Chemistry

in Ceramics
Jonathon Davis
Art II Mills
Period B-7
May 12, 2014
Chemistry in Ceramics
Most think that ceramic kilns simply heat all clay the same and that it is
nothing more than a glorified oven. Nothing more inaccurate can be said for what
goes on inside of the kiln. The firing of items in the kiln is both as precise as the
most specific of gourmet recipes and as artful as the pieces they harden.
Before the actual chemistry in the kiln is discussed it is necessary to
understand some of the terminology that is
used. One of the most common terms in
ceramics is a cone. Cones can mean one
of three things. A cone can be used to refer
to pyrometric or orton cones that have
been used to determine the stage in which
the kiln is. Josiah Wedgwood developed
these cones in 1782, however more
primitive versions had been in use for
hundreds if not thousands of years prior.
Cone can refer to the unit of measure heat
work which is heat over time. Furthermore
cone can refer to a measure of energy,
telling you when a piece of clay has
received an appropriate amount of energy. There are thirty-seven different
cones. Cones start at 022 being the lowest up to 15 being the highest. Cones
022 to 014 are considered to be low intensity firers and range form 1094-1540
degrees Fahrenheit and will produce a dull red flame. Cones 013-011 are
considered a low medium intensity range from 1582-1641 degrees Fahrenheit
and produce a cherry red flame. Cones 010 through 07 are mid ranged
intensity, range from 1679-1809 degrees Fahrenheit and produce a yellow

2014 Chemistry in Ceramics: Jonathon Davis

Chemistry in Ceramics
flame. The largest group of cones is the upper medium intensity group ranging
from cones 06-5 and having temperatures up to 2205 degrees Fahrenheit.
Furthermore the last grouping produces a white flame and extends from cone 6
to cone 15. The temperature range is from 2269 to 2615 degrees Fahrenheit.
(See Chart Below For Represented Data) Provided by the Big Ceramic Store

Quartz inversion is a phenomenon that takes place in quartz when it is

exposed to very high temperatures. Regular room temperature quartz is referred
to as a-quartz. When a-quartz is exposed to temperatures greater than 1063
degrees Fahrenheit it becomes b-quartz and experiences a lateral expansion of
approximately forty-five percent. This can lead to cracking of the pottery. To
prevent cracking it is not recommended to cool down fired items at a rate
exceeding 122 degrees per hour. Quartz inversion is in fact a reversible process
and will return to its original form after the increase in temperature has subsided.

2014 Chemistry in Ceramics: Jonathon Davis

Chemistry in Ceramics
(Graph showing the change from a to b-quartz) Provided by kgs.ku.edu

Oxidation firing and reduction firing are important pieces to understanding

kiln chemistry. Oxidation firing is a type of firing that may take place in most kilns.
During the firing of whatever ceramic wares that are in the kiln, oxygen is drawn
into the ceramics and causes minerals such as iron or copper to oxidize within
the glazes. This gives the piece its unique color. The process for reduction firing
is practically a polar opposite. In reduction firing, restrictions are placed on the
flow of oxygen to the kiln. With not enough oxygen to sustain full combustion, the
kiln is heavily saturated with carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide will begin to
steal oxygen located within the chemical makeup of the clay and glaze. This
process will cause the ceramics to turn certain colors as well. The lack of oxygen
can cause the flames to reach out of the flue and cracks in the kiln as they
attempt to collect the oxygen necessary to sustain themselves. Certain clays
work reflect the outcome of each firing methods in different was.

2014 Chemistry in Ceramics: Jonathon Davis

Chemistry in Ceramics
There are many types of clays that are used in ceramics. The first is
earthenware clays such as terracotta. Earthenware clays are very malleable and
have relatively low firing temperatures, lying between the degrees of 1745 and
2012 Fahrenheit. Earthenware colors range from brown, red and orange to
medium grays. Stoneware clays are normally as plastic as earthenware but are
almost exclusively a shade of gray. Stoneware clays firing temperature vary
greatly based upon the method of firing. Midfire stoneware typically ranges
between 2150-2260 degrees Celsius. Higher firing stoneware sits between the
ranges of 2200 and 2336 degrees. Ball clays fire at approximately 2336 degrees
and are a dark gray when wet. Ball clays differ largely from regular earthenware
and stoneware clays in the way that they cannot be used outside of conjunction
with other clays for the shrinkage they undergo due to moisture loss is to great.
Kaolin or porcelain clays fire at extreme temperatures, all the way up to 3272
degrees and both appear and fire a pale white. Porcelain clays are very had to
work with by themselves due to their low malleability. Typically they are mixed
with ball clays as to increase workability as well as reduce the firing temperature.
Furthermore paper clay is the oddball in the group. Paper clay is anyone of the
previously stated clays but mixed with cellulose pulp. The fibers introduced into
the clay increase its respective strength. During firing, the majority of the paper is
vaporized, leaving the clay far lighter after. The choice of what clay type to use is
almost entirely dependent on many factors including firing capabilities, expense,
availability, size of the piece, required strength or durability of piece, as well as
personal preference.
Common clays displayed from left to right: porcelain, stoneware, and
earthenware) Imagery provided by ohhappyclay.org

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Chemistry in Ceramics
Works Citied
"Ceramics Today - Articles." Ceramics Today - Articles. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May
2014. <http://www.ceramicstoday.com/articles/062000a.htm>.
"History of Ceramics." The American Ceramic Society. History of Ceramics
, n.d. Web. 15 May 2014. <http://ceramics.org/learn-aboutceramics/history-of-ceramics>.
"Important Facts About Cones." . Bailey Pottery Equipment Corporation, 1 Jan.
2014. Web. 15 May 2014.
<http://www.baileypottery.com/cones/cones1.htm>.
"Oh Happy Clay Materials: Clay & Glaze." Oh Happy Clay Materials:

Clay &

Glaze. Oh Happy Clay, n.d. Web. 15 May 2014.

<http://www.ohhappyclay.org/clay-in-the-classroom/clay-bodies/>.
"Oxidation and Reduction Atmospheres in Firing Pottery." About.com
Pottery. About.com, n.d. Web. 15 May 2014.
<http://pottery.about.com/od/kilnatmospheres/tp/oxinreduc.htm>.
"Thermal Expansion of Siliceous Kansas Clays (Dakota Formation)." KGS-Bull. 191, pt. 1--. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May 2014.
<http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Bulletins/191_1C/>.
"What is Cone?." What is Cone?. Big Ceramic Store, n.d. Web. 15 May
<http://www.bigceramicstore.com/info/ceramics/cone- chart.html>.

2014 Chemistry in Ceramics: Jonathon Davis

2014.