ; you will start to
nlarket yo ur ea rl y produce; the IIlUle will no longer vi&it vol untaril y, but win toil
night and day like a drudge. . . . And in the morning, yo u will cau before the
public 11 page scri bbled over in the course of you r nocturn al Jueubl"lltions; you wiu
no t even bother rereadjllg the rubbish that coven it , th ough yo u will certainly
have counted the number of lines it containl." Louis Veuin ot, Pagel chouies. 00.
Antoine Albalat (Lyons and Pa ri&, 19(6). pp . 28 , 3 1-32. (Karr sold Rowen grown
on his estate nea r Nice.) (dIOa, l]
" Ill vain Sainte-Beuve aUow! h.imseLf, out of a deep-rooted alltipath y, to fl y into a
rage agaillst the author of La Comedie lIunwine. But he is right to observe that ' the
vogue for serial publication , which rC(luired , with each new chap ter, that the
reade r be struck a hearty blow, had driven the atyliuic effects of the novel to an
ext.remeand desper ate pitch . '" Cited in Fernand Baldens perger, " Le Raffermisse­
ment des techniques <dans la litterature occidenta le de> 1840," Revue de liuera­
ture comparee, 15, no. I (January-March 1935), p . 82. (dIOa,2]
In reaction to the seriaJ novel, there arose-around 1840-novcl1as (Merimee)
and regional novels « Barbey> d~urevilly). (dIOa,3]
­ Eugene de I'tlirecou rt , us Vrau Muerablell (Paris, 1862), recalla Lamartine's lIu­
Loire des Girondim and surmises that Hugo wanted to prepare his political career
with his novel as Lamartine had done with hil popular history. [dlOa,4]
Apropos of Lamartine and Hugo: " Instead of fostering the notion ... that people
should follow devotedly in the steps or these sincere souls, we should inYe8tigate
the undenide of all sincerity. But bourgeois cultu re and democracy are too greatl y
in Jreetl of this value! The democrat is a man who wears his heart OD his sleeve; his
heart is an excuse, a testimonial, a subterfuge. He il profe88ionally heartwarming,
so he can dis)H!llse with being truthrul. " N. Guterman and H. Lefebvre, La Con.­
f· 'cience myslif,.ee (Paril <1936» . p . 15 1 ("Le Chantage et la sincerite" <Blackmail
and Sincerity). [dll ,l ]
On Lamartine: "The ratuity of the poet is indescr ibable. Lamartine dt.'ClIIs himse)(
a statt!S man in the mol(1 or Mirabeau , and he boasts (another Turgot!) of having
Illhored twenty ytl urs ill the study of political economy. An eminent thinker, he'l
convi nced that he draws up from thtl depths of his 8 0 111 ideas that he actually
catches 0 11 the wing and clothes in hjs OW " image." Emile Barra uh , " La ma rtine,"
extract from U i\'utionul of March 27, 1869 (Paris, 1869), p . 10. [dll ,2J
Alrred DeI~a u ( 1825-- 1867): " li e Will a child or tile qll(lrtier MOllf(etard .... In
184a, he beeume I)rivate secreta r y 10 Led r ll-Rollin , who wa~ then millil ter of the
interior. Even16 having hru!t(luei y removed him from active politics. he devoted
himseU to letters, making his {Ielmt wilh several newspaper articles ... . In Le
jOllrrwl (rml/stlnt. Le. fi8 f1ro , IIml some olher jou "nals, he published articles deal.
ing mainly with Purisian customs alld practices. For some lime. al Le. Siecle. his
sp·ecial assignment was the Paris town council. " During the second half of the
1850s, he was in ex ile ill Uelgium , where he had fl ed to escape a prison sentence
incurred while he was editor of I.e Rubelo;.,. Later. he would endure prosecutions
for plagiarism. Infomlation in Pierre Larousse, GnHld Dictimlnuire IIni ver'el du
XIX·tiecle. vol. 6 (Paris, 1870), p . 385 (arlicle: " Delvau"). [dll,3]
During the reign of Na poleon III . Benjamin Gastineau had alread y been twice
deported toAJgeria. "Under the Pa ris Commune, M. Ganineau was named inspec:_
tor of communal libraries. The twentieth council of war. charged with trying his
case, could filld no evidence of a ny breach of common law. He was neverthele81
condemned to deportation in a fortified cell ." Pierre Larousse, Grand Diction­
noire universel dll XIX' sieck, vol. 8 (Puris , 1872). p. 1062.-Gastineau h ad be­
gun his career as a typesetter. [dll ,4]
Pierre Dupont: "The poet, as he says in one of his little poems, 'listens, by turns,
to the forests and the crowd.' And in fact it is the great rustic symphonies, me
voices through which nature in its entirety speaks, as well as the clamor, me
grids, the aspirations and lamentations of the crowd, that make for his double
inspiration. The song such as our fathers knew it ... , the drinking song or even
the simple ballad, is utterly foreign to him." Pierre Larousse, <Grand> Dictionnaire
uniumei du XIX' Jiede, vol. 6 (Paris, 1870), p. 1413 (article: "Dupont"). Hence,
with Baudelaire, hatred for Beranger is an element of his love for Dupont
[dlla,l)
Gustave Simon describes Ihe scellcs thai took place in front of Paguerre's book­
shop when the socond antllhird parts of l.es Mi.terablct were delivered: " 'On MIlY
15. 1862 ,' he writes, ' a little before 6:00 ill the morning, a dense crowd was gather­
ingon the Ruc de Seine hefore a shop Ih al was still closed . The crowd kept growins
, reich) that the demonstration was I)rovoked solely in order to be able to call back
larger and , impatient with wailing, became 1I0isy, even riotous .... The pavement
wall obstructed by an im passable jumble of delivery carts. pri,'ate carriages, cabs,
ca rioles, and even wlu.:dbarrows. People had empt y baskets 011 their backs.... It
was nol yel 6:30 when the crowd, becoming more unruly by the minute, started
pushing against Ihe sho"frol1t , while those in the vanguard knocked with redo u­
ble{1 force on tile door. Suddellly, II window was opened on the second floor ; a lady
appeared and exhortetllhe assembled cilizens to be more patient. ... '{he shop to
which they were preparing to lay siege was quite inoffensi\'e; only hooks ....ere sold
there. It was Pagu erre's hookshop . The people hurling themselves lit Ihe building
were bookstore clerks. age nts. llU yers, a mi hrokers . The lad y who spoke from be r
secoml-floor windo"" was Madame Pagu erre. ,,, Albert de Besancou rt , I~s Pam­
phlets corltre Victor III1So (Pa l'is), pp . 227-228; cilCiI in Gustave Simon , "w
Origine. des Miserable,," in Lo Revue de Pom, and in letters about the book
""hich Simon published in Lo ReVile). [dlla,2)
Perrot de ChezeUes. in his pamphlet " Examen du livre des Miserables de 1't1 . Victor
Hugo" (Paris, 1863), makes tltis more general contrihution to the characteri~ation
of Victor Hugo: " In his dramas and novels he takes for his heroes a lackey like Ru y
lJias, a oourtesan like Marion Delorme, physicaUy deformed beings like Triboulet
and Quasilllodo, a prostitute like Fantinc . a convict like J ean Valjean." '6 Cited in
Albert de Besancourt , Let Pomphleu contre Y.H . (Paris), p. 243. [dlla,3)
Les Muirabfes depends, for its principal facts, on actual events. Underlying the
condemnation ofJ ean Valjean is a case in which a man who had stolen a loaf of
bread for his sister's children was condemned to five years' penal seJVitude.
Hugo documented such things with great exactitude. [dI2,1]
A detailed representation o( Lamartine's behavior during the February Revolu­
tion is provided by Pokrowski in lin IIrticle that ba&ell itself, in part , on diplomatic
reports by Kisseliov, the Russian ambassador to Paris at that time. These reports
are cited in Ihe course of the article. "'Lamartine ... admitted,' Kineliov writetl ,
'that , for the time being, France found iuelf in a . ituation that always tends to
arise when one government has just fallen and the other is not yet firmly in place.
He added, however, thai the population had given proof of so much good sense, of
such reslHlC::t for family and property, thllt lawful order in PliriS would be pre­
served through the momentum of things in themselves and through the good will of
the manes. . . . In eight or ten days, continued Lamartine, a national guard of
200,000 men would be organized, in addition to which there were 15.000 mounted
police, wh08e spirits were exceUent , and 20,000 front-Line troops, who already had
encircled Paris and were to march on the city.' Here we must pause (or a moment .
It is weU known that the pretext for recalling the troops, which since February had
been' stationed at a distance (rom Paris , WIIS the workers' demonstration of April
16; the conversatio n between Lamartine and K.isseliov, however, took place on
April 6. How brilllantly, therefore, Marx divined (in Die Klauenkiimpfe in Frank­
into the capital the most ' reliable' part of the 'forces of order. ' ... But let u. go
further. ' These masses . says Lamartine [that is. the bourgeois national guard , the
hlohile guard , and the line infantry-I't1.N. P.1, will keep in check the club fan atica,
who depend O il a few thousand hooligans and criminal elements (!), and will nip
ever y excess ... in Ihe bud .'" M. N. Pokrowski, Hutoruch e Auf,at:e (Vienna a nd
Ilerlin ~ 1928», pp. 108-109 ("Lamartine, Cavaignac und Nikolaus I"). [dI2 ,2)
011 Ihe sixlll of April , a directive went out from NesseLrode ill Petersburg to K.is­
8diov:" ' ic~ola s and his chancellor did not conceal from their agent the fa ct that
they needL't1 the alliance wilh France against Gemlauy- againsl the new red Ger ­
Illany that was beginning, with its revolutionary colors . to outshine the France
 which had already come r ather far on the r oad 10 reason ." M. N. Pokrowski,
Ili$tori,.,cl! e AUf$iit:::e (Vienna a. nd Berlin) . p . 11 2. Iclters . is always hawkin g his opi nions and his COliscie noo.. . Thc worM
[dl2,3) as
paililcd by M. tie Oalzac is ... a cesspoo l." J (ae<lu(.·lI) Chamlcs-Aigue
s, l..es Ecri­
Michelel on Lamart ine: " He glides on his grea.t wing, rapid a mi obliviou !il,i,u mOllenl es de III Fnmce (Puris, 1841). p . 227.
s." Cited [dI3,IJ
in J acque. Boulen ger, " le Magie de ~tichele t ," Le Temps, Ma )' 15,
1936. Id 12a, l} "Nowllilays, so llIany allested alltl autilelllicalt:d fact s hu ve emerged
from the
" A shrewd observe r remark ed , one d ay, that fa scist h aly was being occult .ciences tha t the time will come when these liciences will be
run like a large ta ught at muver­
new. paper and , mo reover, by a great j ournalist : one idea per d ay, silics j llst llS chemist ry and astronomy a re. Just now, when 80 many
with sideligbta profess orial
and sensations, and with an adroit and insisten t orienta tion of the ..hairs are being sel ul' in Paris----ehairs in Slavo nic, in Manchu rian
reader toward studies , and in
certain iuordin a tely eular ged aspects of social life-a syltema tic \iterulUres so .mprojessllbk as thost: of far norther n lands; chairs
deform ation or which , instead
the underst anding of the reader for certain practic al ends. The long of offerin g instruc tion, sta nd in neetl of it themselves ...- is it
and the . hon not a mailer of
of it is that fascist regimes a re Jlublicit y regimes ." J ean de L.ignier surprise that , uuder the name of anthrop ology, the teachin g of occult
es, "I.e CeD­ philoso phy,
one of the glories of the oid-tilll e university, has not been re8tored
teuaire de La Preue, " Vendred i , June 1936. ? I.n this respect ,
[d12a,2] Gerlllan )' ... is a step ahead of France ." I'Ionon! de Babac, Le COlUin
Pom, l? in
" Baluc was one of the collabo rators on La Preue ... , and Girardi OeulJre$ comple tes, vol. 18, La Co med ic humllin e: Scenes de la vic
n was for bim parisie nne, 6
one of the best guides to the society in which the great man lived (Paris, 1914), p . 13 1. 0 Physiologies 0
." J ean de Lis­ (d I3,2]
w eres, "Le Centen aire de Lo Preue, " Vendred i, June 1936.
[dI2..,3] On Lamart ine: " He iS lhe most feminin e of Illen in a century which has
seen a great
many such men, several of whom seem to announ ce themselves by
" In gener al, the various current s of I\ealism between 1850 and the very article
1860, that of precedi ng their numes: Lafa yette, La mennais, Lacord aire, Lamart
ChampAeury like that of F1a ubert, are conside red ' the school of ine.... There
Balzac. ' " Enut are very good reasons for thinkin g that he had prepare d for the red
Robert Curtills , Bauac (Bonn , 1923), p. 487 . fl a~ the same
[dI2a,4] 81>Ce<:h he delivered for the tricolor fl ag." Abel Bonnar d , Le, ftfoder
es, in the series
" Modern ma88 produc tion d estroys the sense of art, and the sense entitled Le Dmme du pre,ent , vol. I (Paris ( 1936», Pl' . 232-23 3
. [dI3,3)
of work, in
labor: ' We h ave produc t.; we no longer have works.' '' Ernst
Robert CUrtilD, ­ "The novel . . . is no longer onl y a ""ay of telling a story but
Ba/:::oc (Bonn, 1923), p . 260; citation from Beotrix ( Baluc edition has beconle an
in La CoUce­ investigation , a continu al discove ry.... Balzac stands at the limit
ti01I Mk hel-Uv y (Paris, 1891 - 1899». p . 3. of the litera ture
(dI2a,5] of imagina tion and of the literatu re of ellactitu de. He has books in
which the spirit
of inquiry is rigor ous, like Eusenie Gmnde t or Ce$o r Biroue au;
'"The or ganization of intellige nce i. Balzac' s goal. In this he sometim othere in which
es, like !be the ullreal is blended with the real, like VI Femme de trenfe 011$ ;
Saint-S imonian 8, enterta ins notions of corpora tion such as marked and still others,
the Middle like Le Chef-d' oeu lJre inconnu , coml)()sed of elemen ts drawn from
Age•. At these times , he returns to the idea ... of a n incorpo ration a variety of j ewt
of inteUectuai . d' esI'r it." Pierre Ham p , " La L.itterat ure, illlage de la societe,
labor into the modern system of credit . The idea of the state'B re munera " Encyclo pedic
ting intel­ ! ram;ou e, vol. 16 , Arts et litteratu res dllll.! la societe conrem poraine
lectual produc tion also surface s here and there." Ernst Robert . I, p. M .
Curtiw , BoUGe
(Bonn , 1923), p . 256. [d 13,')
(dI2a,61
" " Oy I862, the yea r in which Victor Ilugo IHlhlish es I.e. Muer(Jbfe.,
" Intellige ntial wo rkers" -a coinage of Balzac'B. Sec E. 1\ . Curlills the number of
, B(I/:::ac (Bonn, iUiterates has cOllside r llhly diminis hed in France .... In proport
1923), p. 263. (dI2a,1] ion as an edu­
tilte,l popuillee hegills to patron ize booksh ops . authors befooln choosin
g their he­
roes .from the crowd , allIl the one ill wholll this phenom enon of sociali7
d .-A.) Chapta l, De l 'ln dwtric fron{(l ue , vol. 2 (Paris, 1819), p . 198, .ation can
estim atet best be Slutlic<1 is Hugo himself, the first great pool who gave to hiHliter
that the number of books published anll uall y is 3,090. ary works
(d I2a,8J conullunplace titleij: Le. lIIi$erub lc$. I.e. 'I'rU lJuiIlCllr. de It I mer."
Picrre Uamp,
" La Litli!ru tllrc, image lie la socicti! ," eflcyciollcdie f mtl{llis e. vol.
From the hi - ~I y unfavo rahle " M . de Balzac, " by Chaudes-Aigue 16. ArB et
s: " Dullgeon" litterutl lres d f1tl$ la societe cOfltcm lJO rflille. I , p . 64).
brothel s . and6" prisolls would be asylums of vlrlue
•
... compar ed to the c ivilized
(d I3a, I]
cit.ies of M. de Oalzac. ... The banker is a llIan who has ellriched
himself throup These remark s o n Scott might be applied to Victor Hugo: "He regarde
embezzlement alld IIsur)' ; the politician ... owes his stature ... to d rhetoric ,
cumula tive acU the an of the orator, as the munedi ate weapon of the oppress ed ..
of treac her y; the maJl ufactur er is a pru<lellt and skillful swindle r .. And it is odd
; ... the man 01 to reflect thal he was, as an author, giving free speech to fi ctitious
rebels while he
was, as a srupid politician, denying it to real ones?' G . K. Chesterton, Dickn.s,
trans. Laurent and Martin-Dupont (Paris, 1927), p. 175. 11 [dI 3a,2]
The same holds for Victor Hugo as for Dickens: "Dickens stands first as a defiant
monument of what happens when a great literary genius has a literary taste akin
to that of the community. For this kinship was deep and spirirual. Dickens waa
not like our ordinary demagogues and joumalists. Dickens did not write what
the people wanted. Dickens wanted what the people wanted .... He died in
1870; and the whole nation mourned him as no public man has ever been
moumed; for prime ministers and princes were private persons compared with
Dickens. He had been a great popular king, like a king of some more primal age
whom his people could come and see, giving judgment Wlder an oak tree." G . K..
Chesterton, DicAeru, trans. Laurent and Martin-Dupont (Paris, 1927), pp. 72,
168." [dI3a,3]
Le Nain jaune is founded by Aure.lien Scholl ; La Vie Parisienne, by Marcelin, a
friend of Worth 's. L'Etnlnement found ed in 1865 b y Vdleme88ant , with the partici­
pation of Rochefort. lola. and others in Ihe opposition . [d13a,4)
" Mires and the Pereire brothers . following the example of the Rothschilds. would
from time 10 time cause an unexpected shower, nol of gold but o( 8eCuritietl, to
descend on well-known poets, journalists, and playwrights. without involving any
direct obligation in return ." S. Kraca uer, Jacque, Offenbach und dw Pon.. .eiM,.
Zeit (Amllterdam, 1937), p . 252.:10 [d 14,I)
" A single one of the new sciences-that o( analogy.-,ught to yield authors a profit
o( five million to six million (rancs (or a sixteen-page installment." Charlet
Fourier, Le No uveau Montle indwtrielet ,ocUltai,.e (Paris, 1829), p . 35. [d14,2]
Number o( Paris newspaper subscribe rs: in 1824, ca. 47,000; in 1836, ca. 70 ,000;
in 1846, ca. 200,000. (Details (or 1824: 15,000 (or the government papen Jounaal
de Poru , Etoile, Gazette, Moniteur, Drapeau blanc, Pilote; 32,000 (or the opposi·
tion paper s Journal de. debGt" Con,uitutwnnel, Quotidienne. CourMe r M Pom.
Journal du Commerce, A,.utarque. ) [d14,3]
With the increase: in public advertising, newspapers turned against the annonuJ
diguisies <advertisements in disguise), which no doubt had brought in more for
journalists than for the administration. [dI4,4)
Aroulld Le Globe gathe,.ed , 88 edilors, the m01l1 importanl o( the laler OrleaoisU;
thill editorial sta(( included Cousin . Vulemain. Guizot . In 1829. Blanqui entered
the offIce aSlItenographe,., p articularl y a8 parliamentary stenographe,.. [d14,5)
The journalistic strain in the novels of Dumas: the first chapter of La Mohicans de
Paris already provides infonnation about what impost must be paid, in the event
one is arrested. for the privilege of an individual cc.ll; where the Paris executioner
lives; and what the best-known apache pubs of Paris arc. (dI4,6)
A young man (rom SI. Petersburg called I.e. Myste,.e, de fh ru "the foremost book
uft e,. the Bible." J . Eckardt , Die bulfi$chell I'rovillzcn Ru.ui<lnd, (Leipzig, 1869),
~- ~ I~
Valer )', in his introduction to Les Flcurs du mul (Pa,.is, 1928). 11 . xv, a ll Hugo: " For
more than sixty yea rs, this extraordinary mall was at his desk ever y day (,.om five
o'clock ill the morning until noon! He unremittingly called up new combinations o(
lallb'lJage, willed them, waited (or them, 1I11t1 hatl the satisfa ction of hearing them
respond to his call . He wrote one or two hund red thousand lines o( poetry and
acqui red . by that uninterrupted ext:rcise, a curious manner o( thinking which
superficial critics have judged as best they could.":l [d I4,8)
For nearly all the Romantics, the archetype of the hero is the bohemian; for
H ugo, it is the beggar. In this regard, one should not lose sight of the fact that
Hugo as writer made a fortune. (dI4a,I)
Hugo in Post-sc,.ipturn de rna vie: L 'Esprit; Ta.s de pierre. p . 1 (cited in Maria
Ley·DeutiCh , Le Gueux chez VlCtO,. Hugo, seriell entitled Bibliotheque de la FOil­
dation Victor Hugo, vol. 4 [Paris , 1936], p . 435); " Do you want a measure o( the
- civilizing power o( a rt ... ? Look in the prisonll (or a man who knows o( Mozart,
Virgil , and Raphael, who can quote Horace from memory, who is moved by 0,.­
phee and Der Freuchiitz . ... Look for such a man ... , and yo u will not find
him ." [dl48,2)
Regill Me8sac speak, o( an "epic period" which the (euilleton under Louis Philippe
enjoys. before it becomes a mass item in the Se.:ond Empire. The novels o( Gabriel
Feny belong to the beginning oftbe latter era, as tlo those o( Paul Feval. (d 14a,3)
One can speak, in cc.nain respects, of a contribution made by the physiologies to
,'detective fiction . Only, it must be borne in mind that the combinative procc:dure
of the detective stands opposed here to an empirical approach that is modded on
the methods of Vidocq, and that betrays its relation to the physiologies precisdy
through theJ ackal in UJ MohicaTIJ de Paris (cited in Messac <u "Detective .NOfJ(1"
t t I'itiffuenu de fa pensie srienhjique [Paris. 1929]>, p. 434), of whom it is said :
~One look at the ripped-open shutter, at the broken pane, at the knife slash was
enough: 'O h ho t' he said, 'I recognize thist It is the modus operandi of one 0/
them.'" [dI4a,4)
Veron pays 100 ,000 fran cs for Le Juij e,.runt befor~ a line hilS !.teen penned.
[dI4a,5)
"EVer y time a serial novel threatened to carry 0(( the prize. Balzac redoubled his
efrortll with Vaulrin . It wall in 18F- I838 thai Les ~temoires du dwble seemed to be
dominating tile 8erial format , and it was just at that point tll8t the series entitled
S/Jle1Uleur$ e' mi"ere" rle" COllrti"lHU!" began, In 1842- 1843, 1.£$ MY"'ere$ de Pan.,
a ppeared . and Balzac respondetl wi th A Corllbie" l 'A mour revient mIX vieillardt.
In 1&14 MOIlt e-CriMo. and in 1846 u.
Closerie (/es Celie",; the latter yea r saw the
publiclIlion of Ba lzac', Oli miment les mauvau chemills; the ycar after that, to
Dernicre incarllation de Va utrin . %Z If tlus dialogue ... did not continue any fur.
ther, it is lH!(:ause Balzac ... died shortl y afterward." Regis Mt.'8sac, Le "Detective
Novef' et "influence de Ie. IJe Il"&! scientifique ( Pa ris. 1929), pp. 403-1().1..
[d l h,6]
Under the Second Republic, an amendment to the law of July 16-19, 1850,
designed "to strike out against an industry that dishonors the press and that is
detrimental to the business of the bookstores." So declaims de Riancey, the
author of the amendment. The law imposes on each feuilleton a tax of one
centim e per copy. The provision was arutulled by the new and mon: seven: press
laws of February 1852, through which the feuilleton gained in importance.
(d15, I(
Nettement draws attention to the particular significance which the period for
subscription n:newal had for the newspapers. There was a tendency, at such
times, to begin publishing a new novel in the feuilletons even befon: the old one
had finished its run. In this same period of development, the reaction of readers
to the novels started to make itself felt mon: immediately. Publishers took note of
this tendency and gauged their speculations beforehand according to the tide of
the new novel. (dI5,2)
The novel published in installments can be seen as a precunor of the newspaper
feuilleton . In 1836, a periodical of KarT's for the first time undenook to publish
such installments-which later could be gathered under one cover-as a supple­
ment for its readers. [dI5,3)
Political attitude of Romanticism, acco rding to Baudelaire's conception in " PetnP
Borel" : " If the Restoration bad turned into a lH!riod of glor y, Romanticism would
not IUn'e parted compan y with royalty." " Later on , ... a misanthropic republi­
ca nism joined the new school , and Petrus Borel was the . . . most paradoxical
ex pressioll of the spirit of the BOllSingots . ... Thi.s spirit •. . . contrary to the
democratic and bourgeois passion which later so cruelly oppressed us. was excited
both by an aris tocr a tic ha tred ... for kings and t.he bourgeoisie, ami by a general
s ympa th y ... for 11 11 that ... was ... pessimistic III1tI Byro nic." Chllrle& Baude­
lai re, t 'Arl romlUltie/"e. t.'ti. lI uc hettc, ,'oJ. 3 ( Paris). PI" 354 . 353-354.. 23 [d 15,4)
" We i.1I 1'lIriHhave ... St.'1!11 the evolution of Romanticis m fa"o red h y the n10118 ""
chy, whilt' 1iI1~:ra I8 ulIIl republiculls alike remai nt!(1 obstifllliely wedded 10 the rou­
tilles of t.lml litl'ra tlli"1' "u ll,'d c1ussical. '· Baudelaire. I, 'A rl romulItie/lle (Pan.),
p . 220 ('" Uicluml Wagner ct 7hllllliiillser").:· [dI 5 ,5]
Three forms of hohemiani. m : "Thai of Theophile Gautier. Anent! Houssaye,
Ce rard de Nerval. Nes tor Rotlueplun , Camille Rogier, Lassailly, Edouard Our­
Iiuc-a voluntary boheme . .. where onc played at poverty ...• a bastard sciOli of
tbe old Romanticis m . .. ; thul of 1848 , of Murger. ChampReury, Barba ra , Nadar,
J ea n Wllllon. Schunne--trul y needy. thill boheme. but as quickl y relieved , tbanks
to all intellectual camaraderie . . . ; and that finall y of 1852, our boheme. not
"Ohlntary at all ... but cruelly gro unded in privation." Jules LevaUois , l'ttiliell de
$ I'~Ie'
...
~ •.iIIemoire' d 'un crit..
· ue(P aris <1895 » .1'1'· 90-9 1. [dl 5a, l j
Balzac sees human beings magnified through the mists of the future behind
which they move. On the other hand, the Paris he desai~ is that of his own
time; measured against the stature of its inhabitants, it is a provincial Paris.
[d I5a,2]
"What I have in mind here will become sufficientl y clear if I say that 1 find in
Balzac no interior life of any kind . but ra ther a devouring and wholly external
curiosity. which ta kes the form of movement without p assing through thought."
Alain , Avec Balzac (Pari. <1937», p . 120 . [d l 5a,3j
Laforgue on La Fill de Satan: " . remember a pbrase by M. Mallarme: Each morn­
ing. on rising from his bed. Hugo would go to the organ-like the great Bach . wbo
piled up score upon score without concern for other consequences." Earlier. on
the same page: "'('he organ continues as long as the score of the visible world lies
_ open before hill eager eye., and as long as there i. wind for tbe pipes ." Julea
Laforgue, Melall8es posthume$ (Pari. , 1903), pp . 130-13 1. [d l 5a,4j
" It has often been asked whether Victor Hugo bad an easy time composing. It is
clear that he wa. not endowed . or afRi cted , with that . trange facility in improvisa­
tion thanks to which Lamartine never cro.ted out a word. T he iron pen of the
laut; r sped rapidly along, b arely touching the satin y paper it covered with liplt
marks.... Victor Hugo makes the paper cry out under his pen, which itself cries
out. He reRec18 on each word ; be weigh! every expression ; he comes to res t on
periods, as one might sit upon a milestone--to contemplate the finished sentence,
along with the open apace in which the next sentence will begin." Louis Ulhach , Le,
Contemporains (Pa ris, 1883); cited in Raymond Escholier, Victor H~o raconte
pur ceux qui l'ont VII (Paris. 193 1). p. 353. [dI5a,5]
;'S Onl~ of the letters which reached him were addressed simply: Victor lIugo,
Oce(m ." Ra ymond Escholicr. Victor H"8o racollle par ceux qui l'on' VII ( Paris.
193 1). p. 273 ("Autornnc"). [d 15a,6]
An early, highly characteristic specimen of the feuilleton style in the letlre
parisirnne ofJanuary 12, 1839, from the pen of the vicomte de Launais (Madame
de Girardin): "There is a great deal of excitement over M . Daguerre's invention,
and nothing is more amusing tlwt the explanations of this marvel that are offered
in all seriousness by our salon savants. M. Daguerre can rest easy, however, for
no one is going to steal his secret. . .. Truly, it is an admirable discovery, but We
understand no thing at all about it: there has been too much explanation." MIn
de Girardin, Oeu!lt'tJ comple/e;, vol. 4, pp. 289-290; cited in Gist.le Freund ~
Pn%grapnit en Frana au X/X, Jiecit (Paris. 1936). p. 36. (d;6,1]
Baudelaire mentions " an immortal feuiUeton" by Nestor Roqueplan, "OU Vont lee
chiens?" <Wher e Do Dogs Go?" in Le Splee n de Pari& , ed. R. Simon (Pari.), p. 83
(" I.es Bons Chiens"). u [dI6,2]
On Lamartine, I-Iugo, Michelet: "There is lacking to these men so rich in taleot_
as to their predecessors in the eighteenth century-th at secret part of study
whereby one forgets one'. contemporaries in the sea rch for truths. for that which
afterward one can lay before them." Abel Bonn ard, Les Modere,. in the aene.
entitled Le Drame du present , vol. I (Paris (1936,) , p. 235. (dI 6,3)
Dickens: " There was a great deal of the actual and unbroken tradition of the
Revolutioll itself in his early radical indictments; in his denunciations of the Fleet
Prison there was a great deal of the capture of the Bastille . There was, above aU,.
certain reasonable impatience which was the essence of the old Republican, .Dd
which is «uite unknown to the Revolutionist in modern Europe. The old R.dical
did not feel ex:actly that he was ' in revolt'; he felt if anything that a number of
idiotic institutions h ad revolted against reason and against him." G. K. Cheeter­
ton , Dickens, trans. Laurent and Martin-Dupont (Paris, 1927), pp. 164-165."
[dI6,4)
Gusta ve Ceffroy (L'Enferme <Paris, 1926" vol. I , pp . 155-156) poinll out thai
Balzac never described the un res t of the Parisian population in his day. , the dub
life, the 81reetcorner prophets , and so on-with the pon ible exception of Z. M.,....
cas, that slave of Lows Philippe'& regime. (dI6,5]
During the July Revolution, Charles X had handwritten appeals distributed
among the insurgents by his troops. See Gustave Geffroy, L 'Enferme. vol. I, p. SO.
[dI6,6)
..It is ... importa nt to conceive of the possibility of reorienting aesthetic•...
toward influences operating on man thanks to r eprescnt ations engendered by the
morphology of society itself. .. It is still more important to demonstrate that
phenomena of this kind occur witll tile advent of universal literacy [that is to eay,
with the instiltJtion of compulsory primary school education. which was estab­
liehed at precisely the same time that the myth of Paris was formed (_Note)]."
Roger CaiJlois, " Paris, mythe moderne;' Nouvelle Revuefram;aise. 25 , no. 284
(May I , 1937). p. 699. (dI6a.l}
Caulier. ill his " Victor Hugo." on the red waistcoats at t.he premiere of Herna";":
"'To avoid the infamouJI red of '93, we had added a slight amount of purple 10 0Ul'
tillt. We di,l nol wi.sh to have any political motive attributed to us." Cited in
Ra ymond Escholier, Victor Hugo rtlcollte par cenx (1(li 1'0111 VII (Paris. 1931),
p. 162. [d16a,2J
1852: " The reputation of the a uthor of Hemflni had I)asseti , by the peculiar con­
duits of bohemerie and utopianism. from the Latin Quarter to tbe faubourgs or
PariS. T hen, suudenly, the grea tmctaphorist had had the r evelation of the dogma
of the sovcreign people .... T his revelation encompassed, at the same time , the
projects of Michelet and Quinet and man y another writer of lesser ability, such as
Considirant ." LeOIi Daudel , lA. Tragit/ue Existence de Vic tor Hugo (Paris
<1937,), p. 98.-Around trul time, Hugo made a speech to the troops . Id16a,3]
Hugo: " It was during one of those desolate excursiolll that the sight of a ship run
agrounu 011 a namcless r ock, its keel in the air, gave Hugo the idea for a new
Robinson Cr wDe, which he would call Les Tm vaiUe urs de to mer <The Toiler s of
the Sea" labor and the sea comprising the two poles of his exile .... Whereas in
. . . Les Contemplations he hatllulled hil agonb:ing regret for the loss of his eldest
daughter to the sea, he went on, in the prose of Les Tra vailleurs. to soothe the
sadness he felt for the daughtel' who had 8ailed away. This marine element, tben,
was decidedJ y linked , by chains of black, to his destiny." Leon Daudet , La
Tragique Existence de Victor Hugo (Paris), pp. 202-203. [dI6a,4]
Juliette Drouet: " It is likely ... that , beyond the question of former lovers a nd of
debts, this propensity for ancillary amours , wruch attended the poet ... from his
thirtieth year until the c.nd of rus life, made him want to reduce his pretty actress
to a subordinate position , to the position of begga r woman , ... and the famous
expiation might well have been only a metamorphosis of desire." Leon Daudet , La
Tragique Exi&tence de ViClor Hugo (Paris), pp . 61-62. (d I7,1]
Leon Daudet maintains that the failu re of Le Roi s'amwe in 1832 turned Hugo
llgainst the monarchy. (d I7,2]
Hugo's panegyrics to wuis Na poleon were published in L ·Evenement. [d17,3)
From the record of the spiritualist sessions on Jersey (cited in Albert Beguin,
~mt romantiqut tt It relit (Marseilles, 1937], vol. 2), to which Beguin appends the
JUSt remark (p. 397): "Hugo transports all that he takes up-and which could
~ppear pure foolishness wcre reason alo ne to jud ge-into his mythology, a little
like the primitive savage initiated into the beauties of free and compulsory public
education. But his vengeance (and his destiny as well) will be to become, himsclf,
the myth of an age devoid of all mythic meaning." H ence, Hugo tranSported
spiritualism into his world. "Every great spirit carnes on in his life twO works: the
work of the Iivi.ng person and the work of the phantom.... Whereas the living
~ perfoons the first work, the pensive phantom - at night, amid the universal
Silence-awakes within the man. 0 terror! 'What,' says the human being, 'that is
llot all?'-'No: replies the spe~er. 'Get up ! Up! There is a gmt wind abroad, the
h ounds and the foxes are yelping, darkness is everywhen, and nature shudders
and trembles under the whipcord of God.' .. . The writer-specter sees the phan.
tom ideas: \\b~ take fright, sent~~ces shiver, ... the windowpane grows dim,
the lamp IS afratd.... Take care, livmg man, 0 man of a century, 0 proscript of
a terrestrial idea! For this is madness, this is the tomb, this is the infinite-this is a
phantom idea" (p. 390). The "great spirit," in the same contat: "He encountcn
certitude sometimes as an obstacle o n his path, and clarity sometimes as a fear"
(p. 3 91 ). -From Prut-Scriptum tit ma vie: "There exists a hilarity of shadOWs.
Noctumallaughtcr Soats in the air. There are merry specters" (p.396). (dI7,4]
Hugo famously intoxicates himself- and not o nly in William Shakespeare--with
lon g lists of the names of great geniuses. In this regard, o ne should recall the
poet's passio n fo r imagining his own name writ large; we know he read an HiD.
the towers o f Notte D ame. Another aspect o f the matter is disclosed by his
spiritualistic experiences. The great geniuses whose names he tirelessly rehearses,
always in a different o rder, are his "avatars," incarnations of his own ego, and the
m ore p resent for being ranged so before it. [dI7a,l)
Just as, during the ",,"ling o f Notre·Dame de Paris, Hugo every evening would
visit o ne of the towers of the cathedral, so on Guernsey U ersey?) he sought out
the rocher des prrucrits <exiles' rock>, &om which every afternoon he would c0n­
template the ocean. [dI7a,2]
TIlls decisive passage, which explodes the status o f consciousness within the __
century, &om "Ce que dit Ia Bouche d 'o mbre" :
VW:ep for the unclean spider, for the worm,
For the slug whose back. is wet as winter,
For the vile lowe that hangs upon the leaf,
For the hideous crab, and the appalling ccruipcde,
For the dreadful tOad, poor monster with p ue eyes,
Who is always gazing at the mysterious sky.
The last line sh ould be compared with that o f Bau delairr:'s "Les Avcugles."27
[dI7a,3)
Sainte-Beuve on Lamartine's role in 1848: " What he did 1I0t foresee is that he
would be the Orpheus who later, for a time, would di rect alld goverll , with hd
golden lyre, this invasioll of barbarians." C. A. Sainte-Beu ve. Le, COrl,olarioru:
Perl$ee, d 'aolit , poems, IJa rt 2 (Paris, 1863), p . 118. [dI7a,4]
"'One remembers that the china a lld the tables began to dallce, while the rest of tbe
world seemed to be standing Still- ill order to ellcourage the others." Karl Mars,
Da~ Kapitai ( vol. I >, ed . Korsch (Berlill <1932» <p. 83 >. i!II [dI 7a,5]
III a note ill Oru Kopilal (ed. Korsch . p . 54 1). Mar x speaks of " Bab ac, who sO
thoroughl y studied ever y shade of avarice.·>1'0 IdI 7a,6)
Le Bolieme-was, a t fi rs t, the or,;all of the proletarianizetl inteileetuaJIJ of Del·
Villi 'S gcncr atioll. [dla,l ]
Bou rget 0 11 lJal:w c: " Certain of his characters were 11101'1' Iruc-to-lifc in 1860 than
in 1835:· ,\ . CerfLerr a nd J . Ch.ristophe . R elJerlOire de i ( 1 Com« lie lillmcline
(Paris. 1887), p. v (illlr()(luClion h y Pa u] Bourgct). <See {IS. I. > [d I8,2]
Takin g a cue fro m H ofmanns thal (VerJuch iiber Vic/or Hugo <Munich, 1925>,
pp. 23-25), onc could provide an account of thc binh o f the newspaper from the
spirit of rhetoric,:JO and emph asize how the sp irit of rep resentative political dis·
cou rse h as confomlcd to that o f empty chattcr and civic gossip. [dI 8,3l
0 11 the feu.illetoll : " Avid for gain , the editors of the big newsp apers have not
wa uted 10 demand that their feuilletonists write criticism fOlWded 011 convictioll
and 011 truth . Their cOlivictiOIiShave too often changed. " This the judgmellt of the
Fourierisl press. H. J. Hullt , Le Soc illiisme et /e romcmtn me en France: Etude de
fa preue , ocia/isle (Ie 1830 a 1848 (Oxford , 1935) <po L42 >. (dI 8,4]
Lamartine's politico-poetic program , mOlh:1 for fascist programs of toda y: "The
ignor ance and limitlity of governlllents . . . has the effect, within all the parties, of
disgusting one b y Olle those men endowed with breadth of vision and generosity of
heart . EaciJ , in his turn , disencha nted with the mendacious symbols that no longer
represent tiJem, these men are going to congregate arowld ideas alone .... It is to
help bring forth cOllviction , to add one voice mor e to this political group, that I
tenllHJruil y fC.nounce my solitude." Lamartine, " Des Deslinees de la lKt&ie" [sec­
ond prefll ce to Le, Meditations] , in Le5 Cr(Jtld Ec ri lJ(Jin~ de la France: La­
marti'le . vol. 2 (Paris, 1915), pp . 422-423. {dI8,5j
On the serial novel in Sue's day ; " The need to whieh these fa ntasies respond is that
of discovering some relation IIlIIong evelils that appear 10 be utter ly r andom. Ob­
scurel y, the imagililltion per suades itself t.h nt aU these inequalities of social exist­
ence, thelie downfalls li nd ascents, constitute one ancllile ,a me great a C lion~in
other words, tha t they prO(.'e ed from a single cause a mi a re connected one to
anothcr. Tilt: tlc\'e!opmcnt of Ille scrial novel pa rallels the creation of the social
~ ~cie licC8." Cassoll . Q,W I'{Ulle-Jlllil (Pll ris <1939» . p . 15 . [d 18,6]
Cassou on the " dcmocr ll tic lyricism of La lllal'tiJlt:'·; " We t1.iIiCO\·er in thili a secret
thouglll : our POSIiCIi8ioIlS. II10nl; wilh all thl~ir II'ain uf spiritual delights, accom­
\lany liS tu the \'er y thl'eshuld uf imlllortalit y. Ilarllly bwaehetl in Milly. 0 11 la terre
fl u/(.Ie. this theme hu rsts forth ill U I Visne et In mui$Oll . exp ressing Lama rtille's
sUp rellle .Iesire-th ll t of living u ll in a realm of ph ysical immortality where e\'er y
object I'I'\'scrw~s it!! perfc.·t <llId 8uvu ry rClllity. This j·schut ol" gy. no .Iou"t . differs
a lillie fl'u lII the PUI'{' spiritualism uf l.a Mort de Socrrr tc. wit h its Pla lunic inspira­
tion .... Uut it revcals the prUfOlilltllllltu.re of this IIristOl'r atic lalltlOI'O·ucr." J ea ll
Cassou . Qun l'{lnte·huit (Pa ris), I)' 173. [d I8a, I]
The gargoyles of Notre Dame must be jwt about contemporary with Victor
Hugo's noYd. "H ere VioUet·le-Ouc., ... whose work was so sharply criticized,
has ac.complished something remarkable. These devils and monsters are ac.tua1ly
d~ndants of the gro~ues created in the ~dd.le Ages ~ the possessed imagi.
nabon, everywhere seemg demons, really scemg them." Fn tz Stahl, Paris (Berlin
<1929» , p. 72. ~ meet with the anaJogous phenomenon, it seems, in Hugo. At
stake here, perhaps, is a question, one that coincides lVith the question: Why is
the nineteenth century the century of spirirualism? {d18a,2]
An important relation bet,,:ttn information and feuilleton is indicated by LaVtt.
dam (this, at any rate, is how the signet "Lm" is read by Hunt, Le SociaJisrTk et Ie
romantisme (II France [Oxford, 1935]) : "The distressing disputes ... between Ger.
many and France, the war in Africa-do not such facts deserve as much attention
as skillfully told stories of fornler times or of individual misfortunes? lbis being
the case, if the public ... reads these great national novels chapter by chapta;
why do you wish to impose on it, all at one time, your tale or your doctrine? ...
Division 0/ lahar and ;hort ;ith'ngs: such are the requirements of the reader." Lm,
"Revue critique du feuilleton," La Phalange, July 18, 1841; in La Phalange. 3rd
series, vol. 3 (Paris, 1841), p. 540. [d18a,3]
" Victor Hugo, . . . according to a description by Theophile Gautier. would mD
together on the same plate a cutlet , beans in oil , a ha m omelette, and Brie eh_ .
and would drink cafe au Jait seasoned with a d as h of vinegar and a spot of mu.­
tard." R. 8[ runet] . " La Cuisin e rigionale," Le Temps, April 4. 1940. [dI9] ___
t--------­
[The Stock Exchange, Economic History]
';Napoleon N!1)r Csented the last onslaught of revolutionary terror against the
bourgeois society which had been proclaimed by this same Revolution. and against
its policy. Napoleon . of coune, already discerned the euenee oftbe modern state;
he undentood that it is based on the unhampered development of bourgeois soci­
ety. on the free movement of private interest , and so fortb.... Yet , at the same
time, he still rega rded the state as an end in illielf and civil life onl y as a pune­
bearer.... He perfected the Terror by substituting permanent war for permanent
revolution .... If he despoticaUy supp ressed the liber alism of bourgeois society-
the political idealism of its daily practice--he sbowed no more consideration for its
essential material interests, trade and industry. whenever tbey conRieted with his
political interests. His scorn for industrial homme. d 'a/Jaire. was the complement
to his scorn for ideologues .... Just as the li.beral bourgeoisie was opposed once
more by revolutionary terror in the person of Nal)oleon, so it was opposed once
more by counterrevolution during the Restoration , in the penon of the Bourbons.
Finally, in 1830, the bourgeoisie put into effect its wishes of the year 1789, the onl y
difference being that illl political enlightenment was now complete, tha t it D O
longer considered the constitutional re presentative state as a means for achievinr;
tbe ideal of the state, the welfare of the world, and universal huroan aims but, on
the contra ry, had acknowledged it as the official expreu ion of iu own exclusive
power and the political recognition of its own special interests." Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels . Die heilise Familie; cited in Die lIelie Zeit, 3 (Stuttgart. 1885),
PI>. 388-389. 1 {gl , l]
A schema from Edgar Quinet's De la R evolution et de 10. phiuuophie: "The d evel­
0llmellt of German philosophy ... a sort of theory of the French political revol u·
tion . Kallt is the COllstitucnt Assembly. Fichte the Convention , ScheUing the
Empire (in light of his veneratioll of physical force). and I-Iegel appears as the
nC~ tora ti OIi lind the Holy AUiallcc." <Eduard > Sehmidt-Weissenfels, Portraiu
au.s Frankreich (Berlin , 188 1). p . 120 (" Edgar Q uinet uDd der fra n.r:osische Na·
tionalhaO" <Edga r Quinet alld Frcnch 'ational Hatred> ). {g1.2]
Cuizot n~illi8lry. "Corrupting the electoral colleges WIi S a simple mailer. T hese
Colleges gcnerally comprised few eleclon; man y cont ained less than 200. among
which were government bureaucrats. The Istter obeyed the orders they were
given ; ss to ordin ary e1ec;tors. one could lilly them hy giving their dependents snd
favo rites things likctohacco shops or ~c holu rs hip8 . or by giving the elector himself
somc impo rts nt administrative post. III Ihe Chumber, as in the electoral colle~
government bureM ucrMls were 'Iuite numerous: more than a third of the d eputi~
( 1M out of 459, in 1846) wertl prefects. magistrates. officiuls. The minister Con.
trolled them by fueling their hopes for s d vancement . . . . To reach a majority
thirty or forty deputies were needed. Guizot 101'011 them with concessions for tar •
state projects (this was in the early days of railroad construction) or by giv!
them a share of die contract for s upplies to the state. Corruption was thus built u
into a systcm of government , Mnd the numerous scandMls Mt I.he end of the r~
make glaringly elear that the underlingtl worked the system just as well as the
prime minister." A. Malet and P. Grillet, XJX~ Siecle (Paris, 1919), pp. 95, 97.
Lamartintl81)Oke, at this tinle, of the danger of an "electoral aris tocracy" (1847).
[gla.l ]
"On Jul y 2S, 1831 , a Parisian man dis plays his portrait together with that of Low.
Philippe. providing them with the foll owing caption : ' There is no distance separal.
iug Philippe from me. He is the citizcn. kiug; I am the king-citizen,''' Gi.&e1a
Freund , " La Photographie au point de vue sociologique n (manuscript . p . 31).
citing J ean J aures, HiJtoiresociamte: Le Reglle de umu-Philippe. p. 49. [gla,21
''' Paris is as sad as l)I)ssible; wrote the author of Colomba at the height or the ­
I P reface to Un Grand Homme de province a Pa,.u ; cited in Georges Batault. I.e
exhibition . ' Everyolle is afraid withoul kllowing why. It is a sensation akin to tbal
produced by the music of Mozart wheu the COllllllelidatore is about 10 enter.! ...
The leasl little incident is awaited like a catastrophe.'" Adolphe Oemy. E" oi
hu torique ,ur les exposition, univer, elle, de Paru (Paris, 1907), pp . 173- 174.
[gla,3]
Some light on Nal)Oleon's relatioll to the bourgeoisie around 18 14. "The emperor
hod evince,1 the greu test relucta nce Itt the prospect of arming the PariSI)Opulation.
Fearing the revolutionary s pirit, he had refused the services of 50,000 workers,
most of th tlm forrner 8oldiers; he had wanted to organize companies ... made up
solely of citizens of the IUlllltl hourgeoisie--thal is to ~ ay, tllose who were inclined
10 regard the allies MS lihera tors.... Pt-,ople cur!llld Na poleon's naille. Witnen.
leiter to Colonel Greiner, se.:olld ill COlllmand at the Ecule ... : 'April II . IS14. J
Cowa rdl y slave of all equally cowardly Illas ter! Give me hack my son ! lJIoodthiral­
il-, r evell than the tyrallt , you have outdolle him in cruelt y by delivering up to
enemy fire the chiM ren we entrusted to yo ur carc--we who Ldie' ·e in the law that
guarantet:d their education . Where are they? Yuu will answer for this with your
1\I:ad! All the 1I10tllel's III·e nUI/'ching against you , and I myself, I promise yo u , will
wring yo ur m.-c k wilh Ill )' ow n two halllill if III )' SO li does nut reappear soon . "
G. Pinet . Jli.stoi,.e de rEcofe IJo f)·tecllfliqlle (Paris. 1887) . PI' . 73-74.80-81. The
I,·ltcl' is from the futher of Enflllliin. {g2,I]
" Protesta ntism ... did away with the sain ts in heaven 80 118 10 be able to abolish
their fea Bt days 011 earth. The Revolution of 1789 underslOOII still hetler what it
\O.IIS allOut. The reforll1ed reiigiou had held 0 11 to Sunda y; Lut for the revolution­
IIr)' bourgeois . Ihat ontl day of rest coming every seven days was too much , and
the). therefore substituted fur the se" en-da y week the ten. day week <it. decode),
so that the d ay of rest recurred but ever)' tell tlays. Alld in order to bury all
memory of the ecclesiastical holy da ys ... , they replaced the Dames of saints, in
the repuhlican calendar, with the names of metals . planu, and animals." Paul
Lafargue, " Die christliche Liehestatigkeit" (Die neue Zeit, 23, no. 1 (Stuttgart).
W~~ · ~
" 1.11 the fi rst days of the Revolution , tilC (Iuestion of the poor assumed ... a very
distinct and urgent character. Baill)" who initially had been elected mayor of Paris
for the express purpose of alleviating the misery of the ... workers, I)acked them
into masseS and cooped them up--!lome IS.(M)() peoplc--like wild animal8, 011 the
hill of Montmartre. Those who stormed the Ba8tille had workers with cannons
emplaced there, lighted match in hand . . . . Had the war not drawn the unem­
ployed a lld destitute laborers from town and countryside ... into the army, and
shuttled them off to the borders• ... a popular uprising would have spread across
the whole of France:' Paul Lafargue. " Die christliche Liebe3tatigkeit n [Die neue
Zeit. 23, no. 1 (Stuufl:a rt), p . 147]. [g2,3]
" Our century, in which the sovereign is everywhere except on the throne." Babac,
Pontife d e la demagogic: Victor Hugo ( Paris, 1934). pp. 230-231. [g2a, l ]
On the writings of Napoleon 111 : "A !Illt of commonplaces developed with sustained
solemnity ...• a perpetual claslLing of antitheses, and then suddenly a striking
formulation that captivates by its air of gra ndeur or seduces by its generosity ...•
along with ideas .....hich are so confused that one can no longer distinguish them in
the depths where they're appare ntly Luried, but which. at the very moment one
despai rs of ever finding them , burst forth with the sound of trumpets ." Pierre d e
la Gorce, Nupoieon III et sa pofitique (Paris), pp. 4. 5; cited in Batauh . Le Pontife
~e to delllugogie. pp. 33-34. {g2a,2]
Transition from the Napoleonic milita ry regi me to the lH!acetime regime of the
R ~ t oration. Engravings titled 1'he Soldier-Labo,.e,., The Sofdier-Reaper,. Gener·
osi'J of (I french SoMier. TIl e Tomb of ,lie Bru tie. Cabinet des Esta mpes. [g2a,3]
'·WIIt!n . around 1829. M. de Saillt· Cricq . director of CII8tOIlIS, alinOUIiCed the
('ollimercial shutd"wlI .........e were incl·etiuiouij. It ..... as so serious t.iUlt it ca used
the Jul)' Hevolutioll . On the eve of Fehruary 1848. du r ing tile hardl winter t.hat
)Irt'cetletl ii, the shutdown returned , alltl with it UIlClIIllhJ)·ment . Twent y yea rs
later. ill 1869, here it is again . No one has an)' desire for ellterprise. The current
goverllJllClll , with its Cri:dit Mohilier and other eompallitlll, IIll 6 0 advanLageou8 to
 the Stock Exchange, diverted for len years the agricultural and indul lnal capital H ;
that earne comparatively little interett . Its free-trad e trea ty, opening France to
~ngli8 h industry in 1860, ... bro~ght utter ruin (rom the oulaet . Nonnaody '.y.
It caonot r ecover. Much lell the Ironworks of the North," J . Michelet, No.flU
(Paris. 1879). pp. 300-301. [g2a,4)

A copper engraving of 1818: Xenomenia Impugned, or It , No Disgrace To Be

French . On the right, a column inscribed with the n ames of fa moul battlea .. weD
as famous works of art and literature. Under" it, a young man with the honor roll of
industry; hi. foot r estll OD a . beet bearing the lnIK:ription, " Productt of Foreip
Manufacture," Facing him, another Frenchman, who proudly pointa toward the
column . In the background, an E nglish civilian debates with a French . oldier. AD
four perIODS provided with caption8. Floating above in the sky and blowin« into a

. trumpet, the 6gure-eharply r educed in scale---of an angel. From hil horn banp
a tablet with the words : " To Immortality." Cabinet del El tampes. [g2a,5j

" If you pau in front of the Stock Exchange at noon, you will see a 10I13line . . . •
This line is composed of men from all walks of life--bourgeois , penMonen, lbo~
keepers , porter a, errand bOYl, postmen, artis18 and acton-who come there to PI
a place in the 6rel row, around the circular enclosure.... Positioned dOle to tbe
floor, next to the public crier, they pun::hase sharel of Itock which they aelI 011
during the aame &euion. That old while-haired fellow who offers a pinch of uudf
to the guard passing by is the dean of these speculaton.... From the seneralblk
of the trading on the 800r and off, and from the faces of the etockbroken, be iI
able to divine. with a marvelous instinct , the rise or the fall of stock$. " [Tadle
Delord ,) Parn-80ursier (Paris, 1854), pp. 44.-46 ("Le. Petiu Parifl"). [ga,l)

On the Stock Exchange: ""The Boune dates only from the time of M. de V1IWe.
There was more initiative and more Saint-Simonianil m in the mind of thit minider
from Toulouse than is generall y believed .... Under hi, administration , the poei­
tion of stockb roker was sold for up to one million francs. T he 6rst word. 01
speculation, though, were harely a lisp; the meager four billion in French debt, the
several million in Spanish and ... Neapolitan debt, were the alphabet by which it
learned to read .... One put one'a faith in the fa r m, in the hou&e.... Of. rich
man it was said : he h88 land in the SUD and a house in town! ... It was not until
1832, after the ... sennonl of Saint-Simonianism , ... that the country found
iuelf . .. suddenly ripe for its great Mancial destin y. In 1837, an irrelistible force
could be observed attracting attention to the Bourse; the creation of the raiJroad
added new momentum to this force.... The petite-couliu:e in the colonnade (&ee
Convolute 0 , note 9> does the bUl iness of the petty bourgeoisie, just· beyond, the
contre-petite-couliue handles the capital of the proletariat . The one operatel for
the porters, cookl, coachmen , grill.room proprietor• • habe rdas hers, aDd waite";
Ihe other descend. a nOlch in the locial hierar chy. One day we said to our&dVel:
' The cobhler. the match seller, the boiler cleaner, and the fried -I)Otalo vendor
know how 10 put their capilal 10 use; let'. make the greal market of the Bount'
L'Elrangrmumie blam«, ou D'Efrt Franrau it nJ apas d'aifrrmt
(Xcnomania bnpugned, or It's No Oi5grace to Be Fre:nch).
Counesy of the Bibliotheque Nationale de France. See g2a,5.
. ~vaiJahle to thenl.... Thus, we OIK!ned up the contre-/Je' i'e-couli.ue. tradin« be­
Yond Ihe tllCter nal market . We sold sha res at a fixed rate of 3 fran cs, 50 centinles,
and made a profit of one centime. Business was boomiog ill this ma rket when the
debacle of la8t lIIonlh occurred .'" [TalCile Delord ,) I'(lris-Hollrsier (Paris, 1854),
1111.6-8.56.....')7 (" Les Petits Paris"). (g3 ,2]
Conullert'ial crisis of 1857 all cause of the Ii alian campaign . [g3.31
"Enfantin elChorts hi:8 lw lhical comrades ... 10 establish . in addition to Ihe ' i,lllu8­
trial Crt:llil ~ already ill elCistence, .111 ·illlcllL..:tuul credit ...• T his wa~ ill 1863! C. L.
de Liefde, 1..e Suint-Simonis me dlJlu h1 Iwetlicjru'I(;(lise, 1825-1865 dluarlclII ,
19
27), p . 11 3. [g3a, I]
Bau ac'j portrait of the speculator Dia rd in Le$ Marcma : " He demanded th,"_
and-$uch perce nt 0 11 the purcll ose of futeen legislative vo tes, which passed., in the
space of one n.ight , from the bellchel of the I...eft to those of the Right . That 80rt of
thing is 11 0 longer robbery, or any 10rt of cri me; it is l inlply carrying on the
government , becoming a silent partner in the n ational industry." Cited in Ahbe
Charles CaLippe, 8(1iz(lc: Se$ idee$ $ociale$ (R eillli alltl Par il ( 1906 », p . 100.5
[gO.,'}
meeting 11.1 a whole, there are 24,000 transac tioDs to be concluded. Each of these
IrailSaCtiOIll! ca n involve twent y, fort y, or a hUlidred illdividuals, who must be
consulted and illtngued with or against. ... Negotiations a re carried on quietly,
by means of l iptals. Each negotialOr holds up the escutcheons of the grolllJ' or
phalanxes which he reprelCntS, aud by certain prea rranged signs he indicates the
approJ(imatc number of members he has recruited ." Publication de$ nlelnl/lerit!
de Fourier (Pa ris, 1851- (858), 4 vola. , Year 1851. pp. 19 1- 192.6 {g4,2)

" It Wil.l in ... 1838 that tbe government , in the perlOn of M. Martin from Nord T he term Bour!e de tra vaiJ <Labor E"change) Was coined b y Fourier, or a Foun­
had the good idea of bringing before the Chamben the p roject of a p-eat network erist. [g' ,3}
of !la tiollal railways-a gigantic undertaking which t.he sta te alone would carry
oul. . .. Against this untoward governmental project Le Journal del debal' In 1816 there were lIeven listingB on the Stock Exchange ; in 1847, mo re than two
launched a devastating attack , from which the project didllot recover. Two yean hundred. [" ,' }
later, the conce88ion for the two principal lines of the West and tbe South was
granted b y the sta te to two large COnllJanies .. . . Five years later, . .. Pere Enlao_ In 1825 , according to Marx ,' the fi rs t crisis of modern indul try-that is, the 6n t
tin was IICCretary of the administra tive council of the Lyonl railr oad , ... and the crisis of capitalism. {g4,5)
pact between Saint-Simon a nd Judea. . was sealed forever . ... All this wal the
work of the .' a ther (see U14a . 1> . . . . Too many J ewish names appea r 00 the
membership rolls of the Saint-Simonian church for us to be s urprised at the fact
that the system of fin ancial feudalism was el tablished by the disciples of Saint­
Simoll ." A. Toussellel, I.e! l uif$, rou de J'epoquB (Panl <1886» , ed. Gonet.
pp . 130--133. fg3 a,3}

"It was 1I0t the Frellch bourgeoisie as such that r uled under the bourgeoil kinI, ­
but merely . . . the fman cial aristocr acy. The entire industrial corps, on the other
hand, was in the opposition ." Eduard Fuchs, Die Karikatur der europauchera
VOlker (Munich <1 92 1» , vol. I , p . 365. [g3a,4}

"B efore 1830, large-scale agricultu re held /i way over public policy; after 1830, the
manufacturer s took its place, but their reign h ad alread y developed under the .
regime which had been overthrowlI by t.he harricades . . .. Whereas 15 factories
had bei:n e(luipped with machines in 18 14, there were 65 in 1820 and 625 in 1830."
Paul Louis, IJiJloire de w cw u e ouvriere en France, de la Revolution no! joun a
(Par il, 1927). I.P. 48-49. [g3a,5]

"'The ensla\'ement of governments is 011 the incr ealC, and the inlIuence of s peeula­
tors h as grown to such an extellt thai the gandlling dell of the Boun e hal beco~
the compan of puhlic opinion ." Cited in f: Armand and R . J\taubianc, FoulU r
(Pa ris , 1937), vol. 2 , p . 32. [g4,l j

Fourier's Bourse: " There is much more animatioll and illtrigue at the Stock Ex­
ch ange of a Phalanx than t1lcre is a t the stock exchangell of Londoll alld Amster­
d am . For every ind ividual lIIust go to the E"c1lange to a rrange his work and
pleasure SC!jllionll ror the fo llowing daYIl . .. . Assuming thai 1,200 individuals are
prc~cnt , 1I1111111at ellch one has twcnt y IIcssion8 to IIrrallg.~ , this means that , in ,be
•I
[Reproduction Technology, Lithography1
- , 11",II ,'"
"The social philosophy of the art of lithograph y at its beginnings ... Mter tbe
image maker, of the Napolt:onic legend, after the literar y artisu of Romonticiam,
came the chroniclers of the dail y life of the French . The flrll group I1Ilwittin«ly
paved the way for political upheavals, the second hu tened the evolution of litera­
ture, a nd the third contributed to the profound demarcation between the aritto(:_
racy and the people." Henri BOIiChol , La Lithographie (Paris <1895», pp. 112,
114. [il ,l]
Pigal portrays the people; Monnier, the petty bourgeoisie; Lallli, the aristocracy.
[;1,21
The important contribution of amateurs can be observed in the early days or-­
lithography, exactly as it can later in photography. [il,3)
"The contest bell. .. een lithography ami stipple-engraving accelerates from d.y to
day. bllt , since tile eud of 181 7, the victory h as belonged to lithography, thanks 10
the existe nce of ca ricature." Henri 8 0llchot , La Lithographie (Pan. <1895)),
p. 50. [il ,fl .
&uchot looks on lithographs produced before 1817 as the incuna~ oflithog·
raphy. From 1818 to 1825, lithographic production in France steadily ~ds.
Polilica1 circumstances made this upsurge much more visible there than m other
countries. I ts decline, too, is in part conditioned by politics: it coincides with the:
rise of Napoleon III "The fact is ... that, of ~e illustrious number present un;;
the reign of Louis Philippe, there remained, m the early years of Napoleo~ , "'lle n he is offe n !tl a gllllJS of ....ine. installing himself comfortabl y on the IIl'hol­
barely four or five exhausted , d isoriented survivors." H enri Bouchot, La LI~~lo~i
raphit (Paris), p. 182. I •
Lithogra phy towanl the c luj of tile 5econd Emplre: ' ' ' S 0 man y 11 III· 1....
..... worked
agaiml it! The ncwl y revived e tc hing, the nascent lu·liogrnphic proceslw.8. al.ld ~
!lo mc eXle nt 1111: hllrin . Ma terially, il fOllndere(1 undcr the difficulties a!l!OC la t
with print.ing- thc e nc umiJra nee of those ve ry Ilt~lIv)" stones. wllieh the edilOrI
refu!ietl to warcllOu,.e as beforc. " Ile nn' 8 0 uc IlOt . IAI
' I""' hogr(fp hIe' (I' ans,
') p '.193.61
[11 ,
Raffet undertook lithogra phic re portage in the Crimea .
1835- 1845: .. It should ... not he forgoth~ n tJlllt the l a r~e-sca lc co n~lIIercia l opera­
[iI ,7)
1.10
_
lIIa~S-p
.
,
~ h,
II tllllit
odUCtiOIl
· lillie , was IlJUlerwa)" in wood e ngr avlllg ve r y (IUlckly ... led to
tecimi1llle8. A woodcutte r wouJd ma . ke onJy the head8 or figures
wor k while a nother Jess s killed. o r a n a pprentice, would ma ke the acceuo­
III a
' _ ,I Ie..., kgro ulltls and so on . Out of s uc h a d'IVIIIIOIi
b.- c ,_ Ullt'fi e d
, , 0 f Ia b or notlllJlg
r"~~ . ,
cou III . . . emerge" . Eduard Fuci18, lIonore Dtlumie r : llolzschnitte. 1833-1870
(MulI.ic h <1918», p . 16. [il ,8]
The first a tlempt a t introducing lithograph y into France, undertaken by Selle­
fei !ler-8 associate Andre d 'Offcnbac h , was a comple te failllre. " H e had ... moved
10 France solei)" with tile intention of selling mus ical 8cores printed by means of
lithography. The pa tent had beell taken o ut in ILis name in 1802 , a nd he had
opened a 8hop, ... little suspecting: : . wha t Was in store fo ~ the di8oovery.... :-s
a mallcr of fa ct , it was not a n a usplclOliS moment for the nunor arts of transcnp­
tiOIl . The master David expressed olily the haughtiest disd ain for engraving; at
most , he had a few kind words for the coppe r-plate technique. Andre's enterprise
was ve ry 80011 in jeopard y." Henri 80llChot , La Lilhographie (Pari8 ( 1895)),
W- pl~
On Oo re's contributio ns to Le J OUrrlcrl illuJtre and Le Journal pour tow: " These
publications that sold ro r two sous-Le JOllrnal pour 1011.1, Le Journal iUwlre. Le
Tour du mo nde-where Dore gave of himself with s tupefying prodigality a nd
verve, served him . above a U, B8 a labora to ry for his researches. Indeed, in the
g rande, edilion, Imld in bookshops. produced at high cost (ror those days) by
Uachette o r Ga rnier, lhe imagination , the fa ntasy, the energy of Gustave Oore
were ... • to a certain extent . disci plined a nd contained by the requirements of a
deluxe editio n .... Roger Devigne, "'Gustave Dori, illustra teur de jOllrnaux i dew:
sous e t rel)()rter du crayon ," Arts et Melie rl grophiqucs, 50 (December 15, 1935).
~a PI~
"The Paris wo rke r ill revolt appea rs, ill hooks a nd in illus trations, as a veteran of
the street wars. a seasoned revolutio nary. going about half naked with a cartridge
belt a nd saiJe r c risscrossed over his shirt , with a headdress like an Mrican chief­
laill_ a gold-hraid!:11 kc pi or a plumed hat- pe nniless , worn Ollt, magnanimous.
:blac kcnetl with powde r anll SWt'li ting from the Slln , ostelltaliollsly calling for water
stt' rctlt llrOlle in the Illllllller or the $CI/I $ clIlotlcs of ' 93 , e)"eing his companions at
till' exit to tilt: ro )"al llpurtlllcnlS . shooting ully thie ve,.. Take a look al drawings hy
Chll rle t and hy HaffcI; rc ud t.hc accounts, in tile form of glorifications that we re
80it!. a fe.... tia)"s aft er II hUllle_ for the iJe nefit of wido ws, o rphans. a nd the
"·OundL'tI ..·' Cus tllve Gerrroy. L 'Ellfe rme (Puris, 1926). "01. 1. p . 5 1. [ila,3)
Cer1aill pamphlcts iJ)" Marx we re litilograpllt!il. (According to Cassou , Quarante­
huil ( Pa ris, 1939>, 1" I,m .) [i2)
k ,erved as pretexts. This type of ' theatrical' presentation completely defied all
[The Commune1
" The hislory of the Paris Commune has become a touchstone of great importance
for the queuion: How sbouJd the r evolutionary working clan organize its laelict
and str ategy in order 10 achieve ultimate victor y? With the fall of the Commune
the lasl traditions of the old revolutionary legend have likewise fallen forever ; ...:
favorable turn of circumstances, no her oic spirit . DO mart yrdom can take the
place of the proletariat', clear insight into ... the indispensable conditions of ill
emancipation . What holds for the revolutions that ",'ere car ried out b y nUnoritiet,
aDd in the interests of minorities, no longer holds for the proletariaD revol....
tion .... In the histor y of the Commune. the germs of this r evolution were effec­
ti vely stifled by the creeping plants that, growing out of the bourgeois revolution of
the eighteenth century, over ran the revolution ary workers' movement of the aiDe- ­
tee-nth century. Missing in the Commune were the firm organiza tion of the prole­
ta riat 8S 8 c1asll and the fund amental clarity al to its world-historical millllioo; oa
these grounds alone it h ad to succumb." [F. Mehring,] " Zum Cediichtnis der Par­
iser Kommune," Die neue Zeit. 14, no. 1 (Stuttgart, 1896), pp. 739-740. [kI,I)
" We will say but two words about the lecture-presentatiolls tha t have multiplied io
recent years.. . . M. Ballande, who fi rs t thought of devoting Sunday afternoooa to
the inexpenllive performance of mas terpieces or the exhibition of certain monu­
ments of a rt , preceded b y a historical Mild literar y explica lioll of the work, had hit
upon a happy and rewarding idea .... But success breeds imit ation , and it is rare
that the imitations do not bring out the troublesome aspects of the things they
copy. This is indeed what happened . Daily presentations were organized at the
Chutelet a nd the Ambigu . In these performa nces, questions of artistry were rele­
gated to a pollition of seconda ry importance; politics predominated . SOllleo ne
fetched up Agne, de Mera nie; another exhumed Co la5 a nd Chorie, lx. 0 11 L 'Ecole,
de, rois. ' ... From here. things could onl y go downhill ; I.he m08t benign of wo rks,
b y II strange inJlection of the I)oliticalmadness. provided material ... for the most
hetcrugeneolls decla mMtions on the Mffairs of the day. Moliere anti Louis XJV
wo uld certa iltly have I>&;,n sur p rised , at times, hy the attack•... for which they
et/ntrol. " -" When revol ution. hreak Ollt , one often hears admissions that can be
highl y illst ructh·e. Here is what wa. sa id in Le Mot c/ 'o rc/reof May 17, 187 1, on the
~\l bj et! t of the ci tizenship cards: : ' The overly assi{luous rea {ling of Le Cllevfliier de
!lIclisofl-RolIse and other novels by Alexand re Dumas certainly inspired the mem­
bcr~ of the Commune to come up with this decree. We regret having to inform them
thut lti~lO r y is nol made by reading novel~. '" Victor Hallays-Dabot . La CemlUre
tlrtmw tilJu e et Ie theatre, 1850-1870 <Pa ris, 187h , Pl" 68-69, 55. [L..e Mot
d 'ortlre iS llreli umably an organ of Rochefort .] [k l ,2]
The Commune felt itself to be, in all respects, the heir o f 1793. [kl .3]
The passage in Hallays·Dabot, p. 55 <cited in k l ,2>, is very imponant for the
connection between colportage and revolution. [k 1,4)
"AI several intersectionB , our pa th opened out unexpectedly into vast ar ched
do mes . . .. Surely, each of these clandestine colos&eums would p rovide a useful
Itro nghoid fo r the concent ra tion of for ces in certain eventualities, just as the
infinity of subtcrranean networks, with its thousand galleries running under every
com er of the capital. provides a ready-made sap from which to attac k the city
fro m below. . . . The lightning bolt that annihilated the Empire did not leave it
time to ac t on this conception. It is harder to fi gure out wh y the leaden of the
Commune, . . . so resolute in evcr ything, did not make use of this formidable
\ means of destruction when faced with tbe appearance of troops." Nadar, Quand
j'etais pholographe (Paris ( 1900» , p . 121 (" Paris souterrain"). Refen 10 the
"Letter from N- (Pa ris) to Louill Bla nc (Ver sailles), 1\Iay 187 1," which voices just
8uch an eX I~ct a ti oll . [kIa, I]
" if Rim baud is in fact admirable, it is not for h aving fallen silent but for having
spoken . Hhe fell silent , it was d oubtless for lack of a true audience. It was because
the society in which he lived could not offer him this audience. One ought 10 keep
in mind the ver y simple fact that Arthu r Rimbaud came to Paris in 187 1, quite
na tur ally, to join the a rm y of the Commune.. .. In the barracks of the Chateau ­
d'Ea u, the yo ung Rimhaud did not ye t question the utility of writing aud singing
aboul the hands of the Wench , of the J eanne-Marie of the fa ubourgs, who is not
the plaster Mar ianne of the town halls:
They are the hamb nOI o( a cousin
Hut o( worlci ng wo men with large foreheads
Hurned. in wOQ(I8 slinking of a faclory.
II)' a aun drunk on lar.
They have paled. marvdo" l ,
Under Ihe great sun (ull o{loo'e,
On Ihe hronze of machine gun~ .
Throughout insurllen t Pari~!l
 The n , in the Ancmblies of the Commune ... , side by lIide with the worken at
Pllri~ ... • with the wa rriors of lIocialism , one could 8~ til t:: poet of the Inte rna.
tiolla l, Po tier ; the lIuthor of L'lmurse, Jules Valles; the pa inter of L 'Enlcrreme,.,
j (l Onwn$. Courbet ; and the brilliant r esearcher into the physiology of the cerebel.
lum, the great floureD,," <Louis) Aragon, " D' AJIred tie Vigny a Avdee.nk ..
Com mune. 2 (April 20, 1935), PI'. 810 ,815.
0,
{k.1a,2]
~
.. "The Commune. which accorded seats only to those elected from the worker.'
distrielll . w aR formed of II coalition of revolutionaries without II common pros;r. .....
Of the sevent y-eight members. only II score were intent on projects of social re.
form ; the maj orit y were Jacobin democrats in the tradition of 1793 {Delescluae)."
A. Malet, P. Crillel , XIX~ Siecle (Paris, 1919), pp. 481-482 . [kla,3]
Within the Commune emerged the project of a Monument to the Accursed, which
was supposed to be raised in the corner of a public square whose center would be
occupied by a war memorial. All the official personalities of the Second Empire
(according to the draft of the project) were to be listed OD it . Even Haus8mana',
Dame is there. In this way, an " infernal history" of the r egime was to be launched,
although the intention was to go back to Napoleon I, " the villain of Brumaire--tbe
chief of this accursed race of crowned bohemians vomited forth to U8 by Conica,
this fatal line of bastards 80 degenerated they would be 108t in their own oati,."
land ." The proj ect , in the fonn of a printed placard , is dated April 15, 1871.
(Exhibition entitled " La Commune de Paris," Municipal Office, of Saint-Venit.)
(>.2,11­
\ Charles Louandre, us Jdies subumiueJ tU nom Imps (Paris, 1872), is a charac­
"There are your fruit s, bloodthirsty Commune; I Yes, ... you wanted to annihi­
late Pa ris." The lau line is the r efrain of a poem, "Lea Ruinea de Paris ," printed ..
a pamphlet (Exhibition hy t.he Municipality of Saint-Denis) . (U,21
A lithograph by ~turci er, Le Depart de m Commune. published b y Deforet d
Cesa r Editeurs, showa a woman (?) riding aD animal that is h alf-naS aDd balt
hyen a, wrapped in a giant shroud , and brandiahing tile tattered , dirt y red 0.,.
while leaving behind her a murky aUey filled with the amoke a nd fl amea ofburninl
houaes. (Exhibition , Municipality of Saint-Denia.) [k2,31
Mter the taking of Paris, L '/llulllration pubLisheil a drawin g entitled ChCUll6 Ii
l'homm e dnull les cUf(lcombes <Manliullt in the Ca tacombs>. In fac t , the cata­
combs were scarched olle da y fo r fugitives. Those found were ~ h ot. The troop'
entered at the Place Dellfert-Hochereau , while the outlets of the catacomba toward
the plain of Montsouris were guarded. (Exhibition .) (k2,4]
A COlllmunard pamphlet puhlishes a drawillg captioned LeJ C(I(lu vres decouvert.
daTil! lell Jo uterrClillJ de rEg liJe Sai flt-Laurent <The Cad ave rs Di~covered ill the
Vaults of the Church of Saint-Laurent >. It was claimed that female coq)SCS had
))eell discovered alliJia underground site--hodiee which could 1I0t have been ther e
lollger thall a couple of yea rs, and whose thighs were forced open and hands
bOUlld . (Exhibition .) [k2.5J
l..cafll.t: lithograph . She. The rcpublic 88 a beautiful woman wrapped around hy a
s.na ke. whose fea tures a re those of Thiers. The woman haa a mirror high over her
heuI!. Bcneath . a ,·erse: " Many the ways yo u can take her- I She is for rent. but
110 1 for sale." [k2,6]
The illusions that still underlay the Commune are given striking expression in
Proudhon's formula, his appeal to the bourgeoisie: "Save tlK: people and save
yourselves-as your fathers did-by the Revolution." Max Raphael, Proudhon,
Marx, Pic(lJ.lo (Paris (1933»), p. 118. [Ua, l)
Remember the words of Chevalier: "Glory to us! ~ have entered into the
treasury of kings, escorted by poverty and hunger; we have walked amid the
purple, gold, and diamonds; when we came out, our companions were hunger
and poverty." "Religion Saint-Simonienne: La Marseillaise" (Excerpt from L'Or­
ganisateur of September 11, 1830) (author Michel Chevalier, according to the
Cata10gue de la Bibliotheque Nationalej, p. 2. [Ua,2]
One of the COlllmune's laat centera of resistance: the Place de la Bastille. [k2a,3]
teristic example of the reactionary pamphlets that followed in the wake of the
Commune. [k2a,4]
A caricature of Courbet : the painter standing on a broken column . Beneath, the
caption : "Actuality." Cabinet del Esta mpea, kc 164 a I.~ [Ua,S]
"Louise Michel, recounting, in her memoira, a conversation she had with Gustave
Courbet, sho....s us the great Communard painter enraptured on the topic of the
futu re, losing himself ill visions which , though they are redolent of their own
nUleteenth century, are despite this----or perhaps because of it- marked by a WO II ­
~rous alii! touching grulu!cur. 'Since e\'cryone will be able to give himself ovcr,
unfet tered , 10 hjs OWl! specia l gcniU!J.' prophesied Courbet , ' Paris wiU double in
importance. And Euro"e'~ illlcr-national cit y win he ahle to offer to the arts, to
indUstr y. 10 comnU!l"ce, 10 Irall~lIclions of 1111 kinds, and to visitors from all landa
an illlped slillble (lnler : tilt' citizen-crenteil ortier, which cannot be disrupted by
thc pretexts of lIIollstroll~ pretenders .' It is II I!ream ingenuous as the world exhibi­
ti ullS, hut one which nUllcthdeu implies prufollllil realit.ies-ahove all, the certi­
hltle that a unanimous ortler will he fuullt!ed , ' the citizell-crea ted order. ,., J ean
CIlIiSOU. ·· L.a Semaim: ~a nglallle:' lIeru/redi, May 22, 1936. (k2a,6)
 ACTUALITE
..
\ tendencies of the Commune into more or leu conscious projecta. ' and be added
,.--'.....
... ' ~~"4k"lI;h
' -''­ _
... ... .,...
Actualj/i (Acrual.ity), a caricature of the painter GuS[a~ Cowbct.
Courtesy of ~ BibliothCqut: Nacionale de France. Stt k2a,5.
In France', First Empire, and especially its Second. Engels &eel Itatel that could
appear 8. a court of media tion between an equally 81ro08 bour~i8ie and prole­
larial. See C. 1ttayer, Friedrich Engeb , vol. 2 (Berlin <1933 » . p. 441 . {k2a,l]
The deslJerale struggle of the Commune: " Delescluze then issued hi' famous proc­
lamation : ' Enough ofthil militarism! No more of these officers dripping gold braid
and embroidery ! Make way (or the people. for bare-armed fight er.! The hour of
revolution has atruck .... ' An impatient enthusiasm awake. in aU hearl., and oae
will go off to get oneself killed , 8 S the Polish strategists intend ,S Each man will
return to hifl lleighborhood , hi. native turf, to the I treetcorner where it is good to
live and bravely die-the traditional barricade! This proclamation is the lasl cry
of Blanquiam , the supreme leap of the nineteenth century. One still waoU to be­
Lieve. To believe ill the mys tery, the miracle, the feuiJleton, the magic power of the
epiC. One has Ilot yet undeutood that the other clan has organized it8e1f sci en~
tificaUy, bas ent r usted itself to implaca ble anniee. Its leadeu have long since ac~
,)uired a clear visioll of the situation . Not for nothing had Haussmann built broad ,
l}erfectl y straight avenues to brea k up the swa rming, tortuous Ileighborhoods , the
bret-oding grounds for mys tery and for the feuilleton, the secret gardens of popular
cOlis piracy." J ean Cauou, "La Semaine sanglante," Vendredi. May 22, 1936.
Engels and the Commune: " As long as the ~ntral committee of the Garde Nation~
[k3, 1]
ale was directiug the military operations, he remained hopeful. It was doubtless he
who gave tbe advi~ which Marx transmitted to Pam : ' to fortify the northern
slopes of Montmartre, the Pruu ian side.' He feared that , otherwise, the uprising
'would land in a mousetrap.' But the Commune failed to beed this warning and, as
Engels regretfuUy confirmed, let tbe right moment for the offeDllive slip past. ...
InitiaUy, Engels beUeved that the struggle would drag on. . . . In the General
Council, he emphasized ... that the Parisiao workeu were better organized mili~
tarily than in any earlier rebellion; that tile street widening undertaken during the
administration of Napoleon III would neceuarily work to their advaotage, should
the assault on the city succeed; that for the fiut time, the barricades would be
defended by cannons and regularly organized troops." Gustav Mayer, Friedrit:h
Engels , vol. 2, Engels lind der AU/ltieg der Arbeiterbewegung in Europa (Berlin
(}933»,p.227.~ [k3,2]
In 1884, Engels "admitted to Bernstein tbat Marx 'had upgraded the unconscious
that this improvement had heen ' justified, even nece81ary, in the circUDl8lances.'
... The majorit y of the participanu in the uprilling had been Blanquillt&-that is
to say, nationalistic r evolutiona rieB who placed their hopeti on immediate political
action and the authoritarian dicta to rs hip of a few resolute individuals. Ooly a
minority had belonged to the (First> International , which at that time Wall still
dominated by the spirit of Proudhon , and they could tberefore not be described all
social revolutionaries, let alone Marxists. That did not prevent the f\:0vernmenu
lind the bourgeoisie throughout Europe from rega rding this insurrection ... as a
cons piracy ha tched by the General Council of the International. " Gustav Mayer,
Friedrich Engeu , vol. 2, Engeu ,HId der AU/lltieg der Arbeiterbewegung in
(Europa (Berlin), p . 228. ~ [k3a, 1]
The first comnlllllio: the city. "The German emperor s-Frederick I and Frederick
II , for ilistunee--iSSllcd c~lict~ aga ill~t these comnllwiones [communities]. conspi­
rfll ione, .... quile in tile spirit of tile German Federal Diet . ... It is qu.ite amusing
that the word conlllilmio was used as a term of abuse, just 8S 'communism ' is
loday. The pa rSOIi Cuibert ofNogellt writes, for illstallce: 'Communio is a new and
extremely. had word. ' There i8 fre<lucntJ y something rather dramatic about the
Way ill which the philistines of the twelfth century invite the peasanU to fl ee 10 the
cities, 10 the commllnio jurCl,a (sworn communes)." Marx to Ellgels, July 27,
 Genuan race with the seal of predestination? ... Let us defend ourseivel. It is the
ferocit y of Odin , magnified by the ferocity of Moloch. that advances against our
d ties; it is the harba rity of the Vandal and the barbarity of the Semite." Cited in
Gusta\'e Geffroy, L 'Enferme (Pa ri.ll. 1897). p. 304. [k4,2]

Georges Laronze in hi8 f1u foire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris, 1928), p. 143, 00
the shooting of the hostages: " b y the time the hostages fell, the Commune had lost
power. But it r emained accoun table."II [k4,3]

The Pa risian administration during the Commune: " It p re;;erved intact the entire
organism, animated , al it was, b y a keen desire to set its sJ4htest cogwbeels rolling
a,;ain and to augment further-in good bourgeois fashioo--the number of middle­
clan fupctiona rieB. " Georges Larooze. f1 u roire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris,
1928). 1)·450. [k4,4]

A barricade of the Paris Commune, Rue &sfroi (II' ammdi.mmm~, March 18, 1871. Ph0togra­
pher unknown. Sec: k4,5.
1854, from Londoo (Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel!!, Awgewiihlte BrM/. , ed.
V. Adoratsk, (Moscow and Leningrad , 1934), pp . 60--61].' [k3.,ij
Ibsen saw further than many of the leaders of the Commune in France. OD
December 20, 1870, he writes to Brandes: "Up till now, we have been living 00
nothing but aumbs from the revolutionary table of wt century, and I think we
have been chewing on that stuff long enough.... Liberty, equality, and fra~
are no longer what they were in the days of the late-lamented guillotine. nus_
what the politicians will not understand; and that is why I hate them." Heruik
Ibsen, samtliche Wer..te, vol. 10 <Berlin, 1905>, p. 156.' [k.3a.3)
Military formationB in the Commune: "A company little inclined to go beyond the
city'll ramparts, pr eferring, to combat in open country, the battle atmo.llpbere of
illl own quartier, the fever of public meetinge , the clubs, the police oper atioD.II ,
and, if necellary, death behind the heaped-up paving stones of a Pari. street."
Georges Laronze, Hu toire de la Commune de 1871 (Paris, 1928), p. 532. [k4,5]
Courbet took sidell with several other Communard.ll against Protot, to protect
Thien'.II collectionl from destruction . I! (k4,6]
\ The membel'1l of the International got themllelvell elected, on the advice of Varlin ,
to tbe Central Committee of the Carde Nationale. (k4,7)
'"This orgy of power, wine, women, a od blood known all the Commune." Ch arles
Louandre, Les IcUe. subversil.le' de notre temp. (Paris, 1872). p. 92. (k4,8]

II was the Proudhooist Beslay who, as delegate of the Commune , aUowed bimIdf
to be persuaded 00 March 30, b y de Ploeuc, deputy governor of the Banque de
F r ance , to leave untouched, in the inter ests of France, the two billion fra nc,­
" the true hostages." With the support of the Proudhoni8ts on the council , hi. view
p revailed . (k4,1]

Blanqui, in La Patrie en danger, the newsp aper he l)Ublished du~ing the sieg:: •
I

" It is Berlin that supposedly will be the holy city of the future. the radiance thai
enlighten. the world . Paris is the usurping and corrupted Babylon , the great pr,*
titute which God's emissary, the exterminatin g angel. with Bible in hand , will wipe
from the face of the earth . You mean you don't know that the Lord has ma rked the
I
[The Seine, the Oldest Paris]
- " If reudiug iu the public gardcns is now perm..illcd . smoking there is not- liberty
.Around 1830: "The quartier was full of those gardens which Hugo has de8crihed ill
<his p6em of 1839> 'ee qui Ie pR88a it a ux: Feuillantlnes.· The Luxembourg, rather
more grand than it is totlay, was bordered directly by houses; the proprietors each
had a key to the garden and could walk up aDd down there all night lo~." Dubeeb
and d ' Espezel. Hu roire de Pari.! (Paris, (926), p. 367. [11 ,1)
" Rambutea u had two r ows of l rt:e s planted" -on the Boulevards Saint-Denie and
Bonne-Nou velle-"ta replace those old and beautiful trees which had gone into
the b arricades of 1830." Duhech and d ' Espezel, Histoire de Paris. p. 382. [11 ,21
" Housewives go to draw their water from the Seine; the more distant neapbor-_
hoods ar e supplied by water carriers." Dubech and d ' Espe7:el, Histoire lh Poris,
pp . 388-389 (section 011 the Jul y Monarchy). [U,3)
Before H au u mann : " Prior to his d ay, the old atlueducts were capable ofbri..nAiDI
water only as high Ri the se£ond stor y!' Dubech and d ' Elpezel, Hu toire de Poris,
p.418. [11 ,4)
" Anglomania ... has had an iufluence on ideas since the Revolution, on fashiorY
since Wa terloo. Just as the Constituents copied EngJand 's political institution.,
the archi le£ts copied the pa rks and squares of Lolldon." Dube£b and d ' El pesd,
~- ~~
"The rOllte or the Sei.ne. as allestl!(i in Sirabo, bega n tu be used and appreciated .
Lutelia hecame the cenler of an associalioll of n avigators or mariners, who. durin«
the r eign of Tiberius. raised to the emperor a nti to Jupiter the fall!ous altar thaI
was discovered under NOire Dame in 17 11. " Dubech aud d ' Espezel. p . 18 . [11 ,61
''"The wiuler here i6 not severe. You can iiee vineyanl8 and e\'en fi g trees, sw ce care
is taken to cover them wilh straw." Julian in the MUol'ogofl ; cited in Dubecb aDd
d ' Espezel , p. 25. [I1 ,lJ
"The Seine seems to exhale the air of Paris all the way to its moulh ." Friedrich
Engels. " Von Paris nach Bern ," Die ne lle Zeit , 17, no. 1 (Stuttgart , 1899). p . 11 .
(as pt:ople are beginning 10 say) nol being Ihe sallie as license!' Nadar, Quand
111 ,8]
j 'ewis pllOwg rufJhe (Pari8 ( 1900 », p . 284 (" 1830 et environs"). [11 ,91
"Not long ago we witncssed Ihe ere£tion of the obelisk brought back from Luxor by
the princc de J oinville. LWe were made a bit nervous by noise1l that mUl l not have
heel! reassu ring tu the engineer LebK8, s upervisor of the operation : tbe EngJish ,
always so j ealolls, ... wer c supposed to have paid a traitor to cut tbe insides of the
cables. Oh , those English! " Natlar. Quulld j'etuu I'llOtographe (Paris), p . 29 1
("1830 et environs"). [11 ,10J
Liberty trees--poplars (peuplier, J-were planted in Paris in 1848. Thierl: " Peo­
ple. yo u will grow tall ." They were cut down in 1850 by order of the prefect of
police, Carlier, [11 ,l1J
Afler the Jul y Revolulion : "Tlltl endleu number of felled trees OD the r oad to
Neuill y, on Ihe Cbamps-Elysees, on the bouleva rds. Not a single tree hal been left
standing on the Boulevard des itauens." Friedrich von Raumer, Brrefe 01" Pam
und Frunkreich im Jahre 1830 (Leipzig, 1831), vol. 2, pp . 146-147. [11 ,12J
"Oue sees ga rdens measuring only a few square feet , which offer nonethelell a bit
of greencry in which to read a hook; here and there, even a bird is chirping.-But
the Place Sa inl-Georgcs is an altogether charming s pot. Rustic and urban tasles
are blended here. It is surrounded by buildings that look towa rd the city on ODe
aide and toward the country on Ihe other." Add to thi. fountains, terraces, green­
houses. flower beds. L. ReUstab . Pa m im Friihjahr- 1843: Brre/e, Berichte und
Schildenmgen (Leip7.ig, 1844). vol. I , I)P' 55--56. [l1a,I)
" !'aris is hetween two layers , a laye r of water and a layer of air. The Jayerofwater,
lyillg a l a eonsi{lerahle depth underground •... is furnished by Ihe bed of greeD
SlIntistOlle lyi ng belween th e chalk and I.he Jura!lsic lime&tone. Thi. bed can be
,representl!(l by a disk with a r adiu s of sevent y miles. A mu.ltilude of rivers and
hrouks filt er into it : we drink the Seille, the Marnc. the Yu nlle, the Oise, the A.iSlle,
the Clter. II1\' Viellnc, a nti the Loire in a singlc glass of water from the well of
Crl:nclle. T ile laYI'L' of water is salubrious; it comes fi rs t rrom heavell , then from
the l:ar tIL . The layer of air is IIl1wliOleioLllc, it cOllies from the sewers." Victor
Hugo, Oelll:rel completes, ILOvcl~. \' 1.11. 9 (Paris, 188 1). p . 182 ( I.es Miler-abies). :
[11 &,2)
A.I Ihe he~nnilLg of the nineteent h century. there werc Hill truins de bou (timbe r
ra rts?) guing Ilown Ihe Seine; a nd Cil . F. Vie! funis fllult . ill hi!! work De l'lmpui,­
 ..anee de.. mathfl matique.. pour au urer la ..olidite de.. ootiment.., with the piefl of
the Pont du Louvre. on which such rafts a re dashed to pieceB. [Ha,3]
On the " netB of Saint-Cloud" we have the teBtimony of Mercier (Tableau de Pan.
[Amsterdam, 1782]. vol. 3. I)' 197), among othe ... ; " The bodies of tho8e unfortu_
nates who have drowned are pulled up (except when the river is iced over) by the
nett of Saint-Cloud ," There are many, such as Dulaure , who speak of these net..
•
otbe... , Like Gozlan and Touchard-LafOS8e. deny they ever existed , The archives of
the Seine make no mention of them. Tradition maintains that they nopped beins
used in 1810, This according to Firmin Maillard, Recherche.. hi.storiques et cri­
tiques sur la MorBue (Paris, 1860). T he last chapter of this book (p . 137): "Le.
- Filets de Saint-Cloud ," (lh,4]
On " an underground river in Paris," which was, in large pa rt , covered over at the
beginninr; of the seventeenth century: "The strea m thus ... descended gradually
along the slope , all the way to the house which, as early as the fifteenth century.
had two salmon on its signboard, and which would be r eplaced by the PauJl8C dll
Saumon . There, bavinr; swelled with the added flow of water colllin&: from Lee
HaUes, it plunged underground at the site where the Rue Mandar begin. today,
and where the entrance of the greal sewer, which had long stood open, save wa)'
, , . , after Thennidor .. , ,10 busts of ~1arat and Saint-Fargeau... , The . trea.
di.sappea red ... in the current.1! of the Seine, well below the city.... It was quite
enough that this filthy strea m cr eated a stench in the districts it crolled, which
bappened to be among the most populous in Paris.... When the PlaPle broke oat-­
her e, its first manifestations were in tho&e streets which the stream, by ill in­
fec:Liou s contiguity, had already made a center of disease." Edouard Fournier.
Enigmes des rues de Paris (Pa ris, 1860). pp. 18-19,2 1- 22 ("Une Riviere souter­
rain da ns Paris"). (!2, l j
Saint-Martin. At the crOSBroads ofehateau-Landon , a fJeCond route branched off,
that of Senlis. A third , the Melun road , a pa thway cut through a trock mars h near
the Bastille, came into existence perhaps, at the height of the empire, . , ; this
"" ould bec:ome the Rue Saint-Antoine. " Dubech a nd d ' Espezel, Histoire de Paris
(Paris. 1926), 1)· 19, [12,4)
'"Tur ning oCf from the boulevards . let us go down the Rue de Rougemont. You will
notice thai the Comptoir d ' Escompte <Discount Bank > occupies the bottom of a
marked depression : you are in the earliest bed of the Seine." Dubet:h and
d' Espezel, Histoire de Paris (Paris, 1926). p . 14. [l2a, l ]
"The bourgeois center, Paris Ville, sharply distinguished from Paris Cite, grew up
on the Right Bank and on the bridges which . at thai time, were erected every­
where. The most influential segment of the population conl isted of the merchanlJ;
here again, the h anse <merchants' guild > did its part to steer business to the water.
The mosl important marketplace a rose on a 8pOt near the Church of Saint­
Eustache, wbere the streel by which ocean fis h a rrived crossed the street on which
, the mars h farmers of tbe region brougbt their vegetablet to town. It is the same
spot on which , today, the central market h alls stand ," Fritz Stahl , Pari! (Berlin
<l929 », p.67. [l2a,2]

" We recall the divine lamp with the silver burner, shining ' white like an eleetric
light ,' as it p asSel, in Les Chants de ft1aldoror, slowly down the Seine tbrouP'
Paris. Later, a t the other exl.reme of the Cycle, in Fantomas , the Seine will also
come to know, nea r the Quai de J avel, " inexplicable fl ashes of Light in iu deptbl ."
Roger Caillois " Paris mythe moderne," Nouvelle Revuefran(aise, 25, no. 284
, , (12,2]
(May 1, 1937), p , 687.

"The quays of the Seine Likewise owe their realizaLion to H aussmann. It was only
in his day that the walkways were COlIHtructed up above and the trees planted
down below. along the banks; and these are wh at serve to arbC . uI a t e the form .of
. . . h '
that great thoroughfare, With Its avenuel and boulevards, that 18 t e nver.
" Fnts
Sta hl, Paris (Berlin <1929 ». 1" 177. {12,3j

" 1£ Lutetia wall not yet in direct communicatioll with the great cities of northern
lands, it was lIevertheless 0 11 the commercial route thai ran overlalld beside tbe
river.. , , It Willi the grellt Roman way a long the Right Bank which became the Rue

m -
[Idleness1
Notewonhy conjunction: in ancient Greece, practical labor is branded and pro­
scribed. A1though essentially left in the hands of slaves, it is condemned not least
because it betrays a base aspiration for eanhly goods (riches). This view after.
ward plays a pan in the denigration of the b'adesman as the servant of Mammon:
"Plato, in the lAws (VIII, 846), decrees that no citizen shall engage in a mechani­
cal trade ; the word banausOJ, signifying 'artisan; becomes synonymous with 'con­
temptible' ... ; everything relating to tradespeople or to handwork carries a
stigma, and defonns the soul together with the body. In general, those who
practice these professions ... are busy satisfying ... this 'passion for wea1th . , .
which leaves none of us an hour's leisure.'! Aristotle, for his part, opposes the
excess of the chrematistic to ... the prudence of domestic economy.... In this
way, the scorn Cdt for the artisan is extended to the merchant: in comparison co­
the liberal life, as absorbed in srudious leisure (Jdwli, otium), the affairs of trade
(neg-otium, tJJenolitJj, 'business affairs: have mostly a negative value." Pierre­
Maxime Schuhl, Macllinume et plli/ruopllie (Paris, 1938), pp. 11- 12. [ml ,l]
Whoever enjoys leisure escapes Fortuna; whoever embraces idleness falls under
her power. The Fortuna awaiting a person in idleness, however, is a lesser g0d­
dess than the one that the person of leisUl"e has Bed . This Fortuna is no longer at
home in the vita activaj her headquarters is the world at large.~ "The artists of the
Middle Ages depict those men who pursue an active life as bound to the wheel of
fortune, ascending or descending according to the direction in which it rums,
while the contemplative man remains immobile at the center.n P.-M. Schuhl.
Macllinisme et pllilruopllie (paris, 1938), p. 30. [ml ,2)
He the characterization of leisllre. Sainte-Relive, in hill essay on Joubert : ''''1'0
converse and 10 seek to know-it was in this above allill at, accordi hg 10 Plato. the:
happi neu of private life consisled. · This class of conlloisscurs and amatc urs ...
haa practically disappeared in France. now that everyone here has a trade:' Cor·
N!:$ponclance de Jouber! (Paris, 1924), p. xcix. [ml ,3)
In bourgeois society, indolence- to take up Marx's word-has ceased to be
"heroic." (Marx speaks of the "victory ... of industry over a heroic indolcnc:c-'"
Bi/am tkr preuJJiscl!en Revo/uh'on, in GeJammeite &I!rfften oon Karl Marx und nud­
ricl! Enge/;, vol. 3 (Stuttgart, 1902]. p. 2 11. )~ 1mI a, I]
In the figure of the dandy. Baudelaire seeks to find some usc for idleness, JUSt as
leisure once had a use. The vila conlemplativa is replaced by something that could
be called the vila conlemplilJtl. (Compare part 3 of my manuscript <"Das Paris des
n
Second Empire bei Baudelaire ).) [mla,2)
Experience is the outcome of work; immediate experience is the phantasmagoria
of the idler! Imh,3]
In place of the force field that is lost to humanity with the devaluation of expcri·
ence, a new field of force opens up in the fonn of planning. The mass of un·
known unifonnities is mobilized against the confinned multiplicity of the
traditional. To "plan n is hencefonh possible only on a large scale. No longer on
an individual scale-and this means neither for the individual nor by the individ·
ual. Valery therefore says, with reason: "The long·hatched enterprises, the pro­
, found designs of a Machiavelli or a Richelieu, would today have the reliability
and value of a good lip em tile StOtA Exchange." Paul Valery, Oeuvre; completeJ,
J <(Paris, 1938), p. 30>. [m",' )
The intentional correlate of "immediate experience" has not always remained the
same. In the nineteenth cenrury, it was "adventure." In our day, it appears as
"fate," &l!icAulI. In fate is concealed the concept of the "total experience" that is
fatal from the outset. War is its unsurpassed prefiguration. ("I am born German;
it is for this I dien_the trauma of birth already contains the shock that is mortal.
1bis coincidence <Koimidmv defines "fate., [m h .S)
\r\buld it be empathy with exchange value that first qualifies the human being for
a "total experience"? [mia,6]
With the trace (SpU'f) , a new dimensio n acoues to "immediate experience." It is
no lo~ger tied to the expectation of "advenrure n; the one who undergoes an
expenence can follow the trace that leads there. ~oever follows traces must not:
o~y pay attentio n ; above all, he must have given heed already to a great many
,things. (!be hunter must know about the hoof of the animal whose trail he is on;
he must know the hour when that animal goes to drink' he must know the course
ofth· e nver to W L'ch'
ill ' by which he himself can
It rums, and the location of the ford
get.across.) In this way there comes into play the peculiar configuration by dint of
which long experience appears ttanslated into the language of immediate experi·
ence .J Ex'
pcnences can, m . rlact, prove mvaluable
.
to one who follows a trace-but
~pc~en~es ~f ~ particular son . The hunt is the one type of work in which they
nCllon Jntnnslcally. And the hunt is, as work, very primitive, The experiences
~fahrungen) of one who attends to a trace result only very remotely from any
Work activity. or are CUt off from such a procedure altogether, (Not for nothing do
\\.~ speak or"fomlOe huntin~.") They have no sequence and no system. They are
 a. p~u.Ct of chance, and ha~e ~boU[ them the essential intenninability tbit
dlSnngUlshes the preferred obligations of the idler. The fundamentally unfiniab.
able collcc?on of things worth knowing, whose utility d epends on chance, has ita
J
I
prototype m study. [m2,I]
Idleness has little about it that is representative, though it is far more widely
exlubited than leisure: The man of the middle class has hl=gun to be ashamed of
labor. He to whom lwure no longer means anything in itself is happy to put his
idleness on display. [m2.2]
The intimate association between the concept of idleness and the concept of
study was embodied in the notion ofstudio. Especially for the bachdor, the studio
became a son of pendant to the boudoir. (012,3]
Student and hunter. The text is a forest in which the reader is hunter. Rustling in
the underbrush-the idea, skittish prey, the citation-another piece "in the bag."
(Not every reader encounters the idea.) [m2a.IJ
There are two social institutions of which idleness forms an integral part: the
news service and nightlife. They require a specific form of work-preparedncu,
This specific fonn is idleness. [mla.2)
News service and idleness. Feuilletonist, reporter, photographer constitute a gra­
dation in which waiting around, the "Get ready" succeeded by the "Shooc.:.
becomes ever more important vis·a·vis other activities. [m2a,3)
What distinguishes long experience from immediate experience is that the f0r­
mer is inseparable from the representation of a continuity, a sequence. The
accent that falls on inunediate experience will be the more weighty in proportioo
as its substrate is remote from the work of the one having the experience-froID
the work distinguished by the fact that it draws on long experience precisdy
where, for an outsider, it is at most an immediate experience that arises. [m2a,')
In feudal society, leisure-freedom from labor-was a recognized privilege. In
bourgeois society, it is no longer so. What distinguishes leisure, as feudalism
understands it, is that it communicates with two socially important types of
behavior. Religious contemplation and coun life represented, as it were, the
matrices through which the leisure of the grand Jeignr.ur, of the preJate, of the
warrior could be molded. These attirudes-that of piety no less than that of
representation-were advantageous to the poet. His work in IUrn ben~6~ed
them, at least indirectly, insofar as it maintained contact with both the rdi~oP
and the life at coun. (Voltaire was the first of the great literati to break with ~
church; so much the less did he disdain to secure a place at the coun of FredeOc:k
the Creat.) In feudal society, the leisure of the poet is a recognized privilege. It IS
only in bourgeois society that the poet becomes an idler. [rn2 a,5]
Idleness seeks to avoid any son of tie to the idler's line of work, and ultimately to
the labor process in general. That distinguishes it from leisure. (m3, 1]
" All re.ligiou!!, metaphysica l. hiSlOrical idell8 are, in the last analysis. merely
,reparations derived from the great experiences of the past-representations of
:he eX I,erience." Wilhelm Dilthey, Deu Erlebnu und die Dichtung (Leipzig and
Berlin. 1929), p . 198. (m3,2]
Closely cOimected with the shattering of lo ng experience is the shattering of
juridical certirudes. "In the liberalist period, economic p~dominance was gener·
ally associated with legal ownership of the means of production.... But after the
development of technology in the last cenrury had led to a rapidly increasing
concentration .. . of capital, the legal owners we~ largely excluded from ...
management.... Once the legal owners are cut off from the real productive
process ... , their horizon narrows; ... and 6nally the share which they still have
in industry due to ownership ... comes to seem socially useless.... The idea of
a right with a fixed content, and independent of society at large, loses its impor'
tance." "\\t 6nally arrive at "the loss of all rights with a determined content, a loss
... given its fullest form in the authoritarian state." Max Horkheimer, "Traru.
tionelle und Kritische Theorie," <:,eit.ullnfl for Sozio./fqrJChu~ no. 2 (1937),
pp. 285-287. Compare Horkheimer, "Bemerkungen zur philosophischen An­
thropologie," <:,eil.scllriflfor SoziaJfimchung, no. 1 (1935), p. 12.' [m3,3]
"The authentic held of operations for the vivid chronicle of what is happening is
the documentary account of immediate experience, reportage. It is directly aimed
at the event , and it holds fast to the experience. This presupposes that the event
also becomes an immediate experience for the journalist reporting on it.... The
capacity for having an experience is therefore a precondition . . . of good . . .
professional work." <Emil > Dovifat , " Formen und Wirkungsgesetze del Stila in
der Zeitllng," Deutsche Presse, July 22 , 1939 (Berlin), p. 285. (m3,4]
Apropos of the idler: the archaic image of ships in Baudelaire. [m3,S)
The stringent work ethic and moral doctrine of Calvinism, it may be said, is most
\intimate1y related to the development of the "ila umttmplativa. It sought to build
a dam to stem the melting of time into idleness, once such time was frozen in
COntemplation. (m3a, l]
On the fcuilleton. It was a matter of injecting experience-as it were, intrave·
nously_ with the poison of sensation ; that is to say, highlighting within ordinary
experience the character of immediate experience. 7 To this end, the experience of
the big·city dweller presented itself. The feuilletonist rums this to account. H e
renders the ciry strange to its inhabitants. He is thus o ne of the first technicians
caJ.J.ed up by the heightened need for immediate experiences. (!be same need is
 evinced in the theory of "modem beauty" expounded by Poe, Baudelaire, and
Berlioz. In this type of beauty, surprise is a ruling element.) [m3a,2)
The process of the atrophy of experience is already underway within manufac_
ruring. In other words, it coincides, in its beginnings, with the beginnings of
I commodity production. (Compare Marx, Da.s Kapilal <vol. I>, cd. Korsch <Ber­
lin, 1932), p. 336.)8 [rn3a,3]
PhantaSmagoria is the intentional correlate of inunediate experience. [m3a,4)
Just as the industrial labor process separates off from handicraft, so the form of
communication corresponding to this labor process-information-separates off
from the form of communication corresponding to the artisanal process of labor,
which is storytelling. (See <Walter Benjamin,) "Der Erz1ih.Ier," <Orient und Occi­
drol, new series, no. 3 (October 1936) p. 21 , par. 3 through p. 22, par. 1, line 3;
p. 22, par. 3, line 1 through the end of the Valery citation.)9 This connection mwt
be kept in mind if one is to fonn an idea of the explosive force contained within
information. This force is liberated in sensation. With the sensation, whatever
still resembles wisdom, oral tradition, or the epic side of truth is razed to the
ground. [m3a,5)
ror the relations which the idler loves to enter into with the demimonde, "srudy"
is an alibi. It may be asserted of the boheme, in particular, that throughout its___
existence it studies its own milieu. [m3a,6]
Idleness can be considered an early form of distraction or amusement. It consists
in the readiness to savor, on one's own, an arbitrary succession of sensations. But
as soon as the production process began to draw large masses of people into the
field , those who "had the time" came to feel a need to distinguish themselves en
masse from laborers. It was to this need that the entertainment industry an:
swered; and it inunediately encountered specific problems of its own. Before very
long, Saint-Marc Girardin was forced to conclude that "man is amusable only a
small part of the time." (The idler d oes not tire as quickly as the man who amuses
himself.) [014,1]
The true "salaried Baueur" (Henri Beraud's term) is the sandwich man. [014,2)
The idler's imilatio de;: as flaueur, he is omnipresent; as gambler, he is omnipo­
tent· and as student, he is omniscient. This type of idler was first incarnated
, th· d ' 1~ [ro4,3)
among e}eunelJe oru .
"Empathy" comes into being through a di clie, a kind of gearing action. Wi~ it.
the inner life derives a pendant to the element of shock in sense perc.epDon.
(Empathy is a synchronization,!! in the intimate sense.) [1U4 ,41
Habits are the annature of connected experiences. 1bis arrnatu~ is assailed by
individual experiences. [m4,5)
God has the Creation behind him; he rests from it. It is this God of the seventh
day that the bourgeois has taken as the model for his idleness. In Bauerie, he has
the omnipresence of God ; in gambling, the o mnipotence; and in study, it is God's
omniscience that is his.- This trinity is at the origin of the satanism in Baude­
laire. -The idler's resemblance to God indicates that the old Protestant saying,
"\>\brk is the burgher's ornament," has begun to lose its validity. [m4,6)
The world exhibitions were training schools in which the masses, barred from
consuming, learned empathy with exchange value. "Look at everything; touch
nothing." [m4,7]
The classic description of idleness in Rousseau. This passage indicates, at one
and the same time, that the existence of the idler has something godlike about it,
and that solitude is a condition essential to the idler. In the last book of UJ
Confim'onJ, we read that "the age for romantic plans was past. I had found the
incense of vainglory stupefying rather than Battering. So the last hope I had left
was to live ... eternally at leisure. Such is the life of the blessed in the other
world, and henceforth I thought of it as my supreme felicity in this. ! Those who
reproach me for my many inconsistencies will not fail to reproach me for this
one, too. I have said that the idleness of society made it unbearable to me; and
here I am, seeking for solitude solely in order to give myself up to idleness....
The idleness of society is deadly because it is obligatory; the idleness of solitude
is delightful because it is free and voluntary." Jean:Jacques Rousseau, us OmfiJ­
JionJ, ed. Hilsum (Paris <1931» , vol. 4, p. 173. 1~ [014a, l )
Among the conditions of idleness, particular importance attaches to solitude. It is
solitude, in fact, that first emancipates-virtually-individual experience from
every event, however trivial or impoverished: it offers to the individual experi­
ence, on the high road of empathy, any passerby whatsoever as its substrate.
Empathy is possible only to the solitary; solitude, the~fo~, is a precondition of
authentic idleness. [014a,2)
When all lines are broken and no sail appears on the blank honzon, when no
'Wave o f immediate experience surges and crests, then there remains to the iso­
lated subject in the grip of laedium vitae one last thing- and that is empathy.
[m4a,3)
~ may leave the question undecided as to whether, and in what sense, leisure is
also determined by the order of production which makes it possible. we should,
however, try to show how deeply idleness is marked by features of the capitalist
eco~omit order in which it Bourishes.- On the other side, idleness, in the bour­
geoIS society that knows no leisure, is a precondition of artistic production. And,
 often, idleness is the very thing which StampS that production with the trait! that
l
make it! rdation to the cconomic production process so drastic.
The student "never stops leaming"; thc gambler "never has enough"; for the
[m4a,4)
Baneur, "there is always something more to see." Idleness has in view an unlim­
• ited duration, which fundamentally distinguishes it from simple sensuous pleas­
~, of whatever variety. (Is it correct to say that the "bad infinity" that prevaili in
Idleness appears in H egel as the signature of bourgeois society?) [mS.l )
The spontaneity comm~n ~ the student, to the gamblet! to the BantuI' is perhaps
that of the hunter-which 1$ to say, that of the oldest type of work, which may be.
intertwined closest of all with idleness. [mS,2)
Flauben's "Few will suspect how depressed one had to be to undertake the
revival of Carthage" makes the cOtulection between study and melt1lColia <sic>
transparent. (!be lauer no doubt threatens not only this fonn of leisure but aD
CornlS of idleness.) Compare "My soul is sad and I have read all the books"
(Mallanne); "Spleen n " and "La Voix" (Baudelaire); "H ere stand I, alas, Philoso­
phy I behind me" (Goethe).13 [m5,3)
Again and again in Baudelaire, the specifically modem is there to be recognized
as complement of the specifically archaic. In the person of the Bineur, whoec:
idleness carries him through an imaginary city of arcades, the poet is confronted
by the dandy (who weaves his way through the crowd without taking notice of
the jolts to which he is exposed). Yet also in the Baneur a long-extinct crea.nm -­
opens a dreamy eye, casts a look that goes to the hean of the poet. It is the "SOIl
of the wildemess"-the man who, once upon a rime, was betrothed, by a gener­
ous nature, to leisure. Dandyism is the last glimmer of the heroic in times of
dicadena. Baudelaire is delighted to find in Chateaubriand a reference to Ameri­
can Indian dandies-testinlony to the fonner golden age of these tribes. [mS,4)
On the hunter type in the lIi neur: "The mass of tenant8 and lodgers beginl to 8tr.,.
from shelter to Ihelter in this sea of houses, like the hunten and Ihepherdt 01
prehi8tory. The intellectual education of the nomad il now complete." OlwUd
SIH!ngler, Le Deciin de l'Occw ent <tran8. M. Tazerout> , vol. 2. pa rt I (Pam,
1933), p. 140. 11 [mS.5]
" Man a8 civilized heing, as intellectual nomad, is again wholly micr ocosmic,
wholly homelell, as Cree intellectually as bunter lind herdsmun were free sensU­
ally. " Spengler, vol. 2, p. 125.1 5 . [m5,6)
p
[Anthropological Materialism, History of Sects]
GUStav: ~ 'Jbur bot[om i5 ... divine!"
Berdoa: ~And immortal as well, I hope."
Gustav: ~ Wha[ ?"
Berdoa: "Nothing."
-Grabbe, HalO, 1"k«J(}r' /lOll Golhkuul l
The grandiose an~ lacJu:rmose ~bnoim de Cllodruc-Dudru, edited by J. Arago
and Ed?uard Goum ~, 1843), Ul two volumes, are occasionally interesting as
the rudiment! of a phYSiology of the beggar. The long preface is unsigned and
says nothing about the manuscript. The memoirs could be apocryphal. ~ read
at one point: "Let there be no mistake about it : it is not the refusal that humiliates
so much as the almsgiving.... I never sttetched out my hand in supplication. 1
\ wo~d ~ more quickly than the man who was going to accede to my request;
passmg him, I would open my right hand, and he would slip something into it"
(v.ol. 2, pp. ~1- 1 2). At another point : "Water is sustaining! ... 1 gorged myself
WIth water, smce I had no bread" (vol. 2, p. 19). (P 1,I )
S.cene. in the dormitory of a pnl on at the beginnin~ of the 1830s. The pauage i,
clledm
.
D
OCOO
- 'l8, WIt
' hout In
. d'Icabon
. 0f aut hor : " In the evening, with the dormitory
I~ an uproar, ' the rep ubliean workers, before goin ~ to bed , performed La Revolu­
tion de 1830, a theatrical charade they had conlpDsed. It reproduced all the 8ceoe,
of the glorious week , from the de<:isioll of Cha rles X and hi8 ministers to sign the
july Ordinances. to the triumllh of the people. The battle on the b arricade8 was
represented by a battle with hoillers carried 011 behind a lofty pile of beds and
In~ U resses. At tile end , victors and va nquished joined forces to sing " La Mar­
seill aise .'"'' Ch aresl B enOlst
' , ,,­
Lll onlllle de I848 ," p artl , RelJuedesdeuxmondes
(Jul ), I , 19 13), p. 147. The passage citcil presumably comes from Chateauhrialld.
[P I,')
Gallneau . " Th"
wh e" apa II . . . appears to 118 under Ihe aspect of the perfect dandy,
. 0 loves horiles, adores women , and lUll a taste for the high life b ut is enlirely
Imr>Ccuniol1s. This lack offu llds he makc8 up for through gambliog; he is a habitue
or aU the ga mhling den8 of the Palail-Royal .... li e believes himself de8tined 10 be
 t.he redeemer of mun '~ beller half, and . . . takes the title of Mapah, a nahaecl
fo rmed frolll Ihe first syllablcs of the two words ' mama' and 'p.". '. H e g008 On to
just as he WII S hor n to commllnd the beal is who came before him" <I.e Monde de,
oise(w,x. vol. I , p. 38>. [pla,5]
slly thai all prope r na mes should be modified in thi.s ma nner : YOII should no IOIl8er
bear Ihe na me of your rather, but rather should use the firs t syllable f
' .d " °your According to TOll8llenel, t.ite races t.hat most look up 10 the woman stand highest : at
mOl.he r I mal e n n a me combllled Wllh the first syllable of your r. th, r 'I name. Ahd
10 mark the mo re clearly that he foreve r renounces his own former name. times the Germalls, but ahove all the French a.nd the Greeks. " As the Athenian
sign ··, be
. s h·IIIIM!If: 'H. e Wh0 was Ganneau . , ... He d istributes hit p amphlettl a llheexit3 of ami tile Frenchman are delloted by the falcon , so a re the Roman and the Eliglish.
thealer s or Icnds them through the mail; he even tried to persuade Victo r H plan hy the eagle." (The eagle. however. " docs 1101 rally to the service of human .
. h·18 doctrme.
p atronu:e . JII IesBertaut, .. Le ·Mupah ...• Le TempI, September ~o,o
2 ity:') A. TOlluencl . Le Monde des oueQlU", vol . I (Paris, (853), p . 125. (pla,6]
1935. I,
[p , ~]
Coptic physiologies: Mli&ee pollr rire; iUlUee Philipon ; MlUee or Magasin com.
Charles Louandre on the phYl iologies, which he charges with corruption of mor­ iqlle; Musee Pori,ien; Les Metamorphose, dujour. [P2,1]
als: " This drear y genre ... has very quickl y run its course. The physioloK)' ..
produced in 32mo fo rmat suitable to be sold ... to those out walking or drivin~, it Series of drawin gs . 1£, Vemviennes, b y Beaumont: twenty prints. Daumier 's ~
repre8e.nted in 1836, in the BiblWg raphie de la France. by two volume,, ; in 1838 ries Le5 DilJorcelUe, <Divorced Women >. A series (by whom?) titled Le$ Bas.blew

. there are eight VOlume." listed ; in 1841 there are seventy.six ; in 1842 , forty. four;
fifteen the year foU owlDg; and hardly more than three or four in the two yean
since then . From the physiology of individuals, one moved to the physiolOl)' 01
<The Blueslockings). ! (P2,2)

cities. There was Paru la nuit; Paris a. table; Paris dan$ l'ea,,; Pan. a chevol;
Paru piltore$(IUe; Paru bohemiell ; Paru liueraire; Paris marik. Then came the
phYlLiology of peoples: Les Frarn;au ; Le5 Anglau peint5 par eux..meme•. Thete
wer e followed by the physiology of animals: Le$ Animaw: peint. par ew::·meme,,,
deuine, par d 'OIdres. Having finally run out of subjects, ... the authors .. .
turned in the end to portraying themselves, and gave us the La Phy,iolop da .....
phy,iowgUte,." Charles Louandre, " Statistique liueraire: De la P roductioo iDtel­
lectuelle en France depuis quinze aos," Revue de. deux monde. (November 15.
1847). pp. 686-687. (p1a, 1)
T heses of Touuenel: " That the happinetl! of individualll ill in di red proportion to
female a uthorit y"; " that the rank of the species is in direc t proportion to female
authority." A. Tous8e.nel, I.e Monde de, oueaux, vol. 1 (Parit, 1853), p . 485 . The .
first is the " formu la of the gyrfalcon" (p . 39). [p1a,2]
Tous8e.nel on his Monde des oueaw::: "The wo r ld of birdll is only its incidental
subject , whereas the world of men is its principal subject ." Vol. I , p . 2 (prefaCfl by
the a uthor). [p 1a,3]
Toussellel ill his preface to Le Monde des oi,eau,x: " He (the author] has soughlto
underline the importallce of the culinary side of his suhject h y according the item
" roast meat" a more prominent place than it usually occupies in scie~ tifi c worke. "
Vol. I. p. 2. [p 1a,4]
" We admire the bird . .. hecause with the hird , as in all well-orga ni:r.ed politic.,
... it is gaUalltry that determines r ank .... We feel instinctively that the woman,
who came from the Creator's hand aft er the man , was made to comnllUll1 the latter,
Rise of the physiologies: " The burning political struggle of the years 1830-1835
had formed an army of draft>lDlen •... and this a rmy ... waR completely knocked
out , politically speaking, by the SePlember Laws. At a time, that is, when they had
fathomed all the secrets of their art , they wer e suddenly restricted to a l ingle
theater of operations: the description of bourgeois life. . . . This is the circum·
stance that explains the colou a l revue of bourgeois life inaugurated around the
middle of the L830s in .' rance . ... Everything came into the picture: . .. happy
days and sad d ays, work and rec reation , marriage customs and bachelor habits,
family, house, child, school. society, theater, types, professions." Eduard Fuchs,
Die Karikafur der europauchen Votker, 4th ed . (Munich <1921» , vol. I , p . 362 .
[P2,3]
What sordidness once again, at the: end of the century, in the representation of
physiological affairs! Characteristic of this is a description of impotence in Mail·
~'s book on the history of women's emancipation, which in its overall han·
dling of the matter lays bare, in drastic fashion, the reaction of the established
bourgeoisie to anthropological materialism. In connection with the presentation
of Claire Demar's doctrine, one finds that "she ... speaks of the deceptions that
can .result from that strange and enormous sacrifice. at the risk of which. under a
,tornd Italian sky, more than one young man tries his luck at becoming a famous
chanteur." Finnin Maillard, La Ligrode de la/nnme inwncipee (Paris), p. 98.
[P2,' ]
A key passage fro m tlte ma nifesto of Claire Demar : "The union of the sexes in the
fUture will have to he the resllh of ... tlCCllly meditated sympat hies . .. : this wiD
1"It the case even wher e the ex istence of an intimate, ~t.."t;ret . ami mys terious rapport
l"ltlwccll two 1I0uis has been recognized .... AlI sllch relations could ver y well come
to not hing ill the face of one 1l1li1. illdilllH!nsable. and deci.sive test: the rF.sr of
,'CAfTER by ,'CArTF.R , the ASSA" of Fl.ESII hy FI.F.5 I1 !!! • . . Often enough . on the ver y
threshold of the bedroom , a devouring flame has come to be edi"g ui&hed; oftet!
e no ugh . for more than Olle gra nd pasBion , the llerfllmetl be ds heets have b«ollle.
demh . hrolld. More than one persOIl . .. who will rCBd the8e lincs has entered
night . into the bed of Hymen .JJu ipita tins with de.ire, ancl emotions. onl . :'
awa k en In. th e mo rnmg
. COK" a n d Ky.' "CI Blre' 0 emu' r, Mll W.. d •a venir (Parls
Y 0
1834), pp. 36-37. {p2,Sj
Re anthropological materialism . Conclusion of Claire Dtl mur's Ma Loj d'. ven,,· . she had consistently refused , saying that the tone of this periodical was too
<My Law of the Future>: "No morc motherhood , 110 more law of blood . I say: bo
more motherhood . And , in fact . the woman emancill81ed ... from the man, who
then no longer pays her the price of her body, ... will owe her ex.i..t\: nce ... to her
works alone. For this it is necessa r y thai the woman pursue some work, fulfill •
fun ction . And how can she do this if she is always condemned to give up a more or
lell large pa rt of her life to the care and education of one or more children? ...
You wan t to emancipate the lComan ? Well , then, ta ke the newborn child from the
breast of the blood-mother a nd pve it into the arms of the social mother, a nurH
employed b y the s tate, and the child will be better raised .... T hen , and then only,
will man, woman , and child be freed from the law of b lood , from the exploitation
of humanity by humanit y." Claire Demar, Ma Loi d 'uvenir: Ouvruge posthwne
publik par Suzanne ( Paris. 1834), PI' . 58-59. [p2a, l ]
" What! Beeause a woman would rather not take the I)ublic inlo her confidence
concerning her feelings as a woma n ; because, from among all the men who would
lavis h their attentions upon her, ... onl y she could say which one she prefer&--
... is she then ... 10 beconle ... the slave of one man? ... What! In s uch cues .
woman is exploited.... For if s he were not afraid of seeing them tear themse1ves to
pieces, ... she could give satisfaction to sever al men al once in their love.... I
believe. with M . James de Laurence, in the need ... for a freed om without .. .
Limits, ... a freedom founded on mystery, which for me is the basis of the new
mora lity. n Claire Demar, Ma Loi d 'ave nir (Paris, 1834), PI' . 31-32. [p2a,2]
The demand for "mystery"- as o pposed to "publicity"-in sexuaJ rdations is
closely connected, in Demar, with the demand for more or less extended trial
periods. Of course, the traditional fonn of marriage would in general be sup­
planted by this more 8exible fonn. It is logical, funhennore, that these concep­
tions should give rise to the demand for matriarchy. [p2a,3]
From the argu ments directed aga inst patriarchy: ;'Ah , il is wil h It huge pile or
parricidal daggers at my side IIial , amid wides pread groa ns of la menlalion at the
very mention of the words ' fll iller ' and ' mother,' I ventu re 10 raise Illy voice ...
IIgllin8t the IlIw of b lood , the law of generation !" Claire J)c.lll il r. Mu Loi d'cwenir
(pans, 1834), PI). 5<a-55. [p2a,4]
Caricature plays a considerable role in the development of the caption. It is
characteristic that H enri Bouchot, La Lithographie (Paris ( 1895)) <p. 114>, re­
proaches Daumier with the length and indisperu;ability of his captions. [p2a,5]
l:Ienri Bouellot , La UtllogrUIJhie ( Pans), p . 138 , compares the producti vity of
[)even a with Ihat of Ba lzac a nd DUllla ~. [p2a,6]
Several passages from C laire 06nar's work Ma Lo,- d'alK1lirmay be cited by way
of characterizing her relation to J anlcs de Laurence. The first comes from the
foreword written by Suzanne and has its point of departure in Claire ~mar's
refusal to contribute to La Tribune deJjemmu: " Up until the seventeenth issue,
moderate.... When this issue appeared, there was a passage in an article by me
which, by its foml and its moderation, exasperated Clt,ire.-She wrote to me that
she was going to respond to it.-But ... her response became a pamphlet, which
she then decided to publish on its own, outside the framework of the peri.
odical.... Here, then, is the fragment of the article of which Claire has cited o nly
a few lines. 'There is still in the world a man who interprets ... Christianity ... in
a manner ... favorable to our sex: I mean M. ]ameJ de Laurnla, the author of a
pamphlet entitled UJ Enfant.s de dietl, ou La Religjon de ]iJw.... The author is
no Saint-Simonian; ... he postulates ... an inheritance through the mother.
, Certainly this system ... is highly advantageous to us; I am convinced that some
part of it will have a place ... in the religion of the future, and that the principle
of motherhood will become one of the fundamenta1 laws of the state'" (Claire
Demar, Ma fo; d'auenir: Ouurage pruthume publii par Suzanne [Paris, 1834], pp. 14­
16). In the text of her manifesto, C laire Demar makes common cause with
Laurence against the reproaches leveled at him by La Tn·bune des jemmeJ, which
__ had claimed that he was ad vocating a form of "moral liberty ... without rules or
\ boundaries," something "which ... would surdy land us in a coarse and disgust­
ing disorder." The blame for this is said to reside in the fact that in these things
Laurence propounds mystery as a principle; on the strength of such mystery, we
would have to render account in these things to a mystical God aJone. La Tribune
de; Femme;, on the contrary, believes that "the Society of the Future will be
founded not o n mystery but on trust; for mystery merely prolongs the exploita·
tion of our sex." C laire Demar replies: "Certainly, Mesdames, if, like you, I
confused trust with publicity, and considered mystery as prolonging the exploita·
tion of our sex, I would be bound to give my blessings to the times in which we
live." She goes on to describe the brutality of the customs of these times : " Before
the mayor and before the priest, ... a man and a woman have: assembled a long
tt;ain of witnesses.... Voila! ... The union is called legitimate, and the woman
may now without blushing afIinn: 'On such and such a day, at such and such an
hour, I shaJl receive a man into my JIIO.lfAH'S BED/!!' • •. Contracted in the presence
of the crowd, the marriage drags aJong, across an o rgy of \-vines and dances,
t~ward the nuptiaJ bed, which has become the bed of debauchery and prostitu­
tion, inviting the delirious imagination of the guests to follow ... all the details
. of the lubricious drama enacted in the na.me of thc ,,*dding Dayl If the
practice ".:hich thus converts a young bride: ... into the object of impudent
glances ... , and which prostitutes her to unrestrained desires, ... does not
appear to you a horrible exploitation, ... then I know not what to say" (Ma /...oi
d'abrnrr,
. pp. 29-30). [p3. 1)
Publication date of the fin' i.uue of Le Charivari: December I, 1832.

Lesbian confe.uion of a Saint-Simonienne: " I began to love my feDow woman ..

much a. my fellow man .... I left to the man his physical strength and hi8 brand cl
intelligence in order to exalt at hil aide, and with equal right , the physical be...
of the woman and her diatinctiveiy spiritual gifts." Cited without indication:
source or author in Firmin Maillard, La Legende de Ia fem~ emanciph (Paril).
~~. ~~q

Empre.u Eugenie all IUCce8sor to the Mother:

Sholl1d you with, 0 bleaaed one,
The whol., of humankind with joy
Will hail itt EUCENUi ­
Archangd guidin!; UI to port!!!

jean Joumet, L'Ere de lafemme, ouLe Regne de l'hannonie univer,eUe (Jua&rJ

1857), p. 8. <See U14a,4 and Ul7a,2.> [p3a,2J

Maxim8 from Jamea de Laurence, LeJ Enfants de dUu, ou La Reli&ion de J...

reconciUee avec Ia philo.ophie (Paris, June 1831): " It iH more reasonable t o "
that all children are made by Cod than to 8ay that all married couplet are joiMll
together by Cod" (p. 14). The fact that jel uH does not condemn the WOIIW:II
in adultery leads Laurence to conclude lbat he did not approve of marriap:
pardoned her because be conllidered adultery the natural consequence 01 _ _.
riage. and he would have accepted it were it to be found amolllJ: his dUcip&e.•••
As long as marriage exilts, an adulterow woman will be found Crim.in~,~'~:::: ,
. he burdenl her hU8band with the children of othen. Jesw could not te
an injul tice; hi, sylltem is logical: he wanted children to belOIllJ: to the ......
Whence lbose remarkable worda: 'Call no man your father on earth, for 'ou .....
one Father. who it in heaven'''' (p. 13). "The children of Cod, a8 de&eellded Ina
one woman. form a single family .•.. The religion of the J ew. was th.t of"...
nitr, under which the patriarch!! exerci8ed their domeetic authority. The ~
of J esu8 i, lbat of maternity, whoae symhol is a mother holding a child in her.,..;
and thill mother ill caDed the Virgin because. while fulfilling the dutiee of a mother.
Ihe had not reoounced the independence of a virgin" (pp. 13-14). [p3a,S] ~e fuuricrist miMionary JeanJoumet, ca. 1858. Photo by Nadar. Courtesy of the Bib­
liotheque Nationale de France. See p3a,2.
"Some leell ... , during the fir8t centuriell of the church. lleem to have divined .... '.
intentione of J ellu8; the Simonians, the Nicolaitana. the Carpocratiaru, the
Ba8ilidians. the Marcionites. and others ... not only had abolished marria~ bid libeny, he changed the water into wine 50 as to demonstrate that marriage was a
had established the community of women." James de Laurence, Le. Enfa nu • fOOlhardy venture undertaken only by people whose brains are addled by l'Iine."
dieu , Olt La Religion de Je,w reconciUee avec In philosophie (Paris. june 1831). J~es de Laurence, Us EnfantJ de dieu, ou La Religion de Jesus ric01Idfiie avec fa
p.8. [p3,,') Ph'/ruOPhi, (Paris,june 1831), p. 8. [p4,I)

The interpretation of the miracle at Carla4 whichJames de Laurence offers, in lSI

effort to p~ his thesis thatJesus stood opposed to marriage. is wholly in
"The Holy Spirit , or tile loul of nature, descended UpOII the Virgio in the form of a
style o f the early Middle Ages: "Seeing the wedded pair make a sacrifice
dove; and since the dove il the .ymhol of love, this sigoifiee that the mother of
 J ellua h ad yielded to the natural inclination for love." James de Laurence, "­
En/a nu de dieu (Parill, June 183 1), p . 5. (p4,2J
Some of Lau re nce'a theoretical motifs are already evident in his four.vohune
novel, Le Punoruma de, boudoir3. ou L 'Empire de3 Nair3 (Pa ria, 1817). which
wall published earlier in Germa ny and of which a fr apent had appeared in 1793
in Wieland'il Deutsche Merkur. Laurence (Lawrence) was Engliah . [p4,3J
" Balzac h all described the physiognomy of the Pa risian in unforgettable fa shion:
the faces dra wn taut . tor mented . livid , ' the almost infernal conlplexion of ParUlaa
physiognomies';s not faces but masks. " Ernst Robert Curtiu8, Balzac (Borm,
1923) , p . 243. (Citation from La Fille aur yellX d 'or.) [p4,4J
" Balzac's interest in longe\·ity is one of the things he hal in common v'1lh the
eighteenth centur y. The naturalislII, the philosophers, the cha rlatans of that . .
.. arc agreed on this point. ... Condorcet expected from the future era, which be
painted in glowing colors, a n infinite prolongation of the life lipan . Count Saint.
Germain dispensed a ' tea of life,' CagLiostro an 'elixir of life'; others promoted
'sider eal salts,' ' tincture of gold, ' ' magnetic beds. ,,, Ernlit Robert CurtiulI, Babae
(Bonn , 1923), p . 101. [p4,5)
In Fourier (Nouutau MfJTUk <Paris, 1829-1830>, p. 275) there are outaies againIt
wedding rites that recall the pronouncements of C laire Demar. [p4,fi]
Note of Bianqui'l from the I pring of 1846, when he wali imprisoned in the HOIIpitai
of Tou rs: " On Communion d aya, the siliters of the hOlpice of Toun are wa.ap­
proachable, fer ocious. They have eatcn Cod . They are churning with the pride J.
this w vine digestion . These vessels of holinen become fl as ks of vitriol ." <Cited in>
Gustave Geffroy, L 'Enfer me (Paris, 1926), vol. I , p . 133. [p4,7J
Apropos of the wedding at Cana . 1848: "A banquet for the poor was planned; it
was to offer, for twent y-fi ve centimes, bread , cheese, and wine , which would be
eaten and drunk on the plain of Saint-Denis. It did not take place (initiaUy ached-­
uled for June I . it was postponed to JUlie 18, then to July 14) ; but the. prep aratory
meetillgs that were held , the subscriptions that were collected , and the en~-
ments-...·hich had mounted , by June 8, to 165.532-ser ved to sbr . up p ubLic op'"
iOIl ." Gustn e Geffroy, L 'Eriferme (Pa ris. 1926), vol. I , p . 192. [p4a, l]
" In 1848, ill the room of J enn y the worker , there were portraits of Beran~r,
Nal)Oleon , and the Madonn a pinned 10 t.he wall . People felt certain t~at the re1i5­
iOIl of Huma nit y was al)Ou t 10 emerge. J esus I.S a great mall 0 r '48 • Among , •
the
lllt
malilies, there were indicationli of a fa ith ill omens .... The Alm(Jn(Jch prophetlll
of 1849 allliounced Ihe retu r n of the comel of 12&1--lhe war r ior comet, produced
b y Ihe influence of Mars." Gustave Geffroy, L 'f;n/e rme (Paris, 1926), vol. I }'
[p4' ,2
p . 156.
Babick , deputy of the tenth arrondiu ement. Pole, worker, then tailor, lhen l)Cr­
fulilcr. " He was .. . a member of the International a nd of lhe Central Committee,
aud a lthe same time an a politle of the fu sionist cult-a religion of recent inspira­
tion , illtended for the use of brains like hili. Formed b y a certain M. de Toureil , it
corn bined . . . several cults . to which Babick had conjoined spiritualism. All a
){'riumer, he had created for it a language which , for lack of other merilll, was
~dolellt of drugs and oinlments. He wo uld write at the top of his letters ' Parili­
Jerusa lem,' d ate them with a year of the fu sionist era, and sign them ' Babick .
child of the Kingdom of God, and perfumer.'" Georges LarOD%e, lIu toire de la
Com mu ne de 1871 (Pa ris, 1928), pp . 168-169. (p4a,3]
''The whilllsical idea conceived b y the colonel of the twelfth legion was no more
felicitoua. It entailed forming a compan y of female citizen volunteeu who were
charged , for the greater shame of lawbrea kers. with securing their a rrest ,"
Georges Larollze. Hu toire de la Commune de 1871 (Pa ris , 1928), p. 501 . (p4a,4]
f usionu me begins itll reckoning of time with December 30, 1845. [p4.,5}
MaJ(ime Du Camp , in his Souvenir5 liuer-aires, makeli a play on words with
" Evadia nli" and "evadeu." <See a 15,2-4. > [p4•.6}
From the constitution of the Vesuviennes: " Female citizens ought to do their part
to 8er ve the armies of land and sea .. .. The enlisted will fonn an army to be
designated as reserve. It will be divided into three contingentll: the COrpli of women
\ worken. the corps of vivandierel, and the corps of ch arit y.... Since ma rriage il
an association , each of the two SI)OUSCS must share in all the work. Any husb and
reCusing to l)Crform his por tion of domestic duties will be condemned . . . to as·
8ume res ponsibility for the service of his wife in the Garde Civique. in place of his
own ser vice in the Garde Nationale." Finnin MaWard, La U ge ruh de lafemme
ema ncipee (Parili) , pp . 179, 181 . [pS,I]
"The feelings Hegel stir red up among the members of ¥ oung Germa ny, and which
Ructuated belween strong attraction and even !tr onger re pulsion . are refl ected
most vividly in Gusta v Kuhne's Quarantiine im Irrenha we <Quara ntine in the
Illsalle AsylulII ) . . .. Because the members of Young GermallY placed the accent
nlore 0 11 8ubjecti\'e volition than on objective freedom, the Young Hegelia nli
hl!flped scorn upon the ' unprincipled meandering' of their ' belletris tic ego­
ism' .... Although the fea r arose , within the r anks of ¥ oung German y, that the
illcscapa IJlc llialectic of Hegelian doctr ine might Ileprive Youth of the strength ...
to act , this concern proved unj ustified ." Quite the contrary: once titese yo ung
CernlaliS " were forced to recogn ize . aft er the han on their .... ritin~ was imposed .
that they them.selves h ad burned the hands b y whose diligent labor s they had
hUlled to )j.ve Like good bourgeoili, their enthusiasm quickl y vanished ." Gusta v
Mllyer , f' riedrich Engeu. vol. I. friedricll EnSeu in seiner friih ; eit (Berlin
( 1933», pp. 37-39." [p5.2]
 Around the time that "physiologies n first appeared, historians like Thierry, Rtligitm juJionienne. ou Docln'ne de /'unilKrJolisah'on rialuanl Ie ural cQlholici.Jme
Mignet, Guaot "'ere laying emphasis o n the analysis of " bourgeois life." (p5,3] (Paris, 1902). [p5a.2]

Engels on the Wuppertal region : " Excellenl soil (or OUf principlf's is being pre­
pa red here; and once we are able to sct in motiOIl o ur wild , hot-1eml)Cred dye-rot
lind bleache rs. yo u won't recognize Wupperlal. Even as it i8. the workers durins
the pasl few years have reached the fm al stage of the old civilization; the rapid
increase in crimes, robberies. and murders is their protest agaillst the old social
organization . At night the streets a re unsafe, the bourgeois are beatcn up , knifed,
and robbed. If the local proleta rians develop acco rding to the l a m e laws 8S the
English prolela rians, they will 800n realize thai it is useless to protett againtt the
social s ystem in thi, ma nner . . . and will protest in their general capacity, ..
human bein~, by means of communis m." Engels to Marx, October 1844, froDi
Barmen [Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Briefwech$el, ed. Marx ~ Enge" .Lenin
Ins titut , vol . I « Zurich > 1935), PII. 4-5]. r [p5,4)
" Me: Is there SOni C particula r fa cet of your religious cult thlll yo u could comnlent
OIl? M. (Ie Toureil : We pray oflcn , and our prayc rs ordinurily begin willi the
"'ords: ' 0 Map supreme and eternal. ' Me: Whal is the meuning of this sound
' Mop'? M . de Toureil : It is a sacred sound ....hich combines the m signifying mere
(mother). the p signifying pere (father ), and the a signifying amour (love) ....
These 1I1 rt.'e lelten ,Iesign ate the great eterllal God." AJexand re Erdan [A. A.
J acoh ], La "'ranee mi$tique, 2 vols. ( Paris. 1855), vol. 2, p. 632 [continuous )Iugi­
nUlion)' Ip6.1]
Fiuionume aims no t at a syncretism but at the fusion of human beings with one
another and with God. [P6,2]

.. The heroic ideal in Baudelaire is androgynous. This does not prevent him from
writing: "~ have known the philanthropist "...oman author, the systematic priest­
"There will be no hapl'inen for hunlanity until the d ay the r epublic sends the son
of God back 10 the carpenter 's shop of Monsieur his father." This sentence is put
into the mouth ofCourbet , in a pamphlet thai presents the heroes of the February
ess of love, the republican poetess, the poetess of the future, Fourierist or Saint­ Revolution to the Jlublic. (P6,3]
Simonian; and our eyes ... have never succeeded in becoming accustomed to aD
this srudied ugliness." Baudelaire, !:Art romanhque, ed. Hacheue, vol. 3 (Paris),
p. 340 ("Marceline Desbordes-Valmore").' (p5a,11

One of the later sectarian developments o f the nineteenth century is the fusionia
religion. It was propagated by L.J. B. Toureil (born in Year VIII, died 1863 [or
1868?]). The Fourierist in.8uence can be felt in his periodization of history; &om
­
Saint'-Simon comes the idea of the Trinity as a unity o f Mother-Father to whicb
Sister-Brother or Androgyne is joined. The universal substance is determined in
its working by three processes, in the definition of which the inferior basis of ~
doctrine comes to light. These processes are: "Emanation, ... the property which
the universal substance possesses of expanding infinitely beyond itself; ... ~
sorption, ... the property which the universal substance possesses of rummg
back infinitely upon itself; . .. Assimilation, ... the property which the universal
substance possesses of being intimately penneated with itself' (p. i).-A charac­
teristic passage from the aphorism "PaUVTeS, riches" <Rich Men, .I bor Men>,
which addresses itself to the rich and speaks of the poor: "Moreover, if you refuse
to elevate them to your level and scorn to involve yourselves with them, why
then d o you breathe the same air, inhabit the sanle aunosphere? In order not to
breathe in and assimilate their em.anation .. . , it will be necessary for you t~
leave this world to breathe a different air and live in a different aqnosphere
(p.267). -The dead are "multifonn" and exist in many places on the earth at the
same time. For this reason, people must very seriously concern themselves, ~ur­
ing their lifetime, with the beuennent o f the earth (p. 307). Ultimately, all ~~
in a series of suns, which in the end, after they have passed through the stau~n 0"
one light (unilmniire) , realize the "universal light" in the "universalizing reglon.