Sophrosyne:

The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

by
Laura Lora

LIT 211Y
Greece A Modern Odyssey

Dr. N. Catalano

July 2nd, 2014

Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

Despite the current economic situation of Greece, which some attribute to the
exceedingly lax ways of the Greek lifestyle, it is not a question whether or not the Greeks,
especially the Greeks of the Classical Period, understood the right way to live a fulfilled life.
Most will argue that the term sophrosyne has something if not much to do with correlation to the
secrets pertaining to this type of enjoyable and yet righteous way of living. Although the term
itself has come to be associated to a myriad of objects and circumstances not all scenarios
being necessarily positive sophrosyne is for the majority of ancient time related to selfknowledge, self-restraint, but most importantly, moderation and balance. This work aims to trace
the history of sophrosyne, both the term and the concept, evaluating its transformation over time
to discover its most truthful version and apply it to modern times.
Multiple scholars have written pieces about sophrosyne but not many have devoted as
much time tracking its historic background or analyzing its diverse meanings as classics and
liberal arts teacher Helen F. North has. Her work on sophrosyne is extensive and profound. From
her many books and abstracts, we discover that sophrosyne traces back to 600 BC (North, 1966).
It is during the Archaic Period that, through literature, the principles of measure, proportion, and
restraint are established "Measure is best!" "Nothing too much!" "Know thyself!" (North,
1966).
J. T. Sheppard, author of The Heroic Sophrosyne and the Form of Homer's Poetry
(1920), insists that sophrosyne is observed even prior. In Homers classic, The Iliad, Achilles
speaks of the best that we poor human creatures can expect, as not perfect happiness, but a due
admixture of evil and of good referring to the sophrosyne or balance that must prevail.
Sheppard suggests that Homer intentionally ends the poem in the spirit of the Greek morality:

Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

Know thyself and knowing that thou art mortal, be moderate. (Sheppard, 1920). The key words
being self-knowledge and moderation, a connection with sophrosyne is possible.
However, some scholars choose to refute North and Sheppards assumptions maintaining
that, although the concept was being developed, there was no such a thing as a single concept or
essence of sophrosyne before Plato, or at any rate before the time of the Sophists (Else, 1969).
In fact, North herself admits that the noun sophrosyne is not used by any Greek author before
Euripides (North, 1966).
This leads us to the Classical Period a time of exceptional political and cultural heights
for Athenians. During this period the Parthenon on the Acropolis is completed, the democratic
system of government is developed, the philosophical schools of Socrates and Plato are founded,
and the tragedies of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides are created. From the Greek tragedians
we learn that, to the Athenians of the early and middle 5th century, sophrosyne implied good
sense, moderation, self-knowledge, and that accurate observance of divine and human
boundaries which protects man from dangerous extremes of every kind (North, 1947).
Aeschylus famous trilogy, Oresteia, in its final drama proclaims justice and sophrosyne
to be the inseparable ideals of the city-state (North, 1947). Furthermore, from Aeschylus we
know that Athenians interpreted the Persian War in ethical terms as a conflict between hybris
and sophrosyne, and ultimately associated sophrosyne with their newly-vindicated freedom
(North, 1947). It is for this reason and more that North (1947) designates the first half of the 5th
century as the high-water mark of sophrosyne.
Aeschylus always treats sophrosyne as a desirable quality, and so, almost always, does
Sophocles, but Euripides, amongst others, is one to criticize the virtue. In Hippolytus, the main

Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

character is famous in Greek tradition uniquely for his sophrosyne, which in this case refers to
chastity. Euripides is harsh on Hippolytus suggesting that his very strength his chastity is also
his weakness.
The picture of sophrosyne in this tragedy is offensive because Hippolytus who repeatedly
congratulates himself on possessing sophrosyne, in reality knows only one aspect of the virtue.
His lack of moderation, prudence, and self-control prove to be larger than the possession of mere
chastity. Because he is so enamored of his asceticism, Hippolytus shows himself to be onesided in a way peculiarly repugnant to the Greeks (North, 1947). We cannot read this tragedy
without concluding that it is fatal to exalt a single aspect of sophrosyne at the expense of the
others.
But it is in the work of Plato that the critical examination of sophrosyne bore its greatest
fruit (North, 1947). Sophrosyne is examined in all phases and it is established to represent
danger when exaggerating any one aspect. Plato invariably insists upon the unity of the virtues,
and often draws attention to flaws in those types of sophrosyne, which, being divorced from the
other virtues, are inadequate and subject to corruption (North, 1947). As North (1947) points
out, in the long intricate history of sophrosyne, Plato is the focal point. He, above all others, is
the one who gives sophrosyne its final definition in the Greek ethical system.
Plato positions sophrosyne at the heart of the four cardinal virtues: justice, wisdom,
courage, and self-control. By placing sophrosyne in intimate reciprocal relationship with justice
and in correlation with the structure of both the state and the human soul, Plato makes
sophrosyne the quintessential Greek virtue (Else, 1969). The incorporation of sophrosyne in
the fixed scheme of the four virtues gives it a new firmness of definition. Plato describes the soul

Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

as an ordering or harmony, and sophrosyne as the principle of that harmony and sees the
essence of sophrosyne in the control of appetite by reason (Else, 1969).
Despite of Platos efforts, the second half of the 5th century and its succeeding years show
a reappraisal of the term sophrosyne that is not quite favorable. Because Platos sophrosyne was
connected to the control of appetite, the late generation of Greeks ridicule the values of selfcontrol, chastity, and moderation, on the grounds that these virtues interfere with the satisfaction
of the appetites, which is mans only goal in life (North, 1966). They reject the traditional
morality of their fathers and scorn especially the old-fashioned virtue of sophrosyne. To them,
self-control is an invention of the weak. Unable to satisfy their own desires, the weak would
impose an unnatural restraint upon the strong. Conversely, the strong see nothing if not disgrace
in sophrosyne, which makes slaves of those who would otherwise be free (North, 1966).
Because sophrosyne implied prudence and discretion, it was easily exaggerated into
excessive caution, which was hence turned into cowardice. To the Greeks of the second half of
the 5th century, sophrosyne was a virtue only praised by the weak because of their own
unmanliness. It was almost inevitable for sophrosyne in its classical sense of intense passion
under perfect control to be supplanted by a negative concept in which moderation of the
passions became extirpation of them (Sprague, 1968).
Aristotle was one of the few who opposed to this logic. Although not exactly following
the path that Plato had laid before him, Aristotle speaks of sophrosyne purely as a virtue of the
individual, namely the control of passion (Else, 1969). The passions he mentions are mainly
associated with virtues and vices. Temperance or sophrosyne as virtues and its corresponding
vices as pleasure and desire, specially the pleasure and desire for food, drink and sex. Virtues are
means with respect to actions and passions: the vices either fall short of or exceed what is right
5

Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

in both passions and actions, while the virtues find and choose what is intermediate (Battaly,
2010).
Aristotle argues that the temperance person, sophrosune, hits the mean between
insensibility and self-indulgence by hitting the mean in her passions and actions. She desires,
consumes and takes pleasure in appropriate objects, in appropriate amounts, to the appropriate
degree, at appropriate times. In Aristotles words, the temperate person craves for the things he
ought, as he ought, and when he ought (Battaly, 2010).
It is important to note that the temperate person does enjoy eating a piece of chocolate
cake from time to time, drinking a glass of whiskey at a party and having sex with her partner at
appropriate times. But unlike the self-indulgent person, her pursuit of pleasure does not crowd
out her other worthwhile pursuits. She succeeds in regulating those desires:

her appetites

harmonize with reason (Battaly, 2010). She neither overestimates nor underestimates the value
of the pleasures of food, drink, and sex.
Because Aristotles contributions to sophrosyne were highly focused on the moderation
of the passions, pleasures and desires, temperance once again transitions into the extirpation of
such passions and eventually becomes a synonym of asceticism. The temperance and sophrosyne
later adopted by the Romans, is tainted by the ill-defended prejudice of the Greek who perceive
frugality, self-control, and chastity at least feminine chastity as the way of the elders. In
addition, North (1966) evaluates sophrosyne and its redefinition by the Fathers of the Church,
where the concept takes on the popular usage of control of the appetites, and more specifically of
sexual appetites. Christianity ends up assimilating sophrosyne, both the term and the concept,
into the great central themes of imitation of God, purgation of the soul, and the practice of
asceticism.
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Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

The words of Plato and Aristotle are now forgotten, sophrosyne becomes a practice of the
past. Moderation and balance are substituted by excess and instability. Centuries pass in the blink
of an eye and Greece is able to flourish to, once again, hit rock bottom. But, can we attribute the
current financial crisis of Greece to the lack of sophrosyne employed by its people? Can a case
be made for the several bailout plans that, instead of helping Greece, have only contributed to the
worsening of the economy? Is the unfortunate situation simply a case of bad luck or can Greeces
state of denial and inability to completely stick to the austerity programs have anything to do
with it? It is difficult to tell.
On the meantime, the crisis sweeps over the land of Hellas, leaving despair and
destruction. The unemployment rate hits 27% and 1.5 million have officially registered as being
unable to find work, among those 61% are under 24 years of age. According to government
statistics, almost every household has felt the effects of wage and pension cuts, which have been
slashed by 40%. The soaring taxes keep increasing and, according to the European Union's
statistics agency, one-third of Greece's citizens are considered to be below the poverty level
(Smith, 2014).
Whether or not the extinction of sophrosyne in Greek tradition is the cause of the
problem, there is a possibility that sophrosyne can be part of the solution. The absence of
sophrosyne self-knowledge, self-restraint, moderation and balance in Athenians day to day
life is nothing if not palpable. Once the main ones to praise the virtue, Athenians have been able
to run away from sophrosyne for years. Greece has been the perfect getaway to too many and all
because of how good and simple life is known to be in the Hellenic Republic. The people of
Hellas have a reputation for being always happy and welcoming, but now it is time to question if

Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

the Greeks have been living in the dream that they have for fifty years been selling to the
tourists.
Is it possible that the Greeks have devoted too much time enjoying the pleasures of life?
Perhaps Aristotles lectures of temperance and sophrosyne should have offered some more
guidance with respect to how much enjoyment is too much. The only thing Aristotle does claim
is that the appropriate amounts, degrees, and frequencies [of desire and enjoyment] are those of
the practically wise person. Not exactly helpful advice. However, according to Heather
Battaly author of Epistemic Self-Indulgence (2010), what Aristotle means is that desire,
enjoyment, and consumption are excessive when they prevent one from pursuing or attaining
other things of value. In this case, perhaps too much enjoyment, and the inability to compromise
some of that enjoyment, prevented Greece to focus on recovering from the Eurozone Crisis when
they should have.
Five years later, Greece is still in the same place, or well, in the same financial hole. It is
possible, however, that returning to the principles of sophrosyne can help this countrys situation
by restoring the balance that was once lost. To return to such a state, Greece has to first of all
reach within and find the self-knowledge necessary to admit to its limitations what it can and
cannot do. Greece must muster self-restraint and adapt to the austerity programs that the
government has issued. Moderation will be the key to these new times, as Greeks cannot go back
to their self-indulgent days. It will take a lot effort to restore the balance, but with the time the
people of Hellas will understand that a life of sophrosyne is what they needed all along.
In reality, it is not only Greece who should embrace the virtues of sophrosyne we all
need sophrosyne in our lives. Most of us live in a world ruled by excess in one way or another.
Some work too hard and celebrate too lightly, others eat too much and exercise too little.
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Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

Millennials, more than any other generation, seem to be living in a world of pure chaos. They are
the ones who consistently use the phrase you only live once as an excuse to live without
worrying about the future, because tomorrow is promised to no one. This generation has been
fooled into thinking recklessness is a romantic notion and the only way to be truly free. Much in
accordance to the late generation of Classical Greeks, Millennials believe that those who refrain
from excess are mindless slaves, destined to die without having really lived life (Hawlk, 2014).
But both generations are wrong and self-indulgence can only go so far. Balance, on the other
hand, is what truly makes for a happy and enjoyable life.
Many will agree that happiness, pleasure, and satisfaction are incompatible with selfrestraint, and thus, attaining happiness through sophrosyne is impossible. But it is moderation
what enables the individual to distinguish between good and bad pleasures. Excess blinds our
conscious and prevents the realization that the best pleasures are somehow connected with
intellectual and spiritual values. Sophrosyne, is then, not an obstacle but a positive aid to the
enjoyment of pleasure. It increases delights and makes pleasures greater because the pleasures
that come least frequently, give most enjoyment.
In conclusion, sophrosyne is a term with many meanings, and is often misinterpreted.
However, it is important to note that the sophrosyne that Plato and Aristotle wrote about that
which encompasses the virtues of self-knowledge, self-restraint, moderation and balance that is
the sophrosyne we must remember. Sophrosyne might not be the solution to Greeces problem,
but it is definitely the key to a happy and full life. Irish writer Oscar Wilde could not have
phrased it better for us: Everything in moderation, including moderation.

Laura Lora
Dr. N. Catalano

Sophrosyne: The Blessing and Curse of Hellas

July 2nd, 2014

LIT 211Y

References:
Battaly
BATTALY, H. (2010). EPISTEMIC SELF-INDULGENCE. Metaphilosophy, 41(1/2), p. 214234. Available from: Academic Search Premier (accessed June 20, 2014).
Else
ELSE, G. (1969). REVIEW OF Sophrosyne: Self-Knowledge and Self-Restraint in Greek
Literature by Helen North. The American Journal of Philology, 90, p. 360-365. Available from:
JSTOR (accessed June 21, 2014).
Hawlk
HAWLK, K. (2014). WHY THE YOLO GENERATION HAS IT ALL WRONG. The Huffpost
Financial Blog. Available from: The Huffington Post (accessed June 20, 2014).
North
NORTH, H. (1947). A PERIOD OF OPPOSITION TO SOPHROSYNE IN GREEK
THOUGHT. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 78, p. 117. Available from: JSTOR (accessed June 22, 2014).
NORTH, H. (1966). SOPHROSYNE: SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND SELF-RESTRAINT IN
GREEK LITERATURE. Cornell University Press. Available from: JSTOR (accessed June 20,
2014).
Sheppard
SHEPPARD, J. (1920). THE HEROIC SOPHROSYNE AND THE FORM OF HOMERS
POETRY. TheJournal of Hellenic Studies, 40, p. 47-67. Available from: JSTOR (accessed June 21,
2014).
Smith
SMITH, H. (2014). GREECE FORGES TEMPLATE FOR ECONOMIC RECOVERY. The
Guardian Blog. Available from: The Guardian (accessed June 21, 2014)
Sprague
SPRAGUE, R. (1968). REVIEW OF Sophrosyne: Self-Knowledge and Self-Restraint in Greek
Literature by Helen North. Classical Philology, 63, p. 70-71. Available from: JSTOR (accessed
June 21, 2014).

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