Rice

For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation).

Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian

A mixture of brown, white, and red indica rice, also containing

wild rice, Zizania species

rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal

grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a
large part of the worlds human population, especially
in Asia. It is the agricultural commodity with the thirdhighest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize,
Oryza sativa with small wind pollinated owers
according to data of FAOSTAT 2012.[1]
Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption, rice is the most important grain with regard to human nutrition and caloric
intake, providing more than one fth of the calories consumed worldwide by humans.[2]
Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to
Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China and inventor of Chinese agriculture.[3] Genetic evidence has shown
that rice originates from a single domestication 8,200
13,500 years ago[4] in the Pearl River valley region of
China.[5] Previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River
valley region in China.[4] From East Asia, rice was spread Rice can come in many shapes, colours and sizes. Photo by the
to Southeast and South Asia.[5] Rice was introduced IRRI.
to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas
through European colonization.
plant can grow to 11.8 m (3.35.9 ft) tall, occasionally
There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences more depending on the variety and soil fertility. It has
tend to vary regionally. In some areas such as the Far long, slender leaves 50100 cm (2039 in) long and 2
East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier 2.5 cm (0.790.98 in) broad. The small wind-pollinated
varieties.
owers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous
Rice, a monocot, is normally grown as an annual plant, inorescence 3050 cm (1220 in) long. The edible seed
although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and is a grain (caryopsis) 512 mm (0.200.47 in) long and
can produce a ratoon crop for up to 30 years.[6] The rice 23 mm (0.0790.118 in) thick.
1

2 COOKING
rives from the Greek (oruza). The Greek word is
the source of all European words (cf. Welsh reis, German Reis, Lithuanian ryiai, Serbo-Croatian ria, Polish
ry, Dutch rijst, Hungarian rizs, Romanian orez).[7][8][9]
The origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word (arisi), or
rather Old Tamil arici.[10][11] However, Krishnamurti[12]
disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source
of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed
from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *warici instead.
Mayrhofer[13] suggests that the immediate source of the
Greek word is to be sought in Old Iranian words of the
types *vrz- or *vrinj-, but these are ultimately traced
back to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vrh-) and subsequently to Dravidian by Witzel and others.

2 Cooking

Oryza sativa, commonly known as Asian rice

Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions

with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is laborintensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However,
rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep
hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling
terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to
Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and
exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures
worldwide.

The varieties of rice are typically classied as long-,

medium-, and short-grained.[14] The grains of long-grain
rice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking;
medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes more
sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for
risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arrs negre, in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that are
high in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usually steamed.[15] A stickier medium-grain rice is used for
sushi; the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape when
molded. Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.
Instant rice diers from parboiled rice in that it is fully
cooked and then dried, though there is a signicant degradation in taste and texture. Rice our and starch often are
used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

The traditional method for cultivating rice is ooding

the elds while, or after, setting the young seedlings.
This simple method requires sound planning and servic- 2.1
ing of the water damming and channeling, but reduces
the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have
no submerged growth state, and deters vermin. While
ooding is not mandatory for the cultivation of rice, all
other methods of irrigation require higher eort in weed
and pest control during growth periods and a dierent
approach for fertilizing the soil.

Preparation

The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated,
although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza.
Milled to unmilled rice, from left to right, white rice (Japanese
rice), rice with germ, brown rice

Etymology

Rice is typically rinsed before cooking to remove excess

starch. Rice produced in the US is usually fortied with
First used in English in the middle of the 13th century, the vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of
word rice derives from the Old French ris, which comes nutrients. Rice may be rinsed repeatedly until the rinse
from Italian riso, in turn from the Latin oriza, which de- water is clear to improve the texture and taste rice.

2.3

Dishes

2.3 Dishes
Main article: List of rice dishes
In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and
dishes with sh, poultry, and other types of meat. It is
also used to stu vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves
(dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey,
it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as
Tabaristan, bread is made using rice our. Medieval Islamic texts spoke of medical uses for the plant.[17] Rice
may also be made into congee (also called rice porridge,
A: Rice with cha
fawrclaab,
okayu, Xifan, jook, or rice gruel) by adding
B: Brown rice
more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is satuC: Rice with germ
D: White rice with bran residue
rated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates.
E: Musenmai (Japanese:
), Polished and ready to boil rice, Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and
literally, non-wash rice
is also a traditional food for the sick.
(1):
(2):
(3):
(4):
(5):

Cha
Bran
Bran residue
Cereal germ
Endosperm

Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conserve

fuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reduce
stickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the
grains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to several
hours.

3 Nutrition and health

3.1 Nutrients and the nutritional importance of rice

Rice is the staple food of over half the worlds population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17
countries in Asia and the Pacic, 9 countries in North and
South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides
20% of the worlds dietary energy supply, while wheat
Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%.[18]
stimulate germination. This process, called germinated A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests
brown rice (GBR),[16] activates enzymes and enhances that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a numamino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to im- ber of factors. It depends on the strain of rice, that is
prove the nutritional value of brown rice. This method between white, brown, black, red and purple varieties of
is a result of research carried out for the United Nations rice each prevalent in dierent parts of the world. It
International Year of Rice.
also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown
in, whether and how the rice is polished or processed,
the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before
consumption.[19]
An illustrative comparison between white and brown rice
of protein quality, mineral and vitamin quality, carbohydrate and fat quality suggests that neither is a complete
Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water nutrition source. Between the two, there is a signicant
during cooking. With the absorption method, rice may dierence in ber content and minor dierences in other
be cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume of nutrients.[20]
rice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in
a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Brilliantly colored rice strains, such as purple rice, deRapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, rive their color from anthocyanins and tocols. Scientic
as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the studies suggest that these color pigments have antioxiwater is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia dant properties that may be useful to human health. In
and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. purple rice bran, hydrophilic antioxidants are in greater
Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil quantity and have higher free radical scavenging activity
or fat before boiling (for example saron rice or risotto); than lipophilic antioxidants. Anthocyanins and -tocols
this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking in purple rice are[21]largely located in the inner portion of
style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or purple rice bran.
biryani (Dam-pukhtak) in India and Pakistan.
Comparative nutrition studies on red, black and white va-

2.2

Processing

5 HISTORY OF DOMESTICATION AND CULTIVATION

rieties of rice suggest that pigments in red and black rice

varieties may oer nutritional benets. Red or black rice
consumption was found to reduce or retard the progression of atherosclerotic plaque development, induced by
dietary cholesterol, in mammals. White rice consumption oered no similar benets, and the study claims this
to be due to absent antioxidants in red and black varieties
of rice.[22]

production.[30] One of the enterotoxins produced by

Bacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminated
rice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin already present.

4 Rice-growing environments
Rice can be grown in dierent environments, depend-

3.2

[31]
Comparison of rice to other major sta- ing upon water availability. Generally, rice does not
thrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and grow
ple foods
[32]
[33]

herein

The table below shows the nutrient content of major staple foods in a raw form. Raw grains, however, are not
edible and can not be digested. These must be sprouted,
or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In
sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and
anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably dierent from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table.

3.3

Arsenic concerns

Main article: Arsenic toxicity

Rice and rice products contain arsenic, a known poison
and Group 1 carcinogen.[24] There is no safe level of arsenic, but, as of 2012, a limit of 10 parts per billion has
been established in the United States for drinking water,
twice the level of 5 parts per billion originally proposed by
the EPA. Consumption of one serving of some varieties
of rice gives more exposure to arsenic than consumption
of 1 liter of water that contains 5 parts per billion arsenic;
however, the amount of arsenic in rice varies widely with
the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on
land formerly used to grow cotton; in the United States,
Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas.[25] The U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is studying this issue, but has not established a limit.[26] China has set a
limit of 150 ppb for arsenic in rice.[27]
White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri,
and Texas, which account for 76 percent of Americanproduced rice had higher levels of arsenic than other regions of the world studied, possibly because of past use of
arsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils.[28] Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan
and India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties in
one study.[29]

and it can also survive ooding.

1. Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and
ood prone
2. Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season
and the dry season
3. Deep water or oating rice
4. Coastal Wetland
5. Upland rice is also known as Ghaiya rice, well
known for its drought tolerance[34]

5 History of domestication and cultivation

Rice broker in 1820s Japan of the Edo period ("36 Views of

Mount Fuji" Hokusai)

See also: Oryza sativa History of domestication and

cultivation

There have been plenty of debates on the origins of the

domesticated rice. Genetic evidence published in the
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which United States of America (PNAS) shows that all forms of
produce an emetic toxin when left at 460 C (39 Asian rice, both indica and japonica, spring from a single
140 F). When storing cooked rice for use the next domestication that occurred 8,20013,500 years ago in
day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin China of the wild rice Oryza rupogon.[4] A 2012 study

3.4

Bacillus cereus

5
published in Nature, through a map of rice genome variation, indicated that the domestication of rice occurred
in the Pearl River valley region of China based on the
genetic evidence. From East Asia, rice was spread to
South and Southeast Asia.[5] Before this research, the
commonly accepted view, based on archaeological evidence, is that rice was rst domesticated in the region of
the Yangtze River valley in China.[35][36]

6 Regional history
In a recent study,[43] scientist have found a link for differences in human culture based on either wheat or rice
cultivating races since ancient times.

6.1 Africa

Morphological studies of rice phytoliths from the Diaotonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transition Main article: Oryza glaberrima
from the collection of wild rice to the cultivation of do- African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between
mesticated rice. The large number of wild rice phytoliths
at the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,00011,000 BP
indicates that wild rice collection was part of the local
means of subsistence. Changes in the morphology of
Diaotonghuan phytoliths dating from 10,0008,000 BP
show that rice had by this time been domesticated.[37]
Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica and
japonica rice were being grown in Central China.[36] In
the late 3rd millennium BC, there was a rapid expansion
of rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and westwards across India and Nepal.[36]
In 2003, Korean archaeologists claimed to have discovered the worlds oldest domesticated rice.[38] Their
15,000-year old age challenges the accepted view that
rice cultivation originated in China about 12,000 years
ago.[38] These ndings were received by academia with
strong skepticism,[39] and the results and their publicizing has been cited as being driven by a combination of
nationalist and regional interests.[40] In 2011, a combined
eort by the Stanford University, New York University,
Washington University in St. Louis, and Purdue University has provided the strongest evidence yet that there is
only one single origin of domesticated rice, in the Yangtze
Valley of China.[41][42]

Rice crop in Madagascar

1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima propagated from its

original centre, the Niger River delta, and extended to
Senegal. However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of the
Asian species, which was introduced to East Africa early
in the common era and spread westward.[44] African rice
helped Africa conquer its famine of 1203.[45]

The earliest remains of the grain in the Indian subcontinent have been found in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and date 6.2
from 70006000 BC though the earliest widely accepted
date for cultivated rice is placed at around 30002500
BC with ndings in regions belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. Perennial wild rices still grow in Assam
and Nepal. It seems to have appeared around 1400 BC
in southern India after its domestication in the northern
plains. It then spread to all the fertile alluvial plains watered by rivers. Cultivation and cooking methods are
thought to have spread to the west rapidly and by medieval
times, southern Europe saw the introduction of rice as a
hearty grain.

Asia

Rice spread to the Middle East where, according to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was recovered
from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD).
Aerial view of terrace rice elds in Yuanyang, Yunnan Province,
southern China

Today, the majority of all rice produced comes from

China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand,
Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Korea and Japan. Asian

REGIONAL HISTORY

ent characters, and 5 kinds of wild rice cultivates.[47] In

each region of the country there are dierent rice seed
types. Their use depends on weather, atmosphere, and
topography.[48]

Rice elds in Dili/East Timor

The northern region has both low lands and high lands.
The farmers usual crop is non-glutinous rice [48] such
as Niew Sun Pah Tong rice seeds. This rice is naturally
protected from leaf disease, and the paddy has a brown
color.[49] The northeastern region has a large area, where
farmers can cultivate about 36 million square meters of
rice. Although most of them are plains and dry areas,[50]
they can grow the white jasmine rice 105 which is the
most famous Thai rice. The white jasmine rice was developed in Chonburi province rst and after that it was
grown in many areas in the country but the rice from this
region has a high quality, because its softer, whiter and
more fragrant.[51] This rice can resist drought, acidic soil,
and alkaline soil.[52]
The central region is mostly composed of plains. Most
farmers grow Jao rice.[50] For example the Pathum Thani
1 rice which has qualities similar to the white jasmine 105
rice. Their paddy has the color of thatch and their cooked
rice has fragrant grains also.[53]

Indian women separating rice from straw

farmers still account for 87% of the worlds total rice production.
6.2.1

Sri Lanka

Rice is the staple food amongst all the ethnic groups in

Sri Lanka. Agriculture in Sri Lanka mainly depends
on the rice cultivation. Rice production is acutely dependent on rainfall and government supply necessity of
water through irrigation channels throughout the cultivation seasons. The principal cultivation season, known as
Maha, is from October to March and the subsidiary
cultivation season, known as Yala, is from April to
September. During Maha season, there is usually enough
water to sustain the cultivation of all rice elds, nevertheless in Yala season there is only enough water for cultivation of half of the land extent.

In the southern region, most farmers transplant around

boundaries to the ood of plain or plain between mountains. Farming is the region is slower than other regions
because the rainy season comes late.[54] The popular rice
varieties in this area are the Leb Nok Pattani seeds, a type
of Jao rice. Their paddy has the color of thatch and it can
be processed to make noodles.[55]
6.2.3 Companion plant
One of the earliest known examples of companion planting is the growing of rice with Azolla, the mosquito fern,
which covers the top of a fresh rice paddys water, blocking out any competing plants, as well as xing nitrogen
from the atmosphere for the rice to use. The rice is
planted when it is tall enough to poke out above the azolla.
This method has been used for at least a thousand years.

6.3 Middle East

Rice was grown in some areas of southern Iraq. With

the rise of Islam it moved north to Nisibin, the southern
shores of the Caspian Sea(Iran)[56] and then beyond the
Muslim world into the valley of the Volga. In Egypt, rice
Traditional rice varieties are now making a comeback is mainly grown in the Nile Delta. In Israel, rice came
with the recent interest in green foods.
to be grown in the Jordan Valley. Rice is also grown in
Saudi Arabia at Al-hasa Oasis and in Yemen.[57]
6.2.2

Thailand

6.4 Europe
Rice is the main export of Thailand, especially the white
jasmine rice 105 (Dok Mali 105).[46] Thailand has a Rice was known to the Classical world, being imported
large number of rice varieties, 3,500 kinds with dier- from Egypt, and perhaps west Asia. It was known to

6.6

United States

Greece by returning soldiers from Alexander the Greats

military expedition to Asia. Large deposits of rice from
the rst century A.D. have been found in Roman camps
in Germany.[58]
The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula
in the 10th century. Records indicate it was grown in
Valencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation seems
to have stopped after the Christian conquest, although
historians are not certain.[57]
Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an important crop[57] long before it is noted in the plain of Pisa
(1468) or in the Lombard plain (1475), where its cultivation was promoted by Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan,
South Carolina rice plantation, showing a Winnowing barn
and demonstrated in his model farms.[59]
(Manseld Plantation, Georgetown)

After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and

then France, later propagating to all the continents during
the age of European exploration.
In European Russia, a short-grain, starchy rice similar to the Italian varieties, has been grown in the
Krasnodar Krai, and known in Russia as Kuban Rice or
Krasnodar Rice. In the Russian Far East several japonica cultivars are grown in Primorye around the Khanka
lake. Increasing scale of rice production in the region has
recently brought criticism towards growers alleged bad
practices in regards to the environment.

coastal Sierra Leone. At the port of Charleston, through

which 40% of all American slave imports passed, slaves
from this region of Africa brought the highest prices due
to their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put
to use on the many rice plantations around Georgetown,
Charleston, and Savannah.

From the enslaved Africans, plantation owners learned

how to dyke the marshes and periodically ood the elds.
At rst the rice was laboriously milled by hand using
large mortars and pestles made of wood, then winnowed
in sweetgrass baskets (the making of which was another
6.5 Caribbean and Latin America
skill brought by slaves from Africa). The invention of the
Rice is not native to the Americas but was introduced rice mill increased protability of the crop, and the adto Latin America and the Caribbean by European colo- dition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwright
nizers at an early date with Spanish colonizers introduc- Jonathan Lucas was another step forward.
ing Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz and Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less profthe Portuguese and their African slaves introducing it at itable with the loss of slave labor after the American
about the same time to colonial Brazil.[60] Recent schol- Civil War, and it nally died out just after the turn of the
arship suggests that enslaved Africans played an active 20th century. Today, people can visit the only remaining
role in the establishment of rice in the New World and rice plantation in South Carolina that still has the original
that African rice was an important crop from an early winnowing barn and rice mill from the mid-19th century
period.[61] Varieties of rice and bean dishes that were a at the historic Manseld Plantation in Georgetown, South
staple dish along the peoples of West Africa remained a Carolina. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinas
staple among their descendants subjected to slavery in the was from Africa and was known as Carolina Gold. The
Spanish New World colonies, Brazil and elsewhere in the cultivar has been preserved and there are current attempts
Americas.[45]
to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop.[62]
The Native Americans of what is now the Eastern United
States may have practiced extensive agriculture with
forms of wild rice (Zizania palustris), which looks similar to but it not directly related to rice.

In the southern United States, rice has been grown in

southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and east Texas since the
mid-19th century. Many Cajun farmers grew rice in wet
marshes and low lying prairies where they could also farm
craysh when the elds were ooded.[63] In recent years
rice production has risen in North America, especially
6.6 United States
in the Mississippi embayment in the states of Arkansas
and Mississippi (see also Arkansas Delta and Mississippi
In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably origi- Delta).
nating from Madagascar.[60]
Rice cultivation began in California during the California
In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgia Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese laborgrew and amassed great wealth from the slave labor ob- ers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts of
tained from the Senegambia area of West Africa and from the grain for their own consumption. However, com-

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE

were found suitable for the climate in the Riverina,[69] and

the rst mill opened at Leeton in 1951.
25

20

15

10

Rice paddy elds just north of the city of Sacramento, California

mercial production began only in 1912 in the town of

Richvale in Butte County.[64] By 2006, California produced the second largest rice crop in the United States,[65]
after Arkansas, with production concentrated in six
counties north of Sacramento.[66] Unlike the Arkansas
Mississippi Delta region, Californias production is dominated by short- and medium-grain japonica varieties, including cultivars developed for the local climate such as
Calrose, which makes up as much as 85% of the states
crop.[67]

0
1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Monthly value (A$ millions) of rice imports to Australia since

1988

Even before this Australias rice production greatly exceeded local needs,[69] and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign currency. Above-average
rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s[71] encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its
prodigious water use in a practically waterless region began to attract the attention of environmental scientists.
These became severely concerned with declining ow in
the Snowy River and the lower Murray River.

References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unreAlthough rice growing in Australia is highly protable
lated Zizania palustris
due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of seMore than 100 varieties of rice are commercially pro- vere drought have led many to call for its elimination beduced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, cause of its eects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosysMississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S.[68] Ac- tems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat opporcording to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice produc- tunistic, with the area planted varying signicantly from
tion in the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximately season to season depending on water allocations in the
half of which is expected to be exported. The U.S. pro- Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions.
vides about 12% of world rice trade.[68] The majority of
domestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct food use (58%),
while 16% is used in each of processed foods and beer.
7 Production and commerce
10% is found in pet food.[68]

6.7

Australia

7.1 Production

Rice was one of the earliest crops planted in Australia by

British settlers, who had experience with rice plantations
in the Americas and India.
Although attempts to grow rice in the well-watered
north of Australia have been made for many years, they
have consistently failed because of inherent iron and
manganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pests.
In the 1920s it was seen as a possible irrigation crop on
soils within the Murray-Darling Basin that were too heavy
for the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for wheat.[69]
Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runo Worldwide rice production
of temperate Australia,[70] was (and remains) very cheap,
the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groups The world dedicated 162.3 million hectares in 2012 for
over the following decades. Californian varieties of rice rice cultivation and the total production was about 738.1

7.1

Production

9
in India alone enough food would be saved every year to
feed 70 to 100 million people over a year.[78] However,
other writers have warned against dramatic assessments
of post-harvest food losses, arguing that worst-case scenarios tend to be used rather than realistic averages and
that in many cases the cost of avoiding losses exceeds the
value of the food saved.[79]

Burning of rice residues after harvest, to quickly prepare the land

for wheat planting, around Sangrur, Punjab, India.

The seeds of the rice plant are rst milled using a rice
huller to remove the cha (the outer husks of the grain).
At this point in the process, the product is called brown
rice. The milling may be continued, removing the bran,
i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creating
white rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks some
important nutrients; moreover, in a limited diet which
does not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to prevent
the disease beriberi.

million tonnes.[73] The average world farm yield for rice Either by hand or in a rice polisher, white rice may be
bued with glucose or talc powder (often called polished
was 4.5 tonnes per hectare, in 2012.[73]
rice, though this term may also refer to white rice in genRice farms in Egypt were the most productive in 2012,
eral), parboiled, or processed into our. White rice may
with a nationwide average of 9.5 tonnes per hectare.[74]
also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost
Second place: Australia - 8.9 tonnes per hectare.[74] Third
during the milling process. While the cheapest method of
place: USA - 8.3 tonnes per hectare.[74]
enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients
Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the rural that will easily wash o (in the United States, rice which
population and their food security. It is mainly cultivated has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsby small farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare. Rice ing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly
is also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop or to the grain, coating the grain with a water-insoluble subnon-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition of stance which is resistant to washing.
much of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin AmerIn some countries, a popular form, parboiled rice, is subica and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to the
jected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a
food security of over half the world population. Develbrown rice grain. This causes nutrients from the outer
oping countries account for 95% of the total production,
husk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain itself.
with China and India alone responsible for nearly half of
The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch
the world output.[75]
in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the color
World production of rice has risen steadily from about of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice
200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to over 678 mil- is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used as
lion tonnes in 2009. The three largest producers of rice brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior
in 2009 were China (197 million tonnes), India (131 Mt), to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additional
and Indonesia (64 Mt). Among the six largest rice pro- benet in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking,
ducers, the most productive farms for rice, in 2009, were as happens when cooking regular white rice. This type of
in China producing 6.59 tonnes per hectare.[76]
rice is eaten in parts of India and countries of West Africa
Many rice grain producing countries have signicant are also accustomed to consuming parboiled rice.
losses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads,
inadequate storage technologies, inecient supply chains
and farmers inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. A World Bank
FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in developing nations, on average, every year, because of postharvest problems and poor infrastructure. Some sources
claim the post-harvest losses to exceed 40%.,[75][77] Not
only do these losses reduce food security in the world, the
study claims that farmers in developing countries such as
China, India and others lose approximately US$89 billion
of income in preventable post-harvest farm losses, poor
transport, the lack of proper storage and retail. One study
claims that if these post-harvest grain losses could be
eliminated with better infrastructure and retail network,

Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer),[80][81] talc-coated rice remains the norm in
some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but
it has been banned in some, and is no longer widely used
in others (such as the United States). Even where talc is
not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used
to improve the appearance of the grains.
Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity
in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily
inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used
as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan.
Raw rice may be ground into our for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake,
horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice our does not

10

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE

contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-free

diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles.
Raw, wild, or brown rice may also be consumed by rawfoodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually a
week to 30 days gaba rice).
Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before
eating. Boiled rice may be further fried in cooking oil or
butter (known as fried rice), or beaten in a tub to make
mochi.
Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many
parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it does
not contain all of the essential amino acids in sucient
amounts for good health, and should be combined with
other sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, sh,
or meat.[82]

After the harvest, rice straw is gathered in the traditional way

from small paddy elds in Mae Wang District, Chiang Mai
Province, Thailand

diately or within a day or two. Again, much threshing is

still carried out by hand but there is an increasing use of
Rice, like other cereal grains, can be pued (or popped). mechanical threshers. Subsequently, paddy needs to be
This process takes advantage of the grains water content dried to bring down the moisture content to no more than
and typically involves heating grains in a special chamber. 20% for milling.
Further pung is sometimes accomplished by processing
A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laid
pued pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gas
out to dry along roads. However, in most countries the
law means either lowering the local pressure or raising the
bulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills,
water temperature results in an increase in volume prior
with village-level drying being used for paddy to be conto water evaporation, resulting in a puy texture. Bulk
sumed by farm families. Mills either sun dry or use meraw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm. It decreases to less
chanical driers or both. Drying has to be carried out
than one-tenth that when pued.
quickly to avoid the formation of moulds. Mills range
from simple hullers, with a throughput of a couple of
tonnes a day, that simply remove the outer husk, to enor7.2 Harvesting, drying and milling
mous operations that can process 4,000 tonnes a day and
produce highly polished rice. A good mill can achieve a
paddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72% but smaller,
inecient mills often struggle to achieve 60%. These
smaller mills often do not buy paddy and sell rice but only
service farmers who want to mill their paddy for their own
consumption.

7.3 Distribution
Because of the importance of rice to human nutrition
and food security in Asia, the domestic rice markets tend
to be subject to considerable state involvement. While
the private sector plays a leading role in most countries,
agencies such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in the
Philippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food CorRice combine harvester Katori-city, Japan
poration of India are all heavily involved in purchasing of
paddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributing
Further information: Paddy eld
rice to poorer people. BULOG and NFA monopolise rice
imports into their countries while VINAFOOD controls
Unmilled rice, known as paddy (Indonesia and Malaysia: all exports from Vietnam.[83]
padi; Philippines, palay), is usually harvested when the
grains have a moisture content of around 25%. In most
Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely the product 7.4 Trade
of smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carried out manually, although there is a growing interest in mechanical World trade gures are very dierent from those for
harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by the farmers production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded
themselves, but is also frequently done by seasonal labour internationally.[84] In economic terms, the global rice
groups. Harvesting is followed by threshing, either imme- trade was a small fraction of 1% of world mercantile

11
trade. Many countries consider rice as a strategic food is claimed to have set new national records in rice yields,
staple, and various governments subject its trade to a wide within the last 10 years, in many countries. The claimed
range of controls and interventions.
Chinese and Indian yields have yet to be demonstrated on
over two conDeveloping countries are the main players in the world seven-hectare lots and to be reproducible
[91][92][93][94]
secutive
years
on
the
same
farm.
rice trade, accounting for 83% of exports and 85% of
imports. While there are numerous importers of rice,
the exporters of rice are limited. Just ve countries
Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and India
in decreasing order of exported quantities, accounted
for about three-quarters of world rice exports in 2002.[75]
However, this ranking has been rapidly changing in recent years. In 2010, the three largest exporters of rice,
in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thailand,
Vietnam and India. By 2012, India became the largest exporter of rice with a 100% increase in its exports on year
to year basis, and Thailand slipped to third position.[85][86]
Together, Thailand, Vietnam and India accounted for
nearly 70% of the world rice exports.
The primary variety exported by Thailand and Vietnam
were Jasmine rice, while exports from India included aromatic Basmati variety. China, an exporter of rice in
early 2000s, was a net importer of rice in 2010 and will
become the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria, in
2013.[84][87] According to a USDA report, the worlds
largest exporters of rice in 2012 were India (9.75 million tonnes), Vietnam (7 million tonnes), Thailand (6.5
million tonnes), Pakistan (3.75 million tonnes) and the
United States (3.5 million tonnes).[88]
Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Brazil and some African and Persian Gulf
countries. In common with other West African countries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production.
However, its very heavy import duties (110%) open it to
smuggling from neighboring countries.[89] Parboiled rice
is particularly popular in Nigeria. Although China and
India are the two largest producers of rice in the world,
both countries consume the majority of the rice produced
domestically, leaving little to be traded internationally.

7.5

8 Price
In late 2007 to May 2008, the price of grains rose greatly
due to droughts in major producing countries (particularly Australia), increased use of grains for animal feed
and US subsidies for bio-fuel production. Although there
was no shortage of rice on world markets this general upward trend in grain prices led to panic buying by consumers, government rice export bans (in particular, by
Vietnam and India) and inated import orders by the
Philippines marketing board, the National Food Authority. This caused signicant rises in rice prices. In late
April 2008, prices hit 24 US cents a pound, twice the
price of seven months earlier.[95] Over the period of 2007
to 2013, the Chinese government has substantially increased the price it pays domestic farmers for their rice,
rising to US$500 per metric ton by 2013.[84] The 2013
price of rice originating from other southeast Asian countries was a comparably low US$350 per metric ton.[84]
On April 30, 2008, Thailand announced plans for the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries
(OREC) with the intention that this should develop into a
price-xing cartel for rice.[96][97] However, little progress
had been made by mid-2011 to achieve this.

8.1 Worldwide consumption

As of 2009 world food consumption of rice was 531.6

Worlds most productive rice farms million metric tons of paddy equivalent (354,603 of
and farmers
milled equivalent), while the far largest consumers were

China consuming 156.3 million metric tons of paddy

The average world yield for rice was 4.3 tonnes per equivalent (29.4% of the world consumption) and India
hectare, in 2010.
consuming 123.5 million metric tons of paddy equivalent
[98]
Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010, (23.3% of the world consumption). Between 1961 and
with a nationwide average of 10.8 tonnes per hectare.[90] 2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by 40%.
Yuan Longping of China National Hybrid Rice Research
and Development Center, China, set a world record for
rice yield in 2010 at 19 tonnes per hectare on a demonstration plot. In 2011, this record was surpassed by an Indian farmer, Sumant Kumar, with 22.4 tonnes per hectare
in Bihar. Both these farmers claim to have employed
newly developed rice breeds and System of Rice Intensication (SRI), a recent innovation in rice farming. SRI

Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia,

for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for
rice production.[99]
U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25
years, fueled in part by commercial applications such as
beer production.[100] Almost one in ve adult Americans
now report eating at least half a serving of white or brown
rice per day.[101]

12

10 PESTS AND DISEASES

10.1 Insects
Major rice insect pests include: the brown planthopper
(BPH),[113] several spp. of stemborers including those
in the genera Scirpophaga and Chilo,[114] the rice gall
midge,[115] several spp. of rice bugs[116] notably in the
genus Leptocorisa,[117] the rice leafroller and rice weevils.

10.2 Diseases
Main article: List of rice diseases
Work by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture to
measure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice production.

Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea,[118]

is the most signicant disease aecting rice cultivation. Other major rice diseases include: sheath blight,
9 Environmental impacts
rice ragged stunt (vector: BPH), and tungro (vector:
Nephotettix spp).[119] There is also an ascomycete fungus,
miyabeanus, that causes brown spot disease
Rice cultivation on wetland rice elds is thought to Cochliobolus
[120][121]
in
rice.
be responsible for 1.5% of the anthropogenic methane
emissions.[102] Rice requires slightly more water to produce than other grains.[103] Rice production uses almost
10.3 Nematodes
a third of Earths fresh water.[104]
Long-term ooding of rice elds cuts the soil o from
atmospheric oxygen and causes anaerobic fermentation
of organic matter in the soil.[105] Methane production
from rice cultivation contributes ~1.5% of anthropogenic
greenhouse gases.[106] Methane is twenty times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.[107]
A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures
and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of
the 20th century, the rice yield growth rate has decreased
in many parts of Asia, compared to what would have
been observed had the temperature and solar radiation
trends not occurred.[108][109] The yield growth rate had
fallen 1020% at some locations. The study was based
on records from 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal,
India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The mechanism
of this falling yield was not clear, but might involve increased respiration during warm nights, which expends
energy without being able to photosynthesize.

10

Pests and diseases

Several nematode species infect rice crops, causing diseases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), White tip
disease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root knot disease
(Meloidogyne graminicola). Some nematode species
such as Pratylenchus spp. are most dangerous in upland rice of all parts of the world. Rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella oryzae) is a migratory endoparasite which on higher inoculum levels will lead to complete
destruction of a rice crop. Beyond being obligate parasites, they also decrease the vigor of plants and increase
the plants susceptibility to other pests and diseases.

10.4 Other Pests

These include: the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata,
panicle rice mite, rats,[122] and the weed Echinochloa
crusgali.[123]

10.5 Integrated Pest Management

Main article: Integrated Pest Management

Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of
rice seeds).[110] Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, nematode, rodents, and birds. A variety of factors
can contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic factors, improper irrigation, the overuse of insecticides and
high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application.[111] Weather
conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while
thrips outbreaks are associated with drought.[112]

Crop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pest

management techniques which are sustainable. In other
words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened.[124] Sustainable
pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance (HPR), landscape ecology, and
hierarchies in a landscape from biological to social.[125]
At present, rice pest management includes cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (which
include insecticide). Increasingly, there is evidence

10.6

Parasitic weeds

that farmers pesticide applications are often unnecessary, and even facilitate pest outbreaks.[126][127][128][129]
By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice
pests,[130] misuse of insecticides can actually lead to
pest outbreaks.[131] The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop
in pest numbers.[132] IRRI also conducted two campaigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which discouraged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management in
Vietnam.[133][134]

13
tibiosis, and tolerance.[142] Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid;
antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a
plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite
insect infestation.[143]
Over time, the use of pest resistant rice varieties selects
for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of
resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have broken
down. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many
years in the presence of pests and retain their ability to
withstand the pests are said to have durable resistance.
Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened
by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable
resistance.[142][144]

Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and
thereby increase the plants resistance to some types of
pests.[135] Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, can induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that cause the plant to become more 10.6 Parasitic weeds
susceptible to attacks by certain types of pests.[136] 5Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found in Rice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonthica.[145] which is of local importance for this crop.
rice.[137]

Botanicals, so-called natural pesticides, are used by

some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests. Botanicals include extracts of leaves, or a mulch of the leaves 11 Ecotypes and cultivars
themselves. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia
spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaena Main article: List of rice varieties
odorata) over the surface of elds after planting. This While most rice is bred for crop quality and productivpractice probably helps the soil retain moisture and
thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim
the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed
and insect infestations.[138]

Chloroxylon is used for Pest Management in Organic Rice Cultivation in Chhattisgarh, India

Among rice cultivars, there are dierences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage.[116][139]
Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance to
insect pests.[140][141] Therefore, particular cultivars are
recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems.
The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstand
pest attacks is called resistance. Three main types of plant
resistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, an- Rice seed collection from IRRI

14

12

BIOTECHNOLOGY

ity, there are varieties selected for characteristics such as

texture, smell, and rmness. There are four major categories of rice worldwide: indica, japonica, aromatic and
glutinous. The dierent varieties of rice are not considered interchangeable, either in food preparation or agriculture, so as a result, each major variety is a completely
separate market from other varieties. It is common for
one variety of rice to rise in price while another one drops
in price.[146]

West Africa.

The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the

International Rice Research Institute[150] in the Philippines, with over 100,000 rice accessions[151] held in the
International Rice Genebank.[152] Rice cultivars are often
classied by their grain shapes and texture. For example,
Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky,
as some long-grain rice contains less amylopectin than
short-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants often serve
long-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice though shortgrain rice is common as well. Japanese mochi rice and
Chinese sticky rice are short-grain. Chinese people use
sticky rice which is properly known as glutinous rice
(note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic of
rice; does not refer to gluten) to make zongzi. The
Japanese table rice is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanese
sake rice is another kind as well.

The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase
global food production. This project enabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into industrial sectors. The rst Rice Car, IR8 was produced
in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which
is based in the Philippines at the University of the Philippines' Los Baos site. IR8 was created through a cross
between an Indonesian variety named Peta and a Chinese variety named Dee Geo Woo Gen.[154]

Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars,

indica and japonica, were published in April 2002. Rice
was chosen as a model organism for the biology of grasses
because of its relatively small genome (~430 megabase
pairs). Rice was the rst crop with a complete genome
sequence.[153]

On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The
Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environ- declaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.
mental conditions, season of planting, and season of harvest, called ecotypes. Some major groups are the Japantype (grown in Japan), buly and tjereh types (Indonesia); aman (main winter crop), aus (aush, summer), 12 Biotechnology
and boro (spring) (Bengal and Assam).[147][148] Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep ooding, and these are
12.1 High-yielding varieties
generally called oating rice.[149]

Scientists have identied and cloned many genes involved

in the gibberellin signaling pathway, including GAI1
(Gibberellin Insensitive) and SLR1 (Slender Rice).[155]
Disruption of gibberellin signaling can lead to signicantly reduced stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype.
Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the eect of chemical
fertilizers on commercial yield. In the presence of nitrogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, these
varieties increase their yield two to three times.

Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic

Basmati () (grown in the North), long and
medium-grained Patna rice, and in South India (Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka) short-grained Sona Masuri (also
called as Bangaru theegalu). In the state of Tamil Nadu,
the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grown
in the delta regions of the Kaveri River. Kaveri is also
referred to as ponni in the South and the name reects
the geographic region where it is grown. In the Western 12.2 Future potential
Indian state of Maharashtra, a short grain variety called
Ambemohar is very popular. This rice has a characteris- As the UN Millennium Development project seeks to
tic fragrance of Mango blossom.
spread global economic development to Africa, the
Aromatic rices have denite aromas and avors; the most Green Revolution is cited as the model for economic
noted cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patna development. With the intent of replicating the successrice, Vietnamese fragrant rice, and a hybrid cultivar from ful Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups like
America, sold under the trade name Texmati. Both Bas- the Earth Institute are doing research on African agriculmati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma and tural systems, hoping to increase productivity. An imporavor. In Indonesia, there are also red and black culti- tant way this can happen is the production of "New Rices
for Africa" (NERICA). These rices, selected to tolerate
vars.
the low input and harsh growing conditions of African
High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in
agriculture, are produced by the African Rice Center,
Africa and other dry ecosystems, called the new rice for
and billed as technology from Africa, for Africa. The
Africa (NERICA) cultivars, have been developed. It is
NERICA have appeared in The New York Times (Octohoped that their cultivation will improve food security in
ber 10, 2007) and International Herald Tribune (Octo-

12.6

Drought tolerant rice

ber 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economic resurgence. Ongoing research in China to develop
perennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability and
food security.

12.3

Golden rice

Main article: Golden rice

Rice kernels do not contain vitamin A, so people who obtain most of their calories from rice are at risk of vitamin
A deciency. German and Swiss researchers have
genetically engineered rice to produce beta-carotene, the
precursor to vitamin A, in the rice kernel. The betacarotene turns the processed (white) rice a gold color,
hence the name golden rice. The beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in humans who consume the rice.[156]
Although some rice strains produce beta-carotene in the
hull, no non-genetically engineered strains have been
found that produce beta-carotene in the kernel, despite
the testing of thousands of strains. Additional eorts are
being made to improve the quantity and quality of other
nutrients in golden rice.[157]

15
Sub1 was developed via marker-assisted selection, with
the ability to withstand prolonged periods of around 14
days beneath a ooded plain.[161][163] The submergence
tolerance ability of this variety is conferred by the presence of the Sub1A gene, introgressed from the Indian cultivar FR13A into the ood-vulnerable (but high yielding)
cultivar Swarna.[161][163] Swarna Sub1 eectively enters a
dormant, energy conserving state upon being submerged
in a ooded rice paddy, a process that involves the nely
controlled metabolism of enzymes such amylases, starch
phosphorylase and alcohol dehydrogenase, allowing the
plant to survive with limited oxygen and sunlight unlike
its standard variety relatives.[161][163] Given that the presence of the Sub1A gene does not impact upon the quality or quantity of the rice obtained,[161] this variety has
been very popular, with 1.7 million hectares of land in
India having Swarna Sub1 and other ood resistant varieties used instead of conventional rice crops.[164]

12.6 Drought tolerant rice

Drought represents a signicant environmental stress for

rice production, with 1923 million hectares of rainfed
rice production in South and South East Asia often at
risk.[165][166] Under drought conditions, without sucient
The International Rice Research Institute is currently fur- water to aord them the ability to obtain the required
ther developing and evaluating Golden Rice as a potential levels of nutrients from the soil, conventional commernew way to help address vitamin A deciency.[158]
cial rice varieties can be severely impacted for example yield losses as high as 40% have aected some parts
of India, with resulting losses of around US$800 million
12.4 Expression of human proteins
annually.[167]
Ventria Bioscience has genetically modied rice to
express lactoferrin, lysozyme which are proteins usually found in breast milk, and human serum albumin, These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, and
antifungal eects.[159]
Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a
component in oral rehydration solutions which are used
to treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may also
help reverse anemia.[160]

12.5

Flood tolerant rice

Flooding is an issue that many rice growers face, especially in South and South East Asia where ooding annually aects 20 million hectares.[161] Standard rice varieties cannot withstand stagnant ooding of more than
about a week,[162] mainly as it disallows the plant access
to necessary requirements such as sunlight and essential
gas exchanges, inevitably leading to plants being unable
to recover.[161] In the past, this has led to a massive losses
in yields, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, rice
crops worth $65 million were lost to ooding.[163]

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) conducts research into developing drought tolerant rice varieties, including the varieties 5411 and Sookha dhan, currently being employed by farmers in the Philippines and
Nepal respectively.[166] In addition, in 2013 the Japanese
National Institute for Agrobiological Sciences led a team
which successfully inserted the DEEPER ROOTING 1
(DRO1), from the Philippine upland rice variety Kinandang Patong, into the popular commercial rice variety
IR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system in the resulting plants.[167] This facilitates an improved ability for
the rice plant to derive its required nutrients in times
of drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, a feature
demonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 + DRO1 rice
yields drop by 10% under moderate drought conditions,
compared to 60% for the unmodied IR64 variety.[167]
[168]

12.7 Salt tolerant rice

Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productivity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during the
dry season[165] for example, roughly 1 million hectares
of the coastal areas of Bangladesh are aected by saline
In response to this hazard, a variety of rice named Swarna soils.[169] These high concentrations of salt can severely

16

14

impact upon rice plants normal physiology, especially

during early stages of growth, and as such farmers are often forced to abandon these otherwise potentially usable
areas.[170][171]
Progress has been made, however, in developing rice varieties capable of tolerating such conditions; the hybrid
created from the cross between the commercial rice variety IR56 and the wild rice species Oryza coarctata is one
example.[172] O. coarctata is capable of successful growth
in soils with double the limit of salinity of normal varieties, but lacks the ability to produce edible rice.[172]
Developed by the International Rice Research Institute,
the hybrid variety can utilise specialised leaf glands that
allow for the removal of salt into the atmosphere. It
was initially produced from one successful embryo out
of 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was then
backcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genes
responsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from O.
coarctata.[170] Furthermore, extensive trials are planned
prior to the new variety being available to farmers by approximately 201718.[170]

is used for important occasions such as weddings, rice

harvesting ceremonies and other celebrations.[175]
Dewi Sri is the traditional rice goddess of the Javanese,
Sundanese, and Balinese people in Indonesia. Most rituals involving Dewi Sri are associated with the mythical origin attributed to the rice plant, the staple food of
the region.[176] [177] In Thailand a similar rice deity is
known as Phosop; she is a deity more related to ancient
local folklore than a goddess of a structured, mainstream
religion.[178] The same female rice deity is known as Po
Ino Nogar in Cambodia and as Nang Khosop in Laos. Ritual oerings are made during the dierent stages of rice
production to propitiate the Rice Goddess in the corresponding cultures.

14 See also
Articial rice
Rice production

13

Cultural roles of rice

Indonesian rice table

List of dried foods
List of rice dishes
List of rice varieties
Maratelli rice
Post-harvest losses
Protein per unit area
Pued rice
Rice Belt
Rice bran oil
Rice bread

Phosop, the popular rice deity in Thailand.

Rice plays an important role in certain religions and popular beliefs. In many cultures relatives will scatter rice
during or towards the end of a wedding ceremony in front
of the bride and groom.[173]
The pounded rice ritual is conducted during weddings in
Nepal. The bride gives a leafplate full of pounded rice to
the groom after he requests it politely from her.[174]
In the Philippines rice wine, popularly known as tapuy,

SEE ALSO

Rice wine
Risotto
Straw
System of Rice Intensication
Wild rice
Upland rice

17

15

References

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(2011). Retrieved October 31, 2013.
[144] Liu, L., Z. Van, Q. Y. Shu, and M. Maluszynski (2004).
Ocially released mutant varieties in China. Mutat. [163] "Climate change-ready rice" International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI). Retrieved October 31, 2013.
Breed. Rev 14 (1): 64.

22

17

[164] "Best minds meet to help crops survive ooding" International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (2013). Retrieved
October 31, 2013.
[165] "Drought, submergence and salinity management" International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Retrieved
September 29, 2013.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Songkran Chitrakon and Boriboon Somrith (2003).

Science and technology with Thai rice, National center for genetic engineering. The public information
department. p. 30.
The ecology of life. Plan Motif Plubisher. 1998. p.
44.

[166] "Climate change-ready rice" International Rice Research

Institute (IRRI). Retrieved September 29, 2013.

Vespada, Yaowanuch (1998). The genetic wonder of

Thai rice. Plan Motif Publisher. p. 45.

[167] "Newly-discovered rice gene goes to the root of drought

resistance" Palmer, N. (2013). Retrieved September 29,
2013.

Vespada, Yaowanuch (1998). The genetic wonder of

Thai rice. Plan Motif Publisher. p. 110.

[168] "Roots breakthrough for drought resistant rice" Phys.org

(2013). Retrieved September 30, 2013.
[169] "Less salt, please" Fredenburg, P. (2007).
September 30, 2013.

Retrieved

[170] "Wild parent spawns super salt tolerant rice" International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (2013). Retrieved
September 30, 2013.
[171] "Do rice and salt go together?" Ferrer, B. (2012). Retrieved September 30, 2013.
[172] "Breakthrough in salt-resistant rice research single baby
rice plant may hold the future to extending rice farming"
Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP) (2013). Retrieved
October 6, 2013.
[173] Origins of Wedding Traditions
[174] Laura M. Ahearn (2011), Living Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology, p. 3

Vespada, Yaowanuch (1998). The genetic wonder of

Thai rice. Plan Motif Publisher. p. 45.
Vespada, Yaowanuch (1998). The genetic wonder of
Thai rice. Plan Motif Publisher. p. 45.

17 External links
Agritrade articles on rice trading
RiceWiki
Rice at DMOZ
International Rice Research Institute
Rice latest trade data on ITC Trade Map
Global Rice Science Partnership
Rice Today magazine

[175] Tapuy Cookbook & Cocktails, Philippine Rice Research

Institute (2011)

Calories in rice at the Wayback Machine (archived

October 21, 2010)

[176] Early Mythology - Dewi Sri. Sunda.org. Retrieved August 26, 2012.

Rice Knowledge Bank

[177] "(Indonesian) Mitos Nyi Pohaci/Sanghyang Asri/Dewi

Sri. My.opera.com. March 1, 2008. Retrieved August
26, 2012.

A Cuban Skirmish for Rice by Isbel Diaz Torres,

Havana Times, June 16, 2010

[178] On the Role of Food Habits in the Context of the Identity and Cultural Heritage of South and South East Asia.
Retrieved October 6, 2014.

A Brief History of Rice (p. 9 p. 12)

National Food Authority.

Safe Storage of Cooked Rice
Rice Research and Practice

16

Bibliography

Watson, Andrew (1983). Agricultural innovation

in the early Islamic world. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-06883-5.
Vespada, Yaowanuch (1998). The genetic wonder of
Thai rice. Plan Motif Publisher. p. 110.
Vespada, Yaowanuch (1998). The genetic wonder of
Thai rice. Plan Motif Publisher. p. 110.

Pazuki, Arman & Sohani, Mehdi (2013).

Phenotypic evaluation of scutellum-derived
calluses in Indica rice cultivars (PDF). Acta
Agriculturae Slovenica 101 (2):
239247.
doi:10.2478/acas-2013-0020. Retrieved February
2, 2014.

23

18
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Arthysundaram, Berlinerj, Ebeno2, Sparkie82, Snow Blizzard, NotWith, OOOP7, Jabadie, Dennisen, RollingRage, Hamish59, Gwickwire,
Ryan.criswell, JeeryKevin, Glacialfox, JackHolster, Derschueler, Ma Hzi Wong, Doc2015, PBFerrer, Achowat, Matt.g.bakker, EricEnfermero, Surgunatro, Bl00dyS0ulEater, Justincheng12345-bot, Darylgolden, Supahchalupa, Mrt3366, ChrisGualtieri, Zakir2012, Calu2000,
Hunain123, Aliwal2012, Penguin Provision, Jihadcola, Simley234, Bucat, 2Flows, Babystef00, Miguel raul, JYBot, Randomcheesecakeinbalti, HvguilAVV, Harsh 2580, Dexbot, BigJolly9, Earth100, OfTheGreen, Sminthopsis84, Aditya Mahar, Haakey, Little juggler of
the big circus, STRONGlk7, System Operator 2008, EricPlays, Qskb, HelicopterLlama, Lugia2453, Ungaretard, PotatoeVigtible, Tatti69,
Thatasiankid, Pankaj Oudhia, 5r3s89, Radar Holds, Tariqaah, Frenchdreamer, Shubhamkanodia, Erectz, Faizan, Rice900, Siamashraful,
Weirdo8, Kawaii-Soft, Ruby Murray, Sirsquishy, Eyesnore, Vandenbergmarco, Jesusismymainholmes, Drbarr54!, Social integration, DavidLeighEllis,
, 1counting2counting3, Ugog Nizdast, Glaisher, Dr.sjoy2017, Zenibus, StandUnitedLoL, Sefrewtrwetwer, XivXav1, My
name is not dave, Nickolaskehler, Maddielynnwerty, Kelseyyylee, Kind Tennis Fan, Olivia emirates, Nnyfan2, Surrealhd, Hpercival12,
Rosebud92107, Taurus686, 0lympic, Caasha123, Goosenecj1234, Okoloma, Aashay Thakur, Kerozung, DMHTG, 175CalebSanchez175,
IceFreeze99, Monkbot, Notchrealm, Hellowhatrudoing, Why should I have a User Name?, Mr Scoodles, , Nearwater,

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File:3836_-_Amaranthus_caudatus_(Zieramaranth).JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/3836_-_

Amaranthus_caudatus_%28Zieramaranth%29.JPG License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tubifex

File:ABS-5439.0-InternationalMerchandiseImportsAustralia-StandardInternationalTradeClassificationCustomsValue-042Rice-A1828736L.
svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/ABS-5439.0-InternationalMerchandiseImportsAustralia-StandardInternationalTradeClassific
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 au Contributors: This image is based on Australian Bureau of Statistics data.
Original artist: Toby Hudson
File:Amaranthkorn.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Amaranthkorn.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Niedereschbach
File:Amaranthus_cruentus1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Amaranthus_cruentus1.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/mavica/index.html part of www.biolib.de Original artist: Kurt Stber [1]
File:Amaranthus_hypochondriacus_Prague_2011_1.jpg
Source:
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Amaranthus_hypochondriacus_Prague_2011_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Karelj
File:Ambositra_04.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Ambositra_04.jpg License: GFDL Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Bernard Gagnon
File:Assorted_grains.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Assorted_grains.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fir0002
File:Avena-sativa.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Avena-sativa.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Andreas Trepte
File:BeFunky_Chromatic_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/BeFunky_Chromatic_1.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vaisakhkrishnan
File:Canihua_(Chenopodium_pallidicaule)_at_Atuncolla_near_Sillustani_Juliaca.jpg Source:
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wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Canihua_%28Chenopodium_pallidicaule%29_at_Atuncolla_near_Sillustani_Juliaca.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Crops for the Future
File:Celosia_spicata.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Celosia_spicata.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: self-ade Original artist: Muhammad Mahdi Karim (www.micro2macro.net) Facebook Youtube
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Source:
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berlandieri_NPS-1.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
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2Dwildflowers%2Ehtm?eid=133105&aId=167&root_aid=167&sort=title&startRow=82#e_133105 Original artist: Jim Pisarowicz
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Blanco1.188.png License: Public domain Contributors: Flora de Filipinas [...] Gran edicion [...] [Atlas I].[1] Original artist: Francisco
Manuel Blanco (O.S.A.)
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artist: ?
File:Dili_Reisfelder.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Dili_Reisfelder.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/navalsurfaceforces/5840759012/in/photostream Original artist: Surface Forces
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Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Fagopyrum_esculentum_seed_001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Fagopyrum_esculentum_
seed_001.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Kops.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Flora batava by Jan Kops, Herman Christiaan van Hall and others. Amsterdam, J.C. Sepp,
1844, volume 8 (plate 598). http://www.meemelink.com/prints%20pages/19888.Polygonaceae%20-%20Fagopyrum%20tataricum.htm
Original artist: Jan Kops, Herman Christiaan van Hall and others
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B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: This photography was created by Mariluna.
Other photos see here.
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File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Original artist: Draw new ag by User:
_

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File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:

From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art
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lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
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domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

Public

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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
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(Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
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Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn
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People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
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License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: This image is an original work by "Will Murray (Willscrlt)". Attribution is requested, but not required. It should include the authors name, his username in parentheses as shown, and a link to either his Website
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Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: List of Koehler Images Original artist: Franz Eugen Khler, Khlers
Medizinal-Panzen

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File:Kome.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Kome.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?

Original artist: ?
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%286315309342%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: NP India burning 48 Original artist: CIAT
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%285687953086%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: NP_Rice Emissions18 Original artist: CIAT
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License: Public domain Contributors: Source: http://visipix.com/index.htm Original artist: Katsushika Hokusai (
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sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: List of Koehler Images Original artist: Franz Eugen Khler, Khlers Medizinal-Panzen
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