World War I

Long-Term Causes of War

Triple Entente
1892: Russia and France
France gave loans to help develop Russias economy
(based on agriculture, quite poor)

1904: France and Britain

Splendid isolation policy (where it did not interfere with
European conflicts, focusing on colonization)
came to halt
Reached agreements on North African colonies (French rule of
Morocco, British rule in Egypt)
Defeating Boers in South Africa unexpectedly difficult; sapped
British confidence

1907: Britain and Russia

Originally rivals but Britain less concerned as Russia
weakened by Russo-Japanese War

Triple Alliance
New Kaiser (Wilhelm) did not renew
Reinsurance Treaty (1887) with Russia
Dual Alliance with Austria-Germany, 1879
Safeguard against revenge attack by France
Deprive France of potential allies

Triple Alliance with Italy, 1882

Italian ambitions for an Empire

Implications of Alliance System

Called Balance of Power size of two
alliances believed to prevent war
Increased tension: one country engaging
in war meant nearly all of Europe would be
in it
Made countries feel as if war was bound
to come stockpiling of war resources

Imperial long-term causes

Britain and France protection of
colonies (now expanded and more
valuable due to trade)
Newest European powers-- Germany and
Italy wanted place in the sun
Germany only had two colonies in Africa
(jealous of Britains navy and colonies)
Weltpoltik (policy of world expansion)
Italy desire for N. African colonies and
Mediterranean empire

Regional tensions
Austria-Hungary and Russia both wanted
to expand westward
Russia wanted influence over Slavic
regions in Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary becoming weak (composed
of different ethnic groups i.e. Czechs, Slavs
who wanted independence)
Allied with Serbia (both Slavic countries) who
wanted to form Greater Serbia, uniting all
regions occupied by Serbs

Military long-term causes

Germany took industrial area of Alsace-Lorraine
Unification of Germany (previously collection of states) in 1870s by
Bismarck (statesman of the most powerful region, Prussia)
Franco-Prussian War in 1870-1871; large reparation fee
Gave Germany confidence in its military abilities (artillery), technology
and fast rail network

Germanys fear of encirclement by Russia and France surround

and close in
Firms like Nobel and Krupp grew rich by selling weapons to all (even
rival) governments
1905: Russias build-up of arms (expected to complete by 1916-17)
Lost war in 1904 to Japan lost pride: key role in undermining of Russia
in Schlieffen Plan, increased German confidence
Revolution against Tsar Nicholas II (failed but close to succeeding)
power undermined

Plans for war

Plans for war: made countries feel that war was bound to come
Britain: New forces
Creation of territorial army recruit volunteers for defense at home
BEF 150,000 men, all highly equipped and well-trained, ready to fight
in France

France: Plan 17
Front charge through Alsace-Lorraine

Russia: Mass recruitment

Win by sheer number of soldiers

Germany: Schlieffen Plan

Not largest, but best trained and most powerful army
Feared war on both fronts defeat France quickly and then tackle
Russia (expected to be slow to mobilize) alone

Economic long-term causes

Britains reliance on older industries
lagging behind
Germanys industrial expansion (coal)
Overtook Britain in 1914, second only to USA

Tensions in the Balkan area

European powers want influence

Russia: Sea access from Black Sea to
Mediterranean (through Turkish Straits) for trade
half of exports (esp. grain) passed through this area
Naval base

Italy: Wanted sea access to North Africa

(colonization)
Germany
Wanted to build railway for economic reasons
Cheap raw materials

Austria-Hungary: Suppress nationalist movements

Slavs in Austria-Hungary wanted independence,
movement driven by Greater Serbia ideology

Instability in the Balkans

Turkish rule declining: Sick Man of
Europe; corruption
Young Turk revolution who did not favor
absolute monarchy
New replacement governments (who
gained independence) were of different
nationalities, vying for power

Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina,
1908
Austria had control, but wanted to make it
official part of Empire

Effects of annexation of BosniaHerzegovina, 1908

Serbia enraged
Landlocked, required maintenance of
relations with neighbors for trade no sea
access
Wanted to expand into Bosnia Slavs living
there
Protested by reducing economic control of
Austria: stopped exporting pork to Austria
and purchased French munitions instead of
Austrian ones

Effects of annexation of BosniaHerzegovina, 1908

Austria-Hungary became confident
Support from Germany more willing to dispute with
Russia an Serbia

Russia humiliated
Initially supported Austria promised that Russia could
have sea access for warships through Turkish Straits
Other powers (Britain and France) blocked decision, but
Austria went ahead with annexation
Protested against annexation but Austria had Germanys
support Russia wasnt strong enough to intervene
against both
Quickened arms build-up vowed not to back down again

1st Balkan War, 1912

Formation of the Balkan League: Serbia,
Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece
Turkish Empire driven out and conceded
land

2nd Balkan War

Balkan League quarreled
Bulgaria went to war with Serbia and
Greece
Turkey and Romania joined Serbia and
Greece
Bulgaria lost and forced to give up land

Effects
Triple Entente looked weak and disunited
British tried to keep peace instead of
supporting Serbia (Russias ally)

Austria-Hungary felt threatened

Serbia, allied with Russia, emerged as
powerful country

Anglo-German Naval Race

British naval supremacy since Battle of
Trafaglar with France and Spain
Protection of vast Empire and key trading routes
Dominance of English channel to protect against
inland invasion

British Two Power Standard: navy had to

be larger than next two navies put together
never outnumbered at sea
German Naval Laws, 1898 and 1900: 55 new
battleships to aid expansion of Empire and
increase military strength

Anglo-German naval race

1906: Introduction of Dreadnought by Britain:
made all other battleships obsolete

Steam turbines (fast)

Easily maneuverable
Heavy guns (uniform main battery)
Watertight compartments to limit damage
Thick armor plating

1907-8: German version of Dreadnought made

1912: New model of Dreadnought battleship
Britain in lead (29 dreadnoughts); Germany only
had 17

Effects
Built confidence on both sides
Hostility driven by public attention
Slogans, posters, newspaper articles -- We
want eight and we wont wait! in Britain
Creation of bigger harbors i.e. widening of
Germanys Kiel canal

Moroccan Crisis, 1905-6

Scramble for Africa British, French, Belgian
occupation by 1900
Germany had several colonies in Central and
South Africa but wanted influence in the North
Morocco was one of few remaining uncolonized
nations
Germany challenged French plans to colonize
Morocco Kaiser made speech at Tangier
Algeciras Conference in 1906: British, Russian,
Italian and Spanish support meant France could
now have control over Moroccan police and banks

Agadir Crisis, 1911

French troops in Morocco to fight rebels in Fez
Even prepared to compensate Germany if trade suffered as a
result

German gunboat (Panther) sent in protest

Britain feared German naval influence in Mediterranean area
(potential creation of naval base in Morocco) and sent
warships
Conference German did not have Austrian backing, forced
to recognize French control in Morocco, humiliated
Germany given compensatory land in Central Africa (French
congo)

Secret naval agreement gave teeth to the Entente Cordiale

British would guard French Atlantic coast and North Sea (where
German ships were concentrated)
France to patrol the Mediterranean

Assassination at Sarajevo, 28 June

1914
Archduke Franz Ferdinand was heir to the
Austria-Hungarian throne
Visited Bosnia (annexed by Austria in 1908)
in order to strengthen loyalty and observe
military maneuvers
Confident of warm reception (misplaced
loyalty in Bosnian people) and determined to
project friendly image:
Open-topped car
Local police (not army) in charge of security
Security not strengthened after initial bombings

Assassination at Sarajevo, 28 June

1914
Black Hand Gang a Serbian nationalist group led by
Dimitrijevic that aimed to create a Greater Serbia
that was allegedly receiving government funds -responsible for death of Archduke
Seven BHG members responsible:
Five lost nerve
Cabrinovic threw grenade, which slid off the rear of the
first car, exploding near the second car: Archduke unhurt
but some generals injured
General Oskar Poltevik told driver to take alternate route
Driver uninformed, only to be stopped at Franz Josef
Street, told to U-turn
Gavrillo Princip (coincidentally there at the time near
Montz Schillers caf) shot Archduke and wife, Sophie

Effects of Assassination
Pretext for Austria-Hungary to absorb Serbia
23 July: Austria sent ten-point ultimatum
which included compensation as well as
suppression of all anti-Austrian subversion
or movements
Within the 24 hour limit, Serbia agreed to
nearly all of the points, but refused to allow
troops into the country and Austria to interfere
with its affairs
28 July: Austria-Hungary shelled Belgrade,
capital of Serbia

The July Crisis

The Blank Cheque: Kaiser promised full
support if Austria sought to wage war against
Russia and Serbia even encouraged
Austria to make use of the present moment
The Willy Nicky Telegram: addressed from
Tsar to Kaiser (cousins) to prevent war
Tsar offered to take Serbias case to the Hague
conference; stopped mobilization for two days on
29 July (but resumed afterwards)
Kaiser refused to act

Events leading to the War

28 Jun: Assassination
23 July: Ten-Point Ultimatum
28 Jul: Refusal, bombing of Belgrade as Austria-Hungary declares
war on Serbia
29 Jul: Russian mobilization
30 Jul: Germany demands Russia to stop mobilizing
1 Aug: Russia refuses to and Germany declares war on Russia
2 Aug: France mobilizes
3 Aug: Germany declares war on France
4 Aug: Execution of Schlieffen Plan; Germany charges through
Belgium, Britain agrees to help neutral Belgium (Treaty of London,
1839 Britain to uphold Belgian indepdence); Britain declares war
on Germany when Germany refuses to stop invading Belgium
6 Aug: Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia

Schlieffen Plan: Aims

Defeat France within 6 weeks
Army Group 1 to go west of Paris in order
to encircle and capture it (military
heartland)
High-speed advance through Belgium
Avoid war on two fronts could tackle
Russia (expected to be slow to mobilize)
later

Schlieffen Plan: Reasons for

Failure

Exhaustion

High speed marches 15 miles/day

Equipment carried
Food and ammunition unable to keep up with advance
Weather blazing hot sun

Changes to the plan by the more conservative von

Moltke
Weakened 1st Army Group to counter French troops at
Alsace-Lorraine (unwilling to sacrifice German territory)
Area of attack restricted; troops to not swing through
Holland

Russian mobilization faster than expected (3 weeks)

Transfer of 100,000 troops to Eastern Front von Moltke
overconfident after victory at Mons Paris within artillery
range

Schlieffen Plan: Reasons for

Failure
BEF and French resistance at the Battle of Mons, 2324 Aug 1914
British stationed several miles south of Belgian mining
town Mons
British completely outnumbered
German full frontal attack underestimated British (skilled
professionals), incurred heavy losses (5000 dead
compared to 1500 British) and significantly slowed
BEF forced to retreat

Belgian resistance
Delayed German advance
Strong defenses and fortresses
Germany had to use siege guns known as Big Berthas

Schlieffen Plan: Effects of Failure

The above reasons meant:
Germany lacked troops to encircle Paris could only approach city from East
Gave France time to withdraw its troops from Alsace-Lorraine (suffered losses
of 200,000 men by 20 Aug complete failure)

Paris and British able to defend the Capital enough time to organize and
move troops to Paris (by rail and even taxi) to strike flank of Army Group 1 at
Marne

Battle of the Marne, 5-12 Sept

Combined French and British counter-attack
Regained land, saved Paris, pushed German forces up to River Aisne
No progress made, troops dug to protect themselves from snipers and
shellfire

Schlieffen Plan: Wider

consequences of failure
War on two fronts
Germany faced long war development of
trench warfare

The Race to the Sea

12 Oct: Germany tried to outflank (get
around the end of) enemy lines to get to
Paris
Troops transported by rail
British and French troops blocked German
troops off whenever they charged West

The First Battle of Ypres

Germany tried to obtain control of
coastline and seize ports near English
Channel supplies, reinforcements and
equipment
British troops kept control but BEF nearly
decimated (lost 50,000 men compared to
100,000 from Germany)
Nov 14 -- deadlock

The Trench System

Often simply holes (particularly at
beginning, or during poor weather
conditions i.e. Battle of Passchendaele)
Increasingly become more complex:
dugouts (rooms dug into the side) provided
some comfort, deeper bunkers afforded
protection from heavy fire

Barbed wire

NO MANS LAND, often muddy due to

wet weather and destroyed by shellfire

Dugout offers some

Often zigzagged to
prevent long lines of fire protection not direct hits
from artillery though
(traverses)

Support trench
Concrete blockhouses for
machine guns

Communication trenches

Front line trench

Reserve trenches
Long
range
artillery

Aerial
reconnaissance to
warn of artillery
bombardments

Well-built
dugout (up to
15m to
absorb impact
from shellfire)

Parapet to protect
heads from sentries
and artillery

The parados ensured that

soldiers heads would not show
up against the skyline less
susceptible to snipers

Ammunition
box

Dugout for shelter,

meetings, sleep,
meals, storage of
supplies

Barbed wire
entanglements to
impair and trap
enemy soldiers

Firestep soldiers
could observe
enemy

Duckboards to
prevent trench foot

Life in the Trenches

Shellshock sounds of artillery bombardments, constant fear of being shot

at -- snipers
Coping with death
Trench foot feet that were oversaturated with water would rot -- soldiers in
muddy areas vulnerable (duckboards, rubber boots and dry socks later
used as prevention methods)
Lice spread as soldiers huddled for warmth, eggs laid in seams of clothes,
full baths only given 2 or 3 times a month
Disease typhoid (lice), trench fever and dysentery as result of poor
conditions, rats
Rats fed on human corpses (grew to horrifyingly large sizes), stole food
Self-inflicted injuries to escape from trenches could be shot by firing
squad
Lived together with cavalry, unbearable stenches
No protection from cold frostbite
Sentry duty day and night (took turns in watches) to prevent surprise attack

Life in the Trenches

Strict discipline: few desertions and mutinies

Patriotism
Comradeship and achievement military medals and honors
Religion, praying
Good food rations: occasional luxuries such as tobacco and
alcohol, regular food i.e. corned beef, jam was decent
Respect for junior officers put life out on line
Rest: 60% time doing light duties, football matches, film shows,
concerts
Enforced by strict army rules and punishments those that
faked minor diseases could be executed

Strict trench routine

Stand-to at sunrise and dusk (most attacks operated under
cover of darkness): inspections, soldiers prepared for attacks
Routine jobs placing duckboards, clearing dead bodies

Transition from a War of Movement

to Trench Warfare
19th Century Tactics:
Outflanking the enemy
Cavalry charges for speed and mobility, infantry as support
in charge of captured positions, defend from counterattacks
Open warfare -- charges

HALTED BY:
Accurate rifle fire
Trench warfare and ability to shoot from safe positions
Machine guns and heavy artillery mow down cavalry
and infantry

New tactics and roles

Over the top
Artillery bombardment
Destroy machine guns,
barbed wire and enemy
trench fortifications

Infantry charges
Race between:
Defenders ability to emerge
from trenches and set up
equipment
Attackers ability to move
across No Mans Land

Developed into war of

attrition:
Wearing down the enemy
Mass charges theory was
that there would still be
some soldiers left to capture
trenches

Changing battle tactics, 1914

The machine-gun
Could fire 600 rounds per minute
Systematic, rapid gunning down of advancing infantry
in open ground
Favored troops on defensive as they could not be
moved easily
Hand-grenade
Close range combat -- Lobbed inside trenches and
enclosed spaces i.e. dugouts
Trench mortar
Fired shells vertically for hitting trench positions
machine gun nests

Changing battle tactics, 1914

Artillery
Attributed for highest proportion of casualties
Directed huge quantities of explosives or shrapnel at enemy
trenches
Could destroy fortresses Belgium
Barbed wire
Impede and trap soldiers prevent lobbing of grenades
Diversion of troops into well-protected areas (i.e. loaded with
machine gun nests and riflemen)
Aerial war
Development of planes for reconnaissance aerial photography;
few aerial wars (consisted of taking shots with revolver from open
cockpit)
1915: forward-firing aerial machine gun by Britain provoked fights,
sophisticated German version developed shortly after
Bombing enemy trenches
Was not deciding factor neither side had superiority

Changing battle tactics, 1915

German use of gas
Chlorine (filled lungs with water), mustard (burned skin
and caused blindness)
Psychological effect
First use near Ypres in April Allies without protection,
killed thousands
Soldiers quickly given linen masks, told to dip in own
urine effective counter
Respirators distributed soon, pills and antidotes
Not decisive feature unreliable, dependent on wind,
could harm own troops instead
Caused 3% of all deaths

Changing battle tactics, 1916

British introduction of tanks
Battle of the Somme demoralized German troops
Able to clear routes and break enemy lines:

Destroy barbed wire

Machine gun fire
Destroy machine gun blockhouses
Cross wide trenches

Ineffective at first: broke down, slow (which meant they were

easy targets), and difficult to maneuver
Battle of Cambrai (1917): 324 tanks used, pierced holes in
German lines would have succeeded if infantry able to
follow up attacks
Advantage as Germany slow to catch up only produced few
by 1918

Changing battle tactics, 1916

Creeping barrage used by France
Timed infantry bombardment infantry
would walk behind explosions to give
enemy little time to prepare
Flamethrower i.e. Verdun, 1916
Good against pillboxes and strongholds in
close combat
Fuel only lasted for several seconds

Changing battle tactics, 1917

Mining under enemy positions i.e. Battle of
Vimy Ridge, 1917
Destroy enemy trenches with explosive
charges
Highly skilled jobs -- very dangerous
(unstable terrain, counter-tunneling with
sound equipment)
Quite long to build and required lots of
manpower
British did not have sufficient reserves to
follow up after initial shock

Changing battle tactics, 1918

More portable infantry weaponry and
German storm trooper tactics
Primary tactic was speed
No fixed objective penetrate enemy territory
as quickly as possible, leaving pockets of
enemies behind if necessary (for follow-up
troops to handle)
First portable lightweight machine gun
Operation Michael comparative success

Reasons for deadlock

Typical battle tactics failed
Quite predictable artillery bombardments simply warned that
attack was coming soon
Artillery weapons until 1917 were not powerful enough to cut
barbed wire or destroy dugouts only designed to hit surface
of ground
Shortages of guns and ammunition in early years to launch
full-scale attack -- economy was still gearing towards full war
production
Mud-bath conditions created by shell-fire, slowly advances
Pauses between artillery bombardment and infantry charge
until 1916 (creeping barrage), allowed defending troops to set
up machine guns quickly

Reasons for Deadlock

No cooperation between the Allies
Conflicting priorities -- Alsace-Lorraine vs. Turkey
No central effort to break stalemate

Both sides ready to sustain battle war of attrition

New weapons and logistics favored defensive
troops
mortars, artillery and machine guns all immobile
difficult to transport supplies over No Mans Land
once attackers captured first line of trenches
extremely deep dug-outs (esp. on German side)
fortified with concrete and wooden beams; defenders
could shoot safely from a distance

Reasons for deadlock

Lack of communication and poor
organization
Officers rarely visited front line positions or
adapted to trench warfare; unused to
commanding huge armies
Telephone wires cut by artillery
bombardments
Inflexibility of plan no follow up on area of
success (advancing troops immediately lost
gained ground)

Battle of the Somme: Causes

Failure of Gallipoli campaign troops to revert to
attacks on Western Front
New Army of volunteers arrived
Confidence Haig wanted to make British
strength felt
Joffre (French commander)s aim was attrition
wear down Germanys resources
Relieve pressure at Verdun (Feb to Aug 1916)
planned attrition with Germany wanting to bleed
France white
half a million French died; French army near
breaking-point

Original Plan of Battle of Somme

Artillery bombardment of 3 mil shells
Cut barbed wire
Destroy enemy positions, machine guns, ammunition
boxes, communications impossible for enemy soldiers
to emerge

Infantry charge
Germans outnumbered 27 divisions (750,000 men) to 16
Walking pace inexperienced troops (New Army) and
British overconfidence, soldiers told to walk in lines
Heavy packs trench repair equipment fortification to
make it easier to defend

Cavalry to follow up

Key features on 1st Day

Flaws in Allied planning
Attack began in broad daylight (7.30am) easily visible
French forces made quick gains (high-speed march, more
experienced) found themselves isolated and had to withdraw
Slow pace of British forces (instructed to, carried heavy
equipment, damaged terrain mud-like) Germans had time
to set up machine guns
BarbedWire undamaged in many areas British funneled into
gaps could be mowed down as concentrated in one area
Junior officers wore different uniform spotted and killed by
snipers, New Army volunteers confused and disorganized
Attack predictable
Shells supplied were of poor quality not powerful enough,
some failed to go off
Inflexibility commanders far away telephone wires cut by
artillery, Haig insisted on continuing with original plan despite
errors in artillery bombardment

Key features of the Somme

Successes of Central Powers
Defenders on high ground good view on
attacking forces
German dug-outs fortified with concrete
redoubts
Barbed wire entanglements more than
30m wide impossible to penetrate

Effects -- failures
25km advance across 6km small compared to
casualties
Whole communities devastated -- use of Pals
Battalions enlisting with friends and relatives
(incentivized by post-war employment)
Huge loss of life
First day: 57,000 Allied casualties, nearly 20,000 killed
Total: 600,000 Allied casualties

Results of war filmed caused shock and distrust

among public (over-optimistic media led to high
expectations during the pre-Somme period); change in
attitudes towards war criticism of Haig
Offensive called off in November 1916

Effects
Relieved pressure at Verdun
French managed to counter-attack and recapture forts
symbol of victory as Germany was sure it would fall

German army was worn down

Experienced war veterans and officers killed

Haig changes and evolves tactics

New technology: use of tanks, creeping barrages, aircraft
(ammunition drops by parachute)
More efficient communication and transport system
(wireless) switching target attack areas quickly, confused
and surprised Germans
Successes at Battle of Amiens

Battle of Passchendaele, 1917:

Causes
Seize vital German-held railway junction at
Roulers disrupt German supply lines
Capture German-held U-boat bases and
submarine pens
Outflank the German line in Belgium and
commence advance towards German land

Key features of Passchendaele

Wet weather and impassable terrain
Artillery bombardments (4.5 mil shells)
destroyed drainage system
Terrain extremely muddy -- sank up to
soldiers waists
Tanks stuck in mud
Used duckboards but the tired and wounded
easily slipped off and drowned corpses of
dead soldiers and cavalry decayed mud
contaminated with diseases

Craters made by shell explosions filled with

water did not allow soldiers to hide

Key features of the Battle of

Passchendaele
German defences remained strong
Underestimated morale of German
soldiers Haig overconfident after Allied
victory at Battle of Messines
Trenches fortified ranges of machineguns would overlap to allow for cross-fire
German soldiers from Eastern front
transferred to Passchendaele

Key features of the Battle of

Passchendaele
Bite-and-hold tactics
Small advances with limited objectives
Contrasted with the decisive
breakthroughs that officers wanted
soldiers pushed beyond artillery range
Soldiers dig in within artillery range (where
enemy troops would stay away from)
allowed for rest and restocking
Artillery moved forward for another advance

Effects
Objectives scaled down no decisive
breakthrough
Casualties were great on both sides
300,000 British, 250,000 German
Put strain on Central Powers limited
resources compared to Allies entry of US
into the war

Responsibility of Haig
Poor planning not taking
account of bad weather
No initiative old-fashioned
ideas
Could have waited for more
tanks before continuing
with advance
Had no care for soldiers
lives over 600,000 lives
lost in Somme
Detached from fighting
planning took place miles
back unaware of risks of
sending soldiers over-thetop

Main aim to win war

whatever the cost no other
option apart from attrition as
no weapons favored those
on the offensive
Changed tactics as a result
of the Somme
Weather was unpredictable
Dangerous German U-boat
activity had to be eliminated
at all costs drainage of
British supplies
Allies could sustain losses
US entry into war
Transfer of German troops
from the East not planned

Importance of the War at Sea

To protect Britains coastline from inland
attack (unlikely as it was) and ports
Destroy German vessels and stop
supplies getting to the enemy
To protect trade and supply routes
Colonies
North America supplied weapons for Allies
Supplies to France

Battle of Heligoland Bight, Aug

1914
Key features
British destroyers approached German coast
German cruiser fleet was led out to sea as they tried to
pursue British ships
Large British cruiser fleet led by Admiral Beatty
converged on German fleet
4 German warships sunk
Effects
Kaiser restricted German fleets actions instructed to
remain in port and avoid any contact with superior
forces
Morale of British troops raised and Beatty hailed as
hero

German raids on East Coast, Dec

1914
Aims
Spread out British Grand Fleet across larger area prevent
Britain from concentrating troops in certain locations (i.e.
German ports) -- able to harass German navy easily
Demoralize British troops
Key features
German attack on East Coast towns Scarborough, Whitby,
Hartlepool
500 civilian casualties
Effects
Critique against Navy inability to defend citizens properly
Outrage led to propaganda campaign increased morale,
most notably slogan Remember Scarborough

Battle of Dogger Bank, Jan 1915

British decoded German radio message of
raiding operation on a fishing fleet
British surprise interception of German fleet
Two German rear ships sunk heavy
damage, German fleet fled -- forced back
into ports
Flagship (HMS Lion) damaged during
interception unable to chase due to slower
speed and communication mixups

Battle of Jutland, May 1916

Aim
Free seas of English control and remove blockade
Key features
Germans planned to draw out British Grand Fleet from bases
in Scotland decisive battle to regain control of North Sea
British decoded signals which warned of attack Admiral
Jellicoe had time to prepare counter-strategy and battle-fleet
Admiral Beatty pretended to take bait lost two cruisers in
battle due to design flaws (ships had weaker armor)
Pretended to flee lured German ships to Jellicoes
dreadnoughts
Fought in evening with misty weather inaccurate firing and
general confusion

Who won the Battle of Jutland?

Germany
Warships and guns
more powerful
only lost 11 ships
compared to
Britains 14
Lost 2,500 soldiers
compared to
Britains 6,000
2/3 of shots fired hit
compared to
Britains 1/2

Britain
German ships fled battle
(laid smoke screen and
randomly shot several
torpedoes as diversion)
and rarely left ports
afterwards
German fleet did not
remove blockade
Britain in control of
North Sea
German fleet has
assaulted its jailor, but
is still in jail US
newspaper

U-boat Campaign: Causes

British blockade kept German merchant
ships at dock

U-boat Campaign Measures: Key

features
German submarines able to attack
British ships undetected
Earlier stages
Targeted Allied warships which were later fortified less vulnerable
Later stages
Targeted merchant ships starve Britain into submission
Unrestricted submarine warfare, Feb 1915: attacked and
torpedoed all Allied ships without warning previously allowed crew
to abandon ship
June 1917: 500,000 tons of shipping destroyed London only had six
weeks of rations left

Sinking of the Lusitania, May 1915

Key features
Passenger ship Lusitania sunk over 1000 civilians died,
including 114 Americans
May have contained explosives and weaponry -- unproved
Effects
Germany shut down U-boat campaign in order to keep USA
neutral, but restarted again in 1916 (thought American troops
would take too long to train army)
British propaganda labeled it as criminal act public outcry
American support for Allies
more economically willing to supply weaponry
one of the reasons for entry into war (1917)

British reaction to U-boat campaign

Mines in the English channel
Long-range aircraft for protection and to alert merchant ships
(end of 1917)
Depth charges -- explosives which set off at certain depths
(1916)
Convoy system: Merchant ships grouped together, protected
by battleships U-boats unable to win against entire fleet
Q-ships (decoy ships): unsinkable (loaded with wooden
corks and caskets), well-defended (hidden guns and
torpedoes) pretended to be old British steamers (merchant
ships)
Increase ship production by USA and Britain: Germans unable
to sustain campaign (too many resources) and called off
Dedication of merchant sailors continued to deliver supplies

Reasons for the Gallipoli Campaign

Arrogance of Great Powers could defeat smaller
countries easily
Victory could attract potential allies Romania and
Greece to encircle Germany and Austria
Relieve pressure on Eastern Front draw German
troops away
Stalemate in Western Front
strategy of knocking out the props from under Germany
defeat more vulnerable allies to drain Germanys power
possibility of launching attack on Germany through Balkan
area

Control of Dardanelle Straits

Entrance to the Mediterranean and Black Sea
Transport supplies to Russia prevent dependence on
North Sea which were patrolled by German U-boats
boost war effectiveness

Key features of Campaign: Phase

1, Feb 1915
British officers confident that Turkey could be
taken by ships alone planned to move onto
capturing Constantinople (capital) afterwards
Assumption that Turks would surrender
Royal Navy and French Navy old
battleships forced way through Dardanelle
Straits
Major attack from Turks
gun fortifications on shore from both sides
sea mines
3 battle cruisers sunk

Key features of the Campaign:

Phase 2, April 1915
Turks were greatly outnumbered but
occupied high ground machine guns
killed thousands (4,000 of 30,000 on first
day)
No advances made British troops told to
dig in and stalemate resulted

Key features of the Campaign:

Phase 2, April 1915
Hasty planning and improvisation
Risks of naval operation too great land invasion
needed to capture forts at Gallipoli for naval operation
to run
Inadequate information on defenses and terrain
expected Gallipoli to be a flat plain due to old maps
Organizational weaknesses no clear plan, decisions
left to subordinates and generals orders came very
late and soldiers were confused once they landed

Turks alerted to attack

construction of powerful defenses
reinforcements (1 division to 6 divisions) at Gallipoli

Key features of the Campaign:

Phase 2, April 1915
Unbearable conditions for soldiers
Summer heat, winter cold (frostbite in November as soldiers
were ill-equipped clothing)
Poor conditions -- decaying corpses, disease (dysentery)
Lack of water resources had to be shipped over

Resorting to trench warfare another stalemate

Turks dug into high ground tough barbed wire strewn across
as military prep
Deadlock resulted from stubbornness of Turkish troops lost
equal numbers of men despite limited size of Army incredibly
high morale

British at disadvantage with terrain

Steep cliffs with Turks taking high ground more vulnerable to
artillery
Soldiers mowed down as they arrived due to clumsy landing

Key features of the Campaign:

Phase 2, April 1915
Amphibious attack first of its kind
No experience with landings water to land
attacks
No landing craft

Not enough resources to sustain attack

pointless sideshow French High Command
and Commander at WF: argued that Germany
was backbone of Central Powers, supporting all
its Allies not the other way round
no reinforcements i.e. Indian troops, heavy
artillery, resupply of ammunition, military aircraft

Key features of the Campaign:

Phase 3, Aug 1915
Landings at Suvla Bay (western Gallipoli) to outflank
Turkish positions
Reinforcements
Turks taken by surprise
General Stopford (very little experience with organizing
campaigns not given command in WF due to
incompetence) failed to press forward

Stalemate resulted
Naval campaign partially successful submarines
able to reach Constantinople Harbor (minesweeping
technology), destroying most of the Turkish fleet
withdrawal of entire campaign meant this was given up

Evacuation
30 December to 8 January all equipment
and troops evacuated
Blizzard hundreds froze to death or
drowned in floods
More than 50,000 Allied deaths

Effects of Campaign
Turkey undefeated British prestige in Middle
East fell; some Balkan territories i.e. Bulgaria
turned to Central Powers
Russia unable to receive aid
Allies dedicate resources to Western Front
provoked Somme and Passchendaele
Significantly damaged Ottoman resources Allies
better to replace them at this stage of war
Huge loss of life more than 50,000 soldiers died
Weakened stance at Western Front troops were
drawn away

Entry of USA into the war, April

1917: Causes
Economic
War brought economic boom from trade war
loans (interest), sale of munitions, supplies USA
would face economic collapse if Allies lost and
could not pay
Unrestricted submarine warfare sunk 3 US ships
and 7 US merchant boats merchant ships
refused to set sail
Pressure from Wall Street production would
increase
Historic
Ties with Britain

Entry of USA into the War, April

1917: Causes
Human
Sinking of Lusitania in May 1915 100+ American
deaths
Political
Russias withdrawal from war meant USA could now
proclaim it was fighting for democracy against
autocracies Austria and Germany
Zimmerman telegram
Sent from Germany to Mexico which encouraged an
alliance promised financial aid and potential southern
territories i.e. Texas, Arizona and New Mexico following
German victory would distract US from war in Europe

Significant aspects of US
involvement in war
Supply of equipment and resources
American navy anti U-boat operations and convoy systems
in Atlantic
American navy helped with French sectors of Western Front
where no advances were made Battle of Belleau Wood,
1918
US Army troops arrived on the Western Front, particularly in
French sectors where they were being pushed back, e.g. US
Marines in the Battle of Belleau Wood, June 1918
Morale booster -- widespread feeling of relief even though
Americas Regular Army was small (130,000 men) and
inexperienced in modern warfare
Plattsburg Training Camp: Bring a pair of sneakers or slippers.
They will add to your comfort after a long march a complete
bathing suit often comes in handy.

Ludendorff Offensive, March 1918:

Causes
Needed quick breakthrough
USA moving troops at rate of 50,000 per
month
Blockade of raw materials starving
population and soldiers
Surrender of Russia meant moving 1mil
troops to Western Front seize opportunity

Ludendorff Offensive, March 1918:

Key Features
Stage 1
Artillery bombardments
Gas attacks
British troops forced to order retreat especially at
Passchendaele where soldiers were demotivated
Stage 2
Smaller bands of soldiers experienced and lightly equipped
attacked storm troops portable offensive weapons
(machine guns)
Advantage of foggy weather surprise attacks
Across the Western Front stopped Allies massing defenses
in one place
Advanced 64km, Paris within artillery range

Stage 3
Lost 400,000 men no reserves
Outrun their supply lines -- men and troops poorly
disciplined and fed looted villages and supplies of
food and alcohol attack halted
Well-trained and equipped soldiers
German Armys self-inflicted wound in preparing the
Hindenburg Line had to march through territory in
front of it, lowering morale and weakening troops
Late 1916: Germans withdrew from 1,000 square miles of
land constructed concrete blockhouses, deep dug-outs,
backed up with massive artillery
Mines laid, wells poisoned, villages and towns destroyed
to impede Allied advance

The Allied Drive to Victory (July

November 1918): The Hundred Days
Pushed Germans back to the Hindenburg line by
September; Germans in full retreat by Oct
Allied tactics use of integrated warfare
combined use of infantry, artillery, tanks, aircraft
together
Technological improvements infantry supported
by creeping barrage, smokescreens, tanks and
low-flying aircraft
Repeatedly surprised Germans by breaking off
attacks and starting them elsewhere
German morale quickly depleted mass numbers
surrendering, deserting posts or feigning sickness

Armistice
German army not overrun but unable to
halt the Allied advance
Effective discipline and command
disappeared
Shortages of food and supplies
Talks for a ceasefire (an armistice) -began on 9th November and culminated in
the armistice agreement of 11th November

Reasons for why Germany lost the War:

British blockade and lack of supplies
Blockade cut off supplies of nitrates vital for
explosives and fertilizers
Lack of resources rationing started in 1918;
constant queuing for food; civilian and soldiers
death rate rose by nearly 40%; turnip winter in
1916 as potato crops (due to frost) and imports
declined repulsed many as turnips were thought
to be for animals and fodder
Influenza Spanish flu killed millions
Protests and demonstrates in cities lack of
support for the war

Loss of German allies

Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria exhausted
surrendered in September 1918
Turkey seeking armistice
Troops transferred from Balkans to the
Western Front

German military failures and low

troop morale
Failure of the Ludendorff Offensive
massive casualties and loss of life

Increasing strikes and discontent

Bolshevik Revolution in Russia inspired
German socialists
Workers and soldiers councils set up
most notably Kiel naval mutiny in Oct 1918
(sailors refused to set sail to fight against
large British navy)

Involvement of USA in the war

Supply of equipment and resources
American navy anti U-boat operations and convoy
systems in Atlantic
American navy helped with French sectors of Western
Front where no advances were made Battle of
Belleau Wood, 1918
US Army troops arrived on the Western Front,
particularly in French sectors where they were being
pushed back, e.g. US Marines in the Battle of Belleau
Wood, June 1918
Morale booster -- widespread feeling of relief among
Allied troops and dread among German troops

British military innovation

Integrated warfare
Infantry supported by new technology: use of
tanks, creeping barrages, low-flying aircraft
More efficient communication and transport
system (wireless) switching target attack
areas quickly breaking off attacks in one
location and starting them elsewhere