B. A. Part-I Outlines of Philosophy Marathi Version PDF

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( 2008 [mgyZ hm{Um`m [arjmgmR>r)
Hw$bg{Md, {edmOr {dmnrR>, H$mohmnya (_hmamQ>)
W_mdmr : 2007
{Vr` Amdmr : 2008
~r. E. (VdkmZmMr $naofm) ^mJ - 1 H$[aVm
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lr. E. Eg. _mZo,
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{edmOr {dmnrR> _wUmb`,
H$mohmnya - 416 004.
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_wInR> gOmdQ> :
VrH$ {qQ>J gphgog, H$mohmnya.
ISBN-978-81-906236-3-6
Xya oejU H|$ AmoU oedmOr odm[rR> `m]cMr _mohVr [wT>rc [`mda o_iy eH{$c.
oedmOr odm[rR>, odmZJa, H$m{hm[ya - 416 004. (^maV)
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(ii)
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lr. ]r. Eg. [mQ>rc
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lr. O{. Ama. OmYd
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S>m. H{$. EZ. gmJi{

AoYR>mVm, oejUem odmemIm,
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m. (S>m.) hr. Eg. [mQ>rc,
m. S>m. (lr_Vr) gr_m `{dc{ (gX` goMd)
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gMmocH$m,
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AoYR>mVm, odkmZ odmemIm, oedmOr odm[rR>, H$m{hm[ya.
m. (S>m.) Eg. E. ]mar,

gMmcH$, Xya oejU H$h{`y odm[rR>, H$ZmQ>H$.
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MV`, 50 odmZJa, èdV H$mcZr, H$amS>, oO. gmVmam.
(iii)
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_wYmoOr H$mcoO, \$cQ>U, {O. gmVmam.
1, 2, 5
lr. \$aVmao Ama. hr.

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9 d 10
lr. dmK_moS>o amOmam_ gmoZm

~idV H$mcoO, {dQ>m, Vm. ImZmnya.
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lr. {hado Ama. Eg.

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m. Ama. Eg. {hado

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m. Eg. E_. {nQ>Ho$, g_d`H$

VdkmZ {d^mJ _wI, _wYmoOr H$mboO, \$bQ>U
(iv)
666
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{edmOr {dmnrR>m`m Xya {ejU H|$ AVJV ~r.E.^mJ1 VdkmZ `m {df`m`m VdkmZmMr naofm `m A`mgH$_mda
AmYm[aV d` A``Z nwpVH$m {dm`m`m hmVr Xo`mV Amhm
gdmg AmZX hmoV Amho. ^maVr` Am{U nmMm` VdkmZmbm gw_mao
2500 dfmMr nanam Amho. `mVrb H$mhr Vddo`m`m Am{U
`m`m {dMmamMm n[aM` H$$Z XoUo hm `m nwpVHo$_mJMm Coe
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nmMm` {dMmadVmMm AmT>mdm KoVbobm Amho.
^maVr` VdkmZmV Y_ Am{U VdkmZ `mMm EH${V {dMma
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^JdmZ ~m, ^JdmZ _hmdra `mMo {dMma AmhoV. VgoM nmMm`
VdkmZm~m~V hUVm òV Zmhr. nmMm` VdkmZmV OS>dmX,
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hr nwpVH$m V`ma H$a`mMo H$m_ `m gd boIH$ _S>itZr
Ho$bobo Amho. nwpVH$m doioV V`ma H$a`mMo lo` gdmZmM Amho.
VgoM {edmOr {dmnrR>mZo `mH$m_r Amhmg gYr {Xbr `m~b
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666
(v)
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(vii)
`{H$ KQ>H$mMr gwdmV CoQ>mZ r hm{Bc

. CoQ>{ oXemXeH$ AmoU [wT>rc ]m]r [Q> H$aUmar
AgVrc.
1. KQ>H$m_`{ H$m` oXc{c{ Amh{.
2. Vw_`mH$Sy>Z H$m` A[{ojV Amh{.
3. odoeQ> KQ>H$mdarc H$m` [yU H{$`mZVa Vwhmcm H$m` _mhrV hm{`mMr A[{jm Amh{.
d` _y`_m[ZmgmR>r Z oXc{c{ AgyZ `mMr A[{ojV Cma{hr X{`mV Amc{cr Amh{V.
`m_wi{ KQ>H$mMm A`mg `m{` oXe{Z{ hm{Bc. Vw_Mr Cma{ ochZ Pm`mZVaM d` A``Z
gmoh`m_`{ oXc{cr Cma{ [mhm. hr Vw_Mr Cma{ (qH$dm dm`m`) Am_`mH$S>{ _y`_m[ZmgmR>r
[mR>dm`Mr ZmhrV. Vwhr `m{` oXe{Z{ A`mg H$amdm, `mgmR>r hr Cma{ "A`mggmYZ' (Study
Tool) hUyZ C[`wV R>aVrc.
`{H$ od^mJm`m [mR>r_mJ{ Or naV [mZ{ R>d{ c{cr Amh{V `mda `m od^mJmMm A`mg
H{$`mda _hdmM{ _w{ AWdm Q>r[m och eH$mc. `m_wi{ KQ>H$mMm gIm{c A`mg Va hm{Bc
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[U [arj{Mr V`mar hm{D$Z Vw_Mm _m`dmZ d{ihr dmM{c.
(viii)
KQ>H$ - 1
^maVr` VdkmZmMo dn
1.0 C{>o
1.1 mVm{dH$
1.2 {df`{ddoMZ
1.2.1
VdkmZ hUOo H$m`?
1.2.2
^maVr` VdkmZmMo dn
1.2.3
^maVr` XeZmMo dJuH$aU
1.2.4
^maVr` VdkmZmMr g_mZ d{e>o
1.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z
1.4 gmame
1.5 d` A``Z ZmMr Cmao
1.6 gamdmgmR>r dm`m`
1.7 nm[a^m{fH$ eX
1.8 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$
1.0 C{>o :
`m KQ>H$mV Imcrc Jmo>tMr AmnU _m{hVr H$Z KoUma AmhmoV.
* VdkmZ hUOo H$m` ho gmJVm òBc.
* VdkmZm`m {d{dY `m`m H$aVm òVrc.
* ^maVr` VdkmZmMo dn n> H$aVm òBc.
* ^maVr` XeZmMo dJuH$aU n> H$aVm òBc.
* ^maVr` VdkmZmMr g_mZ d{e>o gmJVm òVrc.
1.1 mVm{dH$ :
VdkmZ {df`mMr AmoiI H$Z KoUo hm KQ>H$mMm Coe Amho. VdkmZ `m {df`m~c gm_m`
cmoH$m_ò H$mhr Jag_O AmhoV. hm {df` H$i`mg AdKS> Amho Aer g_OyV Amho nU hr g_OyV
H$er MwH$sMr Amho ho AmnUmg `m {df`m`m A`mgmZo hmoBc. òH$ am>mcm B{VhmgmV AZoH$ _hmnwf,
1
{dMmadV hmoD$Z Joco.`m`m {dMmamdZ AmnUmg ""VdkmZ'' {df`mMr AmoiI hmoBc. `m _hmZ nwfmZr
Ago H$mhr {dMma {Xco H$s, `m H$mimVrc gm_m` cmoH$mMo OrdZ ~XcyZ Joco.
AmnU VdkmZm_ò A`mg`m OmUm`m {d{dY g_`mMr Cmao AmnU emoYV OmD$ VgVgo
VdkmZ hUOo H$m`? `m ZmMo Cma AmnUmg {_ioc.
VdkmZm`m gX^mV VrZ Z {dMmaVm òVrc. VdkmZ ho H$ohm {Z_mU Pmco? H$go {Z_mU
Pmco? Vo H$moUmH$Sy>Z {Z_mU Pmco? gmYmaU ^maVr` Am{U nmm` VdkmZmMm CJ_ gw_mao 2500
dfmnydu Pmcm. Oohm _mUyg ^modVmcMo OJ H$go {Z_mU Pmco? {dm`m _yimMr A{V_ Vd H$moUVo?
_r Hw$Ry>Z Amcmo? `m OJmMm {Z`Vm, {Z_mVm H$moU Amho? Aem {d{dY mZm Cmao emoYy cmJcm. `mVyZ
VdkmZmMm O_ Pmcm.
^maVr` VdkmZ ho doXH$mimnmgyZ ApVdmV hmoVo. gmYmaU {Vnydu 1500 dfmnydu doXmMr
aMZm Pmcr. ^maVr` VdkmZmMr gw` df_V _mS>Ur gmYmaU B.g.5 do 6 do eVH$mV Pmcr. ^maVr`
VdkmZmMr d{XH$ Am{U Ad{XH$ Aem XmoZ ^mJmV {d^mJUr Ho$cr OmVo. `m`, deo{fH$ , gm`, `moJ,
nyd{__mgm, Cma {__mgm Aer d{XH$ XeZo AmhoV Va MmH$mH , OZ, ~m m Ad{XH$ nanam AmhoV.
^maVr` XeZmV eH$amMm`, ^JdmZ ~m, ^JdmZ _hmdra Ago R>iH$ {dMmadV AmhoV `mZr
^maVr` VdkmZm`m jomV _mocmMr â Q>mH$cr.
nmMm` VdkmZmMo CJ_WmZ Jrg XoemV AgyZ nmm` VdkmZmMo mMrZ- _`_`wJrZAdmMrZ Ago VrZ H$mcIS> nS>VmV ""Wocrg'' hm n{hcm nmm` {dMmadV hmo` `mZo g>rMr {Z{_Vr
H$er Pmcr? `m mcm BamZo {d {Z_mU Ho$co `m mnojm doJio Cma {Xco. `mZo g>rMm O_
OcmVyZ (nm`mVyZ) Pmcm Ago n>rH$aU {Xco Agm `mZo `m H$mimVrc n>rH$aUmnojm doJio
n>rH$aU {X`m_wio `mc nmMm` VdkmZmMm OZH$ hQ>co OmVo. JrH$ {dMmadVmV gmHo${Q>g, coQ>mo
Ago {dMmadV AmhoV mMrZ H$mimnmgyZ Vo AmOVmJm`V nmm` VdkmZmV Am_m, Ba, g>rMr
Cnmr H$er Pmcr? Aem mZm Cmao {Xcr Jocr.
AmnU `m dfu`m VdkmZm`m A`mgH$_mV H$mhr _wI ^maVr` Am{U nmm` VdkmZmMm
n[aM` H$Z KoUma AmhmoV.
1.2 {df` {ddoMZ
1.2.1 VdkmZ hUOo H$m`?
{d{dY `m`m
1. VdkmZ hUOo g_J AZw^dmMo kmZ hmo`. (Philosophy as of Experience as a whole)eX
`wnmr emmV VdkmZ hUOo VV Mo kmZ hmo`. VV hUOo Oo H$mhr ApVdmV Amho Vo hmo ` .
EImm dVyMo gnyU kmZ hmo`mgmR>r `m dVy`m JwUmMo kmZ hmoU Amd`H$ Amho. Ago JwU OmUyU KoUo
qH$dm dVyMo ""gmaVd'' (Essence) hUOo VV hmo`. CXm. EImm nwnmMm AmH$ma, JY, aJ dJao JwU
hUOo nwnVd hmo`. _wZ`mMo _Zw`d. Aem VhoZo gnyU AZw^dmMo kmZ hUOo VdkmZ hmo`.
2
2.
VdkmZ ho emmMo em Amho. (Philosophy as Science of all Sciences.)
mMrZ H$mir Oohm _mUyg S>m|Ja X`mV amhV hmoVm `mdoiog Vmo ^modVmc`m OJm{df`r _m{hVr
KoV Jocm. `mZo Jmoim Ho$coco kmZ IwnM _`m{XV hmoVo. `m kmZmcm `mZo ""VdkmZ'' Ago Zmd {Xco.
hiyhiy `m kmZmMm {dVma EdT>m hmoV Jocm. _mUgmZo dV:`m gmoBgmR>r `m kmZmMr {d^mJUr Ho$cr,
doJdoJir emo {Z_mU Pmcr. CXm. nXmW {dkmZ,agm`Z em, dZnVr em, Ordem B. _mUgm`m
_ZmV ^modVmc`m OJm~amo~aM g_mO{df`H$ kmZmMmhr g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m kmZmVyZ B{Vhmg, g_mOem,
amèm, AWem, _mZgem Aer emo {Z_mU Pmcr. `m gd emmMm CJ_ VdkmZmV Amho
hUyZ VdkmZmcm gd emmMr OZZr (Mother of all sciences) hUVmV.
3
VdkmZ hUOo kmZm~Xc kmZcmcgm, AmnwcH$s ~miJUo, kmZmda o_ H$aUo hmo`.(Philosophy

as love for Wisdom.) Vdk H$moUmcm hUVm òBc? VdkmZ hUOo ehmUm _mUyg (Wise Person) hmo`.
ehmUm _mUyg kmZmda o_ H$aVmo. kmZmMm emoY KoVmo. kmZmMr H$miOr KoVmo. kmZ dmT>rg H$go cmJoc,
`mMo ajU H$go hmoBc? Voo nmhVmo. `m_wio gd jomV gemoYZ H$aUm`m gdmZm Vdk hUyZ g~moYVm
òBc.
4
VdkmZ hUOo A{V_ g`mMm emoY KoUo hmo`. (Philosphy as a search for Ulitimate Reality.)
_mUgmcm ^modVmc`m g>r~c, dV:~c Hw$Vhc {Z_mU Pmco. ho {d H$go {Z_mU Pmco?
Vo H$moU`m VdmnmgyZ {Z_mU Pmco? ho Vd EH$ Amho H$s AZoH$? Ago Ag` {Z_mU Pmco. H$mhr
VdkmZr Ago Cma {Xco H$s EH$_od Aem VdmnmgyZ {d {Z_mU Pmco. ho Vdk EH$ddmXr (Monistic)
hUyZ AmoiIco OmVmV. Va H$mhr VdkmZm`m _Vo {d ho EH$mnojm A{YH$ VdmnmgyZ {Z_mU Pmco.
Ago hUUmao Vdk AZoH$ddmXr (Pluralistic) hUyZ AmoiIco OmVmV. ^maVr` Am{U nmm`
VdkmZmV ho {d H$emVyZ (H$emnmgyZ) {Z_mU Pmco `m mcm XmoZ _wI Cmao {Xcr Jocr. H$mhr
Vdk hUVmV-OS> `mVyZ {d {Z_mU Pmco. `m VdkmZm`m _Vo ""OS>`'' ho A{V_ g` Amho.
(Matter is real.) Va H$mhr VdkmZm`m _Vo Am_VdmnmgyZ (MV` VdmnmgyZ) {d {Z_mU Pmco
Amho. `m`m _Vo Am_Vd ho A{V_ Vd Amho. (Idea is real.) WmoS>`mV OS>dmXr Am{U Am_VddmXr
hr `m mMr XmoZ Cmao AmhoV. Aem VhoZo VdkmZmV A{V_ g`mMm emoY KoVcm OmVmo.
5. VdkmZ hUOo OrdZ OJ`mMm EH$ _mJ hmo`. (Philosophy as a way of life.) _mZdr B{VhmgmV
AZoH$ nmMm` Am{U ^maVr` {dMmadV hmoD$Z Jooco. `mZr OJmdo H$go? `m~c gm_m`mZm _mJXeZ
Ho$co, {dMma {Xcm. `m {dMmam_wio gm_m` cmoH$mMo OrdZM ~XcyZ Joco. ^JdmZ ~m, dm_r
{ddoH$mZX, H$mc _mg, _. JmYr, S>m. ~m~mgmho~ Am~oS>H$a Aem cmoH$mZr EH$ {d{e> OrdZnVr
{Z_mU Ho$cr. `m_wio VdkmZ hUOo OrdZ OJ`mMm _mJ hmo`. Ago hUVm òBc.
6
VdkmZ hUOo gd H$mhr Amho Am{U / gd H$mhr Zmhr.(Philosophy as evertyhing / or Nothing)

VdkmZm_ò gd H$mhr Amho `mMm AW gdM kmZmMm VdkmZmV g_mdoe hmoV AgVmo naVy ZVa`m H$mimV
kmZmMm {dVma Pm`mZo dV emo {Z_mU Pmcr. VdkmZmnmgyZ EH$ EH$ {df` ~mOycm hmoV Joco.
AcrH$S>rc H$mimV g_mOem, _mZgem ho {df` ~mOycm Pmco AmhoV Am{U Vr dV emo ~Zcocr
AmhoV.
AmO`m H$mimV VdkmZm_ò kmZ _r_mgm (Epistemology) Am{U gmmem qH$dm gXdVy
_r_mgm `m (Metaphysics) XmoZ _wI emImMm A`mg Ho$cm OmVmo. kmZ_r_mgoV kmZ hUOo H$m`?
kmZmMo dn, d aMZm AmnUmg kmZ H$go m hmoVo Aem kmZ{df`H$ {d{dY mMm A`mg Ho$cm
OmVmo.Va gXdVy _r_mgoV A{V_ g` H$moUVo? BamMo dn, Am_m, eara, Am_m d earamMm g~Y
Aem {d{dY mMm A`mg Ho$cm OmVmo. `m XmoZ _wI emIm~amo~aM Zr{Vem, gmX` _r_mgm,
VH$em, _y` {gmV, gm_m{OH$ amOH$s` VdkmZ Aem hr VdkmZm`m {d{dY emIm AmhoV.
1.2.2 ^maVr` XeZmMo dn ^maVr` VdkmZmcm XeZem hUyZ g~moYco OmVo. òH$ g_mOmMm OrdZmH$S>o nhm`mMm
>rH$moU VdkmZmVyZ, XeZmVyZ JQ> hmoV AgVmo.
^maVr` XeZo EH$Xa {H$Vr AmhoV?
_mYdmMm`m`m ""gdXeZ gJh'' `m `mV JWmV gmoim XeZmMo {ZnU Ho$coco Amho. `mVrc
_hdmMr ZD$ XeZo AmhoV. `m XeZmMo d{XH$ (Orthodox) Am{U Ad{XH$ (Heterodox) Aem XmoZ
H$mamV dJuH$aU Ho$co OmVo. d{XH$ XeZmZmM ApVH$ XeZo Am{U Ad{XH$ XeZmZm ZmpVH$ XeZo
Agohr hQ>co OmVo. `m{R>H$mUr ""ApVH$'' qH$dm ""Zm{VH$'' `m eXmMm AW ""Bamcm _mZUmao'' d
Z _mZUmao EdT>m _`m{XV ZgyZ doXmZm _mU _mZUmar Am{U doXm_m` ZmH$maUmar Ago ho dJuH$aU
Amho.
d{XH$ XeZo Ad{XH$ XeZo -
1) `m`
2) deo{fH$
3) gm`
4) `moJ
5) nyd_r_mgm 6) Cma _r_mgm (doXmV)
1) MmdmH$
2) OZ
3) ~m
`mVrc AV doXmV `m d{XH$ XeZmMm Am{U

MmdmH$, OZ, ~m `m Ad{XH$ XeZmMm
AmnU A`mg H$aUma AmhmoV. ^maVr` VmpdH$ {dMmamcm doXH$mimnmgyZ ma^ Pmcm. doX aMZoMm
H$mcIS> H$moUVm `m~m~V gemoYH$mV EH$_V Zmhr. gmYmaUnUo {Vnyd 3000 dfo Vo {Vnyd
1500 dfo `m Xa`mZ`m H$mcIS>mV doXmMr aMZm Pmcocr Agmdr. (hUOo gmYmaUnUo 3000 Vo
5000 dfmnydu doXmMr aMZm Pmcocr Agmdr.)
doXdmL>_` mMrZ _mZco OmVo nU `mnojmhr mMrZ Ago B{Ope`Z Am{U ~m{~cmo{Z`Z dmL>_`
Amho. doX hm H$mhr JW Zmhr Va Vmo _m{IH$ dnmV Amho. (AcrH$S>`m H$mimV doX JW dnmV
CncY AmhoV.)mMrZ F$ftZr, _wZtZr doX_w$mMo nR>U, CmaU Ho$co. doX JwH$Sy>Z {e`mH$S>o nanaoZo
Joco. doXmMr nanam hr EoH$`mda, ldUmda AmYm[aV Ag`mZo `mZm "lw{V' hUVmV. doX_mMo nR>U
Ho$co OmVo.
4
doX ho Mma H$maMo AmhoV. 1) F$doX
2) ÒwdoX
3) gm_doX 4) AWddoX
gd Y_ H$nZmMo _yi doXmV AmT>iyZ òVo. doXmMo g{hVm, ~mhUo, Ama`Ho$ Am{U Cn{ZfXo Ago
VrZ ^mJ AmhoV. g{hVo_ò XodXodVmMr VwVr Ho$cocr AgVo Va ~mhU JWmV `k{H$`m H$m H$amdr,
H$er H$amdr WmoS>`mV H$_H$mS>mMo {ddoMZ AgVo Va Cn{ZfXmV doXmVrc VdkmZ AmT>iVo. `m_ò
g>r, Ba, Am_m, A{V_ g` `m gX^mV {dMma _mS>coc AmhoV.
WmZ`r.
Cn{ZfXo, ~hgyo, Am{U ^JdXJrVm `m VrhrVyZ d{XH$ ^maVr` XeZmMm CJ_ Pmcocm Amho
`m_wio `m VrhrZm {_iyZ "WmZ`r' Ago hQ>co OmVo.
1) Cn{ZfXo - Cn{ZfX `m eXmMo \$moS> Cn+{Z+gX Aer H$aVm òBc. Cn hUOo Odi, gX
hUOo ~gUo. Jw`m Odi {Z>mnydH$ ~gUo hmo`. JwH$Sy>Z {e`mZo kmZ JhU H$amdr Aer mMrZ
H$mimVrc nanam hmoVr. JwJhr, Aml_mV {e` ahmV. Jww kmZ XoV, Jw{e` `m`mV momao hmoV,
MMm hmoV. hrM Cn{ZfXo hmoV.Cn{ZfXo hm doXm`m eodQ>r Amcocm ^mJ Amho. Cn{ZfXo EHy$U AH$am
AmhoV. Vr nwT>rc_mUo -Be, Ho$Z, H$R>, _wS>H$, _mS>`, V{V[a`, CVao`, N>mXmo`, ~hXma`H$, ,
doV doVoVa.Cn{ZfXmV Am_m, ~, na~, `mMo dn n> Ho$coco Amho. Am_m Am{U ~U `mMo
nana g~Y B. ~c AZoH$ gyo$ (cmoH$) Cn{ZfXmV AmT>iVmV.
2) ~gyo - ~mXamÙmZr ~hZgymMr aMZm Ho$cr. ~hZ gymZmM doXmVgyo qH$dm em[aarH$ gyo
Agohr hUVmV. ~mXamÙmZr ~hZgym`m ma^rM dV:M ~hZ{df`H$ {dMma _mS>co Va Xwg`m
A`m`m_ò gm`, deo{fH$, ~w Am{X _VmMo IS>Z Ho$coco Amho. `m`m _Vo ~hZ ho OJmMo
Am{XH$maU AgyZ `mVyZ OJ Cn Pmcoco Amho. OJmMo ApVd, cm^hr ~hZmVM hmoVo. Agm {dMma
~mXamÙmZr _mS>cocm Amho.
3) ^JdXJrVm - ""^JdXJrVm'' hr Hw$jomda ^JdmZ lrH$UmZo ""qH$H$V` _yT>'' ~Zco`m
AOwZmcm gm{JVcr Ago _mZco OmVo. nU Vr VodT>mnwaVrM _`m{XV Zmhr. gm_m` _mUgm`m OrdZmV
{der>> gJr H$m` H$amdo? H$go dmJmdo Agm g^_ {Z_mU hmoVmo, Aemdoiog ^JdXJrVm AOwZm_mUoM
gm_m` _mUgmZmhr _mJXeZ H$aVo.
^JdXJrVoMr aMZm gmYmaU {Vnyd ghmdo eVH$ Vo {Vnyd Xwgao eVH$ `m Xa`mZ Pmcocr
Agmdr.^JdXJrVoV _moj hUOo H$m`? Am`mMo Iao dn H$moUVo? Vo H$go OmUyZ `mdo? OrdZmMo
A{V_ ò` H$moUVo Agmdo? Aem {d{dY mMr Cmao {_iVmV. _moj mrgmR>r Agco`m H$__mJ,
^{$_mJ, e{$_mJ `mMo {ddoMZ ^JdXJrVoV AmT>iVo.
òH$mZo Amnco H$V` nma nmS>co nm{hOo. dY_mMo nmcZ Ho$co nm{hOo. "d-Y_' lo> Amho Ago
^JdXJrVm hUVo. H$__mJm~amo~aM ^JdXJrVm ^$sMo _hd {deX H$aVo. ^JdmZ lrH$U hUVmV
_cm _mPo ^$ {` AmhoV. Omo Omo ^$ _m`mH$S>o loZo òVmo, `mMo `mMo _r ajU H$aVmo. `mZo _cm
H$m` AnU Ho$co Amho, nmZo, \w$co, \$io, Oc, YZ `m Jmo>r JmU R>aVmV. lm hr _hdmMr Amho.
5
^JdXJrVoV Am`mMo ~hZmer ZmVo H$go OmoS>mdo, `m `moJ _mJmMo {ddoMZ Amho. Amn`m
{MmdmrMm {ZamoY H$gm H$amdm. pWVk H$go ~Zmdo? `mMo ^JdXJrVoV _mJXeZ Amho. pWV kmMr
cjUo H$moUVr? Vmo H$gm dmJVmo `m~c {ddoMZ Amho. WmoS>`mV ^JdXJrVm hr gm_mÒZmZm _mJXeH$
Agm JW Amho. gnyU OrdZmMo VdkmZ Amho.
1.2.4 ^maVr` VdkmZmMr g_mZ d{eo.
^maVr`m XeZm_ò doJdoJionUm {XgyZ òVmo. hm doJdoJionUm {XgyZ ò`mMr Mma H$maUo gmJVm
òVrc.
1)
{dm_mJrc A{V_ ò {H$Vr d H$moUVr AmhoV?
2)
lw{VMo m_m` _mZmdo H$m`?
3)
BamMo ApVd _mZmdo H$m`?
4)
Am_m A_a Amho H$m`?
{d{Z{_Vr_mJo ~hZ ho EH$_od Vd Amho Ago doXmV _mZVo Va gm` XeZ nwf Am{U H$Vr
Aer XmoZ Vdo _mZVmV. Va `m`, deo{fH$ Am{U OZ Aer XeZo AZoH$ Vdo _mZVmV. AVdmXr
EH$ddmXr hUyZ AmoiIco OmVmV. gm` ho $VdmXr AmhoV Va `m`, d{efH$, OZ ho AZoH$ddmXr hUyZ
AmoiIco OmVmV.
""lw{V'' hUOo doXdm` hmo` ""lw{V'' Zm _mU _mZUmar _r_mgH$, doXmV, gm`, `moJ, `m`
Aer XeZ AmhoV. doX ho Anmfo` AmhoV. Vo Hw$Urhr {Z_mU Ho$coco ZmhrV Ago `mMo hUUo Amho. Va
MmdmH$, OZ, ~m lwVtMo m_m` _mZV ZmhrV. Ba ApVdmV Amho, Vmo {d{Z_mVm Amho Ago
_mZUmar doXmV, `moJ, `m`, deo{fH$ XeZo AmhoV. Va MmdmH$, OZ, ~m, nyd_r_mgm hr Ba Z
_mZUmar XeZo AmhoV. gm` ho BadmXr hr ZmhrV Am{U {ZaradmXrhr ZmhrV.OZ, `m`, deo{fH$,
gm`, `moJ, nyd_r_mgm Am{U doXmV hr Am_m _mZUmar XeZo AmhoV. Va MmdmH$ Am{U ~m XeZo
"Am_m' _mZV ZmhrV. "AZm_dmX' ho Va ~m XeZmMo EH$ _wI d{e>o Amho.Aem VhoZo ^maVr`
XeZmV Oar {d{dYVm {XgyZ òV Agcr Var "MmdmH$' gmoSy>Z BVa gd XeZmV H$mhr g_mZ d{eQ>o
AmT>iVmV.Vr nwT>rc_mUo gmJVm òVrc.
1) H$_{gmV- MmdmH$ gmoSy>Z gd ^maVr` XeZmZr ^maVr` XeZmZr H$_{gmVmMm drH$ma
Ho$cocm Amho. H$_{gmVmcmM "H$_{dnmH$' Agohr Zmd Amho. {dnmH$ hUOo n[aUm_ hmo`. H$_{dnmH$
hUOo H$_mMo \$c m hmoUo hmo`. OJmV`m gd KQ>Zm, m`mZr Ho$cocr H$_o Am{U `mMr \$co `mMm
nanag~Y Amho Ago hm {gmV gmJVmo.
AmO AmnU OJmV`m O_, _`y, AmOmanU, XwH$mi, AnKmV, ^yH$n Aem {d{dY KQ>ZmMr
H$maU_r_mgm emr` nVrZo H$aVmo. nU ^maVr` XeZmZr _m `m H$mir OJmV`m {d{dY KQ>ZmMm
AW cmd`mgmR>r H$_{gmV _mS>cocm Amho. `m`m _Vo g>rVrc òH$ KQ>Zm m mUr Am{U `mMr
H$_o `m_wio KS>VmV. MmJcr H$_o Ho$cr H$s, `mMr MmJcr \$io {_iVmV. dmBQ>, AZ{VH$ H$_o Ho$cr H$s
6
`mMr dmBQ> \$io {_iVmV. EImXm _mUyg AmOmar nS>Vmo, EImXm _mUyg OrdZmV èdr hmoVmo `mMo H$maU
`mZo Ho$cocr H$_} AgVmV.
OJmVrc gd KQ>Zm KS>dyZ AmUUmam H$moUrVar Amho Am{U Vmo Ba Amho. H$_ {gmV Ago gmJVmo
H$s, _mJrc O_mVrc H$_m_wio _mUgmcm AmOMo OrdZ m hmoVo. OrdZmVrc è, Anè, gwI, Xw:I
nyd H$_m_wio m hmoVmo. WmoS>`mV H$_{gmV gmJVmo- _mUgmcm `m`m H$_mZo gwI Xw:I m hmoVo.
Aem VhoZo ^maVr` XeZo g>rVrc KS>m_moS>rMo n>rH$aU H$a`mgmR>r H$_{gmVmMm AmYma KoVmV.
2) nwZO_- MmdmH$ gmoSy>Z gd XeZmZr ""nwZO_'' {gmV pdH$macocm Amho. H$_ Am{U
`mMr \$co `m O_mnwaVrM _`m{XV AgyZ _mJrc OrdZmVrc H$_mMr \$io `m O_mV m hmoVmV Ago
hQ>co Joco Amho. nwZO_ H$moUmg m hmoVmo? ^maVr` VdkmVmV Ord Am{U Am_m m XmoZ [^ JmoQ>r
AmhoV. Am_m hm {Z`, {MaVZ dnr, A{dZmer Agm Amho Va Ord {dZmer Amho. Zme nmdUmam Amho.
Ordmcm nwZO_ m hmoV AgVmo. Ordmcm H$moUVm O_ mV hmoBc, `mcm gwI m hmoBc H$s Xw:I
ho `m OrdmZo _mJrc OrdZmV Or H$_o Ho$cr AmhoV `mda Adc~yZ AgVo.Ordmcm O_- _aU - O_
Aem \o$`mVyZ Omdo cmJVo. ""nwZO_'' H$nZoZwgma OrdmMm O_ m _mJrc O_mVrc H$_mMm nm[anmH$
(n[aUm_) Amho. AmnU `m OrdZmV Oo gwI, Xw:I ^moJV AgVmo Vo _mJrc OrdZmVrc nmn-nw` H$_mMm
n[aUm_ AmhoV Ago nwZO_ _mZVmo. nwT>rc O_r MmJco OrdZ m hmdo `mgmR>r AmO nw` H$_o
H$amd`mMr, nmnH$_o Q>mimd`mMr Agm AmJh Amho. _m O_-_aU ho Ordmcm m hmoV AgVo ""Am_m''
`m gdmnmgyZ AcJ AgVmo. ho OmUyZ KoV`mda OrdmMr O_ _aUm`m \o$`mVyZ gwQ>H$m hmoBc
. `mcm _moj m
hmoBc. MmdmH$ gmoSy>Z gdM XeZmZr Am_XeZmgmR>r _mJ gwM{dco AmhoV.
3) _moj- MmdmH$ gmoSy>Z gd ^maVr` XeZmZr _moj gH$nZoMm drH$ma Ho$cocm Amho. _moj
m H$aUo ho _mZdr OrdZmMo ""na_ mV`'' Amho. Vo m H$Z H$Z KoUo _mZdmMo ò` Amho Ago
òH$ XeZmV gm{JVco Amho. _moj m pWVrcm {d{dY XeZmV Ad~, H d` {ZdmU ~hZr pWVr
Ago {d{dY eX dmnaco AmhoV. òH$ gH$nZoV WmoS>m \$ma ôX Amho. nU _mojmMr _yi H$nZm EH$M
Amho.
_mojmMo {d{dY AW gmJVm òVrc - 1) _moj hUOo Eo{hH$ OrdZmnmgyZ gwQ>H$m H$Z KoUo. 2)
dam`nyU OrdZ OJUo. 3) ~YZmVyZ _w$Vm H$Z KoUo. 4) Am_gmjmH$ma AZw^dUo. òH$ `$sMo
OrdZ dmgZm_` AgVo. BN>m, AmH$mjm, mr, hr gm_m` _mUgmMr òò AgVmV. `m dmgZmnmgyZ
gwQ>H$m H$Z KoUo hUOo ""_moj'' mr hmo`._moj H$gm m H$amdm, _mojmMo dn H$go Amho `mMo
doXmVmV {d{dMoZ Amho Va _moj mr`m _mJmMo {d{dMoZ ""`moJ'' XeZmV Amho. ""OZ'' Am{U ""~m''
XeZmVhr _mojgH$nZm AmT>iVo. OZ VdkmZmV ""_moj na_ m` Amho'' Ago _mZcoco Amho. g`H$
XeZ, g`H$ kmZ Am{U g`H$ M[a `m _mJmZr _moj m hmoBc. `m {Vhr _mJmZm OZ VdkmZmV
""aZ`'' g~moYco OmVo.
~m XeZmV Mma Am` g`mmao Am_kmZ m hmBc Ago hQ>coco Amho. ~m XeZmV _mojmcm
A_VnX (A_VnX) Ago g~mo{Ycoco Amho. ~m XeZmV ""{ZdmU'' hr _mojgH$nZm Amho. {ZdmUmMm
AW emV hmoUo, {dPyZ OmUo Agm Amho.
7
4) nanamdc~Z- ^maVr` XeZmMo EH$ d{e>o Ago gmJVm òBc H$s hr XeZo EH$m_mJyZ
EH$ {Z_mU Pmcocr ZmhrV Va gdmMr dmQ>Mmc EH$mMdoir Pmcocr Amho. ^maVr` {^ {^ XeZm`m
nS>rVm_ò dmX-{ddmX MMm MmcV. EH$mZo Amncr ~mOy _mS>md`mMr, `m`m {damoYH$mZo Vo _V ImoSy>Z
H$mT>m`Mo Aer IS>Z _S>Z nVr Adc[~cr Jocr. ^maVr` XeZmMo d{e>o Ago H$s H$moU`mhr
XeZH$mamZr {VnjmMo _V {dH$V dnmV _mS>coco Zmhr.
`m` - deo{fH$, gm` - `moJ Aer XeZo OmoS>r OmoS>rZo Amcocr AmhoV. `m` XeZmV kmZ
_r_mgm AmT>iVo. Va deo{fH$mZr g>r {Z{_VrMo gmmem {deX Ho$cooco Amho. _r_mgH$mZr eX _mU
_mS>co doXmVmZr Vo drH$maco. gm`mZr nwf - H${V `mVrc ôX gm{JVcm. nwfmcm `m`m _yi
dnmMo kmZ hmoUo ho ò` _mZco Va ho ò` H$go m H$amd`mMo `mMm _mJ `moJXeZmZo {deX Ho$cm.
WmoS>`mV ^maVr` XeZo EH$_oH$mda Adc~yZ AmhoV.
5) _mU MMm - gd ^maVr` XeZm_ò kmZ hUOo H$m`? kmZmMr _mUo H$moUVr? `mMr
MMm AmT>iVo. kmZ mrMo `j Am{U A`j Ago XmoZ _mJ AmhoV. `j kmZ hUOo Br`
gdoXZmmao m hmoUmao kmZ hmo`. MmdmH$mZr Ho$di `j kmZmMmM drH$ma Ho$cm. kmZ mrMo A`j
_mJ hUOo AZw_mZ, eX ho AmhoV. AZw_mZ hUOo `j kmZmda AmYmarV kmZ hmo`. `jmH$Sy>Z
A`jmH$S>o Om`mMr {H$`m hmo`. AZw^dm_H$ kmZmV _aUm_H$ kmZmMmhr gm_mdoe hmoVmo. ` `
Yy_: V V dph: ! {OWo Yya Amho {VWo Ar AgocM ho AZw_mZmMo CXmhaU Amho. `m` XeZmZo Am{U
_r_mgH$mZr "AZw_mZ' _mUmMm drH$ma Ho$cocm Amho.eX _mU hUOo eXmZr Oo VrV hmoVo, n>
hmoVo Vo kmZ hmo`. d{XH$ XeZo doXmVrc XeZmZm _mU _mZVmV. Va ~m XeZo "{{nQ>H$' `m JWmcm
_mU _mZVmV. OZ XeZ Y_ JWmZm _mU _mZVmV. `mZm "AmJ_' Ago g~mo{Yco OmVo.
6) ^maVr` XeZmZr ""ggma Xw:I_` Amho'' Ago hQ>coco Amho. OrdZmVrc Xw:ImMo {VnmXZ
gdM ^maVr` XeZmV Ho$coco Amho. ~m XeZmV Va "gd_ Xw:I_' Ago hQ>coco Amho. Ago Agco
^maVr` XeZmMm Xw:ImH$S>o nhm`mMm X>rH$moU {ZamemdmXr Zmhr. CcQ> Xw:ImMr _r_mgm H$aUo ho
^maVr` VdkmZmMo Cr> Amho. gdM ^maVr` VdkmZmV Xw:ImMo H$maU A{dm, AkmZ Ago g~mo{Yco
Jococo Amho. AkmZ Xya Ho$`mg Xw:ImMm n[ahma H$aUo e` Amho. gdM ^maVr` XeZo `m Xw:ImVyZ
gwQ>H$m H$Z Ko`mMm _mJ gwM{dVmV. Aem VhoZo ^maVr` XeZmMm Xw:ImH$S>o nhm`mMm >rH$moU
AmemdmXr Agm Amho.
1.3 dÀ``ZmgmR>r
A)
EH$m dm`mV Cmao {chm.

1)
VdkmZmMm CJ_ Ho$hm Pmcm?
2)
Vdk H$moUmg hUmdo?
3)
OS>dmX {daMZo~m~V H$m` hUVmo?
4)
VdkmZmMo H$moU`m XmoZ H$mamV dJuH$aU Ho$coo OmVo?

8
5)
~)
MmdmH$ nwZO_ H$nZm drH$maVmV H$m?
`mo` n`m` {ZdS>m.

.........................
1) VdkmZ ho
em Amho.
A) gm{h`mMo
~) emmMo
H$) nXmWmMo
.........................emoY KoUo hmo`.
2)
VdkmZ hUOo A{V_
3)
A) g`mMm~) g>rMm
H$) {dkmZmMm
........................._ò Am_m, eara g~YmMr MMm Ho$cr OmVo.
4)
A) kmZ_r_mgm
~) gXdVy_r_mgm
H$) Zr{Vem
.........................ho ZmpVH$ XeZ Amho.
5)
A) doXmV ~) OZ H$) gm`

~hgyo.........................`mZr aMcr.
6)
A) nm{UZr ~) ~mXamÙ H$) eH$amMm`

.........................`mZr AZw_mZmMm _mU hUyZ drH$ma Ho$cocm Amho.
A) `m` ~) ~m H$) MmdmH$
1.4 gmame
VdkmZ ho A{V_ g`mMm emoY KoVo. Ord, ~hZ, Am_m, _moj m VdkmZmVrc _hdnyU gH$nZm AmhoV.
^maVr` VdkmZmMo d{XH$ Am{U Ad{XH$ Aem XmoZ H$mamV dJuH$aU Ho$co OmVo. kmZ _r_mgm d gXdVy_r_mgm m
VdkmZm`m XmoZ _wI emIm AmhoV. d{XH$ VdkmZm`m WmZl`r, CJ_WmZo hUyZ Cn{ZfXo,
~hZgyo Am{U ^JdXJrVm nm{hco OmVo H$_{gmV, nwZO_, _moj, nanamdc~Z Am{U _mUMMm hr
^maVr` VdkmZmMr g_mZ d{eQ>o AmhoV.
1.5 dÀ``Z mMr Cmao
A)
1) B.g. nyd 2500
2) kmZm~c AmWm ~miJVmo Vmo Vdk hmo`.
3) OS>`mVyZ {d {Z_mU Pmco Amho.

4) d{XH$ Am{U Ad{XH$
5) MmdmH$ nwZO_ H$nZm drH$marV ZmhrV.
~)
1) emmMo 2) g`mMm
3) gXdVy_r_mgm 4) OZ
5) ~mXamÙ
6) `m`.
9
1.6 gamdmgmR>r dm`m`.

1) VdkmZm`m {d{dY `m`m gmJwZ `mMo dn n> H$am.
2) ^maVr` XeZmMr g_mZ d{e>o gmJm.
3) ^maVr` XeZmMo dJuH$aU - d{XH$ / Ad{XH$ `mda Q>rn {chm.
1.7 nm[a^m{fH$ eX.
OS>dmX
OS>ò ho A{V_ g` Amho _mZUmam >rH$moU.
{MXdmX
{MXdmX (Am_m) ho A{V_ g` _mZUmam >rH$moU.
EH$ddmX
A{V_ Vd EH$ Amho.
AZoH$ddmX -
A{V_ Vd EH$mnojm A{YH$ AmhoV.
kmZ_r_mgm -
kmZmMo dn n> H$aUmar VdkmZmMr emIm.
gmmem
Am_m, Ba, Ord `mMm {dMma H$aUmar emIm.
d{XH$ XeZo -
doXmcm _mU _mZUmar XeZo.
Ad{XH$ XeZo - doX _mU Z _mZUmar XeZo.

WmZl_r -
d{XH$ XeZo `mda AmYm[aV AmhoV Vo mMrZ JW
nwfmW
^maVr` _y` {df`H$ {dMma
AZw_mZ
`jmda AmYm[aV _mU
1.8 A{YH$ dmMZgmR>r nwVHo$ gd KQ>H$m`m eodQ>r nwVH$mMr `mXr {Xcocr Amho.
666
10
KQ>H$ - 2
MmdmH$ XeZ
2.0
C{>o
2.1
mVm{dH$
2.2
{df`{ddoMZ
2.2.1 MmdmH$mMm kmZ{df`H$ {gmV
2.2.1 OS>dmX
2.2.2 d^mddmX
2.2.3 Am`mMo {ZamH$aU
2.2.4 MmdmH$mMo Zr{V{df`H$ {dMma
2.3
dÀ``ZmgmR>r
2.4
gmame
2.5
dÀ``Z mMr Cmao
2.6
gamdmgmR>r dm`m`
2.7
nm[a^m{fH$ eX
2.8
A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$
2.0
C{>o -
`m KQ>H$mV AmnU ""MmdmH$'' XeZmMr AmoiI H$$Z KoUma AmhmoV. `m KQ>H$m`m A`mgmZo
""MmdmH$'' VdkmZm~c Imcrc Jmo>tMr _m{hVr hmoBc.
* MmdmH$ ho ZmpVH$ XeZ Amho.
* MmdmH$mMm kmZ {df`H$ {gmV
* MmdmH$mMm OS>dmX
* MmdmH$mMo Zr{V{dfH$ {dMma
2.1
nmVm{dH$ -
^maVr` XeZmVrc ""MmdmH$'' ho EH$ ZmpVH$ XeZ hUyZ AmoiIco OmVo. ""ZmpVH$'' `mMm
""Bda Z _mZUo "" EdT>mnwaVm AW _`m{XV Zmhr. Va `m`, deo{fH$, gm`, `moJ, doXmV Aem AmpVH$
XeZmZr `m `m Jmo>r drH$maco`m AmhoV `m MmdmH$ ZmH$maVmV. MmdmH$ Ba, Aearar, Am_m,
11
nacmoH$, nwZO_ `m gd Jmo>r ZmH$maVmV. Aem AWmZo ""MmdmH$'' ho ~S>Imoa AmhoV.""MmdmH$'' hr EH$
`$s ZgyZ Vmo AZoH$ `$sMm g_yh Amho. ""~hn{V'' hm `m XeZmMm Am dVH$ _mZcm OmVmo.
""MmdmH$'' `m eXmMr \$moS> Mm + dm`_ Aer H$aVm òBc. ""Mm'' `mMm AW JmoS>. gdgm_m`mZm
JmoS> cmJUmar, AmdS>Umar, nQ>Umar dmò Agm ""MmdmH$'' `m eXmMm AW Amho. ""MmdmH$'' XeZmcm
""cmoH$m`V'' Ago AmUIr EH$ Zmd Amho. cmoH$ + Am`V_ cmoH$ hUOo gdgm_m` cmoH$ Am{U Am`V_
hUOo _mU. gdgm_m` cmoH$mZm _m` hmoUmao _mU hmo`. qH$dm gdgm_m`mV gm[aV Pmcoco qH$dm m
OJmda (Bh cmoH$mda) AmYm[aV Agcoco _V hUOo ""cmoH$m`V'' hmo`. VdkmZmV B. g. 8 `m eVH$mnmgyZ
""MmdmH$'' ho Zmd gamg dmnacoco {XgyZ òVo.
2.2
{df` {ddoMZ
2.2.1 MmdmH$mMm kmZ{df`H$ {gmV ""kmZ'' hUOo Amn`m ^modVmc`m OJm{df`rMr, dV:{df`rMr _m{hVr hmo`. AmnUmg
kmZ H$go m hmoVo? `m nmcm VdkmZmV Cma {Xcoco Amho. `j Am{U A`j Ago kmZ mrMo _mJ
AmhoV. `j kmZ hUOo Amn`m nM kmZ|{`m`m ghm`mZo hmoUmao kmZ hmo`. Va eXkmZ, _aUm_H$
kmZ, AZw^dm_H$ kmZ Ago A`j kmZmMo H$ma AmhoV.MmdmH$ Ho$di `j kmZmMm drH$ma H$aVmV.
`j kmZmcmM Vo n_mU _mZVmV. MmdmH$ ""AZw_mZ'' m kmZ H$mamMm drH$ma H$arV ZmhrV. Vgo
nm{hco Va Amn`m kmZmMm ~amMgm ^mJ AZw_mZmZo `mncocm Amho. `m_wio Ho$di `j hoM _mU hr
""MmdmH$mMr'' ^y{_H$m `mdhm[aH$>m Amn`mcm nadS>Umar Zmhr.~hYm hr AS>MU cjmV KoD$Z ZVa`m
H$mimV ""nwaXa'' `m MmdmH$mZo ""cmoH$ {g'' AZw_mZ, Amhm MmdmH$mZm gwm B> Amho. Aer ^y{_H$m
KoVcr. cmoH$ {g `mMm AW m OJmV {g H$aVm òBc Ago AZw_mZ hmo`. Ago AZw_mZ Amhr
drH$maVmo nU cm{H$H$ _mJm`m ncrH$S>o OmD$Z Oo AZw_mZ H$ BpN>VmV `mMm Amhr {ZfoY H$aVmo Ago
`mZo hQ>coco Amho.gH$V_ò ""cmoH$'' `mMm AW ""Br` {df`'' Agm Amho Am{U {g hUOo
Br`m`m AmYmao {g hmoUmao. MmdmH$mMr hr ^y{_H$m 20 `m eVH$mVrc nmm` VdkmZmVrc Vm{H$H$
`jVmdmXmer {_iVrOwiVr Amho `m_wio MmdmH$mMm {dMma {H$Vr AmYw{ZH$ hmoVm ho cjmV òBc.
2.2.1 OS>dmX ""MmdmH$'' ho OS>dmXr hUyZ AmoiIco OmVmV. OS>dmXr ^y{_H$m Aer Amho H$s ho {d OS>`mVyZ
{Z_mU Pmco Amho. MmdmH$m`m OS>dmXmV VrZ {gmVmMm gm_mdoe hmoVmo.
OS>VddmX
A{V_ g` ho AIoan`V {Q>Hy$Z ahmVo Vo hmo` Oo H$Yrhr Zme nmdV Zmhr. MmdmH$m`m _Vo OS>ò
ho A{V_ g` Amho. ndr, Oc, VoO Am{U dm`y Aem Mma ^yVmMm {H$dm nXmWmMm MmdmH$mZr drH$ma Ho$cocm
Amho. {dmV`m gd dVy, mUr mMr {Z{_Vr m Mma nXmWmnmgyZ Pmcocr Amho. hr Mma A{V_ ò
Amn`m kmZmMm {df` AmhoV. H$mhr MmdmH$mZr ""AmH$meVd'' ho nmMdo Vd (nXmW) drH$macoco Amho.
nU ~hVmer MmdmH$mZr ho Vd ZmH$macoco Zmhr H$maU AmH$me ho `j Jm Zmhr Vo AZw_mZJm Amho.
2.2.2 d^mddmX ndr, Oc, VoO Am{U dm`y `m Mma A{V_ `mnmgyZ {dmV`m gd dVy {Z_mU Pmcoo`m
AmhoV. Oa gd dVy g_mZ Aem OS>`mnmgyZ {Z_mU Pmcoo`m AmhoV Va `m doJdoJ`m H$m AmhoV?
12
`mMo JwUY_ doJdoJio H$m AmhoV? Agm {Z_mU hmoVmo. `m mcm Ba _mZUmao Ago Cma XoVmV H$s,
BamZo {d {Z_mU Ho$coco Amho. ""BamMr BN>m'' ho {d{dYVoMo H$maU Amho. MmdmH$mZm ho _m` Zmhr. Vo
Ba ZmH$maVmV.{dmV`m {d{dYVoMo Cma Vo ""d^mddmX'' {gmVmyZ XoVmV.
""d^mddmX'' hUVmo Oo Oo KS>Vo, Oo Amho Vo Vo `m m`m`m, dVyy`m d + ^mdm_wio KS>V
AgVo. d hUOo g~{YV dVy Am{U ^md hUOo AgUo. H$mo{H$ioMm _Yya Amcmn, _moamMm {ngmam, D$g
JmoS> cmJUo ho `m `m n`mMo, dVyMo d^md AmhoV. `mgmR>r na_oamMr JaO Zmhr. MmdmH$m`m m
_Vmda H$mhr OU Amjon KoVmV- AmnU _mUgo H$mhr hoVy _Zmer ~miJyZ H$Vr H$arV AgVmo. H$mhr Jmo>r
AmnU R>adyZ H$aVmo qH$dm _Zmer R>adyZ H$mhr H$Vr H$a`mMo Q>miVmo.{dmV`m gd dVy, KQ>Zm `m_mJo
H$mhr hoVy, `moOZm Agcr nm{hOo. nU ho MmdmH$mZm _m` Zmhr.
MmdmH$ hUVmV, OS> `m`m {d{e> g`moJmZo ""MV`'' AWdm OmUrd {Z_mU hmoVo. MV`
OS>mnmgyZ [^ Agco Var Vo OS>mMmM {dH$ma Amho. CXm. Jyi, nrR> `m nXmWmV H$\$ AgUmao, Zem
AmUUmao JwUY_ ZgVmV naVy `m`m {_lUmVyZ _ V`ma Ho$co OmVo. H$s `m`m godZmZo Zem òVo.
WmoS>`mV {_lUmZo ZdrZ JwUY_ {Z_mU hmoVmV. {_lUmZo ZdrZ JwUY_ V`ma hmoVmV `mMo Xwgao EH$
CXmhaU XoVm òBc. nmZ, MwZm, H$mV `mVrc H$moUVrM dVy cmcm Zgcr Var `mnmgyZ V`ma Ho$cocm {dS>>m
MKicm H$s cmc aJ {Z_mU hmoVmo.
`m_mUoM ""MV`'' hm OS>mMmM {dH$ma Amho. ""^yVo`: MV`_'' MV` ho OS>mVyZ (^yV_mmVyZ)
{Z_mU hmoVo. WmoS>`mV MmdmH$m`m _Vo ""MV`'' ho dV ` Zho. hm {gmV d^mddmX (Naturalism)
hUyZ AmoiIcm OmVmo.
2.1.2
Am`mMo {ZamH$aU
MmdmH$m`m OS>dmXmV Am`mMo {ZamH$aU m {Vg`m {gmVmMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. Am`mMo dV

ApVd MmdmH$ ZmH$maVmV. OS>`m`m gKmV Agm Omo _mZdr Xoh `m`m {R>H$mUr MV` hm JwUY_
Cn hmoVmo. hmM ""MV` {d{e>> Xoh hUOo Am_m'' Ago MmdmH$ hUVmV.
1)
Xohm`m (earam`m) ncrH$S>o Am`mcm doJio Ago ApVd Zmhr. _r Wyc Amho, _r Jmoam Amho hr
gd d{eR>o Xohmcm cmdcr OmVmV. hmM Am_m hmo` Ago MmdmH$ hUVmV.
2)
`m XohmVyZ {Zamim Agm Am_m (Self) kmZmMm {df` hmoV Zmhr. `m MmdmH$m`m {dMmamer nmm`
AZw^ddmXr w_Mo {dMma {_iVo OwiVo AmhoV. w_ hUVmo- Oohm _r _m`m~c (dd~c) {dMma H$
cmJVmo Vohm {d{e>> OmUrdoMo, gdoXZoMo _cm kmZ hmoVo. WS>-Ja_, COoS>-AYma, o_-Cof, gwI-Xw:I
`m OmUrdm`m dnmV _cm _mPo d _m`m ^modVmc`m n[agamMo kmZ hmoVo. `m gdoXZm{edm`, OmUrdo{edm`
ddmMr OmUrd hmoV Zmhr qH$dm `m OmUrdoncrH$S>o Agcobm ""_r'' hm gdoXZ, OmUrdoZo ~Zcocm Amho.
""_r'' hUOo Br`, Xoh qH$dm Xoh hUOo Am_m Aer ^y{_H$m Ko`m`m MmdmH$mda ""Am_dmXr'' VdkmZr
H$mhr Amjon KoVco. Xohmnojm Am_m dV Agcm nm{hOo Ago MmdmH$m`m {damoYH$mMo hUUo Amho. MmdmH$
{damoYH$mZr H$mhr Amjon KoVco Vo nwT>rc_mUo gmJVm òVrc.
1)
""_r'' hm XohmncrH$S>rc Agcm nm{hOo H$maU XohmV ~Xc hmoV AgVmZm Xoh A{Z` Amho. EH$mZo
AZw^dco Am{U Xwg`mZo _aU Ho$co Ago hmoV Zmhr. _aU H$aUmam d AZw^d KoUmam hm {Z`, EH$M EH$
Agcm nm{hOo. ""Xoh'' {Z` Zho Va ""Am_m'' ho {Z` Vd Amho.
13
2)
gd Br`mMo {df` {^ {^ AmhoV. CXm. Mjw-`, H$mZ-ldU, ZmH$-JY, Or^-Md, dMmne B. `m gd Br` gdoXZmZm EH$ H$aUmam H$moUrVar Agcm nm{hOo Vmo ""_r'' Am_m hmo`.
3)
""_r'' hm _mVm A{dH$mar Agcm nm[hOo hUOo Z ~XcUmam Agcm nm{hOo. ""KQ> a$ Amho.''
(nm`mMm _mR> Vm~S>m aJmMm Amho) `m_ò KQ>mMo Am{U `m`m dUmMo kmZ hmoBn`V EH$M EH$ A{YH$mar
kmVm Agcm nm{hOo. Xoh, ~wr ho {dH$mar (~XcUmao) AmhoV `m_wio ""Am_m'' ho A{dH$mar Vd hUyZ
drH$maco nm{hOo.Am_dmm`m `m AmjonmZm H$Q>miyZ hUm qH$dm {H$MH$Q> dmXmcm H$Q>miyZ MmdmH$mZr Ago
hQ>co H$s eara {OdV Agon`V EH$M EH$ A{YH$mar Am_m Amho Ago _mZ`mg haH$V Zmhr. ""O`V'' hm
gw{g Z`m{`H$ Amn`m ""`m`_Oar'' JWmV Aem MmdmH$mZm ""gw{e{jV MmdmH$'' hUyZ g~mo{YVmo.
XohnmVmZVa (_`wZVa) Am_m {eH$ CaVmo `m _Vmcm _m gw{e{jV MmdmH$mZr H$S>mSy>Z {damoY Ho$cm.Aem
VhoZo OS>VddmX, d^mddmX Am{U Am`mMo {ZamH$aU `m {VhtZr {_iyZ MmdmH$mMm OS>dmX {g hmoVmo.
2.1.4 MmdmH$mMo Zr[V{df`H$ {dMma
Zr{Vem hUOo Amncm Am`w`H$_ `mo` arVrZo H$gm `mdm ho R>ad`mMo em hmo`. Zr (Z`)ZUo `m lmVynmgyZ ""Zr{V'' hm eX `wn Pmcocm Amho. MmdmH$mMm {dMma ""Amho hooM OrdZ'' Agm
Ag`mZo _`wZVa Am`mcm J{V {_ioc H$m` ? AmnUmg (dJcmoH$ H$m ZaH$) H$moUVm cmoH$ m hmoBc
`mMr H$miOr H$ Zò Ago Vo hUV.MmdmH$mMo Zr{Vem Eo{hH$ hmoVo. Mmcy OrdZmer g~{YV hmoVo. Vo nma
cm{H$H$ ZhVo. `m Xohm`{V[a$ Am_m, `m`m H$_mnmgyZ Cn hmoUmao nmn nw` d `mZwgma Am`mMo
nacmoH$ J_Z m gd JmoQ>r `mZr ZmH$maco`m Amho. `mMm {ZfoY Ho$cocm Amho.MmdmH$mZr `j _mUmMm
drH$ma Ho$cocm Ag`mZo AmnmoAmnM Eo{hH$ >r drH$macr. MmdmH$m`m _Vo AW Am{U H$m_ hoM Iao
nwfmW AmhoV. _moj AWdm nmacm{H$H$ gwIm`m _mJo cmJy Zò. _mUgmZo `m cmoH$sM (OJmV) e` hmoBc
VodT>o gwI Cn^moJmdo Agm `mMm {dMma hmoVm.Amnco OrdZ gwI-Xw:I {_{lV Agco Var `mVrc gwI
doMyZ `mdo, gmcrdaMm Vyg H$mTy>Z VmXyi `mdm qH$dm H$mQ>m H$mTy>Z _mgm Imdm AWdm {^joH$`mcm MwH$dyZ
gwJmg (MmJcm Kmg) ^jU H$amdm Ago MmdmH$mMo hUUo hmoVo. `$sZo nwT>Mm _mJMm {dMma H$Z
dV:gmR>r OmVrV OmV gw I {_i{d`mMm `Z H$amdm `m J r H$m `m E{n`w [ aAZ n W m`m
{eH$dUyH$sgmaIoM MmdmH$mMo _V Amho.
""OrdZmV OmVrV OmV gwI {_idm'' m MmdmH$m`m _Vmda Amjon KoVm òBc. H$moUVohr gwI
Cn^moJyZ Pm`mda Vo gnyZ OmVo, {eH$ H$mhr ahmV Zmhr ho MmdmH$mZr cjmV KoVcoco Zmhr. H$maU OodT>m
gwImMm AZw^d AmVm òV AgVmo VodT>oM gwI {eH$ Amho. ~mH$sMo Cn^moJcoco gwI Z> Pmcoco AgVo.
WmoS>`mV òH$mMm gwImMm AZw^d Ago gmJVmo H$s gwI ho {dZmer Amho. `mMm Zme hmoVmo. Ago Zme
nmdUmao gwI OrdZmMo ò` _mZmdo H$m? Agm nS>Vmo.Xwgao hUOo gwI hr A_yV gH$nZm Amho. B>
Jmo>rMr mr Pmcr H$s AmnU gwIr ~ZVmo. {OVHo$ gwI {_idmdo {VVHo$ Ag_mYmZ dmT>V OmBc `m_wio
Ago gwI m H$aUo OrdZmMo ò` H$go drH$maVm òBc?
na_m` hUOo Oo Amn`mcm lo> Ago ò` m H$amd`mMo Amho, {_idmd`mMo Amho Vo
{MaVZ, {MaH$mi (H$m`_dnr) {Q>H$Umao Agco nm{hOo. `m_wio nXar nS>oc VodT>o gwI m H$am m
hU`mcm AW ahmV Zmhr. OrdZmV gwImMr aocMoc Pmcr, ânya _mUmV gwI m Pmco Var ""VV:
{H$_'' gwImZVa H$m` m H$amd`mMo hm CaVmo. B`mXr ImocmV Z {eaVm MmdmH$mZr gm{JVco {OdV
Agon`V _Zw`mZo A{YH$m{YH$ gwI {_idmdo.MmdmH$m`m gwIdmXmMm ~`mM OUmZr {dn`mg Ho$cm. MmdmH$mZr
Ago gm{JVco - dV:Mo gwI nhmdo, dmW nhmdm, BVam`m gwI-Xw:ImMr ndm H$ Zò, nmn-nw`mH$S>o
14
cj Xody Zò, Cm H$m` hmoBc `mMm {dMma H$ Zò `mdmrd gwI OrdoV
F$U H$dm KV {n~oV &
^_r^yV` Xoh`
nwZamJ_Z Hw$V: &&
(Omon`V Am`w` Amho Vmon`V gwImZo OJmdo. H$O} H$mTy>Z Vyn amoQ>r Imdr. EH$Xm Amn`m XohmMr
amI Pmcr hUOo naV H$moU òUma Amho?) `jmV H$O} H$mTy>Z gwIo {_idmdrV, H$O} \o$Sy> ZòV Ago
MmdmH$mZr H$moR>ohr gm{JVco Zmhr. `mZr XoIrc Zr{V AZr{VMm {dMma Ho$cocm Amho. Amnco OrdZ H$go
`VrV H$amdo `m~m~V ""gdXeZ gJh'' `m JWm~m~V MmdmH$mMo _Zm~m~V cmoH$ Amho.
H${f Jmoa`dm{U`XS>Zr`m{X{^ ~wY: &
>aod gXwnm`^mooJmZZw^doX ^w{d &&
MmdmH$m`m _Vo ehm`m _mUgmZo (~wY), eoVr, JmonmcZ, `mnmaCXr_, emgH$s` `dWm `m
gma`m > Agco`m ""gV'' Cnm`mZr ndrdarc {Za{Zamio ^moJ ^moJmdoV.MmdmH$mZr `m _mJmcm
""gV'' _mJ hQ>co Amho Vmo AmOhr gV_mJM AmhoM. `mH$mimV H$_H$mS>, nyOmAMm `mMo IynM Vmo_
_mOco hmoVo `mcm MmdmH$mMm {damoY hmoVm.
Vo hUVmVA{hmo `mo doXmpVXS> ^_JwR>Z_ &
~w{nmfhrZmZm Or{dHo${V ~hn{V : &&
A{hmomMm R>mU _mSy>Z, {H$mi ZmZ g`m, ^_ cmdyZ nmamo{h`m{X _mJmZo CnOr{dH$m H$aUm`mMr
MmdmH$mZr qZXm Ho$cr Amho. ~wr Am{U nmf Zgcoc cmoH$ hm CnOr{dHo$Mm _mJ drH$maVmV Ago MmdmH$mZr
hQ>coco Amho.MmdmH$mZr AW, Zr{V, AZr{V, gV, AgV hm {ddoH$ H$Q>mjmZo nmimdm Ago gm{JVcoco Amho.
\$$ `m`m gV AgV`m H$nZm m `jn_mUmda AmYm[aV Amho. `m_wio doX aMZmH$mamda Vo
nwT>rc_mUo Q>rH$m H$aVmV.
"`modoX` H$Vma:
^S>YyV - {ZemMX: &'
doX aMZm H$aUmao {dXyfH$, YyV, {ZemMa Agco nm{hOoV Agm Vo Amamon H$aVmV.
(`m H$mir amr \$$ Mmoa qhS>V AgV.)
MmdmH$mZr `j _mU _mZ`mZo Amn`m Vo AZw^dmn{cH$S>o g`, gwXa Aem Jmo>r AmhoV ho
_mZmd`mg V`ma ZmhrV. doXmV nma_m{WH$, m OJmncrH$S>`m Jmo>rMr MMm Ho$cocr Amho `m_wio MmdmH$
doXaMZmH$mamda Q>rH$m H$aVmV. Aem VhoZo MmdmH$mMo ZrVr{df`H$ {dMma n> H$aVm òBc.
15
2.3 dA``ZmgmR>r n A) EH$m dm`mV Cmao {chm.

1) MmdmH$ gwIdmXr AmhoV H$m`?
~)
2)
d^mddmX H$moU`m {gmVmV g_m{d> hmoVmo?
3)
MmdmH$mMm Zr{V{df`H$ {dMma H$moU`m OrdZm{df`r Amho?
4)
""MmdmH$'' eXmMr \$moS> H$er H$aVm òBc?
5)
MmdmH$ ""Am_m'' ho dV ` drH$maVmV H$m`?
`mo` n`m` {ZdS>m.

...........................
1)
MmdmH$ ho
AmhoV.
2)
A) OS>dmXr
~) {MXdmXr
H$) EH$ddmXr
...........................
MmdmH$mZr
nXmWmMm drH$ma Ho$cocm Amho.
A) Mma
3)
~) nmM
H$) ghm
...........................
MmdmH$ Ho$di
_mUmMm drH$ma H$aVmV.
A) AZw_mZ
H$) emX
...........................
4)
MmdmH$m`m _Vo MV` hm
5)
A) OS>mMm
~) ~hZmMm
H$) m`mMm
...........................
MmdmH$
`m nwfmWmcm ZmH$maVmV.
A) H$m_ ~) AW
2.4
~) `j
A[dH$ma Amho.
H$) _moj
gmame -
MmdmH$ ho EH$ OS>dmXr, ZmpVH$ XeZ Amho. MmdmH$m`m kmZ{df`H$ {gmVmV OS>VddmX,
d^mddmX Am{U Am`mMo {ZamH$aU `mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. A{V_ g` OS> dnr Amho Ago OS>ddmXr
hUVmo. Va d^mddmXm`m_Vo g>rVrc KQ>Zm, mUr, njr, `m`mV KS>Umao ~Xc, `mMo d^md ho
{ZgJV:M AgVmV. Vo ~Xc KS>dyZ AmUUmam "Ba' ApVdmV Zmhr. "Ba' gH$nZo~amo~aM MmdmH$
""Am_m hm dV nXmW'' hUyZ ZmH$maVmV.
MmdmH$mMo Zr{V{df`H$ {dMma Eo{hH$ OJm{df`r AmhoV. Vo hUVmV, Amho hoM OrdZ, dJ, nmn,
nw` `mMm {dMma H$ Zò. OJmVrc gd gwIo Cn^moJmdrV. VgoM H$fr, JmonmcZ, `mnma, g_mOH$mamU
Aem {dYm`H$, \$cXm`r H$m`mV _mUgmZo A{YH$m{YH$ cj Kmcmdo. {H$mc ZmZg`m, doXnR>U, `k`mJ
`m_ò doi dm`m Kmcdy Zò. Agm MmdmH$mMm Zr{V{df`H$ {dMma Amho.
16
2.5
d` A``Z mMr Cmao A)

~)
2.6
2.7
2.8
1) hmo`.2) OS>dmX
3) Eo{hH$
4) Mm + dm`_ &
5) Zmhr.
1) OS>dmXr
2) Mma
3) `j
4) OS>mMm
5) _moj
gamdmgmR>r 1 cm.
MmdmH$m`m OS>dmXmMo dn n> H$am.
2 am.
MmdmH$mMo Zr{V{df`H$ {dMma {deX H$am.
nm[a^m{fH$ eX 1) Eo{hH$
`m OJm{df`r
2) nmacm{H$H$
cm{H$H$ OJmncrH$S>Mo
3) cmoH$ {g
Br`mZo {g hmoUmao
4) d^mddmX
Oo KS>Vo Vo {ZgJV:M KS>Vo Ago _mZUmam >rH$moU
5) gwIdmX
gwImda â XoUmar {dMmagaUr
A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$nwVH$m`m eodQ>r `mXr {Xcocr Amho.

666
17
KQ>H$ - 3
OZ XeZ ( Jainism )
3.0 C{>o
3.1 mVm{dH$ - OrdZ dmmV
3.2 {df` - {ddoMZ
3.2.1
OZ nanam
3.2.2
Aqhgm
3.2.3
AZoH$mVdmX
Z`dmX
`mXdmX
3.2.4
Ord Am{U AOrd
3.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z
3.4 nm[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW
3.6 gmame
3.0 C{Q>o :
`m KQ>H$mMm A`mg Ho$`mZVa Amn`mbm *
OZ Y_mMr nanam n> H$aVm òBb.
OZ Y_mMo VdkmZ d {eH$dU dUZ H$aVm òBb.
doVm~a d {XJ~a `m XmoZ nWmMo doJionU {deX H$aVm òBb.
"Aqhgm' `m OZm`m A`V _hdm`m gymMo d$n n> H$aVm òBb.
OZmMr _yi ^y{_H$m- AZoH$mVdmX d{eQ>o gmJVm òVrb.
Ord Am{U AOrd `m XmoZ `mMm Vmb{ZH$ nam_e KoVm òBb.
3.1 mVm{dH$ (OrdZ dmmV) :

qhXy Y_mIoarO ^maVmV OZ, ~m, nmaer, erI, Bbm_, {MZ `m {d{dY Y_m`m VdkmZmbm
d gXm`mZm AZwgaUmao bmoH$ Amho. {hXy Y_mVyZ d ^maVr` Y_nanaoVyZ CH$mV Pmbobo OZ Y_mMo
18
VdkmZ d `mMo H$m` g_OmdyZ KoUma AmhmoV. OZ Y_ ^maVmVrb d{XH$ Y_mBVH$m mMrZ Amho, Ago
A`mgH$ _mZVmV. OZ Y_mMo dVZ, gdYZ Am{U gma `mZr Ho$bm `mZm "VrWH$a' hUVmV. Ago
EHy$U 24 VrWH$a AmhoV. `m VrWH$amZm "{OZ' hUVmV. {OZ hUOo B{ò qOH$Umam. {OZ `m gkod$Z `m
Y_mbm OZ Y_ ho Zmd $T> Pmbo. dY_mZ _hmdra ho 24 do VrWH$a AmhoV.
dY_mZ `mMm O_ dOr O_mVrMr amOYmZr dembr òWo [Vnyd 599 _ò Pmbm. (dembr ho
{R>H$mU {~hma am`mV Amho). dY_mZmMo AmB-d{S>b C Hw$imVrb hmoVo hUOoM Vo j{` hmoVo. `m`m
{n`mMo Zmd {gmW d _mVoMo Zmd {ebm hmoVo. `mMr _mVm EH$ amOH$`m hmoVr. _hmdram`m _mVm{n`mZr `mMo Zmd "dY_mZ' Ago R>odbo hmoVo. _hmdra hr EH$ CnmYr Amho. dY_mZmg hr CnmYr ~oMmirgm`m
dfu mV Pmbr. nU nwT>o `mMm CboI _hmdra `m ZmdmZoM Ho$bm OmD$ bmJbm. _hmdramMm {ddmh èmoXm
{h`mer Pmbm hmoVm. `mZm AUmoOm ZmdmMr EH$ _wbJr hmoVr. _hmdra Vrg dfmMo AgVmZm `mMo _mVm{nVm _`y nmdbo. `m_wio `mMo d{S>b~Yy ZXrdYZ `m`m hmVmV Hw$Qw>~mMm A{YH$ma Ambm. _hmdramZr
Amnbo d{S>b ~Yy d Hw$Qw>~mVrb BVa d{S>bYmar _mUgo `m`mH$Sy>Z OZ Y_m`m {dYrZwgma {Xjm KoVbr.
`mZVa `mZr ~mam df} IS>Va VnM`m Ho$br. n{h`m Voam _{h`mZVa `mZr Amn`m dmMm `mJ
Ho$bm. eodQ>r VnM`}VyZ kmZmVr Pmbr. `mVyZM `mZr Amn`m Y_mMm Mma Ho$bm. VoM hUOo OZ
VdkmZ hmo`. Amn`m Y_mMm gma H$aV Vo d`m`m 72 `m dfu _`y nmdbo.
3.2 {df` {ddoMZ :
3.2.1 OZ nanam :
OZ Y_mMr nanam \$maM OwZr d mMrZ Amho. OZ `m eXmMr `wnmr "{O' `m _yi gH$V
YmVynmgyZ Pmbobr AgyZ `mMm AW qOH$Uo qH$dm dm{_d {_i{dUo Agm Amho. OZ hm Amn`m
dmgZm{dH$mamda, H$moYmda, H$m_mda {dO` {_i{dVmo hUyZ OZ ~ZVmo. amJof `mgma`m eyda {dO`
{_i{d`m_wio dY_mZmbm {OZ qH$dm OoVm hr CnmYr {_imbr. {OZ `m gkod$Z `m Y_mbm OZ Y_ ho Zmd
$T> Pmbo.
VrWH$a :
OZ Y_mMo dVZ, gdYZ Am{U gma `mZr Ho$bm `mZm "VrWH$a' hUVmV. Ago EHy$U 24
VrWH$a AmhoV. VrWH$a hUOo _mJ XmI{dUmam. ggma gmJamVyZ V$Z Om`mg _XV H$aUmam hmo`.
G$f^ZmW ho n{hbo VrWH$a _mZbo OmVmV. G$f^ZmW hm Am VrWH$a Ag`m_wio OZ Y_mV `mg \$ma
AmXa XmI{dVmV. EdT>oM ZmhrVa ~mU Y_mVhr {dUy`m Mmodrg AdVmam_ò G$f^mMr JUZm H$a`mV
òVo. G$f^mZVa hmoD$Z Joobo`m 23 VrWH$amMo {dVV dUZ OZ JWmV nhmd`mg {_iVo. _m 23 do
VrWH$a nmdZmW Am{U 24 do VrWH$a _hmdra ho XmoKo eodQ>Mo VrWH$a {g AmhoV.
OZ Y_mV Oo 24 VrWH$a hmoD$Z JoboV `mMr H$mbmZwH$_o Zmdo _m{hVrgmR>r XoV AmhmoV.
1) G$f^Xod (ZmW) 2) A{OVZmW
3) g^dZmW
5) gw_{VZmW
6) nX_^
7) gwnmdZmW 8) M^
9) nwnXV
10) erVbZmW
11) lo`mgZmW 12) dmgwnw`
13) {d_bZmW
14) AZVZmW
15) Y_ZmW
19
4) A{^ZXZZmW
16) emVrZmW
17) Hw$WwZmW
18) AahZmW
19) _brZmW 20) _w{Zgw~VZmW
21) Z{_ZmW
22) Zo{_ZmW
23) nmdZmW 24) dY_mZ _hmdra
OZ Y_mMm eodQ>Mm hUOo Mmodrgmdm VrWH$a "dY_mZ _hmdra' hmoVm. dY_mZ _hmdra hm _JY
XoemV amhmV Ag`mZo `mZo `m mVm`m AY_mJYr ^mfoV OZ VdmMr _mS>Ur d Mma Ho$bm Am{U Agm
Mma H$aV H$aV d`m`m 72 `m dfu _`y nmdbm. _hmdramZo OZ Y_mgmR>r Eo{Vhm{gH$ H$m` H$$Z OZ
Y_mbm ^mdr ~Z{dbo. OZ Y_ hm EH$ ^maVmMm _wI Y_ ~Z{d`mMo A`V _hdmMo H$m` Ho$`m_wio
OJm`m B{VhmgmV `mbm AT>i WmZ mV Pmbo Amho. Aem H$mao OZ Y_mMr nanam A`V XrKH$mbrZ
Amho.
OZ Y_mVrb nW : {XJ~a, doVm~a
_hmdram`m _`yZVa OZ Y_mV _VôX hmoD$Z `mMo XmoZ nW nS>bo `mZm {XJ~a d doVm~a Ago
hUVmV. VdkmZm`m >rZo `m XmoZ gXm`mV \$magm \$aH$ Zmhr. _m `m`m AmMaUm_ò ôX {XgyZ
òVmo Vmo Agm * {XJ~a hUOo AmH$me hoM A~a. A~a hUOo d. `mCbQ> doVm~a hUOo ew^ d n[aYmZ
H$aUmao hmoV.
* {XJ~a nW hm A{YH$ H$S>H$ dVmMaU d CJ Vn`m H$a`mda â XoVmo Va doVm~a nW _mZdmMo
H$mhr ~m~VrVrb Xm~` _m` H$$Z VnòMr CJVm H$_r H$aVmo.
* {XJ~a nWmMo _Vo, _mZdmZo BVHo$ {ZdmWu d An[aJhr hmd`mg nm{hOo H$s `mZo AJmda dhr
R>odVm H$m_m Zò. VgoM AmH$membmM Amnbo d _mZmdo, OodUmgmR>r gwm nm dmn$ Zò, B`mXr Jmo>tda
â XoVmV. `mCbQ> doVm~a nWr` _wZr ho AJmda ew^ d n[aYmZ H$$Z qhS>VmV.
* WmoS>`mV dY_mZ _hmdram`m _yi AmMmamMo g_WZ H$aUm`m _wZtZr d`mJ Ho$bm Vo {XJ~a
hmoV. `mCbQ> `m _wZtZr d dmnamMo g_WZ H$$Z ew^ do drH$mabr `mZm doVm~a hUyZ AmoiIbo
OmD$ bmJbo.
OZmMo _yb Y_JW :OZ VdkmZmMo JW nwH$i AmhoV. _yb Y_JWmMr g`m 85 âVo. `m_ò 41 gyJW, gw_mao 31
H$sUHo$, 12 {Z`wVr (^m`JW) Am{U 1 _hm^m` Amho. AmMm` ~bXod Cnm`m` `mZr OZ gm{hp`H$
JWmMo dJuH$aU H$a`mgmR>r Mma H$mb {d^mJ Ho$bo AmhoV, Vo Ago- AmJ_JW, Ama^H$mi, _``wJ Am{U
AdmMrZ JwU. OZmMo _yi JW AY_mJYr ^mfoV AmhoV. `m JWmnH$s H$mhr JW _hdmMo _mZbo OmVmV, Vo
Ago- 1) C_mdmVrMo- "VdmWm{YJ_gy' 2) {ggoZ {XdmH$amMo - `m`mdVma 3) Hw$XmHw$XmMm`mModMZgma 4) Zo{_MS>mMo - `gJh 5) _{goZgwarMo- `mmX_Oar. ho JW VmdrH$ d$nmMo AmhoV.
3.2.2
Aqhgm :-
Aqhgm na_mo Y_: - `mMm AW Aqhgm hm gdlo> Y_ Amho. ho OZmMo A`V _hdmMo gy Amho. hm OZ
gXmMmamMm nm`m Amho. Aqhgm `m gH$nZo_ò Imbrb JmoQ>tMm g_mdoe Ho$bm OmVmo.
1) qhgm Z H$aUo H$moU`mhr d$nmV qhgm H$aUo ho OZ Y_mV _hmnmn g_Obo OmVo. H$moU`mhr n[apWVrV H$moUmhr
20
OrdmMr qhgm H$$ Zò, _J Vo Ord H$sS>o, _w`m, S>mg, T>oHy$U, qdMy, gn, dZmVrb mUr (h{aU, ggm,
B`mXr) d _mZd Agbo Var `mMr h`m H$$ Zò. dV:bm Oar {H$Vrhr mg, H$>, YmoH$m {Z_mU Pmbm Var
_wZrZo H$moU`mhr OrdmMr h`m H$aVm H$m_m Zò. `m {Z`_mMo H$gmoerZo nmbZ Ho$bo nm{hOo Aer OZ Y_mMr
AmJhmMr {eH$dU Amho.
Jar~ OZmdamZmhr XòZo dmJdmdo. `mZm K> Xmoa ~mYy Zò, `mMo Ad`d H$mny Zò, `m`mda
â_gmR> AmoPo bmXy Zò, `m`mH$Sy>Z dmOdrnojm A{YH$ H$m_ H$$Z KoD$ Zò. `mZm nwaogo Im`m{n`mg
mdo. `m Jmo>tMr H$miOr KoUo OZm`m AqhgoV g_m{d> Amho. qhgonmgyZ A{bV amhUo `mg "mU{VnmV
{da_U dV' Ago hUVmV. hUOoM _Zw`mZo H$moU`mhr Ord-OVyMr h`m hoVynwana H$$ Zò.
2) qhgoMo XmoZ ôX qhgoMo XmoZ ôX AmhoV. `mZm 1) ` qhgm - m`mMm `j dY H$aUo qH$dm `mg nrS>m XoUo. 2)
^md qhgm - H$moU`mhr m`m`m dYmMm qH$dm nrS>m Xo`mMm _ZmV {dMma H$aUo hmo`.`qhgonojm ^md qhgm
A{YH$ Xmof`wV AgVo. H$maU ^md qhgo_wio _Zw` dV:`m AVaJmMm KmV H$$Z KoVmoM `mCbQ> `qhgm `j
Pmbr Var qhgm XmofmnmgyZ _Zw`mMm ~Mmd hmoD$ eH$Vmo. Vr j` Agy eH$Vo. CXm. aVm ZrQ> nmhZ A`V gmdYnUo
MmbUm`m g`_r _mUgmH$Sy>Z `m`m nmdbmImbr EImm N>moQ>m OrdmMr qhgm Pmbr Var `mMo _Z ew Ag`mZo
Vmo Xmofr R>aV Zmhr. qhgm Xmofm_ò Amnbo _Z H$go Amho. AmMaUmV AqhgoMm `Z {H$Vr Amho ho _hdmMo
Amho. hUOoM _Zw`m`m _mZ{gH$ ewwVoda \$ma â Xo`mV Ambm Amho. OZ _VmZwgma gdM dVm`m
~m~VrV _ZmMr ewVm \$ma _hdmMr _mZVmV. CXm._mVm-{nVm `mZr Amn`m _wbmZm, JwZr Amn`m
{dm`mZm, `m`m{YemZr Anam`mZm bhmZ _moR>m Ho$bo`m {ejm Xmofr _mZ`m OmV ZmhrV H$maU
`m_ò `mMo _Z ew AgVo. `mV `m `m `Vr`m d g_mOm`m H$`mUmMr ^mdZm AgVo.
3) JhWm`m XZ{XZ OrdZm`m _`mXm bjmV KoD$Z qhgoMo Mma H$ma gm{JVbo AmhoV.
A) Ama^r qhgm - CR>Uo, ~gUo, MmbUo, dJao emar[aH$ hmbMmb. PmS>Uo, PQ>H$Uo dJao gm\$g\$mB, Myb
noQ>{dUo, XiUo, B`mXr {H$`m_wio hmoUmar qhgm hr Ama^r qhgm hmo`.
~) CmoJr qhgm - H$fr, XwH$mZXmar, `mnma, CmoJ, YZ {_i{dVmZm Or qhgm hmoVo {Vbm CmoJr qhgm
hUVmV.
H$) {damoYr qhgm - EImm m`mZo Amn`mda hbm Ho$`mg `m`mnmgyZ dV:Mo ajU H$a`mgmR>r
qhgm H$aUoMm g_mdoe {damoYr qhgo_ò hmoVo. hUOoM dOZ, n[aOZ, Y_, Xoe, g_mO, B`mXt`m
ajUmW Ho$bobr qhgm {damoYr qhgm Amho.
S>) gH$nr qhgm - {ZanamY m`mMr ghoVwH$nUo {eH$ma d qhgm H$aUo hr gH$nr qhgm hmo`. _ZmoaOZ
hUyZ, damMm ~Xbm hUyZ, namH$_ XmI{d`mgmR>r hUyZ, qH$dm Hw$R>`mhr H$maMm dmW gmY`mgmR>r
OmUyZ~wOyZ Or qhgm Ho$br OmVo Vr gH$nr qhgm hmo`.
JhWmbm `m MmanH$s n{h`m VrZ nyU Q>miVm òVM ZmhrV. VarnU `m~m~VrV `mZo e`
{VVHo$ A{YH$ {ddoH$erb amhZ {OVHo$ Q>miVm òBb {VVHo$ nhmdo. gH$nr [hgm hrM A`V dmBQ> AgVo.
Vr Q>miVm òUo e` Amho d Vr Q>mibrM nm{hOo Ago OZmMo _V Amho.
21
4)
nmM A{VMma qH$dm Aqhgm AZwdVmMo Xmof -
dYm{edm` A` H$maMr nrS>m XoD$Z qhgm XmofmMo ^mJrXma hmo`mMr AZoH$ H$maUo Agy eH$VmV.
H$R>moa eXmMm dmna Ho$`m_wio Xwg`mMo _Z XwImdbo Jobo Var Vr qhgmM hmoVo. n[aOZ d new dJao`m
~m~VrV nmM H$ma`m Hy$a dVZmbm A{VMma qH$dm Aqhgm AZwdVmMo Xmof hUVmV, ho A{VMma nmM
H$maMo AmhoV Vo Ago A) ~YXmof - H$moU`mhr Ordmbm (m`mbm) ~mYyZ qH$dm H$m|Sy>Z R>odUo, godH$mZm A{YH$ Wm~dyZ
R>odUo, R>abo`m doionojm A{YH$ doi H$m_ H$$Z KoUo, B`mXr {H$`mMm g_mdoe ~YXmofm_ò hmoVmo.
~) dYXmof - Ordo _maUo hm Va dY AmhoM. nU m`mZm _ma XoUo, Am{lV qH$dm ZmoH$a `mZm _ma
XoUo, H$moUm`m bmMmarMm Ja\$m`Xm KoUo, emofU H$aUo Am{U m`mZm BVa Hw$R>brhr nrS>m XoUo B`mXr
dYXmof AmhoV.
H$) N>oX Xmof - m`m`m AJCnmJmbm VmoS>Uo, hUOoM _mUgm`m qH$dm ney`m earambm OI_m
H$aUo, B`mXrMm g_mdoe N>oX Xmofm_ò hmoVmo.
S>) A{V^mamamonU Xmof - ney`m nmR>rda `mbm nobdUma Zmhr BVHo$ AmoPo bmXUo, Hw$UmH$Sy>Z
`m`m VmH$Xrnojm A{YH$ H$m_ H$$Z KoUo, dV:_ò H$m_ H$a`mMr eVr AgyZgwm Xwg`mH$Sy>Z H$m_
H$adyZ KoUo, B`mXtMm g_mdoe A{V^mamamonU Xmofm_ò hmoVmo.
B) AZnmZ {damoY - H$moU`mhr _mUgmbm, m`mbm dm newbm AZnmUr KoD$ Z XoUo qH$dm `m_ò
AS>Wim AmUUo, ZmoH$amZm doioda AZnmUr Z XoUo qH$dm WmoS>o XoUo, B`mXrMm g_mdoe AZnmZ {damoY _ò
g_mdoe hmoVmo.
OZ Y_m`m _Vo darb nmM H$ma`m A{VMma qH$dm XmofmnmgyZ OZ Y_mMo nmbZ H$aUm`m
JhWmbm `m gd A{VMmamnmgyZ Xya am{hbo nm{hOo VaM Vr Aqhgm hmo`.
5)
A{hgm hUOo o_ hmo` -
A{hgm hm eX ZH$mam_H$ Amho nU Aqhgm Vd ZH$mam_H$ Zmhr. Aqhgm hUOo o_. gd

m`m`m ~m~VrV X`m^md d __Vm^md AgUo hrM Iar Aqhgm hmo`._bm H$mQ>m ~moMbm H$s doXZm hmoVmV,
_bm H$moUr {edr {Xbr H$s Xw:I hmoVo VgoM Xwg`mghr doXZm hmoVmV, Xw:I hmoVo. _bm Oer OJ`mMr Vrd
BN>m hmoVo VerM BVa gd m`mZm Amho. `m ^mdZm gVV _ZmV ~miJUo hUOo Iao A{hgm-dV hmo`.
Aqhgm ^mdZm Oohm I`m AWmZo {dH${gV hmoVo Vohm _Zw`mbm eyXoIrb {_M dmQ>VmV. {_mda H$moUrhr
o_ H$aob nU eydahr o_ H$amd`mg nm{hOo, ho Aqhgm dVmMo _yb_ Amho. `m`mOdi emVVm, o_,
ghmZw^yVr, g_^md AgVmo Vmo o_i AgVmo. WmoS>`mV Aqhgm hUOo o_ hmo`.
6)
{dd H$`mUmgmR>r Aqhgm -
`VrZo gwerb, gXmMmar d g_mO{hVdmXr hmdo `mM~amo~a A{Z> dmrnmgyZ Xya ahmdo. Aqhgm
VdmMo nmbZ Ho$`mZo nanam_Yrb o_ dmT>ob. {df_Vm d {nidUyH$ Wm~ob. Ym{_H$, gm_m{OH$, Am{WH$,
amOZ{VH$ jomV AqhgoMm dmna H$aVm òBb. Vgo Pm`mg `wo Q>iVrb. am>mam>mV emVVm d AmnwbH$sMr
^mdZm $Oob, gmao AmZX_` d gwI_` hmoBb. AemH$mao {dd H$`mUmgmR>r Aqhgm ho dV Cn`wV
hmoBb.
22
3.2.3 AZoH$mVdmX :OZ_V hm EH$ Y_ Amho. VgoM Vo EH$ VdkmZ (XeZ) Amho. Y_ `m >rZo nmhVm Aqhgm hm `mMm
Am_m (mU) Amho. VdkmZ `m >rZo nmhVm "AZoH$mVdmX hm `mMm nm`m Amho. AZoH$mVdmX hm OZ
XeZmVrb EH$ {gmV ZgyZ OJmH$S>o nmh`mMm EH$ >rH$moZ Amho. Aqhgm `m _yb^yV oaUoVyZ AZoH$mVdmXmMr
C^maUr Pmbobr Amho. Aqhgm hUOo h`m Z H$aUo, Xwg`m Ordmda o_ H$aUo, _Z CXma H$aUo, Vohm
~m{H$ nmVirda Aqhgm qH$dm {^Z _V g{hUwVm hUOoM AZoH$mVdmX hmo`.H$moU`mhr dVyMo kmZ
mV H$aVmZm {V`m gnyU ~mOyMm {dMma H$aUo hUOo AZoH$mVdmX hmo`. Hw$R>`mhr Jmo>rg~Yr EH$mJrH$nUo
_V Z ~Z{dUo hUOo AZoH$mVdmX hmo`.AZoH$mVdmXmVrb AV hUOo H$S>, eodQ> qH$dm {ZpMV {ZU` hmo`
Am{U EH$mV hUOo EH$M EH$ {ZU` hmo`. hUyZ AZoH$mVdmX hUOo H$moU`mhr Jmo>rg~Yr EH$mJrnUo
{dMma Z H$aUo qH$dm _V Z ~Z{dUo hmo`. H$maU H$moU`mhr dVwbm AZoH$ ~mOy AgVmV. hUyZ H$moU`mhr
dVyMm {dMma H$aVmZm {V`m gnyU ~mOyMm {dMma H$aUo hUOo AZoH$mVdmX hmo`.
dVy AZVY_m_H$ AgVo H$moU`mhr JmoQ>rMm {dMma EH$m >rH$moZmVyZ H$aVm H$m_m Zò Aer OZ Y_mMr _w` {eH$dU Amho.
`m JmoQ>rMm {dMma H$amd`mMm `mZm BVa H$mhr ~mOy AmhoV qH$dm ZmhrV `mMm {dMma hmoUo Amd`H$
AgVo. H$moUmhr `VrMm n[aM` hmo`mgmR>r {VMm Xoe, OmV, d`, Y_, g_mO, Zmd, Hw$Qw>~, B`mXr OmUyZ
KoUo Amd`H$ Amho. _Z_mohZ `m `VrMo JwU Vmo ^maVr`, qhXw, JmadU, ~mU, BV`m CMrMm, d`mMm,
A_yH$ {ejU KoVbobm EdT>oM g_OyZ MmbUma Zmhr Va `mM~amo~a Vmo `wamo{n`, Am{\$H$Z, {MZ Y_u`
Zmhr Ago {ZfoYm_H$ kmZ hmd`mg nm{hOo. `m_mUo OZ_VmZwgma òH$ dVy hr dn`m` d nan`m`
`mMm g_wM` AgVo.
dVy AZVY_m_H$ AmhoV. `mMm {dMma Zoh_r gmnojVoZo Ho$bm nm{hOo. AmnU {H$Vrhr `Z Ho$bm
Var dVyMo AmnUmg hmoUmao kmZ d {VMo gnyU d$n `m_ò AVa amhUmaM. H$maU AmnU dVyMo kmZ
H$$Z KoVmZm Hw$R>bm Var EH$M AV qH$dm eodQ> nH$S>rV AgVmo. AmnU Ago hQ>bo H$s, ho Q>o~b bmH$S>mMo
Ho$bobo Amho. AWmV ho {dYmZ Iao Amho. nU `m`m IaonUmg _`mXm nS>VmV. Vo Hw$R>`mhr bmH$S>mMo Zmhr
Va gmJdmZ `m OmVr`m bmH$S>mMo Amho. Vmo gmJdmZhr A_yH$ EH$ H$maMm Amho. Vo A_yH$ EH$m gwVmamZo
~Z{dbo Amho. B`mXr Jmo>r g~YrMo kmZ H$$Z `mdo bmJob. WmoS>`mV H$moU`mhr dVyMo kmZ H$$Z
Ko`mgmR>r `m`m gd ~mOyMm {dMma H$$Z _m{hVr `mdr. H$maU Hw$R>brhr dVy hr AZVY_m_H$ AgVo.
OZm`m `m _Vmg AZoH$mVdmX hUVmV.
Z`dmX d `mXdmX AZoH$mVdmX hm EH$ >rH$moZ Amho. hm >rH$moZ dVy d$nm`m kmZm`m AnojoZo dmna`mg
`mVyZ Z`dmX {ZnZ hmoVmo d `mdoir {dYmZm`m AnojoZo dmna`mg `mVyZ `mXdmX {ZnZ AgVmo.
Z`dmX Am{U `mXdmX hr AZoH$mVdmXmMrM XmoZ no AmhoV.
Z`dmX * Z` hUOo Ae, AJ qH$dm nmhUm`mMm {d{e> A{^m` hmo`.
* Z` hUOo H$moU`mhr dVyMo {V`mg~Yr`m {d{eQ> >rH$moZmVyZ Pmbobo kmZ hmo`. Z` hUOo
OmUUm`m `VrMm EH$ {d{e> >rH$moZ hmo`. Vmo Agm H$s AZoH$ JwUY_ AgUm`m dVy`m EImmM
23
JwUY_mda bj H|$rV Ho$bo OmVo d `m JwUm~b {dYmZ Ho$bo OmVo. `mMm AW Agm H$s, H$moU`mhr dVy`m
AZoH$ JwUmnH$s EH$mdoir EH$mM JwUmda bj H|$rV H$aUo hUOo Z`dmX hmo`. gm_m` _mUgo EH$mdoir
nXmWmMm Ho$di EH$M JwUY_ OmUy eH$VmV. `m_wio `m `VrMo kmZ Aen (H$_r) AgVo. Aem `m
Aen kmZmbm OZmZr Z` hQ>bo Amho.
Z`dmX H$ma Z`
`Z`
1) ZJ_Z`
2) gJhZ`
4) G$OwgyZ`
n`m`Z`
3) `dhmaZ`
5) eXZ` 6) g_{^T> Z`
7) Ed^yVZ`
Z`mMo _w` H$ma XmoZ nS>VmV. `mZm `Z` d n`m`Z` Ago hUVmV. Z`mMo EHy$U H$ma gmV
nS>VmV.
`Z` H$moU`mhr dVy`m {R>H$mUr Agm {Z` Ae AgVmoM H$s `m`moJmZo VrM hr dVy Amho Ago kmZ
hmoVo, `mg `Z` hUVmV. CXm.1) H$mngmMm doiy H$$Z `mMo gyV H$mTy>Z `mnmgyZ H$mnS> ~Z{dbo Var
`mVrb H$mnyg ho ` VoM amhVo `mbmM `Z` hUVmV.
CXm. 2) _mVr ho ` Amho. Vr {ÔdyZ {V`m Jmo`mnmgyZ {Vbm AmH$ma XoD$Z KQ> V`ma Ho$bo
OmVmV d Vo H$aVmZm _mVr doJdoJir $no KoVo. Vr ^mObr H$s aJ ~XbVmo. AmYr H$mim aJ AgVmo d _J
^mO`mda Vm~yg ~ZVmo. nU {H$Vrhr ~Xb Pmbo Var _mVr ho ` amhVoM. gmo`mMohr CXmhaU AgoM
Amho. gmoZo VmndyZ `mnmgyZ {d{dY H$maMo AbH$ma V`ma Ho$bo OmVmV nU `mVrb gmoZo ho ` H$m`_
amhVoM. WmoS>`mV `m `m dVyMm Vmo Vmo {d{e> JwU VmoM amhVmo. CXm.gmo`mMo {ndionU, {_R>mMo ImaQ>nU,
gmIaoMo JmoS>nU, H$m`mMo H$Sy>nU, ~\$mMo WS>nU, B`mXr.
`Z`mMo H$ma `Z`mMo VrZ H$ma nS>VmV. `mZm 1) ZJ_Z` 2) gJhZ` 3) `dhmaZ` Ago hUVmV.
1)
ZJ_Z` -
H$moU`mhr dVy~b {dMma H$a`mMr Or nVr AgVo {Vbm ZJ_Z` hUVmV. òH$ dVybm
qH$dm KQ>Zobm gm_m` d {deof Ago JwU AgVmV. `m nVr_ò dVyMo gm_m` JwU d {deofJwU bjmV
KoVbobo AgVmV. hUOoM dVyMm gm_m`JwU d {deofJwU `mV \$aH$ Ho$bobm ZgVmo. CXm.`mdoir AmnU
Am_dj Ago hUVmo. `mdoir `m_ò djmMo gm_m`JwU d {deofJwU g_m{d> AgVmV. djmMo gm_m`JwU
hUOo _wio, ImoS>, \$mm, nmZo, {hadonUm AgUo ho hmoV. Am_djm`m ~m~VrV `mMm {deof JwU hUOo
nmZmMm {d{e> AmH$ma, `mbm Ambobm _mohmoa d `m _mohmoambm Am~o bmJUo Agm Amho. gm_m` d {deof ho
EH$_oH$mV {_gibobo AgVmV d Xmohr {_iyZ H$moUVrhr Jmo> hmoV AgVo. AemH$mao ZJ_Z`mV gm_m` d
{deofJU bjmV KoVbo OmVmV.
24
2)
gJhZ` -
`m_ò H$moU`mhr dVy`m gm_m` JwUmMmM {dMma Ho$bobm AgVmo. (EH$m {d{e> OmVrV Agbo`m
gd `Vr_ò Oo JwU g_mZ AgVmV Vo gm_m`JwU hmoV) `m Z`mZwgma, H$moU`mhr dVyMo {deofJwU `m
dVy`m gm_m` JwUmnojm doJio ZgVmV. CXm.Oa djM ZgVo Va Am_djM ApVdmV am{hbm ZgVm.
hUOo Am_djm`m {R>H$mUr AgUmao {deof JwU ho `m Am_djm`m gm_m` JwUmnmgyZ doJio amh eH$V
ZmhrV Ago gJhZ` hUVmo.
3)
`dhmaZ` -
`dhmaZ`m_ò H$moU`mhr dVy`m {R>H$mUr AgUmao {deofJwUM bjmV KoVbo OmVmV. (Oo JwU
Ho$di `m {d{e> `VrVM AmT>iVmV `mZm {deof JwU hUVmV). `m {deof JwUm`m `{V[aV gm_m`
JwUmMo ApVd AgV Zmhr Ago _mZbo OmVo. CXm.Oohm EImXm _mUyg EImm `Vrbm KQ> AmUmd`mg
gmJVmo, Vohm Vr `Vr H$mim qH$dm bmbgaM KQ> AmUVo. H$maU aJhrZ KQ>H$ Agm ApVdmVM
ZgVmo.`m Z`m_ò dVyH$S>o nmh`mMm `mdhm[aH$ >rH$moZ AgVmo d Vmo B{` AZw^dmda AmYmabobm
Amho. AmnU Oohm dVyer `dhma H$aVmo Vohm Vmo {d{e> dVyer AgVmo, `m dVy`m OmVrer qH$dm
dJmer ZgVmo.
n`m`Z` dVyMm {Za{Zam`m AdWmZm OZ ^mfoV n`m`Z` hUVmV. dVy`m d$nmMo kmZ H$$Z Ko`mgmR>r
{V`m {R>H$mUr AgUm`m {d{dY n`m` Z`mMm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. n`m`Z`mMo nwT>rb ^mJ nS>VmV - 4)
G$OygyZ` 5) eXZ` 6) g_{^$T> Z` 7) Ed^yV Z`
4)
G$OwgyZ` -
G$Oy hUOo gai d gy hm dMZm`m AWmZo dmnabobm eX Amho. `m Z`m`m _VmZwgma H$moU`mhr
dVy`m ^yVH$mimMm qH$dm ^{d`H$mimMm {dMma Z H$aVm Vr dVy dV_mZH$mimV H$er Amho `mMm {dMma
Ho$bm OmVmo. hUOoM H$moU`mhr dVy`m dV_mZ pWVrMmM {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. H$moU`mhr dVy`m
^yVH$mi d ^{d` pWVrer Amn`m XZ{XZ `dhmamMo H$V` ZgVo. Amnbm g~Y \$V dVy`m
dV_mZ pWVrerM AgVmo, Ago G$OwgyZ` nQ> H$aVmo. CXm.EImmbm `m`m nw`H$_m_wio nydO_r
dJbmoH$ {_imbm Agob naVw Vo nw` gn`m_wio Vmo `m O_r _mUyg Pmbm Agob Va nydu`m dJbmoH$s
OrdZmMm `mbm dV_mZH$mir H$mhrhr Cn`moJ Zmhr. òWo \$V Vmo g pWVrV H$gm Amho `mMm {dMma Ho$bm
OmVmo.hm Z` \$V {d{e> jUr dVyMo Agbobo $n bjmV KoVmo. CXm.`m jUr gwI Amho. `m AZw^dmV Vmo
\$V `m jUr AgUm`m gwImMmM {dMma H$aVmo. Cm H$m` hmoBb `mMm {dMma H$aV Zmhr.
5)
eXZ` -
eXZ`mMm >rH$moZ hm eX d `mMo AW `m`mer g~YrV AgVmo. H$moUVmhr eX {d{e> dVy,

{df`, JwU, g~Y qH$dm {H$`m Xe{dUmam AgVmo. eX ho EH$ Zmd qH$dm gkm AgVo. Vmo eX CMma`mda
Amn`m _Zmg_moa EImXr dVy, JwU, g~Y, KQ>Zm C^r Ho$br OmVo. òH$ eXmbm AW AgVmo. {^Z
eX EH$M dVy {ZX}e H$$ eH$VmV. CXm.XJS>, nmfmU, A_m ho eX XJS> hr dVy XmI{dVmV. amOm
A{YnVr, ^w, Zaoe, B`mXr eX amOm gwM{dUmao AmhoV. nZr, ^m`m, O`m, B`mXr eX nZr gwM{dUmao
AmhoV.
25
6)
g_{^T>Z` -
EH$mM dVyMm qH$dm `VrMm {ZX}e H$a`mgmR>r Cn`moJmV AmUbo`m {Za{Zam`m g_mZmWH$
eXm`m gmmZo `mMm {ZX}e Ho$bm OmVmo Vohm `mg g_{^T>Z` Ago hUVmV. CXm.{n, hpVZ,
H$[aZ ho JO{ZX}eH$ (hmr) eX AmhoV. {n hUOo Xmohm|Zr gmoS> d Vm|S> `mZr {nUmam Agm AW hmoVmo.
hpVZ hUOo hV AgUmam òWo `mMr Vm|S> hmM `mMm hmV H$pnbobm Amho. H$[aZ `m eXmVrb _yi
H$nZm hUOo `mMr gm|S> hmM `mMm H$a (hmV) Aer Amho. Aem H$maoo g_mZmWH$ eX dmn$Z
g_{^T>Z` `V Ho$bm OmVmo.
7)
Ed^yVZ` -
`m `m dVy`m qH$dm `Vr`m `m `m pWVrbm AZwg$Z `m `m dVybm qH$dm `Vrbm

Oohm Zmd {Xbo OmVo Vohm `m {dMmanVrbm Ed^yVZ` Ago hUVmV. CXm.Zaqgh ho Zmd `mdoir EImXm
nwf qghmgmaIo dVZ H$aV Agob `mdoir XoVmV. Jm `m eXmMm AW {\$aUmam mUr Agm Amho. qhS>Umar,
{\$aUmar Jm` hUOo "Jm' naVw Oohm Vr Jm` pWa d dW ~gbr Agob Vohm {Vbm "Jm' hUVm òUma
Zmhr. pWa pWVrV Agbo`m JmBMo dUZ H$a`mgmR>r Xwgam EImXm eX emoYmd`mg nm{hOo. Jm`H$
hUOo JmUmam nU hm Z` `mbm Zoh_r Jm`H$ hUyZ pdH$maUma Zmhr. Vr `Vr JmV Agob VohmM `mMm
Jm`H$ hUyZ drH$ma H$aob.
`mXdmX (gV^JrZ`) {dYmZm`m AnojoZo `mdoir AZoH$mVdmX pdH$mabm OmVmo `mdoir `mVyZ `mXdmX {ZnZ hmoVmo.
`mX `mMm eXH$mofmVrb AW - H$Xm{MV g^dV: H$W{MV Ago AmhoV. nU òWo `mX `mMm AW EH$m
n[aZo qH$dm {d{e> gX^mV Agm Amho.
EImm dVyg~YmZo AmnU {ZpMVnUo H$mhr gmJy eH$V Zmhr qH$dm `m dVy`m gX^mV {ZpMVnUo
H$mhr ZmH$m$ eH$V Zmhr. dVy`m AZV Aem JwVmJwVr_wio H$mhr {ZpMV {dYmZ H$aVm òV Zmhr. EImXr
dVy qH$dm {VMm Y_ `m`m g~Yr H$mhr {dYmZ Ho$bo Va Vo EH$m {d{e> gX^mVM Iao AgVo. naVw gX^
~Xbbm Va Zo_Ho$ `m`m{d$ {XgUmao {dYmZ ho {VV`mM g_WnUo _mS>Vm òBb Ago `mXdmXmMo
Vmn` Amho. gX^ ~XbyZ Hw$R>`mhr Jmo>rg~Yr {dYmZ H$a`m`m EH$Xa gmV nVr AmhoV `m Aem 1) `mX ApV &
2) `mX ZmpV &
4) `mX AdV`_ &
5) `mX ApV AdV`_ &
6) `mX ZmpV AdV`_
7) `mX ApV ZmpV A`V`_
3) `mX ApV ZmpV &
Aem H$mao `m gmV {dYmZmMr {_iyZ Or aMZm V`ma hmoVo {Vbm gV^Jr Z` Ago hUVmV. darb
gmV {dYmZmMr _m{hVr Imbrb_mUo XoVm òBb.
1)
`mX ApV &
Ago Agy eHo$b. hm {dYmZ H$a`mMm n{hbm H$ma Amho. H$moUVrhr dVy `mMo `, jo, WmZ,
H$mb d ew `m >rZo {dMma H$aVm Vr dVy hUyZ ApVdmV AgVo. CXm.KQ> hm _{VHo$ nmgyZ (`) V`ma
Pmbobm Amho hUyZ _m`m ImobrV (WmZ) Amho. VgoM `m jUr (H$mb) Amho Am{U A_yH$ EH$m _mnmMm
26
Am{U AmH$mamMm ($n) Amho hUyZ ApVdmV Amho.

2)
`mX ZmpV &
Ago Zgy eHo$b. Xwg`m EImm dVy`m gX^mVrb `, WmZ, H$mb Am{U n `m`m >rZo
nmhVm n{hbr dVy ApVdmV ZgVo. CXm.`mX ApV _ò AmnU EH$Xm KQ> _mVrMm Amho Ago hQ>bo
Amho. Vgo òWo KQ> YmVyMm (`) ~Z{dbobm Amho. Vmo Xwg`m {R>H$mUr Amho. VgoM Vmo doJ`m doir Amho
Am{U doJ`m AmH$mamMm Amho `m AWmZo ApVdmV Zmhr.
3)
`mX ApV ZmpV &
Ago Agy d Zgy eHo$b. EH$M dVy XmoZ {^Z >tZr nm{h`mg EH$Xm AgVo Am{U EH$Xm ZgVo Ago
hUVm òD$ eHo$b. `m {Vg`m H$mamV H$moUVr dVy H$er Amho VgoM Vr H$er Zmhr `mMmhr {dMma Ho$bm
OmVmo.
4)
`mX AdV`_ &
dUZ Z H$a`mgmaIo Agob. `mX AdV`_ hUOo XmoZ {damoYr JwU EH$mM dVy`m {R>H$mUr
AgVmV, Am{U hUyZ `m dVyMo Zo_Ho$ d$n H$go Amho ho R>a{dUo Ae` ~ZVo. CXm.ndr hr hQ>bo Va
pWa Amho d hQ>bo Va pWa Zmhr, hUyZ Vr Zo_H$s H$er Amho Vo gmJVm òV Zmhr. Aem AWmZo Vr
AdUZr` (AdV`_) Amho.
5)
`mX ApV AdV`_ &
Agy eHo$b nU dUZ H$a`mgmaIo Zgy eHo$b. hUOo ndr Amho, pWa Amho Am{U Varhr {VMo
Zo_Ho$ d$n H$go Amho Vo gmJUo H${R>U Amho. Vo g_O`mgmaIo Zmhr. hUyZ `mbm AdV`_ hQ>bo
Amho.
6)
`mXZmpV AdV`_ &
Ago Zgy eHo$b d dUZ H$a`mgmaIo Zgy eHo$b. hUOo EImXr dVy Aer Zmhr Am{U `mM~amo~a
Vr AdUZr` Amho. CXm.ndr {\$aV Zmhr Ago {XgVo. nU `mM~amo~a {VMo d$n AdV`hr Amho.
7)
`mX ApV ZmpV AdV`_ &
Agy, Zgy d AdUZr` Ago eHo$b. `mX ApV ZmpV AdV`_ hUOo EImXr dVy Aer Amho,
Aer Zmhr, Am{U Varhr Vr AdUZr` Amho. hUOo ndr EH$m AWmZo pWa Amho, EH$m AWmZo {\$aV Amho.
Am{U Varhr {VMo Iao d$n AmH$bZr` Zmhr d hUyZ Vo AdUZr` (AdV`_) Amho Agm `mMm AW
Amho.
AemH$mao kmZ {_i{d`m`m `m {^Z {^Z gmV ~mOy AmhoV. gmVhr EH$ hmoD$Z AmnUmg
dVyMr gnyU H$nZm XoVmV. Z`dmX d `mXdmX `m`m AmYmao OZmZr Amnbm AZoH$mVdmX darb_mUo
n> Ho$bobm Amho.
27
3.2.4 Ord Am[U AOrd Vdo :JwU Am{U n`m` `mZr `wV Ago Oo ` nXmW AmhoV Vo ` nXmW Ord Am{U AOrd `m XmoZ _wI
H$mamV {d^mJbobo AmhoV. hUOoM Ord Am{U AOrd hr Xmohrhr ò hmoV hUOo Vr JwU Am{U n`m`mZr
`wV AmhoV.OZ VdkmZmZwgma `m {ddmMr XmoZ A{V_ VdmV {d^mJUr Ho$bobr Amho d Vr hUOo Ord
Am{U AOrd hmo`. hr Xmohr Vdo {Z` d emdV AgyZ Vr nanamhZ dV AmhoV Am{U Varhr `mMo
ghApVd Amho. Ord hm ^moVm Amho Va AOrd hm ^mo` {df` Amho. Ordmbm OmUrd (~moY) qH$dm kmZ
AgVo Am{U AOrd ho Mma B{`mZm ne, $Mr, JY d >r `m`m_m\$V VrV hmoVo. Ord MoVZ AgVmo
Am{U AOrd AMoVZ AgVmo. hUOoM Ord {OdV d mUdmZ AgVmV Am{U AOrd mUa{hV [H$dm OS> d
^m{VH$ d$nmMo AgVo. Ord d `mMo H$ma Am{U AOrd d `mMo H$ma `mMr _m{hVr nwT>rb_mUo Amho Ord OZ Y_mV Ord hm eX doJdoJ`m H$mao dmnabm Jobm Amho. Ord hUOo mUVd, Am_m d OmUrd
Agohr hQ>bo Amho. `mbm MoVZm Amho Vmo hUOo Ord hmo`. Oo Vd OmUVo, {dMma H$aVo Am{U gdoXZerb
AgVo Vo Vd hUOo OrdVd hmo`. kmZ, gdoXZm, {dMma Am{U gH$n `m Jmo>r H$moU`mVar Vdmer
g~{YV AgVmV Vo Vd hUOo OrdVd hmo`. Ordm_wio qH$dm mUm_wio earambm {OdVnU bm^Vo.kmZ
AWdm OmUrd hm OrdmMm Y_ Amho. OrdmMm Y_ Am{U dV: Ord `m {^Z Jmo>r ZmhrV. CXm.`moVrMm
H$me hm `moVrhZ {^Z ho Iao Amho nU H$mea{hV `moV H$er Agy eHo$b? Am{U `moVr{edm` H$me
H$gm Agob? `m_mUo OmUrd hr OrdmhZ {^Z ho Iao Amho. nU OmUrda{hV Ord H$gm Agob d
Ordm{edm` OmUrd H$er Agob ?
OrdmMo JwU Ord Oohm `m`m ew emdV pWVrV AgVmo Vohm `mMo AmR> JwU gm{JVbo AmhoV Vo Ago 1)
AZV kmZ - A_`m{XV Ago kmZ
2)
AZV XeZ - A_`m{XV Aer lm AWdm gmjmH$ma
3)
A`m~mY - gwIXw:ImnmgyZ _wVr
4)
g`H$d - g`H$ kmZ, g`H$ XeZ, g`H$ AmMaU
5)
Aj` pWVr - emdV AdWm
6)
A$nr - AmH$mahrZVm AWdm $nhrZVm
7)
AJwbKy - pWVrMr g_mZVm, \$ma CM Zmhr qH$dm \$ma ZrM Zmhr Aer pWVr
28
8)
AZV-dr` - A_`m{XV {H$`merbd
OrdmMo H$ma Ord

ggmar Ord
Wmda Ord
Wyb Ord
gy_ Ord
1) dZnVr
2) ndrH$m`
_wV Ord
gOrd
{gOrd
rq`
t{`
VrWH$a Ord
MVw[a{`
nMo|{`
g_ZH$
3) ObH$m`
4) A{H$m`
5) dm`wH$m`
OrdmMo _w` H$ma XmoZ nS>VmV `mZm 1) ggmar Ord d 2) _wV Ord Ago hUVmV.
1)
ggmar Ord -
ggmar Ord hUOo EH$m O_mVyZ Xwg`m O_mV doe H$aUmao qH$dm OmUmao Ord hmo`. `m ggmar
OrdmMohr XmoZ H$ma nS>VmV `mZm A) g Ord d ~) Wmda Ord Ago hUVmV.
A)
g Ord -
g hUOo WbmVa H$aUmao Ord hmoV. hUOoM EH$m OmJoH$Sy>Z Xwg`m OmJoH$S>o OmUmao Ord hmoV.
Aem `m g OrdmMo nmM CnH$ma nS>VmV `mZm 1) t{` 2) t{` 3) MVw[a{` 4) nM|{` 5)
g_ZH$ Ago hUVmV.
1)
t{` Ord -
r-B{` Ord CloUrMo AgVmV. `m m`mZm Ho$di ne d agZm Aer XmoZM B{ò AgVmV
`mZm r-B{` Ord hUVmV. `m OrdmZm ghm mU AgVmV. ag, ne, eara, dgZeVr, OrdZH$mb
Am{U dmH$ (MmbUo) Ago ho ghm mU AmhoV. `m_ò OV, qen`mV amhUmao gy_ Am`mgmaIo Ord,
JmSw>io, Oidm, gwadQ> ho mUr AgVmV. `mMm OJ`mMm H$mbmdYr 12 dfmhZ A{YH$ ZgVmo.
29
2)
t{` -
`m m`mZm ({H$Q>H$mZm) Ho$di ne (dMm), agZm (Or^) d JY (ZmH$) Aer VrZ r-B{` Ord
Ago hUVmV. `m dJmV Vm~S>m, nmT>`m d H$m`m _w`m, T>oHy$U d nVJ `mgma`m m`mMm g_mdoe
hmoVmo. `mMm OJ`mMm H$mbmdYr 49 {Xdgmnojm A{YH$ ZgVmo.
3)
MVw[a{` -
`m m`mZm ne, agZm, JY d Mjy (S>moio) Aer Mma B{ò AgVmV `mZm MVwa-B{` Ord
hUVmV. `m dJmV qdMy, S>mg, JmYrb_mer, {MbQ>o, _mem, \w$bnmIao, Q>moi `mgma`m m`mMm `m dJmV
g_mdoe hmoVmo. `mMm OJ`mMm H$mbmdYr ghm _{h`mnojm A{YH$ ZgVmo.
4)
nM|{` -
`m m`mZm ne, agZm, JY, Mjy d ldU Aer nmM B{ò AgVmV `mZm nM|{` Ord Ago
hUVmV. `m dJmV KmoS>m, Jm`, dmK, qgh `mgma`m m`mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo.
5)
g_ZH$ Ord -
_Zw` mUr `m H$mamV òVmoo. _Zw`mbm nMkmZ|{ò (ne, agZm, JY, Mjy d ldU) d _Z Am{U
{dMma H$a`mMr eVr AgVo. BVa m`mnojm _Zw` hm mUr `m_wioM doJim Amho. `m{edm` _Zw`m_ò
dmMm (~mobUo) Amho. `m_wio Vmo Amnbo {dMma `V H$$ eH$Vmo. _Zw`mMm OJ`mMm H$mbmdYr gamgar
100 df}n`V AgVmo.
~)
Wmda Ord -
Wmda Ord ho EH$ B{` AgUmao Ord AgVmV. `mZm \$V ne ho EH$M B{` AgVo. `m EH$B{` OrdmZm Mma mU AgVmV. ne, eara, dgZeVr d OrdZH$mi ho Vo mU hmoV. ho Wmda Ord XmoZ
H$maMo AmhoV `mZm 1) Wyb Ord d 2) gy_ Ord Ago hUVmV.
1)
Wyb Ord d 2) gyy_ Ord -
`m EH$-B{` OrdmMo H$_ Wyb AgVo Vo Wyb EH|${` Ord hmoV. ho Wyb EH|${` Ord H$mhr
{Z`{_V Wir AgVmV. `m Wyb Ordm_ò {d{dY H$ma`m dZnVtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo.
`mCbQ> `m EH|${` OrdmMo H$_ gy_ AgVo, `mZm gyj EH|${` Ord hUVmV. `m gy_
Ordm_ò ndrH$m`, ObH$m`, A{H$m` d dm`wH$m` `mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo.
2)
_wV Ord -
_wV Ord hUOo nyUnUo _moH$io Pmbobo Ord hmoV. _wV Ord Eo{hH$ Jmo>tnmgyZ A{bV AgyZ C
A`mp_H$ AdWoV Jobobo AgVmV. _wV Ord ho _wV ({Z$nmYr) AgVmV. H$maU Vo ew ApVd
Am{U AZV OmUrd `m`m AdWoV AgVmV. `mZm AZVkmZ, AZV XeZ, AZV dr` Am{U AZV gwI
mV Pmbobo AgVo. `m _wV OrdmMr {d^mJUrgwm XmoZ H$mamV hmoVo. `mZm Wyb Ord d VrWH$a Ord
Ago hUVmV. Wyb Ord ho ggmar Ordm`m gwIXw:Img~Yr CXm{gZ AgVmV. VgoM Wyb Ord ho
30
nyUdmg nmohmoMbobo AgVmV. Vo gd H$_mnmgyZ _wV Pmbobo AgVmV. VrWH$a Ordgwm _wV AgVmV.
ggmar OrdmZm H$mhr H$mi `mZr _mJXeZ Ho$bobo AgVo Ago Ord VrWH$a Ord AgVmV.
AOrd OrdmZVaMo Xwgao Vd hUOo AOrd hmo`. AOrd hm AMoVZ AgVmo. hUOo AOrd mUa{hV qH$dm
OS> d ^m{VH$ d$nmMm AgVmo. MoVZoMm A`V A^md AgUmam nXmW hUOo AOrd hmo`. AOrd hm ^mo`
{df` Amho. AOrd ho Mma B{`mZm hUOo ne, $Mr, JY d >r `m`m _m\$V VrV hmoVo. Ago ho AOrd
Vd nmM H$mamV {d^mJbo OmVo.
AOrd H$ma 1) nwXJb
2) Y_ (J{V)
4) H$mb
5) AmH$me
3) AY_ (pWVr)
nwXJb * nwXJb ho n{hbo AOrd ` hmo`. `m nXmWmbm eX, ne, ag, JY d dU ho JwU AgVmV Vmo
nXmW hUOo nwXJb hmo`. B{`mZm `mMo kmZ hmoVo Vr dVy, B{ò, OrdmMr earao, Wyb _Z, H$_}, B`mXr
AmH$ma Agbo`m Jmo>r AgVmV `mZm nwXJb Ago hUVmV.
* `m`m bhmZ _moR>m gKmVmZr OJmVrb {Za{Zamio AMoVZ nXmW ~Z{dbobo AmhoV `m AUyZm
nwXJb hUVmV. nwXJbm`m {R>H$mUr eX, g`moJ, _wbm`_nUm, WybVm, AmH$ma, {d^mJ, VoO d CUVm
Am{U $n `m {d{H$`m AgVmV.
* ` qH$dm nXmW ho A{dZmer AmhoV. ` H$moUVohr $n KoD$ eH$Vo Am{U H$moUVohr JwU `mV Agy
eH$VmV. ` qH$dm nXmW ho hmbMmbtMo H|$ Amho. `mbmM nwXJb Ago hUVmV.
* nwXJbm`m g~YmVrb JVr XmoZ H$maMr Amho. `mZm gmYr nanX JVr d n[aUm_ JVr Ago
hUVmV. n[anX JVr hUOoM ZwgVrM hmbMmb hmo`. n{aUm_ JVr hUOo JwUmV d n`m`mV ~Xb hmoUo
hmo`.
2) d 3) Y_ d AY_ Y_ Am{U AY_ `mMo Zoh_rMo AW hUOo gXmMma hmo`. nU OZ XeZmV hm AW KoVbobm Zmhr.
VgoM `mMm AW nw` d nmn [H$dm Z{VH$ gXJwU Agm ZgyZ {ddmV JVr d pWVr `m`m_wio e`
hmoVmV Aer XmoZ Vdo AmhoV. Y_ d AY_ {XgV ZmhrV, naVw OJmV JVr (hmbMmb) d pWVr (pWaVm)
`mMo n>rH$aU H$aVm ò`mgmR>r `m ghm`H$ {H$`m hUyZ OZ XeZmV JhrV Yabo`m AmhoV.Y_ `
J{V ghm`H$ Amho. hUOo dV: Vo CXmgrZ AgyZ JVrg CnH$maH$ Amho. CXm.nm`m_wio _membm BH$S>o
{VH$S>o {\$aUo e` hmoVo nU nmUr _membm dV: T>H$bV Zmhr. Y_mMohr VgoM Amho hUyZ Y_m_wio J{V
CnZ hmoV Zmhr Va Vo JVrg ghm`H$ R>aVo.AY_ ` ho pWaVoMo CXm{gZ H$maU Amho. Ogo djmMr
N>m`m dmQ>g$bm ~ioM amoIyZ YaV Zmhr Va WH$bobm dmQ>g$ djm`m N>m`m_wio djmImbr {dlmVrg
Wm~Vmo. AY_ `mMo H$m` `mM H$maMo Amho.
31
4)
H$mb -
H$mbmMo bjU AgUo ho Amho. Vmo ` AgyZ AZV AgVmo. Vmo {XgV Zmhr. H$mhr OZ Vdk H$mbmMo
XmoZ H$ma _mZVmV. `mZm {ZM`H$mi d `dhmaH$mi Ago hUVmV. {ZM`H$mi hm AZmXr d AZV
AgVmo. `mdhm[aH$ H$mbmbm g_` hUVmV. `mMr {d^mJUr jU, Vmg, {Xdg, _{hZo, df} `mV H$aVm
òVo.
5)
AmH$me -
AmH$me ho XoemMo ~Zbobo Amho. EH$m nwXJb na_mUw_wio OodT>m AS>Wim {Z_mU hmoVmo VodT>mg EH$
Xoe hUmd`mMo. BVa ` nXmWmZm AdH$me H$$Z XoUo d `m`m hmbMmbrg ghm`^yV hmoUo ho
AmH$memMo H$m` Amho. AmH$memMo bmoH$mH$me d AbmoH$mH$me Ago XmoZ ^mJ _mZbo AmhoV. AbmoH$mH$memV
H$mhrM Zmhr. Vr ZwgVr AIS> nmoH$ir Amho. `mV Y_ Am{U AY_ hr ò Zg`mZo `mV nXmWm`m
JVrMr Am{U hmbMmbrMr e`Vm ZgVo. Ord, nwXJb, Y_ d AY_ ho ~hXoe`mnr Ag`mZo `m`m
{dVmamgmR>r AmH$me `mMo ApVd g` _mZUo Amd`H$ R>aVo.
3.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z :A)
Jmibo`m OmJm âm.

1)
{OZ `m eXmMm AW ----------- Agm hmoVmo.
2)
OZ Y_mMo n{hbo VrWH$a ----------- AmhoV.
3)
OZ Y_mMo Mmodrgmdo VrWH$a ----------- AmhoV.
4)
OZ Y_mMo ----------- Am{U ----------- ho XmoZ R>iH$ nW AmhoV.
5)
----------- hm OZ gXmMmamMm nm`m Amho.
6)
----------- hUOo Ae, AJ qH$dm nmhUm`mMm {d{e> A{^m` hmo`.
7)
----------- Am{U ----------- hr AZoH$mVdmXmMrM XmoZ no AmhoV.
8)
`mbm MoVZm Amho Vmo hUOo ----------- hmo`.
3.4 n[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW :1) VrWH$a - OZ Y_mMo dVZ gdYZ Am{U gma `mZr Ho$bm `mZm VrWH$a hUVmV.
2) {OZ : B{ò qOH$Umam
3) {XJ~a : AJmda d Z R>odVm qhS>Umao
4) doVm~a : ew^ d n[aYmZ H$aUmao
5) Aqhgm na_mo Y_m: : Aqhgm hm gdlo> Y_ Amho.
6) Z` : Ae, AJ, nmhUm`mMm {d{e> A{^m`
7) G$Oy : gai
32
8) `mX : EH$m AWmZo, EH$m narZo, {d{e> gX^mV

9) g : WbmVa H$aUmao
3.5 d` A``Z ZmMr Cmao :1) qOH$Umam
2) G$f^ZmW
4) {XJ~a d doVm~a
3) ^JdmZ _hmdra
5) Aqhgm
6) Z`
7) Z`dmX Am{U `mXdmX
8) Ord
3.6 gmame :OZ XeZ ho EH$ Ad{XH$ (ZmVrH$) XeZ Amho. OZ XeZmMm gma d gdYZ `mZr Ho$bm `mZm
VrWH$a Ago hUVmV. Ago EHy$U 24 VrWH$a hmoD$Z JoboV. `mnH$s G$f^ZmW ho n{hbo VrWH$a AmhoV.
dY_mZ _hmdra ho Mmdrgmdo VrWH$a AmhoV. OZ XeZmW {XJ~a d doVm~a Ago XmoZ R>iH$ nW {XgyZ
òVmV. {XJ~a hUOo AJmda d Z R>odVm qhS>Umao d doVm~a hUOo ew^ d n[aYmZ H$aUmao hmoV.
OZmMo _ybJW AY_mJYr `m ^mfoV {b{hbo AmhoV. Aqhgm hm OZ gXmMmamMm nm`m Amho. OZmMo A`V
_hdmMo gy Amho. H$moU`mhr H$maMr qhgm Z H$aUo hm OZmMm _yb_ Amho. AZoH$mVdmX hm `mMm
_hdmMm {gmV Amho. AZoH$mVdmXmVyZ Z`dmX d `mXdmX hr XmoZ no {Z_mU hmoVmV. Z` hUOo Ae,
AJ qH$dm nmhUm`mMm {d{e> A{^m` hmo`. Z`dmXmMo _w` H$ma XmoZ nS>VmV `mZm `Z` d n`m`Z`
Ago hUVmV. `Z`mMo VrZ H$ma d n`m` Z`mMo Mma H$ma Ago {_iyZ Z`dmXmMo EHy$U gmV H$ma
nS>VmV `mZm ZJ_Z`, gJhZ`, `dhmaZ`, G$OygyZ`, eXZ`, g_{^$T>Z` d Ed^yVZ` Ago hUVmV.
`mXdmXmMohr gmV H$ma nS>VmV.
OZ VdkmZm_ò Ord Am{U AOrd Vdo _hdmMr AmhoV. Ord ho MoVZVd Amho d AOrd ho AMoVZ
Vd Amho. OrdmMo _w` H$ma XmoZ nS>VmV. `mZm ggmar Ord d _wV Ord Ago hUVmV. AOrdmMo EHy$U
nmM H$ma nS>VmV `mZm nwXJb, Y_, AY_, H$mb d AmH$me hUVmV.
3.7 gamdmgmR>r dm`m` :1)
OZ Y_mMr nanam {deX H$am.
2)
OZmMm AZoH$mVdmX n> H$am.
3)
OZm`m Aqhgm `m VdmMr _m{hVr m.
4)
OrdmMo H$ma CXmhaUmgh n> H$am.
5)
AOrdmMo H$ma n> H$am.
3.8 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$ :gd KQ>H$m`m eodQ>r nwVH$mMr `mXr {Xbr Amho.
666
33
KQ>H$ - 4
~m XeZ
( Buddhism )
4.0 C{>o
4.1 mVm{dH$ (OrdZdmmV)
4.2 {df` - {ddoMZ
4.2.1
Mma Am`gò
4.2.2
A>mJ _mJ
4.2.3
j{UH$dmX (A{Z`VmdmX)
4.2.4
AZm_dmX
4.2.5
{ZdmU gH$nZm
4.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z
4.6 gmame
4.0 C{Q>o :`m KQ>H$m`m A`mgmZVa Amn`mbm * ~m Y_mMr {eH$dU g_Oob.
* OrdZ Xw:I_` Amho `mMr _m{hVr hmoBb.
* Xw:ImMr H$maUo g_OVrb d Xw:I {ZamoYmMo _mJ {_iVrb.
* AmnU AZw^drV AmhmoV Vo gwI jU{Odr Amho ho H$iob.
* _moj _mJ g_Oob.
4.1 mVm{dH$ (OrdZdmmV) :^JdmZ JmV_~w hm ~m XeZmMm gWmnH$ Amho. `mMm O_ {Vnyd 7 `m eVH$mV Pmbm
Amho. hUOoM `mMm O_ [I.ny.563 `m dfu {h_mb`m`m nm``mer H${nbdVy `m ehamOdirb
bw{~Zr `m JmdmV Pmbm. `m`m AmBMo Zmd _m`mXodr d d{S>bmMo Zmd ewmoXZ Ago Amho. ewmoXZ hm j{`
Hw$imVrb AgyZ Vmo EH$ AmXe amOm hmoVm. JmV_m`m O_mZVa `mMr AmB _m`mXodr {hMo 7 {XdgmZr
34
{ZYZ Pmbo. `mZVa JmV_mMr _mder JmV_r {hZo `mMo nmbZnmofU Ho$bo. `mMo _yi Zmd {gmW Ago hmoVo.
{gmWmbm bhmZnUmnmgyZ qMVZmMr gd` hmoVr. Vmo gdgm_m` _wbm_mUo Ioi`mV a_V Zgo. Vmo
VmgZVmg `mZ_Z AdWoV Ago. `mMo {Mm ggmamV a_mdo hUyZ `m`m d{S>bmZr `mMm {ddmh j{`
amOHw$_mar èmoYam {hMo ~amo~a 16 `m dfu bmdyZ {Xbm. `mg EH$ _wbJm Pmbm. Varhr `mMo _Z
ggmamV a_oZm. _Z ggmamV a_mdo hUyZ `m`m d{S>bmZr Iyn `Z Ho$bo nU eodQ>r Vo `W R>abo.
EHo$ {Xder Vmo aWmVyZ ~mhoa OmV AgVmZm `mbm {Za{Zam`m doir VrZ ò {Xgbr. Vr Aer 1) dmY`mZo dmH$bobm, aV d _mg H$_r Pm`mZo eara ewH$ Pmbobm, XmV nS>bobm, Ho$g {nH$bobm,
EoH$m`bm Z òUmam Agm EH$ OI hmVmam `mZo nm{hbm. 2) Xwg`m {Xder a`mda H$$U dmUrZo
AmH$moe H$aUmam EH$ amoJJV _mUyg `mZo nm{hbo. 3) {Vg`m {Xder H$U AmH$moe H$aUm`m kmVr
~mYdmZr doT>bobo EH$ oV `mZo nm{hbo. hUOoM earam`m dmY`, amoJJVVm d _`y `m VrZ AdWm
`m`m >rg nS>`m. Aem Xw:Ir `mZr `m`m _Zmda Imob n[aUm_ Pmbm.
Jh`mJ :gmar H${nbdVy {Zo`m AYrZ Pmbr AgVmZm Amn`m H$WH$ `m bmS>`m KmoS>mda dma hmoD$Z
N>XH$ `m gma`mbm ~amo~a KoD$Z _àmr Vmo ~mhoa nS>bm. WmoS>m dmgmZVa `mZo KmoS>mbm d gma`mbm
aOm {Xbr. `mZo XmT>r d S>mo`mMo _wT>Z Ho$bo Amnbr amOdo EH$m {eH$m`mbm XoD$Z `mMr _{bZ do
n[aYmZ Ho$br. eodQ>r Vmo nmQ>`m`m X{jUog Agbo`m C$dobm òWo Ambm. VoWo `mbm AmUIr nmM
gmYH$ ôQ>bo. earambm ZmZm H$mao boe XoD$Z na_mVrgmR>r Vo `Z H$aV hmoVo. `m`m_mUo Vmo
Cnmg-Vnmg H$$ bmJbm. `m_wio `mMo eara ApWnOa Pmbo. `mdoionmgyZ JmV_mZo R>a{dbo H$s,
na_mVrgmR>r eara nrS>m hm _mJ Zho. H$Vr dm`mgmR>r `mo` Amhma Ko`mMm `mZo {ZU` KoVbm.
Cdobm `m IoS>mOdirb {ZOZ ^mJmV Vmo EH$m qnnim`m PmS>mImbr `mZ bmdyZ ~gbm (`mbmM
AmnU ~moYrdj hUVmo). `m {R>H$mUr `mbm Am_gmjmH$ma Pmbm d `mbm ~wd mV Pmbo. kmZ mV
Pmbo. `m kmZmVr`m doir, nwZO_m`m \o$`mVyZ hmoUmar n[a^_Uo, Xw:ImMo _yi H$maU Am{U `m
Xw:ImMm g_yi Zme H$aUmam Cnm` `mMr `mbm OmUrd Pmbr. `mVyZM `mbm na_~moY Pmbm. AmnUmg
mV Pmbobo kmZ BVamZm Xo`mgmR>r Vmo ~mhoa nS>bm. VoWyZ Vmo ~Zmag òWo Ambm. VoWo `mg nydu gmoSy>Z
Jobobo Vo nmM {^jwH$ ôQ>bo. dV: Oo kmZ mV Pmbo hmoVo `m`mg~Yr n{hbo dMZ `m nmM Vn`m`m
g_moa {Xbo. `m n{h`m dMZmg "Y_MH$ dVZ' Ago hUVmV. ~wmbm `m g`mMm gmjmH$ma Pmbm Vo
hUOo, "`m OJmV Oo Oo hUyZ H$mhr Amho Vo gd A{Z`, j{UH$ d ZmedV Amho. `m {ddmV gd KQ>Zm
{Z`_mZwgma KS>VmV. Bda dJao H$moUrhr {ddmMm d _mZdmMm H$Vm d {Z`Vm Zmhr. ho OJ gVV ~XbUm`m
dmhmgmaIo Amho. `mV {Z`, emdV Ago H$mhrM ZgVo. _mZdmMo gd {dMma, ^mdZm, BN>m d AmgVr
`m`m Xw:Imbm H$maUr^yV AgVmV d `mnmgyZ _mZdmbm _wV hmoVm òVo d Vmo `mnmgyZ _wV Pmbm Va
VrM AIS> emVr ({ZdmU) AgVo. Aem H$ma`m mV Pmbo`m kmZmMm CnXoe `mZo O_â Ho$bm.
eodQ>r {Vnyd 483 _ò d`m`m 80 `m dfu `mMo {ZYZ Pmbo. `mbm Oo kmZ mV Pmbo `mbm
Am`gò hUVmV. hoM JmV_mMo VdkmZ hmo`.
4.2 {df` {ddoMZ
4.2.1 Mma Am`gò ~wmZo Or Mma gò gm{JVbr Vr Mma Am`gò hUyZ AmoiIbr OmVmV. gmaZmW òWrb n{h`m
35
dMZmV ~wmZo Mma Am`g`mMm CnXoe Ho$bm. Vr Mma Am`gò nwT>rb_mUo AmhoVA) gd Xw:I_ ~) Xw:I H$maU_ H$) Xw:I {ZamoY S>) Xw:I {ZamoYmMo _mJ
A)
gd Xw:I_ -
Xw:I ho n{hbo Am`g` Amho. ~wmZo _mZdr OrdZmMo {ZarjU d qMVZ Ho$bobo hmoVo. `m qMVZmVyZ
`mZr Agm {ZH$f H$mT>bm H$s, _mZdr OrdZ Xw:I_` Amho. Xw:Im~b ~wmZo Amnbo _V nwT>rb_mUo
_mS>bo Amho *
OJmV gd Xw:I âbobo Amho.
O_, Oam, `mYr Am{U _`y hr gJir Xw:Io hmoV.
O_m~amo~a Xw:I AgVo.
{ddg hm Xw:IXm`r AgVmo.
gwIXm`H$ Jmo>rnmgyZ ApbV hmoUo Xw:IXm`H$ AgVo.
BN>o_mUo Z hmoUo qH$dm Z {_iUo ho Xw:I hmo`.
A{ZN>mnydH$ Hw$R>`mhr Jmo>rer g~Y òUo Xw:IH$maH$ AgVo.
A{`mMm g`moJ hmoUo d {`mMm {d`moJ hmoUo ho Xw:I Amho.
Xw:I ~moMVo, Q>moMVo, gbV amhVo hUyZ Xw:I ho Am`g` Amho.
~)
Xw:I H$maU_ -
Xw:Imbm H$maU Amho ho Xwgao Am`g` Amho. `m {ddmV {ZH$maU H$moUVrhr KQ>Zm KSy> eH$V Zmhr.
AH$maU EImXr KQ>Zm KS>br Ago hmoUo e` Zmhr, Ago ~wmMo n> _V Amho. gmh{OH$M Xw:I hr KQ>Zm
Ag`m_wio {hbm gwm H$maU ho AgboM nm{hOo. BN>m d O__`yMr oaUm hr XmoZ _hdmMr Xw:I H$maUo
~wmZr gm{JVbobr AmhoV.
nwhm nwhm CnZ hmoUmar Am{U AZoH$ {df` Cn^moJmV aJyZ d $VyZ ~gUmar BN>m hrM Xw:ImMr
OZZr Amho. `m BN>obm ~w VUm Ago hUVmV. hUyZ ~w hUVmV, gd H$maMr VUm hr Xw:ImMo _yi
qH$dm H$maU Amho. VUm VrZ H$maMr AgVo 1)
H$m_VUm - gwI Cn^moJmgmR>r bmJbobr VUm.
2)
^dVUm - ApVdmgmR>r bmJbobr VUm.
3) {d^dVUm - ^d Zmhrgo H$a`mMr VUm (YZmMr BN>m d Eod` `m VUm _mZdmbm Hw$R>bohr
H$m` H$a`mg dm H$aVmV Am{U `mVyZ Xw:I {Z_mU hmoVo.) m VUmM gd Xw:ImMo Am[U O__`yMohr
H$maU AmhoV.
gd Xw:ImMo _yi H$maU A{dm _mZbo Amho. A{do_wio gH$ma, gH$mam_wio {dkmZ, {dkmZm_wio
Zm_n, Zm_nm_wio fS>m`VZo (nmM kmZ|{ò d _Z), fS>m`VZm`m `moJo ne, nem_wio doXZm, doXZo_wio
VUm, VUo_wio CnmXmZ, CnmXmZ_wio ^d, ^dm_wio OmVr qH$dm O_, O_m_wio Oam-_aUm{XH$ Xw:Io Aer
~mam H$maUmMr _m{bH$m ~wmZo gm{JVbobr Amho. `m H$maU nanaobmM "{V`g_wnmX' Ago hQ>bo Amho.
36
VgoM `m _m{bHo$Vrb òH$ Xw`mbm "{ZXmZ' hUyZ g~mo{Ybo Amho. `mM_mUo `m ~mam Xw`m`m
nanaobm "mXe {ZXmZ' ho Zmd {Xbobo Amhoo. `mMr g{dVa _m{hVr Imbrb_mUo Xw:ImMr ~mam H$maUo (mXe {ZXmZ) 1)
A{dm -
Xw:ImMo _yi H$maU A{dm hmo`. A{doMm CJ_ AhH$mamVyZ {Z_mU hmoVmo. AhH$ma hUOo _r Am{U
_mPo (__d) `mMm CJ_ Agbobr Am_H$nZm hUOo A{dm hmo`.Mma Am`g`mg~YrMo AkmZ hUOo
A{dm Agmhr AW gm{JVbobm Amho. A{doMr H$maUo hUyZ nmM {ZdmaUo {Xbobr AmhoV. {ZdmaU hUOo
AmN>mXZ qH$dm nS>Xm hmo`. Vr Aer - H$m_mN>X, `mnmX, Am`, Hw$w$, `moZ{_. `mMo n>rH$aU
nwT>rb_mUo1)
H$m_mN>X - hUOo {df` Cn^moJmMr _Zmbm bmJbobr MQ>H$ qH$dm Am`{VH$ AmdS> hmo`.
2)
`mnmX - hUOo ZmdS>`m dVw{df`r qH$dm `Vr{df`r dmQ>Umam of hmo`.
3)
Am` - hUOo {MmmMr MMbVm Agm AW KoVbobm Amho.
4)
Hw$w$M - hUOo _ZmMr Mwi~wi. AmnU H$arV AmhmoV Vo ~amo~a Amho H$s MyH$ Amho Aem ge`mV
nS>`mMr ImoS> hmo`.
5)
`moZ{_ - hUOo _ZmMm OS>nUm Am{U AmiernUm hmo`.
hr nmM {ZdmaUo eara, dmUr Am{U {dMma `m`m mam Ho$bo`m nmnmZr nwQ> Ho$br OmVmV. B{ò
Vm`mV Z R>odUo, dmBQ> gH$mamMm A{JH$ma H$aUo, Y_mMr {eH$dU Z EoH$Uo, {^jyMm AmXa Z H$aUo Aer Vr
nmno hmoV. Aem H$mao A{doVyZ Xw:I {Z_mU hmoV AgVo.
2)
gH$ma :-
A{dm ho gH$mamMo H$maU AgVo. hUOoM A{donmgyZ gH$ma {Z_mU hmoVmV. gH$ma hUOo
{Za{Zam`m {df`m`m g~YmZo CnZ hmoUmao gy_ d$nmVrb amJ, of, _moh ho {dH$ma AmhoV. `mVyZ
Xw:I {Z_mU hmoVo.
3)
{dkmZ :-
`m gmIirVrb {Vgam Xwdm hUOo {dkmZ hmo`. gH$ma$nr {dH$mamVyZ (amJ, of, _moh) ApVdmMr
OmUrd {Z_mU hmoVo. _r Amho AWdm nXmW AmhoV Aem `m OmUrdoMo d$n AgVo. `m ApVdm`m OmUrdog
{dkmZ hUVmV. `mVyZ Xw:I {Z_mU hmoVo.
4)
Zm_n :-
`m gmIirVrb MmWm Xwdm hUOo Zm_n hmo`. {dkmZm_wio Zm_n ho H$m` KS>Vo. Zm_ hUOo
_Z:qnS> d n hUOo earaqnS> hmo`. _Z:qnS> hm kmVm (OmUUmam) AgVmo Va earaqnS> hm ko` {df`
AgVmo. kmVm IoarO ko` ho AWhrZ R>aVo. hUyZ Zm_n d {dkmZ ho nanamda Adb~yZ AgVo. {dkmZ ho
dVnUo ApVdmV Agy eH$V Zmhr `mbm AmYmamgmR>r Zm_nmMr Amd`H$Vm AgVo.
37
5)
fS>m`VZ :-
Zm_nmVyZ hUOo _Z:qnS>mVyZ d earaqnS>mVyZ nwT>o ghm H$maMr kmZ|{ò d `mMr ghm H$m`joo {Z_mU
hmoVmV. `m_ò nMkmZ|{ò (S>moim, H$mZ, ZmH$, Or^ d dMm) d _Z `mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo.
6)
ne :-
S>moim, ZmH$, H$mZ, dMm d Or^ ({Ohm) Am{U _Z `m ghm B{`mMm `m`m $n (nmhUo), EoH$Uo,
JY, ag, ne d Y_ `m {df`mer hmoUmam g`moJ hUOo ne hmo`. kmZ{H$òV ne hm \$ma _hdmMm
Amho. H$maU `m_wio ~m OJV d `m OJmVrb dVy `mMm fS>`VZmVrb B{`mer g~Y òVmo. WmoS>`mV
B{`, `mMm {df` d `m B{`m_m\$V H$m_ H$aUmao {dkmZ `m {VhtMr gJVr hUOo ne hmo`.
7)
doXZm :-
doXZm hUOo gwIXw:ImMm AZw^d òD$ bmJUo hmo`. ~m OJVmVrb dVyer g~Y Am`mZVa
doJdoJ`m H$ma`m doXZm {Z_mU hmoVmV. `m doXZm gwIH$maH$ d Xw:IH$maH$hr AgVmV. hUOoM doXZoVyZ
gwIXw:ImMm AZw^d òD$ bmJVmo. `m doXZo_wio `Vr hr OJVmer A[YH$m{YH$ EH$$n hmoD$ bmJVo.
8)
VUm :-
VUm hr doXZoVyZ {Z_mU hmoVo Am{U hr VUm OJVmVrb Xw:ImMo _wI H$maU ~ZVo. doXZonmgyZ VUm
{Z_mU hmoD$ md`mMr H$s Zmhr ho `m `Vr`m hmVmV AgVo. `m VUo_wioM _Zw` OJVmVrb òH$
Jmo>t`m _mJo _yImgmaIm bmJVmo. VUo_wio _Zw` Am_m d Bda `mgma`m Jmo>t`m emoYmV amhVmo.
VUm hr EH$gmaIr dmT>V amhVo. `m VUm VrZ H$ma`m AgVmV (H$m_VUmm, ^dVUm, {d^dVUm)
`mMm CboI _mJo òD$Z JobobmM Amho. Oohm VUoda AmnU {dO` {_i{dVmo `mdoir gd Xw:Io Zmhrer
hmoVmV. `m_mUo H$_bnwnmdarb Xd d[aV JiyZ nS>Vmo `m_mUo VUodaVr {ZÙ R>od`mZo gd Xw:Io
d[aV Zmhrer hmoVmV.
9)
CnmXmZ :-
* CnmXmZ ho VUoMoM EH$ n Amho. VUoMr Am`{VH$ AdWm hUOo CnmXmZ hmo`. CnmXmZ hUOo
A{VVUm. CnmXmZmMm AW AmgVr Agmhr Ho$bm OmVmo. ApVdmgmR>r bmJbobr VUm hUOohr CnmXmZ
hmoVo.
* Or gwIo mV Pmbobr AmhoV Vr gwIo H$Yrhr ZQ> hmoD$ ZòV, qH$~hZm `mnojm A{YH$ _mUmV
gwIo mV hmdrV hm h`mg hUOo CnmXmZ hmo`.
* VUmZr hm CnmXmZm`m BYZmZo d{bV hmoVo Ago ~w EHo$ {R>H$mUr hUVmo. `m `m {R>H$mUr
A{ `m `m {R>H$mUr BYZ ho AgVoM Am{U hUyZ `m `m {R>H$mUr VUm AgVo `m `m {R>H$mUr CnmXmZ
AgVo. `m CnmXmZm_wio Ord ~m dVyV A{YH$m{YH$ Jwa\$Q>V OmVmo. ~YZmg nm R>aVmo `mgmR>r CnmXmZmnmgyZ
dV:hZ _wV Pm`mIoarO `Vrg _moj {_iV Zmhr.
* CnmXmZmMo Mma H$ma _mZVm òVmV Vo Ago. 1) H$m_ CnmXmZ 2) >r CnmXmZ 3) erbdV
CnmXmZ 4) Am_dmX CnmXmZ.
1) H$m_ CnmXmZ - B{` Cn^moJm~b Agbobr AmgVr hm n{hbm H$ma hUOo H$m_ CnmXmZ. ho
I`m AWmZo VUm hmo`. BVa VrZ H$ma AkmZmVyZ {ZKmbobo AmhoV.
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2) >r CnmXmZ - nmIS>r _Vm~b`m AmdS>rZo Ambobr AewMr AmgVr hUOo >r CnmXmZ hmo`.
3) erbdV CnmXmZ - nmIS>r bmoH$mZr Amn`m ò` mVrgmR>r A{JH$mabobo AmMmaY_ d dVdH$ò
`m~bMr AmgVr hUOo erbdV CnmXmZ hmo`.
4) Am_dmX CnmXmZ - Am`m`m ApVdmda Agbobm {ddmg hUOo Am_dmX CnmXmZ hmo`.
10) ^d :AmgVr _YyZ nwZO_mg H$maUr^yV R>aUmao Oo H$_ KS>Vo `mg ^d Ago hQ>bo Amho. ^d hm
CnmXmZmVyZ {Z_mU hmoVmo. ^dmMm n[aUm_ hUyZ nwhm nwhm O_ `mdm bmJVmo Am{U `mVyZ hmVmanU,
amoJ Am{U _`y hr Xw:Io ^moJmdr bmJVmV.
11) Om{V :^d _YyZ OmVr {Z_mU hmoVo. Om{V hUOo O_. ^dm`m H$_m_wioM mUr O_mg òVmo. ho O_mg
òUo hUOoM Om{V hmo`. Omon`V _Zw` O_ _`y`m MH$mV AS>H$bobm AgVmo Vmon`V Vmo _mojmnmgyZ
A{bV amhVmo.
12) Oam - _aU :Oam `mMm AW dmY` Agm eXem AW KoVbm OmVmo. nwZO_ ho Xw:ImMo H$maU AgVo. EH$Xm O_
_`y`m MH$mV _Zw` AS>H$bm H$s `mbm hmVmanU d _`y `m ~m~r AmnmoAmnM òD$Z {MH$Q>VmV. `mVyZ
_Zw`mbm nwhm nwhm O_ `mdm bmJVmo d nwZO_mZo Xw:I ^moJmdo bmJVo.
^dMH$ :`m ~mam {ZXmZmMr VrZ O_mV {d^mJUr Ho$bobr Amho. hUyZ `mbm O_` Ago hUVmV. `m
O_`mbm `mnUm`m `m ~mam {ZXmZm`m _m{bHo$bm ^dMH$ hUVmV.
mXe - {ZXmZmMr {Vbmo_ H$_mZo _mS>Ur :mXe - {ZXmZmMr CbQ>m H$_mZo hUOo {Vbmo_ H$_mZo _mS>Ur H$aUo g_O`m`m >rZo A{YH$
gw~moY R>aVo. Vr Aer H$aVm òVo - 12) Amnbm O_ hm dmY`, _`y, amoJ `m_wio Xw:I_` ~ZVmo
(Oam_aU). 11) AmnUmg Xw:I ^moJmdo bmJVo H$maU AmnU O_mbm òVmo (Om{V) 10) _r O_mbm òVmo
H$maU _r `m OJmV AgVmo (^d) 9) _r `m OJmV OJVmo H$maU _bm `m OJm{df`r AmgVr, o_ dmQ>Vo
(CnmXmZ) 8) _r OJVmo H$maU _bm AZoH$ BN>m d dmgZm AgVmV (VUm) 7) _bm BN>m hmoVmV H$maU
_bm gdoXZ hmoV AgVo (doXZm) 6) _bm gdoXZ hmoVo H$maU _mPm OJmer g~Y òVmo (ne) 5) _mPm `m
OJmer g~Y òVmo H$maU _bm ghm B{Xò AgVmV (fS>m`VZ) 4) _mPm `m OJmer g~Y òVmo H$maU ho
Zm_nmMo OJ AgVo (Zm_n) 3) _r EH$ OmUUmar `Vr Ag`mZo _mPm Zm_$nm_H$ OJmer g~Y
òVmo. _bm OmUrd Ag`mZo ho OJ _bm g_Oy eH$Vo ({dkmZ) 2) ho {dkmZ qH$dm hr OmUrd nydO_r`m
gH$mam_wio {Z_mU hmoVo (gH$ma) 1) `m gdmMo _yi H$maU _bm _mPo dV:{df`rMo Ag`kmZ qH$dm
AkmZ AgVo (A{dm).
H$)
Xw:I{ZamoY :-
~wmZo gm{JVbobo ho {Vgao Am`g` hmo`. `mV `mZo Xw:ImMm gnyU Cne_ (Zme) H$amdm Ago
gm{JVbo Amho. Xw:ImMm gnyU Cne_ H$amdm hUOoM dmgZm, VUm, Am_o_ `m gd JmoQ>r Z> H$amd`mg
39
nm{hOoV. VUoMm Zme Pmbm hUOo gd Xw:ImMm AV hmoD$Z {ZdmU mV hmoBb. VUm ZmemZo _Zw` gd
Xw:ImVyZ _wV hmoVmo. O__`y`m MH$mVyZ gwQ>Vmo Am{U kmZ mV hmoD$Z AIoa {ZdmUV OmVmo.
AhH$ma Z> Ho$`mZo d g`{df`H$ o_ R>od`mZo Xw:ImMm Zme hmoVmo. amJ, of, ge` `m gdmMm
`mJ Ho$`mZo {ZdmUV OmVm òVo. {ZdmU AdWoV dmgZm gXoh, B{` gwIo, B`mXtMm Zme Pmbobm
AgVmo. `m AdWobm ~w ew`mdWm hUVmo. ew`mdWoV EH$ H$maMr emVr {_iVo.
S>)
Xw:I {ZamoYmMo _mJ :-
ho MmWo Am`g` hmo`. Xw:I {ZamoY hm hmoD$ eH$Vmo. BVHo$M Zho Va `m Xw:I_mJmnmgyZ Amnbr
gwQ>H$mhr H$$Z KoVm òVo. Xw:I {ZamoY H$a`mMm Omo _mJ ~wmZr gm{JVbm `mbmM Xw:I {ZamoY _mJ Ago
hUVmV. `mbmM Am` A>m{JH$ _mJ qH$dm _`_ {VnX Agohr hUVmV. `mMr _m{hVr nwT>rb_mUo
Amho.
4.2.2 A>mJ _mJ :Xw:I {ZamoY H$a`mMm Omo _mJ ~wmZr gm{JVbm `mbm Am` A>m{JH$ _mJ hUVmV. JmV_ ~wmZr
Amn`m n{h`m dMZmV gd _mZd OmVr`m H$`mUmgmR>r gXmMmamMm _mJ H$WZ Ho$bm. `mMr AmR> AJo
Ag`mZo `mbm A>m{JH$ _mJ Ago hUVmV.~wmZo Ho$di Xw:ImMr H$maUo gm{JVbr ZmhrV Am{U OrdZmH$S>o
Ho$di Xw:I_` ^y{_Ho$VyZM nm{hbo Zmhr Va `m Xw:ImMm Zme hmo`mgmR>r Am{U OJmH$S>o AmemXm`r >rH$moZmVyZ
nmh`mgmR>r ~wmZo Xw:I {ZamoYmMo AmR> _mJ gm{JVbo AmhoV. `mbm A>m{JH$ _mJ qH$dm _`_ {VnX
Ago hUVmV. `mMr AmR> AJo nwT>rb_mUo AmhoV 1) g`H$ Q>r
2) g`H$ gH$n
3) g`H$ dmMm
4) g`H$ H$_mV
5) g`H$ AmOr{dH$m
6) g`H$ `m`m_
7) g`H$ _Vr
8) g`H$ g_m{Y
1) g`H$ >r :* g`H$ eXmMm AW "`mo`' Agm KoVbm OmVmo. g`H$ >r hUOo `mo` (MmJbr) >r hmo`.
g`H$ >r hUOo Mma Am`g`mMo kmZ hmoUo hmo`. dV _Z Am{U {dMma g`H$ >rbm Amd`H$
AmhoV.
* `m {ddmV Oo Oo H$mhr KS>Vo `mMr Cnmr hmoVo. Vo EH$gmaIo ~XbV amhVo d gnw>mV òVo. hr
{ZgJmMr {H$`m Amho. hr AerM MmbV amhVo d MmbV amhUma d hUyZ H$emMmhr emoH$ dmQy>Z Ko`mZo
Xw:Im`{V[aV H$mhrhr hmVr òUma Zmhr. `mMr Imr hmoUo ho g`H$ >rZoM e` hmoVo. {ZgJ {Z`_m{d$
H$moUVrhr Jmo> hmoV Zmhr ho bjmV R>odmdo.
* g`H$ >r AYlobm Xya gm$Z _mUgm`m {dMmamZm ~wrnm_m`dmXr diU bmdVo. gmamgma
{ddoH$ ~miJyZ, Hw$R>bohr Q>moH$ Z JmR>Vm g_Vmob gmYUmam dVZ `dhma gmY`mda òWo â {Xbobm Amho.
* g`H$ >rMo A`V `mnH$ d$nmV "g_m{X{>gwmm' _ò gm[anwmmZo Vnerbdma dUZ Ho$bo
Amho. ~amo~a H$m` Amho d MwH$sMo H$m` Amho ho H$go g_Om`Mo `m{df`r {ddoMZ H$aVmZm Ago hQ>bo Amho
H$s, qhgm H$aUo, Mmoar H$aUo, b{JH$ `{^Mma, Ag` ^mfU H$aUo, qZXm H$aUo, H$R>moa dmJUo, H$S>m
{nH${dUo, bmo^ ~miJUo, {VaH$ma H$aUo, ^_mV amhUo ho XwJwU AmhoV. `m gdmMo _yi bmo^, of, _moh ho
40
AmhoV d `m`mnmgyZ gd XwJwUmMm CX` hmoVmo. hUyZ Aem XwJwUmMm bmon Pm`mZVa `m H$Vr Ho$`m
OmVmV `m {ZXm}f amhVmV d `m H$Vr gXJwUm`m AgVmV ho H$iUo hUOo g`H$ >r hmo`.
2)
g`H$ gH$n :-
* g`H$ gH$n hUOo `mo` ò`, C{MV AmH$mjm R>oD$Z `mZwgma dmQ>Mmb H$aUo hmo`. òH$mZo
ew^H$m_Zm, ew^ AmH$mjm, m`m{df`r o_ ^mdZm, ew hoVy `mMm gH$n H$amdm Am{U `mZwgma Amnbo
AmMaU R>odmdo.
* g`H$ >r Agbo`m gmYH$mMm {ZdmU mV H$$Z Ko`mMm T> {ZM` hUOo g`H$ gH$n
hmo`.
* g`H$ >r {dH${gV H$arV AgVmZm {dMmamZm gH$nm`m gmmZo ZrQ> {Xem XoD$Z `m`mV
g_d` KS>{dUo Amd`H$ AgVo. dmWunUm _ò AmS>dm Z AmUVm gH$nm`m gmmZo {dMmam_ò
gwgdmX KS>dyZ AmUmd`mg nm{hOo.
3)
g`H$ dmMm :-
* g`H$ dmMm hUOo `mo` ^mfU hmo`. hUOoM ImoQ>o Z ~mobUo, A{` Z ~mobUo, naqZXm Z H$aUo,
H$Qy> eX Z ~mobUo, `W ~S>~S> Z H$aUo, B`mXtMm g_mdoe g`H$ dmMm _ò òVmo.
* EH$mZo Xwg`m{df`r dmBQ> ~moby Zò. gdmer AmnwbH$sZo d gmO`mZo ~mobyZ g`H$ dmMm _mJmMo
nmbZ H$amdo.
* òH$mZo `mo` Am{U g` ~mobmdo. AneX`wV qZXmZmbVr Q>mimdr. hm _mJ g_mO dm`mgmR>r
A`V CnH$maH$ Amho.
4)
g`H$ H$_mV :-
* g`H$ AmMaUmgmR>r "g`H$ H$_mV' hm eX `moObm Amho. `m_ò Xwg`mMo mU Z KoUo, Mmoar
Z H$aUo, B{`mda g`_ R>odUo `m JmoQ>r òVmV.
* g`H$ H$_mV `m eXmMm AW `mo` dVZ Agm hmoVmo. òH$mZo Xwg`mMo hH$ Am{U ^mdZm
`mMm AmXa amIyZ H$Vr H$amdr.
* OrdZm`m _yb^yV {Z`_mer gwgJV dVZ hUOo g`H$ H$_mV hmo`. g_mO YmaUobm nmofH$
Agm hm _mJ Amho. gH$_mMo H$m`rH$, dm{MH$ d _mZ{gH$ Ago H$ma AmhoV. WmoS>`mV Hw$H$_mnmgyZ
òH$mZo Xya am{hbo nm{hOo.
* gdgm_m` _mUgmgmR>r d gdgm_m` `dhmamgmR>r ~wmZr H$mhr {Z`_ gm{JVbo AmhoV Vo Ago
1) AmB d{S>bmZr Amn`m _wbmZm nmnr AmMaUmnmgyZ namdm H$amdo Am{U `m`m_ò A{YH$m{YH$ MmJbo
JwU H$go òVrb `m>rZo `Z H$amdoV. {ejU gn`mda hUOo `mo` d`mV Am`mda `mMm {ddmh H$amdm. _wbmZrhr
dmnH$mir Amn`m AmBd{S>bmMr d nmbH$mMr `mo` H$miOr `mdr.
2) {dm`mZo Jw{df`r AmXa R>odmdm. `m`m Amkm nmim`mV d `m`m JaOm nyU H$am`mV. Jw
`m_mUo gmJob `m_mUo A``Z H$amdo. JwZohr {dm`mer o_nydH$ `dhma H$amdm. `mZm em,
H$bm, B`mXr_ò nmaJV H$amdo. `m`m_ò MmJ`m MmJ`m gd`r {Z_mU H$a`mMm `Z H$amdm.
41
3) nVrZo nZrer AmXa^md ~miJmdm d {V`mer EH${Z> ahmdo. {V`m gd H$`mUmMr O~m~Xmar
`mdr. nZrZohr nVrer o_nydH$ dVZ Ho$bo nm{hOo. KamMr gnyU H$miOr KoVbr nm{hOo. gd A{VWtMm
`mo` g_mZ Ho$bm nm{hOo.
* `m{edm` gmYwbmoH$mZrhr g`H$ H$_m~m~V H$mhr {Z`_ nmiUo Amd`H$ Amho Ago ~w _mZVmo.
`m`m _Vo gmYw bmoH$mZr Amhma, {dhma, gm_m{OH$ gKf, gmX`mMr H${_ gmYZo dmnaUo, XmJXm{JZo,
gmoZo, e`mgmo~V B`mXrnmgyZ A{bV am{hbo nm{hOo.
5)
g`H$ AmOr{dH$m :-
* g`H$ AmOr{dHo$g "g`H$ {Zdmh' Agohr hQ>bo Amho. AmnU `mo` _mJmMm Adb~ H$$Z
Amnbr CnOr{dH$m Mmb{dUo hUOo g`H$ AmOr{dH$m hmo`.
* òH$mZo Amnbr CnOr{dH$m H$moUmdahr A`m` Z H$aVm, `mo` _mJmZo YZmVr H$$Z Am{U
Z{VH$Vm nmiyZ H$amdr. òH$mbm {OdV amh`mgmR>r YZmVrMr Amd`H$Vm AgVo. Mmoar, {eH$ma,
^>mMma `mgmaIr Hw$H$_} H$$Z YZ {_i{dUo `mo` Zmhr.
* AmOr{dH$m `m`nyU d g_mO_m` Agbr nm{hOo hUOoM g`H$ AmOr{dH$m hm Z{VH$VoZo
OJ`mMm _mJ Amho.
6)
g`H$ `m`m_ :-
* _ZmVrb Xw{dMma H$mTy>Z Q>mHy$Z `m {R>H$mUr ew^{dMmamMr WmnZm H$a`mgmR>r gVV `Zerb
amhUo hUOoM g`H$ `m`m_ hmo`.
* g`H$ `m`m_mMr Mma CnmJo AmhoV Vr Aer 1)
Amn`m AJmV Agbobo XwJwU Kmb{dUo.
2)
Amn`m AJmV Zgbobo gXJwU gnmXUo.
3)
Kmb{dbo XwJwU nwZ: Amn`mV òD$ Z Xo`mMm `Z H$aUo.
4)
gnmXZ Ho$bo`m gXJwUmMr OmonmgZm H$aUo.
* `mM~amo~a Am_{ZÙ, B{` gwImon^moJmMm `mJ H$aUo, dmBQ> BN>m _ZmV Z AmUUo, gnyU
H$`mUmgmR>r ew^{dMmamMr _ZmV n`ZnyydH$ {V>mnZm H$aUo, B`mXtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo.
* MmJ`m {dMmamda qMVZ H$aUo, H$VrMo n[aUm_ MmJbo H$s dmBQ> `mMm A`mg H$aUo, dmBQ>
{dMmamMr H$maUo emoYUo, _Zmda {ZÙ R>odUo `mgma`m ~m~tMm g_mdoe g`H$ `m`m_mV hmoVmo.
7)
g`H$ _Vr :-
* g`H$ _Vr hUOo gd Xw:I_` Amho. j{UH$ Amho, "_r' ZmdmMm H$moUr pWa nXmW Zmhr, dJao
Jmo>rMo gVV _aU R>odUo hmo`.
* {Mm pWa R>odyZ `mMr Mb{~Mb hmoD$ Z XoUo hUOo g`H$ _Vr hmo`.
* _ZmVrb XwQ> dmgZmda I~ra nhmam R>odUo, dmBQ> {dMmamMr hH$mbn>r H$aUo Am{U _Z gXd
OmJV R>odUo hUOo g`H$ dmr hmo`.
42
* gH$_mMo AmH$fU Am{U XwH$_mMm {VaH$ma Ho$`m_wio g`H$ `m`~wr {Z_mU hmoVo d `m_wio
_mZdr OrdZ {ZdmU nX mVrbm nm hmoVo, Agm {ddmg `m _mJmVyZ `V hmoVmo.
8)
g`H$ g_m{Y :-
* g`H$ g_m{Y hr A>mJ _mJmMr n[aUVr hmo`. `mZm`m Mma {Za{Zam`m AdWmVyZ Jo`mda
{MmmV Omo na_emVrMm (_Z:emVrMm) AZw^d òVmo `mbm g_m{Y AdWm hUVmV.
* `mZm`m Mma AdWm 1) n{h`m AdWoV Mma Am`gò d ~wmMr {eH$dU `mda emV {MmmZo `mZ H$amd`mMo AgVo
Am{U AZmgV {dMma {Z_mU H$$Z A{Vr` d$nmMm AmZX {Z_mU H$amd`mMm AgVmo.
2) Xwg`m AdWoV {dMma ho AZmd`H$ R>aVmV. hr _mUgmMr {dMmaa{hV AdWm AgVo. ge`mMo
{ZYmaU hmoD$Z Mma Am`g`mdarb lm ~iH$Q> hmoVo. koVyZ ZdrZ CmamMr {Z{_Vr hmoV AgVo. hr
AdWm mV Pm`mZVa {MmmV EH$ H$maMr emVVm d emdVVm {Z_mU hmoV AgVo.
3) `m AdWoV AmZX d {Mm EH$M AmhoV `mMr {MVr òVo. `m AdWoV {Mm ho EH$mJ hmoV AgVo.
4) gnyU emVrMr AdWm Mm`m AdWoV mV hmoVo. `mdoir gd H$ma`m gwIXw:ImMm Zme
Pmbobm AgVmo. VgoM _Zm`m gd dmr d C_u Z> Pmbo`m AgVmV. `m AdWoV nyUd, emVr AZw^yVrg
òVmV. `mVyZ {ZdmU mV hmoVo.
* g`H$ g_mYr `m eXmMm AW {MmmMr EH$mJVm Agm hmoVmo. _Zmbm MmJ`m Jmo>rMm {dMma
H$a`mMr gd` bmdUo, MmJbo diU bmdUo hUOo g`H$ g_mYr hmo`. {MmmMr Mb{~Mb Wm~{dUo hUOo
g`H$ g_mYr hmo`. Vr gm` H$a`mgmR>r AmYr gm{JVbo`m gmVhr _mJmMo `Wmo{MV AmMaU JmV_
~wmZm A{ôV Amho.
* EH$Xm `WmW Q>r mV Ho$br hUOo `WmW {ZM` H$aVm òVmV. `m_wio dm^m{dH$nUo `WmW
dmUr, `WmW H$_, `WmW H$_gmYZo `m`m{df`r OmJ$H$Vm {Z_mU hmoVo. `WmW qMVZ Am{U `Z `mMo
OmoS> {_imbr hUOo _mUyg g`H$ g_mYrbm nm hmoVmo. `m _mJmV B{` {ZJh Am{U _mZ{gH$ EH$mJVm `m
Jmo>rda â Xo`mV Ambobm Amho. `m`m_wio VUoda {dO` {_i{dVm òVmo. `mVyZ g`H$ g_mYrbm _mUyg
nm hmoVmo.
* YZmMm A`mg Mmby AgVmZm Mma H$ma`m ^mdZm _wm_ dqJV H$am`mV Ago gm{JVbo
Amho. `m Mma ^mdZm hUOo _r, H$Um, _w{XVm d Cnojm `m hmoV. mUr_mmda o_ H$amdo (_r) `mMr
Xw:Io bjmV KoD$Z `m`m{df`r X`m ~miJmdr (H$Um), `m`m gwImZr AmZXyZ Omdo (_w{XVm) d Ago
H$arV H$arV OJm{df`r Amn`m _ZmV Cnojm ~wr T> H$amdr, hUOoM {Mm pWa H$amdo (Cnojm) `mbmM
g_mYr Ago hUVmV.
4.2.3 j{UH$dmX (A{Z`dmX) :AW - ho OJ d `m OJmVrb gd dVy d KQ>Zm n[adVZerb (~XbUm`m) AmhoV. `m OJmVrb
òH$ Jmoo> {VjUr ~XbV AgVo. `m OJmV H$mhrhr pWa, {Z`, emdV, {Q>H$mD$ qH$dm A_a ZgVo.
Agm ~wmMm _hdmMm {gmV Amho. `mbmM j{UH$dmX qH$dm A{Z`dmX Ago hUVmV.
* ~m XeZmZwgma gd Y_ A{Z` AmhoV. EH$m jUmbm EH$ Y_ CnZ hmoVmo d Zme nmdVmo. `m
43
_Vmbm j{UH$dmX Ago hUVmV.

(Y_ hUOo `m H$emg "Amho' hUVm òBb
Vo, `mMm `` òVmo Vo, Oo dbjUmZo {d_mZ Amho Vo)
* OJmV Oo AZw^yVrg òVo Vo jUâM {Q>H$Vo. OJmV {Z` Ago H$mhrhr ZgVo. ~m XeZmV `mbm
gd j{UH$_ qH$dm gd_ A{Z` Ago hQ>bo Amho.
* OJmV gd dVy j{UH$ AmhoV, {Z` Ago H$mhrhr Zmhr (j{UH$dmX) ho gmJ`mgmR>r nwT>rb
`w{$dmX ~m XeZmV H$a`mV Ambobo AmhoV - 1) AW{H$`mH$m[ad `w{$dmX 2) AZw^dmYm[aV `w{$dmX.
1)
AW{H$`mH$m[ad `w{$dmX :-
OJmV Oo ApVdmV Amho, gV Amho nU Vo jUâM {Q>H$Vo (jUâ {Q>H$Vo `mMm AW òH$ Jmo>
{VjUr ~XbV AgVo Agm KoVbm Amho). EImXr Jmo> ApVdmV Amho `mMm AW `m Jmo>rV AW{H$`mH$m[ad
Agbo nm{hOo. ""AW{H$`mH$m[ad hUOo H$mhrVar KS>dyZ AmU`mMo gm_` hmo`. `mbmM H$m`monmXZ
j_Vm Ago hUVmV.'' (`m`m `moJo H$mhrM KS>V Zmhr Vo Agbo H$m` Am{U Zgbo H$m` Xmohrhr Jmo>r
gma`mM). {O`mmao H$mhrVar KSy>Z òVo hUOoM {O`mV AW{H$`mH$m[ad Amho VoM gV hmo` Am{U Vo
{VjUr ~XbUmao Amho, A{Z` Amho, jU^Jya Amho.
H$mhrVar KSy>Z òVo hUOo n{hbr Jmo> Z> hmoVo Am{U `mVyZ ZdrZ Jmo> {Z_mU hmoVo. {Z_mU Pmbobr
ZdrZ Jmo> jUâ {Q>H$Vo, Vr Z> hmoVo Am{U `mVyZ ZdrZ Jmo> {Z_mU hmoVo.
CXm.Oohm ~rOmVyZ AHy$a \w$Q>Vmo Vohm ~rO Z> hmoVo d AHy$a V`ma hmoVmo. H$mhrVar CnZ Ho$`m{edm`
ApVd Zmhr. nU Xwgao CnZ hmo`mgmR>r nyduMo Z> hmoUo Amd`H$ Amho. `mMmM AW Agm H$s, gd Y_
j{UH$ AmhoV.
Amjon - `mda H$mhrOU Agm Amjon KoVmV H$s, Hw$U`mV R>odbo`m {~`m`m {R>H$mUr AHw$amonmr ho
H$m` KS>dyZ AmU`mMo gm_` Amho. nU AHy$a {Z_mU Z H$aVm XoIrb {H$VrVar doi (jU) Vo ~rO VgoM
{Q>Hy$Z amhVo. Vo AHy$a {Z_mU H$aV Zmhr. Vo ~r ApVdmV Zmhr Ago hUVm òUma Zmhr. `m`m {R>H$mUr
H$m` KS>dyZ AmU`mMo gm_` Amho nU `mg j{UH$ hUVm òUma Zmhr.`m Amjonmg ~mmMo Cma gm_` Agob Va H$m` VH$mi KSy>Z AmboM nm{hOo. A_yH$ EH$ H$mbn`V Vo gm_` dmQ> nhmV amhVo Ago
_mZVm òUma Zmhr. H$maU A_yH$ EH$ H$mi bmoQ>bm ho `m gm_`mbm H$iUma H$go ? Vmo H$mi EdT>m qH$dm
VodT>m Ago hUVmM òUma Zmhr. Vgo hU`mgmR>r H$mhrVar KS>mdo bmJob. hUyZ nXmW `m jUmnmgyZ `m
jUmn`V ApVdmV Amho `mMm AW _`Var H$mhrVar KS>bo Amho AgmM hmoBb. Oohm H$mhr KS>Vo Vohm
nydjUrMm nXmW Z> hmoD$Z `m`m {R>H$mUr Xwgam CnZ Pmbm AgoM hUVm òBb. ho {dYmZ Hw$R>`mhr
jUmg~Yr H$aVm òVo. WmoS>`mV Oo gV Amho `m`m {R>H$mUr AW{H$`mH$m[ad Amho Am{U hUyZ Vo j{UH$
Amho. (gV --- AW{H$`mH$m[ad ---j{UH$Vm Agm `wVrdmX hmo`.)
2)
AZw^dmYm[aV `w{$dmX :-
* j{UH$Vog~YrMm Xwgam `w{$dmX _mS>VmZm ~w AZw^dmMm AmYma KoVmo. `m`m _Vo Amn`m
AZw^dmg òUm`m gdM Jmo>r ZmedV AmhoV. hUOoM `m jU^Jya AmhoV. `m OJmVrb gd dVy d KQ>Zm
n[adVZerb AmhoV. `m OJmVrb òH$ Jmo> {VjUr ~XbV AgVo, `m OJmV H$mhrhr pWa, {Z`,
emdV d {Q>H$mD$ Zmhr, Agm AZw^dmda AmYm[aV {gmV ~wmZo _mS>bm Amho. `mgM j{UH$dmX Ago
hUVmV.
44
* CXmhaUmXmIb ~w Ago hUVmo H$s, g_moaMm ndV XoIrb H$mhr bmI dfmZr ZQ> hmooUma Amho.
Vmo AJXr EH$m jUmV Z> hmoVmo Ago Zmhr Va Amn`m AZw^dmg Z òVm XoIrb Vmo ~XbV AgVmo. `m_ò
H$mhrVar XajUr \$aH$ nS>V AgVmo. hUOoM òH$jUr `m ndVmg Hw$R>bmgm-Hw$R>bmVar ~Xb Pmbobm
AgVmo. hm ~Xb hUOo n{hbm ndV Z> hmoUo d `mOmJr Xwgam ndV {Z_mU hmoUo ho hmo`. {Z` Agm ndV
H$moUmbmhr AZw^dmg òV Zmhr. WmoS>`mV OJmVrb H$moU`mhr dVyV H$mbmVamZo ~Xb hmoV amhUma ho
AZw^dmMo g` Amho.
Amjon - ~wm`m `mdarb _Vmda H$mhtZr Amjon KoVbm Amho Vmo Agm :
""{ZgJmMo {Z`_ ho _m j{UH$ d A{Z` ZgVmV. {ZgJmMo {Z`_ ho emdV d {Z` AgVmV. nU
`m {Z`_m_mUo hmoUm`m {d{e> KQ>Zm _m n[adVZerb d gVV ~XbV AgVmV. Vohm {Z`Vm d
A{Z`Vm `m XmoZ Jmo>r _m` H$am`m bmJVmV. Amn`m m _Vm`m nQ>rH$aUm gmR>r `mZr H$mhr
CXmhaUo nwT>rb_mUo {Xbobr AmhoV.
CXmhaU 1) nimnimZo {Xdg dmT>V AgVmo. nhmQ>, Cf:H$mb, gH$mi, Xwnma, {Vgam ha, g`mH$mi,
am, _àm, nwhm nhmQ> Ago {Xdg-amrMo MH$ A`mhVnUo {\$aV AgVo.
CXmhaU 2) g_wmbm âVr-AmohmoQ>r òVo. g_wm`m nm`mda Mgy`mMo AmH$fU H$m` H$arV
AgVo. g_wmMo nmUr dmT>Vo, _moR>_moR>m bmQ>m CgiyZ {H$Zm`mH$S>o YmdV òVmV, _moR>r JOZm H$aVmV d
nmUr \w$JVo `mbm âVr òVo hUVmV. âVr gnVmM AmohmoQ>r gw$ hmoVo d AmohmoQ>r gnVmM âVr gw$ hmoVo.
{XdgmVyZ XmoZXm âVr d XmoZXm AmohmoQ>r òVo. EH$doi KS>mi MwHo$b nU âVr-AmohmoQ>r`m doim MwH$V
ZmhrV.CXmhaU 3) dfmMr {d^mJUr ghm G$VyV Ho$bobr Amho. EH$ G$Vy gnVmM Xwgam G$Vy gw$ hmoVmo d
`mbm R>am{dH$ doir AV òVmo. òH$ G$VyMm H$mi XmoZ _{h`mMm AgVmo. dgV, Jr_, dfm, eaX, ho_V
d {e{ea ho G$Vy `mM H$_mZo Z MwH$Vm gmV`mZo hOmamo df} hmoV Ambobo AmhoV. CXmhaU 4) OrdmMr
{Z{_Vr, dmT>, O_ hmoUo d O_mZVa eed, ~m`, H$m_m`, `mdZ (Vm`), mT>d, dmY` d eodQ>r AV
hmoUo ho MH$ _mZd Y$Z gd {OdV m`mV Mmby AgVo.WmoS>`mV - {ZgJmMo {Z`_ gmV`mZo H$m` H$aVmV
d `mMo {Z`_ MH$ A`mhVnUo ([Z`{_V) {\$aV amhVo. `m OJmV n[adVZ gVV Mmby AgVo hm òH$mMm
AZw^d Amho. {ZgJmMo {Z`_ ho _m j{UH$ d A{Z` ZgVmV.
`m Amjonmg ~mmMo Cma - ~wmZo _m `mVrb n[adVZm`m ^mJmda Omoa {Xbm. `m OJmV gdM
~XbUmao, n[adVZerb d A{Z` AgVo. Aem {ddm`m J{V_mZVoMm _hdmMm {gmV _mS>bm Amho.
hUOoM "gd j{UH$_, gd A{Z`_ &' Amho Agm `mMm _yb^yV {gmV Amho.~w `mgmR>r CXmhaU XoVmo
Vo Ago - `moV OiV AgVo Vohm òH$ jUr Zdr `moV AgVo. Vr EH$M d pWa dmQ>V Agbr Var
òH$ jUr doJir d Zdr `moV V`ma hmoV AgVo. òH$ jUr Zdo H$U OiyZ `mVyZ H$me ~mhoa òV
AgVmo.VgoM ZXrMm dmhVm dmh Oar VmoM {XgV d dmQ>V Agbm Var `mVrb nmUr AIS>nUo dmhV
Ag`mZo `mV {Z` ZyVZVm AgVo. òH$ jUmbm ZdrZ nmUr dmhV d nwT>o gaH$V AgVo. WmoS>`mV
ZXrMo dmhVo nmUr qH$dm {X`mMr OiVr `moV Oar EH$M d VrM {XgV Agbr Var Vmo ^mg AgVmo d `mMo
{VjUr ~XbUmao $n hoM Iao AgVo Ago ~w hUVmo. hUOo ~wm`m _Vo n[adVZerbVm ho g` AgVo
Am{U {Z`Vm Ag` d ^mg_mZ AgVo, Agm AZw^dmYm[aV `w{$dmX _mS>bm Amho.
45
4.2.4 AZm_dmX :~m _V - dV: JmV_ ~w Am{U gd ~mY_u` ho Am_m _mZV ZmhrV. gd ~m nWmZm g_mZ
AgUmao AmUIr EH$ Vd hUOo AZm_dmX hmo`. `mbmM Theory of Nonsoul Ago hUVmV.AWmV ~w
hm Am_m _wirM _mZrV Zmhr Ago Zmhr, Va Vmo Am_m ZmdmMo {Z`, emdV, A{dH$mar, An[adVZr`
A{dZmer ` Amho ho drH$maV Zmhr. {ddmVrb òH$ Jmo>, dVy d KQ>Zm j{UH$, {VjUr ~XbUmar
Ag`mZo Am_mhr n[adVZm`m {Z`_mbm AndmX Zmhr. Am_mhr gVV ~XbUmam Amho Ago ~wmMo hUUo
Amho.
doXmVr _V - doXmVr _VmZwgma, Am_m hm EH$ pWa nXmW qH$dm ` Amho Ago _mZbo Amho. hUOoM
`m {R>H$mUr Am_m `mMm AW Ho$di gOrd nXmWm`m {R>H$mUr _mZbm OmUmam Am_m (self, soul) EdT>mM
Zmhr Va Am_m hUOo `m {Za{Zam`m Y_mMm AWdm JwUmMm AmnUmg `` òV amhVmo `mZm AmYma^yV
Agbobm EH$ pWa nXmW AWdm ` Agm Amho.
CXm. \y$b ho ` `m. `m_ò JY, aJ, ne, B`mXr JwUY_ amhVmV. hUOoM \w$bmMm AmnUmg
JY òVmo, aJ {XgVmo, ne OmUdVmo. nU `m JwUY_mZm AmYma^yV Agbobo \y$b ZmdmMo ` doJioM
AgVo. JwUY_ WmoS>o~hV ~XbVmV qH$dm n[adVuV hmoVmV. VarXoIrb hr n[adVZo `m`m Aml`mZo hmoVmV
Vo ` pWa amhVo Am{U `mbm \y$b Ago hUVmV. `mVrb \y$b ho ` hmo` d ho {Z` AgVo. `m_mUo
\y$b ho ` {Z` AgVo, `m`m AmYmamZo JwUY_ ~XbV AgVmV `m_mUo Am_m ZmdmMm EH$ {Z`
nXmW AgVmo d `m`m AmYmamZo amJ, of, B`mXr ^mdZm ~XbV AgVmV Ago doXmVr gmJVmV.
~m _V - ~mmZm {Z` Ago ` ZmH$mamd`mMo Amho. _J Vo OS> Agmo AWdm MoVZ Agmo. JY, aJ,
ne B`mXr JwUY_mhZ doJim Agm \y$b ZmdmMm H$mhr ` nXmW Zmhr. H$maU `mMm AmnUmg AZw^d
Zmhr Ago `mMo hUUo Amho. aJ, JY, ne, B`mXr Y_ Oa H$mTy>Z Q>mH$bo Va \y$b ZmdmMm nXmW
ApVdmV XoIrb amhUma Zmhr. `m {d{dY Y_mMm gKmV hUOo \y$b ho ` hmo` Am{U ho ` {Z` Ago
ZgVo. Omon`V JwUY_ {Q>Hy$Z AmhoV Vmon`V Vo AgVo.Or Jmo> \y$bmgma`m AMooVZ nXmWmMr VrM Jmo>
"_r', "Vy', XodXm `mgma`m MoVZ nXmWmMr AgVo. {VjUr {Z_mU hmoUm`m amJ, of, BN>m, gwI, Xw:I,
B`mXr {MmY_mZm AmYma^yV Aem EH$m pWa nXmWmMr AmnU H$nZm H$aVmo d `mg Am_m hUVmo. nU
{Za[Zam`m {MmY_m`m g_wX`mMm gKmV hUOo Am_m hmo` Ago ~wmMo _V Amho.
CXm. `m gX^mV JrH$ amOm {_btX d {^jy ZmJgoZ `mMr Jmo> {g Amho. Vr Aer, {_btX amOm
ôQ>md`mg Ambm AgVm ZmJgoZmZo Z {dMmabm, _hmamO AmnU H$go AmbmV ? amOm hUmbm, aWmVyZ
Ambmo. ZmJgoZ hUmbm, Zo_Ho$ aW H$emg hUmd`mMo ? aWmMr MmHo$ hUOo aW H$s H$Um hUOo aW H$s KmoS>o
hUOo aW B`mXr. aW hUOo Ho$di MmHo$, H$Um, KmoS>o `mnH$s H$moUVohr EH$ qH$dm `mMr ~oarO ZgyZ `m
gdmZm {_iyZ aW Ago hUVmV Ago {_btX amOm`m bjmV AmUyZ {Xbo.
`m_mUo _mUgmMo hmV, nm`, ZI, Ho$g, S>moHo$, S>moio, Vm|S>, B`mXr Ad`dm`m gKmVmhZ {^Z
Agm _mUyg (Am_m) H$moUrhr Zmhr. Am_m ZmdmMo {Z` Ago H$mhrhr Zmhr. `m_mUo OS> dVy`m Y_mZm
Hw$R>bohr AmYma ` Zmhr `m_mUo MoVZ dVy`m Y_mZm Hw$R>bohr AmYma ` Zmhr. Oo Amho Vo Y_mMo
(JwUmMo) gKmV d `m gKmVmMo gVmZ hmo` `m _Vmg AZm_dmX Ago hUVmV.
* Hw$R>bmhr Y_ Xwg`m Y_mda Adb~yZ AgVmo, Xwgam {Vg`mda, {Vgam Mm`mda Agm `m_ò
H$_ AgVmo. g_wmVrb EH$ bmQ> Xwg`m bmQ>og O_ XoVo, Xwgar {Vgarg `m_mUo Vr EH$ AIS> {H$`m
46
Mmby AgVo. `m_mUo EH$ Y_ Xwg`mg O_ XoVmo, Xwgam {Vg`mg O_ XoVmo. `m nmR>r_mJo d Agm
H$moUrhr ZgVmo `mbmM AZm_dmX Ago hUVmV.
* Iao nmhVm Cn{ZfXmV gm{JVbobm {Z`, pWa, emdV, A{dH$mar, `n qH$dm ~ Agm
Am_m Amho ho ~wmZo nyUnUoo ZmH$mabo AgyZ Vmo nwhm nwhm gmJVmo H$s, {MaH$mb {Q>H$Umam, {Z`, emdV,
{ZJwU d {ZamH$ma Am{U AZoH$ O_ KoUmam Agm Am_m Zmhr. AmnUmg Omo Am_m hUyZ dmQ>Vmo Vmo Ho$di
{VjUr ~XbV amhUmam "nMH$YmMm' gKmV Amho. `mnojm A{YH$ doJio H$mhr Zmhr. (nMH$Y - n,
doXZm, gkm, gH$ma d {dkmZ)
4.2.5 {ZdmU gH$nZm :{ZdmU hm ~mmMm _hdmMm {gmV Amho. ~wmZo `m Xw:I_` OJmnmgyZ _wV hmo`mMo ò` A{V_ d
gdm} Amho Ago gmJyZ Vo mV H$$Z Ko`mgmR>r Am` A>mJ_mJ gm{JVbm. {hXy Y_mV _moj qH$dm _wVr
ho A{V_ d na_moM ò` d AmXe g_Obm OmVmo. VgoM ~m Y_mV {ZdmUmbm na_moM WmZ Amho.
_mZdmZo gd {_idm`Mo kmZ, H$amd`mMo H$_, AmMamd`mMo Vn, AJrH$ma`Mr gmYZm, H$amd`mMo `mZ `m
gdmMo EH$_od C{> hUOo {ZdmUmVr Amho. {ZdmUm_ò na_emVr, na_gwI, na_ AmZX, na_ {dlm_
`mMm AZw^d òVmo Ago hQ>bobo Amho.
{ZdmU hUOo H$m` ?
1) {ZdmU `m eXmMm _yi AW {dPUo qH$dm {dP{dUo, emV qH$dm WS> hmoUo, gd H$mhr AVJV hmoUo
Agm Amho.
2) [ZdmU `m eXmMr `wnmr {Zg+a+dm `m YmVynmgyZ {Xbr OmVo. `mMm AW Agm KoVbm Amho
H$s, {X`mMr `moV AmnU Oer \w$Hy$Z {dP{dVmo Vgo {dPdyZ Q>mH$Uo Agm Amho. {ZdmUmgmR>r `mo` Pmbm
AgVm, gd EImm {X`mgmaIm {dPyZ OmVm. {Xdm {dPbm AgVm ZVa `mMm _mJ_yghr amhV Zmhr, Vgo
{ZdmUmVr Pmbo`m gdmMo ApVd ahmV Zmhr Am{U Vmo nwhm O_mbm òV Zmhr.
3) {ZdmU `m eXmMm AW {Xdm AWdm `moV {dPUo, emV hmoUo Agm KoVbm Amho. OrdZmg `moVrMr
Cn_m ~m XeZmV dmadma òVo. OrdZ `moV emV hmoUo, OrdZm`m VmnmMm Cne_ hmoUo hUOo {ZdmU hmo`.
4) ~m Y_mZohr Eo{hH$ ApVdmnmgyZ emdV _wVr ho _mZdr Am`w`mMo A{V_ ò` R>a{dbo Amho.
`mg {ZdmU ho Zmd {Xbo Jobobo Amho.
5) O_, Oam, _`y Am{U Am`w`mV Zoh_r òUmar Xw:Io `mnmgyZ _wVVm hUOo {ZdmU hmo`.
6) {ZdmU hUOo Xw:I-a{hV na_ AmZX ({ZdmU na_ gwI_) hmo`. {ZdmU hoM A{V_ gwI Amho.
7) {ZdmUmMo n, AmH$ma, H$mb_mZ, B`mXr{df`r _m{hVr XoVm òV Zgbr Var `m`m JwUmMo dUZ
_m Ambobo Amho, Vo Ago * [ZdmU ho dmBQ> gH$mamZr Xw{fV Pmbobo ZgVo. CbQ> dmBQ> gH$mamnmgyZ hmoUmam Vmn Vo emV
H$aVo.
* {ZdmU ho nm{d`, kmZ Am{U _moj `m`m nwwnmZr ~habobo AgVo. Xw:I Am{U gH$Q>o `m`mnmgyZ
_wVVm nmdyZ emVr, AmZX Am{U nm{d` `m`mmam {ZdmU AZw^{dVm òVo.
47
8) ~mam {ZXmZmMo ahmQ>JmS>Jo H$m`_ Mmby ahmV AgVo. naVw `mnmgyZ ~mOybm amhUo qH$dm _wVVm
{_i{dUo hUOo {ZdmU hmo`.
9) {ZdmU gH$nZoMm ^mdn AWhr H$aVm òVmo. `{$dmMm {dZme hUOo ApVdmMm {dZme
Zho Ago hUVm òBb. nMH$Ynr `{$d {d$Z OmBb nU OoWyZ `mZo AmH$ma KoVbm Vo AIS> ApVd
C$Z amhrb Aer H$nZm H$aVm òVo. Aer {ZahH$mar Am{U hUyZ Ho$di gm{jdmMr pWVr AZw^dVm òVo.
ho ^maVr` Am`mp_H$ nanaoMo _wI gy Amho.
gamodamV bmQ> CR>Vo Am{U {O$Z OmVo. bmQ> Z> Pmbr Var gamoda em~yVM amhVo Am{U bmQ>oMo Iao
d$n gamoda hoM Amho. {ZdmU `mMm hm AW KoV`mg Vmo Cn{ZfXmVrb AIS> AmZX_` A_Vdm`m
H$nZoer OwiUmam Amho.
10) {ZdmUmMm Agmhr EH$ AW KoVbm OmVmo H$s, _`yZVa VWmJVmMo (ApVdmMo) H$m` hmoVo ? Vmo
ApVdmV amhVmo H$s Zmhr ? `m ZmMo Cma Xo`mg JmV_ ~wmZo ZH$ma {Xbm. `md$Z AmnU hUy eH$Vmo
H$s, {ZdmU hUOo Aer AdWm H$s {O`m g~Yr H$gboM {dYmZ H$aVm òV Zmhr. Vr EH$ A{ZX}`,
A{Zdm` pWVr Amho. {ZdmU `mMm hm AWgwm doXmVmVrb A{ZdMZr` d$nm`m _moj H$nZoer
OwiUmam Amho.
`m~m~VrV EH$ gdmX {Xbobm Amho. H$mogbMm amOm goZ{OV d {dVo~b {g Aer {^jwUr
Io_m `m`m_Yrb gdmX ~K`mgmaIm Amho.
amOm goZ{OV {^jwUrbm {dMmaVmo H$s, _`yZVa VWmJV (ApVdmV) CaVmo qH$dm Zmhr. `mdoir
Vr {^jwUr n>nUo Cma XoV Zmhr, H$maU VWmJVmZrM Vo n> Ho$bobo Zmhr. amOm {Vbm nwT>o Ago {dMmaVmo
H$s, VWmJVmZr ho H$m n> Ho$bo Zmhr ? `mda Vr {dmZ {^jwUr amOmbm CbQ> {dMmaVo H$s, ho amOZ,
Vw`mH$S>o Agm H$moUr {hemo~ H$aUmam I{OZXma Amho H$m` H$s Omo JJo`m H$mR>mdaMr dmiy {~ZMyH$nUo
_moOyZ XmIdrb ? qH$dm g_wmMo nmUr `dpWV Am{U `mo` [aVrZo _moOyZ XmIdrb ? amOmbm AWmVM Zmhr
hUUo ^mJ nS>Vo. {^jwUr `mbm nwT>o hUVo H$s, Ogm _hmg_w A_`mX Am{U AJmY Amho `m_mUo
VWmJV (ApVd) A_`mX Am{U AJmY Amho. `m Aem H$ma`m Cmamd$Z, OoWo {dMma Am{U dmUr _yH$
~ZVo Ago na_nX hUOo {ZdmU hmo`.
11) ~wmMm CnXoe Z{VH$ d$nmMm hmoVm ho bjmV KoD$Z, {ZdmU `mMm Agmhr EH$ AW KoVbm
Amho, Vmo Agm H$s, gd Z{VH$ JwUmMr H$_mB H$$Z nyUmdWoV nmohMbo`m _ZmMr gZ, J^ra Am{U emV
AdWm hUOo {ZdmU hmo`.
12) {ZdmUmV H$mhr {_idm`Mo ZgVo Va _mZdm`m gd BN>m, VUm, {dH$ma, AmH$mjm, jwYm d
`mVyZ {Z_mU hmoUmao _mZdmMo gjmo^, qMVm, AdWVm, Xw:I `mMm b` hmd`mMm AgVmo. `m`m _Vo
{ZdmU hUOo OrdZmVrb gd Xw:IH$maH$, Aew^ Jmo>tMm AV hmoUo, BN>m`m dmbmZr doT>bo`m OmJmnmgyZ
gwQ>H$m hmoUo hUOoM gd BN>m, VUm, AmgVr, of, _moh `mnmgyZ _wV hmoUo hmo`.
4.3 dÀ``ZmgmR>r Z :A)
Jmibo`m OmJm âm.

1)
-------- ho ~m Y_mMo gWmnH$ AmhoV.

48
~)
2)
-------- ho Xw:ImMo _yi Amho.
3)
B{` Cn^moJm~b Agbobr AmgVr hUOo -------- hmo`.
4)
Xw:I {ZamoY H$a`m`m _mJmbm -------- hUVmV.
5)
~m XeZmV -------- bm na_moM WmZ Amho.
Imbrb ZmMr òH$s EH$m dm`mV Cmao m.

1)
Mma Am`g`mMr Zmdo m.
2)
A>mJ _mJmMr `mXr H$am.
3)
j{UH$dmX hUOo H$m` ?
4)
`mnmX hUOo H$m` ?
5)
{ZdmU hUOo H$m` ?
4.4 n[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW :1)
XeZ
VdkmZ
2)
A{dm:
3)
doXZm
gwI Xw:ImMm AZw^d
4)
VUm
BN>m
5)
OmVr
O_
6)
^d
AmgVr_YyZ nwZO_mg H$maUr^yV R>aUmao H$_
7)
g`H$ :
8)
fS>m`VZ
AkmZ
`mo`, MmJbm
:
nMkmZ|{` d _Z
4.5 d` A``Z ZmMr Cmao :A)
~)
Jmibo`m OmJm âm - Cmao

1) JmV_~w
2) VUm
4) A>mJ _mJ
5) {ZdmU
3) H$m_ CnmXmZ
EH$m dm`mV Cmao m : Cmao

1)
gd_ Xw:I_, Xw:I H$maU_, Xw:I {ZamoY, Xw:I {ZamoYmMo _mJ
2)
g`H$ >r, g`H$ gH$n, g`H$ dmMm, g`H$ H$_mV, g`H$ Am{O{dH$m,
g`H$ `m`m_, g`H$ _Vr, g`H$ g_mYr
3)
`m OJmVrb òH$ Jmo> {VjUr ~XbV AgVo. `m OJmV H$mhrhr pWa, {Z`, emdV
ZgVo hUOo j{UH$dmX hmo`.
49
4)
ZmdS>`m dVw{df`r qH$dm `{${df`r dmQ>Umam of hmo`.
5)
Eo{hH$ ApVdmnmgyZ emdV _wVr ho A{V_ ò` hUOo {ZdmU hmo`.
4.6 gmame :^JdmZ JmV_~w hm ~m XeZmMm gWmnH$ Amho. ~m XeZ ho Ad{XH$ (ZmVrH$) XeZ Amho.
JmV_ ~wmbm ~moYrdjm`m Imbr Oo g`mMo kmZ mV Pmbo `mbm Mma Am`gò hUVmV. gd Xw:I_,
Xw:I H$maU_, Xw:I {ZamoY d Xw:I {ZamoYmMo _mJ hr Vr Mma Am`gò AmhoV. Xw:I {ZamoY H$a`mMm Omo _mJ
~wmZr gm{JVbm `mbm AQ>mJ _mJ Ago hQ>bo Amho. g`H$ >r, g`H$ gH$n, g`H$ dmMm, g`H$
H$_mV, g`H$ AmOr{dH$m, g`H$ `m`m_, g`H$ _Vr d g`H$ g_mYr ho A>mJ_mJ AmhoV. Xw:ImMm
Zme hmo`mgmR>r `m A>mJ _mJmMm Cn`moJ hmoVmo. g`H$ eXmMm AW `mo` Agm KoVbm OmVmo. g`H$ >r
AYlobm Xya gm$Z _mUgm`m {dMmamZm ~wr m_m`dmXr diU bmdVo.o _ZmVrb Xw{dMma H$mTy>Z Q>mHy$Z
`m {R>H$mUr ew^ {dMmamMr WmnZm H$a`mgmR>r gVV `Zerb amhUo hr g_mYrH$S>o Om`mMo _mJ AmhoV.
JmV_ ~wmZo Amn`m VdkmZm_ò j{UH$dmX, AZm_dmX, {ZdmU gH$nZm `mMr g{dVa _m{hVr
{Xbobr Amho. ho OJ d `m OJmVrb dVy d KQ>Zm n[adVZerb (~XbUm`m) AmhoV Agm j{UH$dmX
_mS>bm Amho. JmV_ ~wmZo Am_m _mZbobm Zmhr. `mgmR>r AZm_dmXmVyZ `mMr _m{hVr {Xbobr Zmhr.
{ZdmU hm ~mmMm _hdmMm {gmV _mZbm OmVmo. {ZdmUm_ò na_emVr, na_gwI, na_ AmZX, na_
{dlm_ `mMm AZw^d òVmo Ago hQ>bo Amho.
~m VdkmZmMr Mma Am`gò n> H$am.
2)
Am` A>mJ_mJ `m{df`rMr g{dVa _m{hVr m.
3)
j{UH$dmXm{df`rMo ~mmMo _V `V H$am.
4)
~mmMm AZm_dmX n> H$am.
5)
~mmZr _mS>bobr {ZdmU gH$nZm n> H$am.
4.8 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$ :JWm`m eodQ>r `mXr {Xbr Amho.

666
50
KQ>H$ - 5
AV doXmV
5.0 Cr>o
5.1 nmVm{dH$
5.2 {df` {ddoMZ
5.2.1
~ZMo dn
5.2.2
OJmMo ^mg_` dn
5.2.3
_m`mdmX
5.2.4
_mojmMo dn
5.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r
5.4 gmame
5.5 dÀ``Z mMr Cmao
5.7 nm[a^m{fH$ eX
5.8 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$.
5.0 Cr>o `m KQ>H$mMm A`mg Ho$`mda AmnUmg Imcrc Jmo>tMr _m{hVr {_ioc.
*
eH$amMm`m`m AV doXmVmMr AmoiI hmoBc.
~ZMo dn nQ>nUo g_Ooc.
OJmMo ^mg_` dn H$go Amho ho cjmV òBc.
_m`mdmXmMo n>rH$aU hmoBc.
Ord Am{U ~ `m`mVrc ZmVo cjmV òBc.
AV doXmVmMr ""_moj gH$nZm'' OmUyZ KoVm òBc.
5.1 mV{dH$ ^maVr` VdkmZmV eH$amMm`m`m AV doXmVmcm gdm{YH$ cmoH$_m`Vm {_imcocr Amho. cmoH$
_mZgmV VdkmZ = doXmV = AV doXmV Ago g_rH$aU hmoD$Z ~gcoco Amho.
51
""doXmV'' `m eXmMo XmoZ AW gmJVm òVrc1)
doXmMm {ZH$f qH$dm gma
2) doXmMm AV AgUmar Cn{ZfXo
F$doX, Òwd}X, gm_doX, AWddoX Ago Mma doX AmhoV. Cn{ZfXo, ~gyo Am{U ^JdrVm hr
^maVr` VdkmZmMr CJ_WmZo AmhoV. hUyZ `mZm ""WmZl`r'' hUyZ g~moYco OmVo. ~mXamÙmZr
"~gyo' aMcr. `mZmM ""doXmVgyo'' Agohr hUVmV. doXm`m {dMmamMr ewVm `m CJ_mer òD$Z
nmaIcr OmVo. {Za{Zam`m AmMm`mZr WmZl`rda ^mò Ho$cocr AmhoV.
1)
eH$amMm` {. 788 Vo 820 - Ho$dcmV~mX
2)
am_mZwOmMm` {. 1056 Vo 1137 - {d{e>mVdmX
3)
_dmMm` {. 1199 Vo 1278 - VdmX
4)
d^mMm` {. 1481 Vo 1533 - ewmVdmX
5)
qZ~mH$mMm` (13 do eVH$) - VdmX (ôXmôX) dmX
lr_X Am eH$amMm` M[a Am{U H$mÀm eH$amMm` ho mMrZ lo> Aem n{S>VmnH$s EH$ _mZco OmVmV. `mMm O_ B.g. 788 _ò
Pmcm Va _`y B.g. 820 _ò Pmcm. Ad`m 32 dfm`m H$mcIS>mV `mZr Ho$coco H$m`, coIZ \$maM
MS> dnmMo Amho. `mZr qhXy Y_mMr nwZWmnZm Ho$cr. qhXy Y_m`m gmamW Xoeâ ^_U Ho$co Am{U
nmM nrR>mMr WmnZm Ho$cr.eH$amMm`m_ò EH$ H${d, ^$ Am{U Xme{ZH$ Aem VrphMmhr gwaoI gJ_
Pmcocm {XgyZ òVmo. `mZr CnXoeghr, eVcmoH$s Ago JW X{jUm_yVu, AmZXchar Aer H$mò Va
fQ>nXr Vmo_ & mXenm[aH$m Vmo_ & Aer Vmoo aMcr. doXmVgyo, Cn{ZfXo Am{U ^JdXJrVm Aem
WmZl`rda `mZr Ho$cocr ^mò gw{g AmhoV.eH$amMm` ho AV doXmVr hUyZ AmoiIco OmVmV.
AV `mMm AW EH$_odm{Vr` Agm Amho. A{V_ g` ho EH$_od Amho. `m g`mcm Vo ""~'' `m ZmdmZo
g~mo{YVmV.
EH$m Ow`m gw^m{fVH$mamZo A`m cmoH$mV nyU AV doXmV gmJwZ Q>mH$cocm Amho.
~h_ g`, OJp_`m, Ordmo~hZd Zmna: &
~h_ ho EH$_od g` Amho. OJ {_`m Amho. Ord ~h_mnojm doJio Zmhr.
5.2.1 ~hZmMo dn :
~h_ g` - AV doXmVm`m _Vo ~h_ ho EH$_od g` Amho. AXV doXmVmV ~h_mMo dn
nwT>rc_mUo n> Ho$coco Amho- ~h_ hUOo OmUrd hmo`, MV` hmo`. AV doXmVr gV (Amho) Am{U {Mm
(OmUrd) EH$M _mZVmV. `m Xmohr Jmo>rMr gddr Aô Aem AmhoV. Vmo AmZXmMm Vmo Amho.~h_ H$go
Amho? `m mMo Cma AXV doXmVr ""~h_ ho gV {MV d AmZXdnr Amho'' Ago XoVmV. Aem `m
g{ZmZX dnr ~h_m{df`r VrZ {dYmZo H$aVm òVrcH$) ~h_ ho gmjrMV` Amho.
I) ~h_ ho ôXa{hV Am{U {ZJwU Amho.
52
J) ~h_ {Z` Amho.

H$) ~h_ gmjrMV` Amho- ~h_ ho ~XcV AgUm`m AV:H$aUm`m dmtZm gmjr ahmV AgVo. Vo
dmhr Zmhr Va pWa Amho, {Z` Amho. `mcm AV doXmVr ""Hy$Q>W {Z`'' Ago g~mo{YVmV. ""Hy$Q>W
{Z`'' hUOo Ago H$s `m`mda H$emMmhr {dH$ma KS>V Zmhr n[aUm_ KS>V Zmhr ""Hy$Q>'' `m eXmMm
gH$V eXmMm EH$ AW ""ndV{eIa'' Agm Amho. EoaUrda R>odyZ R>moH$co`m dVyV ~Xc KS>VmV, EoaU
VerM amhVo.
Amn`m _Zmodmr pWa ZgVmV. `mV ApWaVm AgVo _Zm_ò AZoH$ {dH$ma, {dMma AgVmV
(gwI, Xw:I) Ogo nm`mZo âco`m ^mS>mV MmMo {Vq~~ nS>coco Amho, nmUr hcco H$s MmMo {Vq~~hr
hcVo. `jmV M pWa AgVmo. `m_mUooM ~hZ ho gmjrMV` AgVo.
AV doXmVr dmrMV` Am{U gmjr MV` Agm ôX H$aVmV.
I)
~h_ ho ôXa{hV d {ZJwU Amho-
~h_ ho {ZJwU Amho H$maU JwU ho ôXmda AmYm[aV AgVmV. eX, ne, JY, ag, n `m`m
ghm`mZo AmnUmg JwU OmUdVmV.
~h_o ho ôXa{hV Ag`m_wio Vo {ZJwU Amho. Vo JwUmZr ~ Zmhr. ~mYcoco Zmhr.
J)
~hZ {Z` Amho-
Ordm`m OmJVmdWm, dZmdWm Am{U gwfw{ (JmT> Pmon) m VrZ AdWm Amho. nU ~h_ ho m
Vrph AdWmnmgyZ A{c Amho. Vo {dm`m Ama^mnmgyZM Amho. OJmV`m gd BVa Jmo>tZm Am{X AV
Amho. `mMm ma^ hmoVmo, eodQ> hmoVmo. `m gd Jmo>r n[adVZerc (~XcUm`m) OJmVrc Amho Va ~hZ ho
{Z` Amho, pWa Amho.
gJwU ~h_ Am{U {ZJwU ~h_
~h_mMo gJwU ~h_ Am{U {ZJwU ~hZ Ago XmoZ H$ma AmhoV. Ago ~hZmMo XmoZ H$ma H$a`mMr H$m`
JaO Amho `mMo AV doXmVmV nwT>rc_mUo n>rH$aU {Xco OmVo-gJwU ~hZ hUOo _mò`m CnmYrghrV
drH$macoco ~h_ hmo`. gm_m` _mUgmZm CnmgZm e` hmdr hUyZ gJwU ~hZ Amd`H$ Amho. AV
doXmVm`m _Vo Ba hUOo gJwU ~hZ hmo`.{ZJwU ~hZ hUOo A{V_, {Znm{YH$ g` hmo`. `mg
na~hZ hUVmV. na hUOo lo> ""g` kmZ AZV ~hZ'' Ago ~hZmMo dn cjU Amho. ~hZ gV,
{MV, AmZX dnr Amho Ago _mZco OmVo naVy ~hZmMo dn ZH$mam_H$ nVrZo n> Ho$co OmVo. ""Zo{V
Zo{V'' & (Z+B{V), ho Zmhr, hohr Zmhr Ago.
""~mH$cr '' Zmdm`m {e`mZo ~mhd F$ftZm {dZ{dco, _cm ~hZ hUOo H$m` Vo gmJm? ~mhd F$fr
"gmJVmo' Ago hUmco d emV am{hco. Ago XmoZ VrZXm Pmco. ~mH$cr hUmcm, AmMm` Vwhr _cm ~hZmMo
dn H$go Amho ho gmJVmo hUmcmV, nU gmJV H$m Zmhr? `mda ~mhd eodQ>r ~mXd hUmco, _r Vwcm
gmJVM hmoVmo nU Vy cjmV KoVco Zmhrg. ""~h_ ho emVdn Amho.''~hZ ho Wyc Zmhr, gy_ Zmhr.
hd Zmhr, XrKhr Zmhr. Vo AUynojm chmZ d _moR>mnojmhr _moR>o Ago Amho. Aer ~hZmcm nana{damoYr
cjUo cmdcr OmVmV. Va OoWo Z nmohmoMVmM dmUr Am{U _Z naV òVo Vo ~hZ Agohr ~hZmMo dUZ AmT>iVo.
AWmV ho {ZJwU ~hZ hmo`, na~hZ hmo`.
53
5.2.2 OJmMo ^mg_` dn

AV doXmVm`m _Vo ""~h_'' ho EH$_od g` Amho. _J AmnU Oo OJ AZw^dVmo Vo H$go Amho? Vo
g` Zmhr H$m`? OJmMo n>rH$aU AV doXmV ""{_`m'' Ago dUZ H$aVmo {_`m hUOo ImoQ>o Ag`
Zho. ""OJ {_`m Amho'' `m AV doXmVm`m {gmVm~c ~aoM Jag_O AmhoV.Amn`mcm OmUdUmao
OJ, `mdhm[aH$ OJ {_`m Amho nU Vo EH$m {d{e> nmVirda, Vm[dH$ nmVirda {_`m Amho. `m gX^mV
EH$ H$Wm gm{JVcr OmVo- EH$ doXmVr AmMm`, dZm_ò Amn`m {e`mZm {eH$drV AgVmV, ~hZ g`
Amho, OJ {_`m Amho. `mdoiog {VWo EH$ dmK òVmo. dmKmcm nhmVmM AmMm`, Am{U {e` XmoKohr {VWyZ ni
H$mT>VmV. gwa{jV {R>H$mUr Am`mda {e` JwZm {dMmaVmo - AmMm`, AmnU OJ {_`m Amho Aer
{eH$dU XoVm _J dmK Amcm ho nm{h`mda AmnU niyZ H$m Amcmo? `mda AmMm` CmaVmV (Cma XoVmV)
""~Q>mo, ncm`Z_{n {_`m &'' ho {e`m, Amnco niUo XoIrc {_`m Amho. AmMm`mMo Cma {dMma H$a`mgmaIo
Amho.
gmm` {gmVAV doXmVmV gmoMm {{dY {gmV _mS>cocm Amho. `m`m _Vo gmm (g`) m VrZ H$ma`m
AmhoV. `mdhm[aH$ gmm, m{V^m{_H$ gmm, Am{U nma_m[WH$ gmm `m VrZ gmm hmoV.`mdhm[aH$ nmVirda
dmK {XgUo, AmnU niyZ OmUo ho g` Amho. `mdhm[aH$ gmoV ""AZw^d'' hm _mU _mZcm OmVmo. `m`m
AmYmao OrdZ`dhma gmYcm OmVmo. Amnco OJUo KS>V AgVo Va m{V^m{gH$ gmoV Xmoar`m {R>H$mUr gmn
nhmUo, qeno`m {R>H$mUr no nmhUo hmo`. `m Jmo>rMm g_mdoe hmoVmo AYmamVyZ OmV AgVmZm a`mV Xmoar
nS>cocr AgVo {Vcm AmnU gmn g_OVmo qH$dm g_w{H$Zm`mcm qenco nS>coco AgVmV Vo ChmV M_H$VmV
`m_wio Vo MmXr_mUo dmQ>VmV. dVyV: `m Xmohr Jmo>r ^mgdn AmhoV. Amn`mcm OmUdUmao OJXoIrc
AgoM Amho. Va nma_m{WH$ gmm hUOo A{V_ g` ""~h_'' `mMo kmZ hmoUo hmo`. `m kmZmrgmR>r
`mdhm[aH$ g`mMm `mJ H$aUo Amd`H$ Amho.`mdhm[aH$ OJ (g`) ho {X>H$ H$mcmZo ~ Amho. Voo `
dnmMo (Br`mZm OmUdUmao) Amho. OS> dnmMo Amho. nma_m{WH$ gmoMo kmZ Pm`mda, ~hZmMo kmZ
Pm`mda `mdhm[aH$ OJ {_`m Amho `mMr OmUrd hmoVo."{_`m' `m eXmMm AmUIr EH$ AW Amcm Amhoo
H$s {dH$mar, ~XcUmao hmo`. Amn`mcm OmUdUmao OJ ho {dH$ma>r, ~XcUmao Ago Amho. Amn`mcm OJ
g`> H$m ^mgVo? ~XcUm`m {dH$mar OJmMo n>rH$aU H$a`mgmR>r eH$amMm` ""_m`mdmX'' {gmV
_mS>VmV.
5.2.3 _m`mdmX
`mdhm[aH$ OJmMo n>rH$aU H$a`mgmR>r AV doXmV ""_m`mdmXmMm'' {gmV _mS>Vo ~hZ Oa
MoVZ {M_` Amho Va `mnmgyZ {Z_mU hmoUmao OJ OS>dnr H$m Amho? EH$mM ~hZ VdmnmgyZ Oa OJ
Cn Pmcoco Agoc Va OJmV ZmZm ôX H$m AmhoV? Aem mMr Cmao Xo`mgmR>r eH$amMm`mZr ""_m`mdmX''
qH$dm ""{ddVdmX'' _mS>cocm Amho.OJmMm AmYma ~h_ Amho. ~h_ ZgVo Va OJ ^mgcoM ZgVo. AV
doXmV hUOo OJ hm ~hZmdma Ho$cocm ""A`mg'' Amho. A`mg hUOo W_ nm{hco`m dVyMo Xwg`m
dVy`m {R>H$mUr hmoUmao _aUm`m dnmVrc kmZ hmo`. A`mgmMo dn n> H$a`mgmR>r aOy gn, [encm-aOV Aer CXmhaUo dmnacr OmVmV. amr AmnU Xmoarcm gmn g_OVmo, `j gmn ZgVmo
nU nydu AmnU nm{hco`m gmnmMo AmnUmg _aU hmoVo hUyZ AmnU Xmoar`m {RH$mUr gmn nhmVmo. qH$dm
g_w{H$Zm`mda Chm_ò qenco M_H$VmV Vohm Vo `mgmaIo, MmXrgmaIo dmQ>VmV. dVyV: Vgo Vo
ZgVmV.
54
~h_mda AmnU OJVmMm A`mg (Ama>mon) H$m H$aVmo? Va A{do_wio, AkmZm_wio hUOo _m`mdmXmMo
_yi A{doV Amho. OJmMo _m{c`, (Xy{fVnUm) OS>Vm ~hZmcm Xw{fV H$aV Zmhr. amy-gn g~YmV gn ho
amyMo H$m` Amho. nU H$m` hUOo n[aUm_ Zho gn hUOo {ddV Va aOy ho {ddVmMo H$maU hmo`.
`m{R>H$mUr {df_ XOmMr gmm AgVo `mcm {ddV hUVmV. Vohm CnmXmZ H$maU Am{U `mMo H$m` `mMr
gmm (g`d) gmaIo AgVo Vohm `mg n[aUm_ hUVmV. CXm. ~\$ Am{U nmUr. naVy amy-gn `m`mV
{df_ XOmMr gmm AgVo `m_wio `mcm {ddV hUVmV. qencm ho H$maU d aOV ho H$m` `m CXmhaUmVhr
KS>Um`m H$m`mg ""{ddV''hUVm òBc.
~h_ ho gZmVZ Amho Va OJ ho A`V Amho, {ddV Amho. Aem VhoZo OJmcm ""_m`m'' hQ>co Amho.
""_m`m'' hUOo A{dmH$pnV Zm_no hmoV. Or Ag`hr ZmhrV nU nyUnUo g`hr ZmhrV. hrM `mdhm[aH$
gmm hmo`.
Zm_nm_H$ OJ `mdhm[aH$ Q>m g` Amho naVy nma_m[WH$ >m g` Zg`mZo `mcm {_`m
hUmd`mMo, _m`m hUmd`mMo _m`m gVhr Zmhr Am{U AgVhr Zmhr. _J _m`m H$er {Z_mU hmoVo? A{do_wio
_mòMm Cd hmoVmo. A{do_wio gVydX (~hZmda) Zm_nmMm A`mg H$ocm OmVmo. hr Zm_no hUOo
_m`m hmo`.
Aem VhoZo _m`mdmXmMm n>rH$aU H$aVm òBc.
5.2.4 _mojmMo dn
AV doXmVm`m _Vo _moj m H$aUo ho OrdZmMo A{V_ ò` Amho. Oohm Ord Am{U ~hZ `m`mVrc
Eo`mMo (EH$dmMo) kmZ hmoVo Vohm _moj m hmooVmo. ^JdXJrVoV hQ>coco Amho, ""`mZo ~hZ OmUco Vmo
~hZ_` hmoVmo'' AkmZmMm Zme hmoUo hUOo _moj m hmoUo hmo`._moj H$moUmcm m hmoVmo? AV doXmVm`m
_Vo Ordmcm _moj m hmoVmo. OJ {_`m Amho, ~hZ hoM g` Amho. Vo g{XmZX dnr Amho. Vo Hw$R>o Amho?
Va doXmV hUVo, ""Ah ~hZmp_'' & _rM ~hZ Amho. Ord hmM ~hZ Amho. ~hZ ho Hy$Q>W {Z` Amho.
`mMm CoI "gmjrMV`' Agmhr Ho$cm OmVmo. Ord Am{U ~hZ `mV Zo_H$m \$aH$ H$moUVm Amho? Ord
Am{U ~hZ `mV Eo` H$go gmYVm òBc `mMo Cma AV doXmV ""_moj gH$nZoVyZ'' XoVo.Ord Am{U
~hZmVrc \$aH$ gmJVm òBc. Ord hm kmZmMm {df` Amho Va Am_m qH$dm ~hZ ho kmZm`m ncrH$S>Mo
Amho. Ord gwIr qH$dm XwIr hmoVmo. Va ""Am_~hZ'' hm gwI Xw:Im`m ncrH$S>Mo AgVo.Ho$di ""Am_m''
g` AgVmZm Ord H$moRy>Z Cn hmoVmo? `m mMo AV doXmVr Ago Cma XoVmV, ""CnmYr_wio Am`mg
Ordd m hmoVo.'' CnmYr hUOo Amnco JwU Xwg`mV C_Q>{dUmam nXmW hmo`. CXm. \${Q>H$meoOmar
OmdXrMo \y$c R>od`mg \${Q>H$ "a$dU' cmc aJmMm ^mgVmo. \${Q>H$ hm nmaXeu AgVmo. Vmo a$dUu
ZgVmo naVy ""OmdXrMo \y$c'' `m CnmYrZo `mcm a$dUd m hmoVo. Am`m~m~V VgoM KS>Vo.A_`H$moam,
mU_` H$moe, _Zmo_` H$moe, {dkmZ_` H$moe Am{U AmZX_` H$moe Aem nMH$moemghrV Am_m hUOo
""Ord'' hmo`. Am`mcm Amn`m I`m nmMr OmUrd hmoUo hUOo _moj hmo`. Agm Am_m Am{U ~hZ
EH$M EH$ hmo`._moj m H$gm H$amd`mMm? OrdmMo ~hZmer ZmVo OmoS>`mZo _moj m hmoBc. Ho$di
AkmZm_wio A{do_wio Ord Am`mhZ {^ ^mgVmo. hm ^_ Xya H$a`mgmR>r kmZnr H$me Amd`H$
R>aVmo. AV doXmVm`m _Vo Ho$di kmZ_mJmZoM _moj m hmoVmo. (kmZmZ Ed _moj:)
_moj hm ^$s qH$dm H$_ Aem Cnm`mZr {_iUma Zmhr Va Vmo kmZmZoM m hmoBc Agm AV
doXmVmMm AmJh Amho. ""kmZ hUOo gmjmV AZw^d hmo`'' _r ~hZn Amho `mMr Ordmcm OmUrd hmoUo
55
hUOo Am_kmZ hmo`. ho kmZ hmd`mMo Agoc Va {Mmewr Pmcr nm{hOo. {ZH$m_ H$_ Am{U ^$s `mZr
{Mmewr hmoVo.{Mm ewrgmR>r doXmVmZo ""gmYZ MVw>'' Mma gmYZo gm{JVcocr AmhoV. hr gmYZo
nwT>rc_mUo1) {Z`m{Z`dVy{ddoH$- Am_m hrM {Z` dVy Amho. ~mH$s gd dVy A{Z` AmhoV hm {dMma
gVV _ZmV KmoidV R>odcm nm{hOo.
2) Bhm_wmW\$c ^moJ {damJ - `m OJmVrc qH$dm A` OJmVrc (cmoH$mVrc) Or gwIo {_iUo e`
Amho `mnmgyZ namdm hmoUo, {da$ hmoUo hmo`.
3) e_X_Zm{XgmYZgnX - e_ hUOo _ZmMm Br`dmrda AmVyZ {ZJh H$aUo, X_ hUOo
Br`m`m ~mhoZ {ZamoY, CnaVr hUOo {d{Y`w$ g`mg KoUo hmo`, {V{Vjm hUOo erV-CU, gwIXw:I EH$mM dmrZo ghZ H$aUo hmo`. g_mYmZ hUOo {Mm EH$mJ R>odUo Va lm hUOo doXmV{gmVmda
{Z>m R>odUo hmo`.
4) _w_wjd - hUOo _moj mr g~Yr O~aXV BN>m ~miJUo hmo`.
gmYZMVwA`mMr nyVVm Pm`mda gmYH$mZo ""Vd_{g'' "~hZ doX ~hZod ^d{V' Aer Cn{ZfXmVrc
dmò ldU H$aUo, `mMo _ZZ H$aUo. _Zmda R>g{dUo Am{U {Z{X`mg H$aUo hUOo {MmmV Vmo {dMma gVV
Kmoi{doUo hmo`.
Aem VhoZo gmYZ MVw>, {Z{X`mgmZo _mojmr hmoBc._mojmr Pm`mda Am_m gV, {Mm, AmZXmMm
gmjmH$ma AZw^dVmo, Vmo ~hZ_` ~ZVmo.
5.3 dÀ``ZmgmR>r n
A)
EH$m dm`mV Cmao {chm.

1)
""~h_gyo'' H$moUr aMco?
2)
~h_mMo dn H$go Amho?
3)
eH$amMm` H$moU`m {gmVm`m AmYmao OJmMo n>rH$aU H$aVmV?
4)
_mojmrMo VrZ _mJ H$moUVo?
5)
AV doXmVm`m ^_{df`H$ {gmVmMo Zmd gmJm.
~) `mo` n`m` {ZdS>m.

...........................
1)
eH$amMm` ho
doXmVr hUyZ AmoiIco OmVmV.
2)
(AV / {der>mV / V)
...........................
`m gwfwr, OmJVr d dZ m VrZ AdWm AmhoV.
(~h_ / Ord / OJV)
3)
Xmoar`m {R>H$mUr gmn nhmUo
...........................
(`mdhm[aH$ / m{V^m{gH$ / nma_m{WH$)

56
gmoMo CXmhaU Amho.
...........................
4)
Am`mdarc AmdaUo hUOo
hmo`.
5)
(nMH$moe / A{dm / _m`m)

...........................
gmR>r gJwU ~hZ Amd`H$ R>aVo.
(mWZogmR>r / CnmgZogmR>r / kmZmgmR>r)
5.4 gmame
eH$amMm` Amn`m AV doXmVmV ~hZmMo dn nQ> H$aVmV. `m`m _Vo ~hZ ho gmjmoMV`,
{ZJwU Am{U {Z` Ago Amho. Vo OJmMo {_`m Ago dUZ H$aVmV. OJ ho ~XcUmao n[adVZr` Ago Amho
`m`m _wimer ~hZ Amho. OJmMo n>rH$aU H$a`mgmR>r eH$amMm`mZr ""_m`mdmX'' _mS>cocm Amho.
A{do_wio AmnU ~hZ `m A{V_ gXdVyda OJmMm A`mg (Amamon) H$arV AgVmo.Ord Am{U Am_m `mVrc
g~Y n> H$aVmZm eH$amMm` hUVmV, nMH$moem_wio Am`mcm Ordd m hmoVo. Am`mcm Oohm `mMo Iao dn
m hmoVo Vohm `mcm _moj m hmoVmo. ""_moj'' hUOo Am`mcm `mMo Iao dn m hmoUo. _moj mrMo kmZ,
H$_, ^$s Ago VrZ _mJ Amho naVy AV doXmVm`m _Vo ""kmZ'' _mJ hm gdlo> _mJ Amho.
5.5 dÀ``Z mMr Cmao
A)
1) ~mXamÙ 2) gV+{MV+ AmZX g{XmZX
3) _m`mdmX 4) kmZ, H$_, ^$r 5) A{ZdMZr` `m{VdmX
~)
1) AV
2) Ord
3) m{V^m{gH$
4) nMH$moe 5) CnmgZogmR>r
5.6 gamdmgmR>r dm`m`.
1)
AV doXmVm`m ""~hZ'' Mo dn n> H$am.
2)
"OJ ^mg_` Amho' H$go Vo {deX H$am.
3)
_m`mdmXmMm {gmV n> H$am.
4)
_mojmMo dn n> H$am.
5.7 nm[a^m{fH$ eX
1)
gmjrMV` -
2)
gmm`mMm {gmV - VrZ gmm- `mdhm[aH$ - m{V^m{gH$ - nma_m{WH$ {ddoMZH$aUmam

{gmV
3)
A`mg
~Xcmcm gmjr AgUmao MV` (~hZ)
Amamon
57
4)
{ddV - H$m` Am{U H$maU `m`mVrc {df_ XOmMr gmm
5)
nMH$moe - Am`mdarc nmM AmdaUo.
6)
A{dm- Am`mMo Iao dn OmUyZ KoUo ho AkmZ.
5.8 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$.

nwVH$m`m eodQ>r `mXr {Xcocr Amho.
666
58
KQ>H$ - 6
gmHo${Q>g d coQ>mo ( Socrates and Plato )

6.0 C{Q>o
6.1 mVm{dH$ (OrdZdmmV)
6.2 {df` - {ddoMZ
6.2.1
gmHo${Q>gMr nVr
6.2.2
gmHo${Q>g - Z{VH$ {eH$dU
6.2.3
boQ>moMr kmZ{df`H$ Cnnmr
6.2.4
boQ>moMr H$nZm Cnnmr
6.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z
6.6 gmame
6.0 C{Q>o :`m KQ>H$m`m A`mgmZVa Amn`mbm * gmHo${Q>g`m A`mg nVrMo d$n g_Oob.
* gmHo${Q>gMr Z{VH$ {eH$dU bjmV òBb.
* boQ>moMr kmZ{df`H$ Cnnmr g_OyZ òBb.
* boQ>mo`m H$nZm CnnmrMo d$n H$iob.
6.1 mVm{dH$ :gmHo${Q>g VdkmZm`m B{VhmgmV JrH$ VdkmZ A{VmMrZ _mZbo OmVo. Ama^r`m VdqMVH$mZr _w`V:
{dd_r_mgm ho VdkmZmMo H$m` g_Obo Amho. mMrZ JrH$ VdkmZ Wo{bg nmgyZ A[aQ>mQ>b n`VMo
_mZbo OmVo. gmHo${Q>g nydr`m VdqMVH$mZr {ddm`m _ybH$maUmMm Z hm VdkmZmMm _w` Z
_mZbobm hmoVm. Wo{bg, AZpP_S>a, AZpP_o{Zg, nm`WmJmoag `mZr Vd_r_mgobm Ama^ Ho$bm.
59
`mZVa`m nm_}Zm`{S>O `m VdqMVH$mZo gVVdmMm (Theory of Being) {dMma _mS>bm. `wng d S>o_m{H$Q>g
AUwdmXm`m ghm`mZo {dd_r_mgm Ho$br d gy_ AUy hoM {ddmMo A{V_ KQ>H$ hmoV Ago {VnmXZ Ho$bo.
JrH$ VdkmZmV _mZdr g_mO`dWm, am``dWm `mda VdqMVZ H$aUmam W_ VdqMVH$
gmHo${Q>g R>aVmo. gmHo${Q>gZo nydu`m VdqMVH$mnojm {^Z {df` {ZdSy>Z Amnbo {dMma _mS>bo. AmnU `m
g_mOmV OJVmo `m g_mOmMo d$n, `mMm dMm[aH$ AmYma, gmH${VH$ AmYma ho gmHo${Q>g`m >rZo
_hdmMo {df` AmhoV. g_mOmVrb emgZ nVr d bmoH$_mZg AmXedmX _mZUmar Zgob Va g_mOmMm
hmg AQ>i Amho Ago gmHo${Q>gbm dmQ>Vo. hUyZ gmHo${Q>gZo ^m{VH$ `m`m ghm`mZo VdqMVZ H$a`mEodOr
g_mOH|$r d _Zw`H|$r VdkmZmMm drH$ma H$$Z Vd_r_mgm Ho$br.
gmHo${Q>gMm O_ B.g. nyd 470 _ò AWog ehamV Pmbm. `mMo dS>rb {enH$ma hmoVo d AmB
J{hUr hmoVr. `mMo {ejU d OrdZm`m gw$dmVr`m H$mim{df`r {deof _m{hVr CnbY Zmhr. Vmo AWog
ehamMm A{^_mZr Ag`mZo `mZo Amnbo gnyU Am`w` AWog_ò `[VV Ho$bo. AWog`m bH$ar
_mo{h_oV `mZo ^mJ KoVbm hmoVm. OdiOdi 30 df} `mZo VdqMVZmMo H$m` Ho$bo. gmHo${Q>gMm H$mbIS>
Y_{Z> {dMmamMm ^md _mZUmam hmoVm. naVw Y_m`m ZmdmImbr Jrg_ò gm_mÒZmMr Or {nidUyH$
hmoV hmoVr {Vbm {damoY H$aUmam gmHo${Q>g hm n{hbm VdqMVH$ R>aVmo.
gmHo${Q>g am>r` XodVmMm Ahoa H$$Z dV:Mr XdVo {Z_mU H$aVmo, AWog_Yrb `wdH$mZm amOgmo`m
{d$ ^S>H$mdyZ `mZm dm__mJmbm bmdVmo Ago AWog`m amOdQ>rZo gmHo${Q>gda Amamon R>odbo. AWog`m
`m` `dWooZo gmHo${Q>gda R>odbobo Amamon Iao AmhoV Ago _mZyZ gmHo${Q>gbm dhVo ho_bmH$ ZmdmMo
mUKmVH$ {df meZ H$a`mMr {ejm gwZmdbr. `m`XodVoMm Amn`mda A`m` H$aUmam AmXoehr gmHo${Q>gZo
{eagd _mZyZ `m`gô_òM ho_bmH$ {df meZ H$$Z gmHo${Q>gZo Xoh`mJ Ho$bm.
boQ>mo :mMrZ JrH$ VdkmZm_ò VdqMVZmbm gw`dpWV d$n Xo`mMm n{hbm `Z boQ>moZo Ho$bm.
boQ>moMm O_ B.g.nyd 427 _ò AWog_Yrb EH$m ImZXmZr Kam`mV Pmbm. boQ>moMo Iao _yi Zmd
A[aQ>mopbg hmoVo. _m Jrg_Yrb VH$m{bZ WoZwgma gd VUmZm ânya `m`m_ H$$Z Cm_ eara
gnXm mV H$amdr bmJV Ago. boQ>mo `mbm AndmX ZhVm. `mZo ânya `m`m_ H$$Z ~bXS> eara`>r
H$_mdbr hmoVr. `m`m âXma d $X N>mVrd$Z `mMo Zmd boQ>mo Ago nS>bo Amho. _m nwT>o VdkmZm`m
B{VhmgmV Vmo boQ>mo `m ZmdmZoM {g Pmbm.
boQ>mo d`m`m 20 `m dfu gmHo${Q>g`m gnH$mV Ambm d gmHo${Q>g`m _`yn`V gmHo${Q>gMm
{e` hUyZ am{hbm. `mZo gmHo${Q>gMr {eH$dU Am_gmV Ho$br. AWog_Yrb bmoH$emhrda A{Y{>V
am``dWoZo `mMo Jw gmHo${Q>gbm ImoQ>m Amamonmd$Z XohmVmMr {ejm {Xbobr hmoVr. gmHo${Q>gdarb
amJ `mdoiMr JrH$_Yrb bmoH$emhr `m`m AZw`m`mda H$mT>rb `m ^rVrZo boQ>mo AWog eha gmoSy>Z {ZKyZ
Jobm. _oJag, gmàrZ, B{OV, BQ>br, {g{gbr dJao XoemZm ôQ>r XoD$Z d`m`m 40 `m dfu boQ>mo
AWogbm naVbm. AWog òWo `mZo EH$ AH$S>_r - kmZ{dmb` (AmO`m n[a^mfoV `mg {dd{dmb`
hUVm òBb) WmnZ Ho$bo d VoWo A`mnZ d boIZ H$$ bmJbm. boQ>mo`m `m JwHw$bmV OJâmVyZ
{dmWu òD$ bmJbo. qH$~hZm boQ>mo`m AH$S>_r_ò {ejU KoUo OJâmV {V>oMo _mZbo OmD$ bmJbo.
60
Amn`m Jwbm AWog`m bmoH$emhrZo XohmVmMr {ejm {X`m_wio boQ>mo bmoH$emhr am``dWMm
{VaH$ma H$$ bmJbm. am``dWo`m gX^mV Vmo hUV Ago H$s, am`H$V} {dMmadV, kmZr, gwgH$V
d {ddoH$mbm _mZUmao Agbo nm{hOoV. `m`m `m {dMmamVyZM "Vdk am`H$V}' (Philosopher King) hr
H$nZm CX`mg Ambr. am``dWoMo Am|Ji d _yV d$n ~XbyZ `mbm ZrVr d A`m_mMm nm`m {Xbm
nm{hOo Aer `mMr nH$s Imr nQ>br d `m`m Aem {dMmamVyZ [anpbH$ The Republie hm AmXedmXr
JW CX`mg Ambm.
boQ>moZo gd JWboIZ gdmX $nmZo Ho$bobo Amho. `m`m ~hVoH$ JWm_ò Amnbm Jw gmHo${Q>gbm
dVm Ho$bobo Amho. `m`m gdmXmMo VrZ JQ> nS>VmV. n{hbm JQ> boQ>moZo gmHo${Q>g`m h`mVrV gmHo${Q>g`m
hmVmImbr {e` hUyZ AgVmZm Ho$bo`m gdmXmMm `m JQ>mV Imbrb gdmXmMm g_mdoe hmoVmo 1)
bm`{gg (hm gdmX _rg~Ym{df`r Amho).
2)
AnmbmOr (Apology) - `m gdmXmV gmHo${Q>gZo Oo dVZ Ho$bo `mMo boQ>moZo g_WZ Ho$bo Amho. 3)
{H$Q>mo - hm gdmX gmHo${Q>g`m H$m`Xm nmbZmg~Yr Amho.
3)
{H$`mo - hm gdmX gmHo${Q>g`m H$m`Xm nmcZmg~Yr Amho.
4)
moQ>Jmoag - `m gdmXmV boQ>moZo gmo{\$> VdkmZmda Q>rH$m Ho$bobr Amho.
5)
bHo$g - `m gdmXmV Y` `m gXJwUmda MMm Ho$bobr Amho.
6)
H$ma_m`{S>g - `m gdmXmV g`_ `m gXJwUmMr MMm Ho$bobr Amho.
7)
`w{W\$mo - hm gdmX gmHo${Q>g`m Y_{Z>og~YrV Amho.
boQ>mo`m gdmXm`m Xwg`m JQ>mV boQ>moMo dV:Mo VdkmZ Ambobo AmT>iVo. `m gdmXmda B{b`m{Q>H$
`m AV _mZUm`m {dMmamMm ^md {XgVmo. `m JQ>mV Imbrb gdmX _moS>VmV 8)
Jm{OAmg - gXJwUm`m dVw{Z>VoMo VdkmZ.
9)
{W`{Q>Q>g - g`m`m dVw{Z>VoMr MMm.
10) gmo{\$> - kmZ, gV, AgV `mg~YrMr MMm.

11) Q>oQ>g_Z - amOm, amOmZo nmimd`mMr Z{VH$ Vdo.
12) nm_}Zm`{S>O - AVdmX
13) _oZmo - ggH$nm{df`r {dMma
14) `w{W{S>_g - gmo{\$>m`m hodm^mgmg~Yr {dMma
15) nm{b{Q>g - amOZr{VemmMo _ybJm_r {ddoMZ
16) Ho${Q>bg - gmo{\$>m`m ^mfmemmdarb {Q>H$m
gdmXm`m {Vg`m JQ>mV boQ>mo`m {dMmaJ^ VdkmZmMo XeZ KS>{dUmao gdmX g_m{d> AmhoV.
17) {gnmo{PA_ - boQ>moMr ggH$nZmdarb ^Vr
18) \$m`br~g - gdmX Zr{VemmMo {dVV {ddoMZ H$aVmo
61
19) {Q>{_Ag - nXmW{dkmZ {df`H$ VdkmZmMm nam_e

20) [anpbH$ - boQ>moMo amOZr{V, {ejU, gm{h`, H$bm, A`m_, dJao {df`mdarb VdkmZ
21) \$sS>mo - Am`m`m A_admg~YrMo VdkmZ
22) {\$S>g - am`mVrb {ejUH$_mg~YrMo VdkmZ
23 d 24) {H${Q>Amg d bmO - boQ>moMr ZVaMr amOZr{V{df`H$ _Vo
6.2. {df` {ddoMZ 6.2.1 gmHo${Q>gMr nVr :gmHo${Q>gZo {d{e> Ago VdkmZ qH$dm VdkmZmMm gXm` {Z_mU Ho$bm Zmhr. VdkmZm`m ZVa`m
B{VhmgmV AZw^ddmX, ~w{dmX `mgmaIo VdkmZmMo gXm` {Z_mU Pmbo. `mgma`m gXm`mMo {ddoMZ
`mZo Ho$bobo Zmhr. H$maU EImm gXm`mMo {ddoMZ d g_WZ H$aUo hUOo VdqMVZmbm _`mXm KmbUo
hmo`. gmHo${Q>gMo VdkmZ VdkmZmVrb gd gXm`mZr drH$mabo `mVyZ gmHo${Q>g`m Vd>rMo >onU
n> hmoVo.VdqMVZ Aja~ hmo`mgmR>r `m VdqMVZmbm {d{e> eX`moJmZo g~moYbo nm{hOo. `m>rZo
gmHo${Q>g`m {dMmamZm gdmX nVr hUyZ g~moYbo OmVo. gmHo${Q>gMr ^y{_H$m Ho$di VdqMVZ H$Q>nUo
gmJUo EdT>mnwaVr _`m{XV ZhVr. VdqMVZ hUOo EImm {dMmadVmZo, A{YH$mar nwfmZo qH$dm OmUH$mamZo
g_mOmVrb gm_m` _mUgm`m `mdhm[aH$ g_`mda Ho$bobo {dMma d `m g_`mda gwM{dbobo Cnm`
hmoV.gmHo${Q>gMr A`mg nVr gdmXm_H$ hmoVr. gdmX nVrV EImm ZmMo, g_òMo ZwgVo Cma
gwM{dUo Ano{jV ZgyZ `m Zm{df`r, g_ò{df`r g_moa`m `Vrbm {dMma dm H$aUo Ano{jV
AgVo. CXm.MmJbo emgZ hUOo H$m` ? `m ZmMo gdmX nVrmao bmoH$mH$Sy>Z OZVoMo Z gmoS>dUmao,
OZVo`m AS>MUtMo {ZdmaU H$aUmao, OZVoMo OJUo gwg H$aUmao d OZVobm Amnbo dmQ>Umao Ago emgZ
ho Cma gmHo${Q>gbm A{ôV Ago.
gdmX nVrmao gmHo${Q>g AWog_Yrb emgZm`m CUrdmMo bmoH$m_ò ~moYZ H$arV Ago. `m
~moYZ H$m`mgmR>r `mZo AWog_Yrb gmdO{ZH$ {R>H$mUo CXm.ehamVrb _hdmMo MmH$, ~mOmaVi d BVa
JO~Obo`m {R>H$mUmMr {ZdS> Ho$bobr AmT>iVo. `mMo H$maU hUOo VoWo bmoH$mer gdmX gmY`mgmR>r bmoH$
ghOnUo CnbY hmoV AgV.gmHo${Q>g`m gdmX nVrMm _w` hoVy hUOo bmoH$mZm OrdZmVrb `mdhm[aH$
Zm{df`r,Wm{ZH$ emgZm{df`r {dMma dm H$aUo hm hmo`. gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo dV: {dMma H$a`m{df`r`m
CXm{gZVoVyZ `{$JV d gm_m{OH$ Z dmT>V OmVmV. gmHo${Q>gZo Amn`m gdmX nVrV VU {nT>rbm
mYm` {Xbo hmoVo. AWog eha d JrH$ ZJa am`m_ò emgZm~m~V Oo Ag_mYmZH$maH$ {M {XgV
hmoVo. `mMo _hdmMo H$maU hUOo bmoH$OmJVr ZgUo ho hmo`. {dMma_WZm~m~V AWog _ò Or gm_gy_
{XgV hmoVr `m_wio am`H$Vo A{Z~YnUo d A`m`H$maH$nUo ^>mMma H$arV hmoVo. AWog`m am`H$`m{d$
~S> H$a`mgmR>r gmHo${Q>gZo VU {nT>rbm hmVmer Yabo. Amn`m gdmX nVrMm Cn`moJ H$$Z AWog_ò
bmoH$ ~moYZ H$a`mMo _hdmMo H$m` gmHo${Q>gZo Ho$bo.
gmHo${Q>g`m gdmX nVrMr d{eQ>o :1)
ge`dmX gmHo${Q>g`m nVrV ge`dmX (Scepticism) AgVmo. ge`dmXmV EImm V`m{df`r, Jmo>r{df`r
62
gw$dmVrbm eH$m CnpWV Ho$br OmVo, ge` `V Ho$bm OmVmo. CXm. "ho' gmoZo Iao Amho H$m` ? hUOo
Amn`m g_moa`m gmo`m`m IaonUm{df`r W_ ge` `V H$amd`mMm. `m gmo`m`m Iao-ImoQ>onUm{df`r
OmUH$ma gwdUH$mamMo _V `md`mMo, {d{e> agm`Z dmn$Z gmo`mbm {hadQ> aJ òVmo H$m` Vo nhmd`mMo.
`m amgm`{ZH$ {MVrZVahr AmYrMo gmoZo [hadQ> Z nS>Vm {ndio Y_H$M amhV Agob Va gmoZo IaoM Amho
Agm {ZH$f H$mT>md`mMm. hUOo ge`mMm eodQ> g`m`m emoYm_ò H$amd`mMm. `md$Z gmHo${Q>gMm
ge` hm g`mdofU H$aUmam hmoVm Ago hQ>bo nm{hOo.
2)
g^mfUm_H$ -
gmHo${Q>g EImm Jmo>r{df`r AZoH$ bmoH$mer MMm H$arV Ago. MM}_ò AZoH$mMr AZoH$ _Vo Agy
eH$VmV. òH$ `Vr Amn`m dMm[aH$ Hw$dVrZwgma AZw^dmVrb dVy{df`r, Zm{df`r Amnbo _V
~Z{dV AgVo. dVyMo kmZ {_i{dVmZm dVy{df`r {^Z _Vo AgVrb. _m AJXrM {^Z _V Agob Va Vo
{dMmamV Z KoVm `mMo dOZ H$amd`mMo. AZoH$mnH$s Oo _V "gmYmaU' Agob, hUOo `m{df`r AZoH$mMo
EH$_V hmoD$ eH$Vo Vo drH$mamd`mMo. Aem [aVrZo g^mfU nVr dmn$Z gmHo${Q>g kmZ{ZpMVr H$arV
Ago. gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo kmZ{dVmamgmR>r, {dMmam`m {dH$mgmgmR>r g^mfU nVr A{YH$ Cn`wV Amho.
H$maU `m nVrV gdgmYmaU {dMmaj_Vm Agbo`m `VrnmgyZ Vo {deofkmn`V gdm`m gh^mJmMm
Cn`moJ H$$Z KoVm òVmo.
3)
`m`mZm_H$ d gH$nZm_H$ -
gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo dVy`m _wb^yV d {ZpMV kmZmgmR>r `m `m dVy`m `m`m H$aUo Amd`H$
AgVo. `m gX^mV `m`m hUOo H$m` ? `m ZmMo Cma W_ nmh. eXmZm, H$nZmZm AZoH$ AW Agy
eH$VmV. Oohm AWm`m ~m~VrV AZoH$ n`m` AgVmV Vohm Zo_H$m H$moUVm AW drH$mamd`mMm hm Z
CnpWV hmoVmo. `m`m hUOo EImm nXmMm, eXmMm {ZpMV D$ Zo_H$m d gd_m` hmoBb Agm AW
gmJUo hmo`. VdkmZm`m n[a^mfoV EImm nXmMr `dN>oXH$ bjU gmJUoo, Zo_H$m AW gmJUo hUOo
`m`m hmo`. nXmMm AWdm eXmMr `m`m Ho$`mda Vo nX AWdm eX BVamnmgyZ H$go {^Z AmhoV ho
n> hmoVo. gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo `mò{edm` kmZmMm {dVma e` ZgVmo. `m`m H$aVmZm `mòo` dVyMo
gmd{H$ d$n n> hmoVo.
gmHo${Q>gZo Amn`m nVr_ò `m`, ehmUnU, Y` `mgma`m gH$nZm`m `m`m {ZpMV
Ho$bo`m {XgyZ òVmV. Amn`m g^mfU nVrmao `m` `m gH$nZobm `mo` Jmo> H$aUo, Agm EH$ AW
Ho$bm. CXm.H$OXmamZo AmnU KoVbo`m H$OmMr doioda naV\o$S> H$aUo `m`mMo Amho, `mo` Amho. òH$mZo
Amnbo Zo_yZ {Xbobo H$V` m_m{UH$nUo nma nmS>Uo hUOo `m` hmo`. boQ>moZo Amn`m "[anpbH$' `m
JWm_ò gmHo${Q>gZo "`m`' `m eXmMm Omo AW gm{JVbm Vmo _mU _mZbobm Amho. `md$Z gmHo${Q>g
eXmMo {H$Vr AMyH$ AW {ZpMV H$arV Ago ho nQ> hmoVo. gmHo${Q>gZo ehmUnU, Y` `mgma`m gH$nZm`m
`m`m {ZpMV Ho$bo`m AmhoV.
4)
AZw^dmda AmYm[aV d {dJm_r :-
VdkmZmVrb {dMma Ho$di H$mn{ZH$ AgUo `mo` Zmhr. VmpdH$ {dMma gdgm_m` _mUgmbm
g_Obo nm{hOoV `mgmR>r VdqMVZmbm bm{H$H$ `dhmamVr AZw^dmMm AmYma Agbm nm{hOo. gmHo${Q>gZo
AWog ZJa am`mVrb emgZmMm dV: AZw^d KoVbm hmoVm d `m AZw^dmd$Z `mZo Amnbo am`
`dWo~bMo {dMma `V Ho$bo hmoVo. gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo OJVmZm _mUgmZo doJdoJio AZw^d _J - Vo gwIX
63
AgmoV dm Xw:IX AgmoV -KoVbo nm{hOo d Amn`m AZw^dm`m AmYmao Amnbo {dMma nHo$ Ho$bo nm{hOoV.
Amn`m {dMmamMm AZw^d hm AmYma Agbm nm{hOo Ago gmHo${Q>g AmJhnydH$ {VnmXZ H$aVmo.
{dJm_r nVr hUOo H$m` ?
VdkmZ d VH$emm`m A`mgmV {dJm_r nVr hr EH$ _m`Vm nmdbobr nVr Amho. Amn`m
g^modVr`m {ddmVrb gdM KQ>ZmMo kmZ AWdm AZw^d Amn`mbm ZgVmo. VWm{n AZw^dmVrb H$mhr
_moO`m KQ>Zm`m AmYmao Amn`mbm H$mhr {ZH$f H$mT>Vm òVmV. {dJm_r nVrV {d{e> CXmhaUo
{dMmamV KoD$Z `m`m AmYmao VemM H$ma`m gd CXmhaUm{df`r EH$ `mnH$ {ZH$f H$mT>bm OmVmo.
CXm. "j' hr H$>miy `Vr Am`w`mV èdr Pmbr. "`' hr H$>miy `Vr Am`w`mV èdr Pmbr.
hUyZ gd H$>miy `Vr Am`w`mV èdr hmoVrb. `m {ZH$fmMm AW Agm H$s Omo Omo H$moUr Amnmn`m
jomV H$> H$arb Vmo èdr hmoBb Agm gm_m` {ZH$f H$mT>Vm òVmo. {dJm_r nVrV {d{e> CXmhaUm`m
ghm`mZo gm_m` {ZH$f H$mT>bm OmVmo _m hm {ZH$f g^m` _mZbm OmVmo. g^m` {ZH$fmMo IS>Z
H$aUo e` AgVo, `mMm ~mY hmoD$ eH$Vmo. AmYw{ZH$ emr` kmZmMm {dH$mg hr {dJ_Z nVrMr èdr
\$b{Znmr _mZbr OmVo.
5) {ZJm_r :gmHo${Q>gMr nVr {ZJm_r d$nmMrhr (Deductive) Amho. VdkmZ d VH$emm`m A`mgmV
{dJm_r nVr_mUoM {ZJm_r nVrhr {deof _hdmMr Amho. `m XmoZ nVtMm Cn`moJ H$$Z kmZ{dVma
e` AgVmo. Oohm EImm `mnH$ Vdm`m AWdm {Z`_m`m AmYmao Vo Vd AWdm {Z`_ `m jombm
bmJy nS>Vmo `m jomVrb gd dVy`m{df`r AZw_mZ H$aUo hUOo {ZJm_r nVr hmo`. {ZJm_r nVrMo
d$n Imbrb `wVrdmXmd$Z n> H$$ 1) gd ^m{VH$ dVy JwdmH$fUm`m {Z`_mZo ~ AmhoV.
2) XJS> hr ^m{VH$ dVy Amho.
hUyZ XJS> JwdmH$fUm`m {Z`_mZo ~ Amho. `m `wVrdmXmMm {ZH$f AmYma {dYmZmd$Z hUOo
nwam`m`m {dYmZmd$Z {ZnZ Pmbm Amho. VH$emmVrb AZw_mZmMm Ame` Agm AgVmo H$s Oa AmYma
{dYmZo g` AgVrb Va {ZH$f g`M Agbm nm{hOo. {ZJm_r nVrZo mV Pmbobo {ZH$f g~i
nwam`mda AmYm[aV Ag`mZo `mMo IS>Z H$aVm òV Zmhr qH$dm `mMm ~mY hmoV Zmhr.
6.2.2 gmHo${Q>gMr Zr{V{df`H$ {eH$dU (Moral Teachings of Socrates) :JrH$ VdkmZm`m B{VhmgmV gmHo${Q>gbm Oo _hdmMo WmZ mV Pmbo Vo _w`V: `m`m Zr{V{df`H$
VdkmZm_wio hmo`. gmHo${Q>gZo VdkmZ{df`H$ {d{e> {dMma gXm` gm{JVbobm Zgbm Var `m`m
VdkmZmMr VdkmZm`m B{VhmgmV Or Zm|X KoVbr Jobr Vr m_w`mZo `mZo gm{JVbo`m d gd_m`
Pmbo`m Zr{V{df`H$ >rH$moZm_wio. gmHo${Q>g EH$ _hmZ Zr{V{ejH$ hmoVm. AmOhr Z{VH$Vo`m ~m~VrV
""_mUyg H$gm Agmdm'' Agm Z {dMmabm Va ""gmHo${Q>ggmaIm Ago '' Cma mdo bmJVo. AWog `m
mMrZ JrH$ ZJa am`m_ò gmHo${Q>gnydu gmo{\$> ZmdmMm VdkmZmVrb EH$ gXm` hmoD$Z Jobm. gmo{\$>
gXm`mVrb {dMmadV _moR>o Vdn{S>V hmoVo. Vo dmX{ddmXmV A`V nQ>mBV Ag`mZo `j MM}_ò
Amn`m {Vnjmbm {dMmam`m nmVirda Zm_moha_ H$arV AgV. gmo{\$>m`m dmX{ddmX ebr_wio gnyU
Jrg_ò VdkmZmMo _hmZ {ejH$ hUyZ `mZr bm{H$H$ {_i{dbm. gmo{\$> `dhmadmXmMo g_WH$ Ag`mZo
64
`j `dhmamV OJVmZm òUm`m ZmMo `dhmadmXr Cma emoY`mg `mMo mYm` hmoVo. gmo{\$>m`m
`dhmadmXr {eH$dUr_wio Jrg_ò `dhmadmXr Zr{V_mm (Practical Morality) _mZbr OmD$ bmJbr.
`j `dhma d Zr{V_mm `mMm _oi ~gUo H$R>rU hmoD$ bmJ`mZo ew Z{VH$ OrdZmMm nm`m S>i_irV
hmoD$ bmJbm. H$moU`mhr _mZdr g_mOmMr dMm[aH$ d Z{VH$ ~R>H$ ^H$_ Agob VaM Vmo g_mO OrdZm`m
bT>mV XrKH$mi Q>rH$mdm Y$ eH$Vmo.gmHo${Q>gZo Jrg_Yrb gmo{\$> {dMmadVmZr g_mOmbm Oo `mdhm[aH$
Zr{V_moMo YS>o {Xbo d `m_wio JrH$ ZJaam`mMm hmg H$gm Pmbm `mda n>nUo ^m` H$amd`mg ma^
Ho$bm. òH$ _mZdr g_mOmMo d{eQ> hUOo `mMr C^maUr emdV, {MaVZ d AmXe Vdmda Pmbr
nm{hOo, Aer gmHo${Q>gMr YmaUm hmoVr. gmo{\$>m`m Z{VH$ {eH$dUr_wio g_mOm_ò Or dmW bmobwnVm,
_y`hrZ, AmXembm Z _mZUmar dmr {Z_mU Pmbr Vr amoI`mgmR>r C`m _mUyg OmVrbm _mJXeH$ R>aob
Aer AmXe Z{VH$ {eH$dU gm{JVbr.
gmHo${Q>gMr Z{VH$ {eH$dU :gmHo${Q>gMr Z{VH$ {eH$dU d `mMo gnyU Zr{Vem nwT>rb VrZ Vdmda AmYm[aV Amho - 1)
gXJwU hUOo kmZ 2) gXJwUmMr {eH$dU XoVm òVo. 3) gXJwU EH$d$nr Amho.
darb òH$ VdmMo {dVmamZo n>rH$aU H$$ :
1) gXJwU hUOo kmZ (Virtue is Knowledge) :gXJwU hUOo `VrZo hoVwV: mV H$$Z `md`mMr Jmo>. `Vr`m AJr Agbobo AmXe JwU
hUOo gXJwU hmo`. nmMrZ H$mimnmgyZ g`_ qH$dm ghZerbVm (Patience), `m` (Justice), Y`
(Courage) d ehmUnU (Wisdom) `mZm gXJwU hUyZ g_mO_m`Vm {_imbr Amho. gmHo${Q>gZo `m Mmahr
gXJwUmMo Amn`m Z{VH$ {eH$dUr_ò {ddoMZ Ho$bo Amho. gmHo${Q>g`m _VmZwgma H$moU`mhr _mUgmbm
g`_mZo dmJ`m{edm`, namH$moQ>rMr ghZerbVm XmI{d`m{edm` èdr hmoVm òUma Zmhr. g`_ hUOo
Amn`m dVZmda, H$Vrda, H$m`mda dV: {ZÙ R>odUoo hmo`. Amnbr H$Vr Amn`m {ZÙmV Agob Va
H$Vr H$a`mV MyH$ hmoUma Zmhr d Vr H$Vr qH$dm H$m` BVamZm _mJXeH$ Aer hmoBb. g`_/ghZerbVm `m
gXJwUmMm Xwgam AW hUOo mV n[apWVrda _mUgmbm _mV H$aVm Ambr nm{hOo. n[apWVr AZwHy$b
Agmo dm {VHy$b Agmo Vr pWa _ZmZo nM{dVm Ambr nm{hOo.
"`m`' `m gXJwUmMm AW n> H$aVmZm gmHo${Q>g hUVmo H$s, EImXr H$Vr `mo` [aVrZo H$aUo hUOo
`m` hmo`. `mgmR>r `Vrbm `mo` H$m` A`mo` H$m` ho g_Obo nm{hOo. `m` hUOo `m `m `Vrbm
`Vr`m gm_m{OH$ WmZm_mUo dmJUyH$ XoUo hmo`. `m` hUOo gdmZm g_mZ dmJUyH$ XoUo Ago hU`mV
darb Ame` `V hmoVmo. CXm.EImm gm_m` AHw$eb H$m_Jmamg C nXW A{YH$m`mBVHo$ doVZ XoUo
hUOo `m` Zho, Va `m XmoKmZm `m`m `mo`Vo_mUo doVZ XoUo hUOo `m` hmo`. `m` `m eXmMm
AmUIr EH$ AW hUOo "g_mZ n[apWVrV AgUm`mZm g_mZ dmJUyH$ XoUo'. hUOo gmHo${Q>g gXJwU d
kmZmbm EH$M _mZVmo. Vohm kmZ hUOo kmZ{df`mMo R>m_ AmH$bZ, g`mMm gmjmH$ma d Xdr _y`mMo
`mo` agJhU Agm AW gmHo${Q>gbm A{ôV Amho. gXJwU OmUUo hUOo darb gXJwUmZw$n dmJUo hmo`.
Amn`mbm `m Jmo>rMo kmZ ZgVo `m Jmo>r Amn`m hmVyZ KS>`m_wio MwH$m hmoVmV. hUyZ AkmZ ho gd
_mXmMo (MwH$mMo) CJ_WmZ hmo`. gXdVZ Ho$di `moJm`moJmZo H$YrM KS>V Zmhr.
65
2)
gXJwUmMr {eH$dU XoVm òVo (Virtues can be taught) :-
gmHo${Q>g ZwwgVm nwVH$s nS>rV ZhVm. g_mOmVrb òH$ _mUgm`m AJr AmXe, _yò ho JwU
Agbo nm{hOoV. `mZo AWog_Yrb gm_m{OH$ OrdZmVrb Xmof dV: AZw^dbo hmoVo. gmHo${Q>g`m darb
{dYmZmVyZ "`Wm amOm VWm Om' `m bm{H$H$ {dYmZmMm `` òVmo. gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo g_mO AZwH$aUerb
d^mdmMm AgVmo. `mZm g_mO JwWmZr _mZVmo, AmXe _mZVmo `m`m òH$ H$VrVyZ g_mO H$mhrVar
{eH$V AgVmo. kmZr _mUgmnmgyZ g_mO kmZmVrMm _mJ {eH$V AgVmo. draMH$ YmaH$mH$Sy>Z Y` hm JwU
KoVbm OmVmo. gmHo${Q>gZo gm{JVbobo darb gXJwU H$go AJr ~mUmdoV `mMr g_mOmbm {eH$dU XoUo e`
Amho. AmnU ^maVr` _mUgo amQ>{nVm _hm_m JmYrnmgyZ g`_, Y`, ehmUnU d `m` `m gXJwUmMr
{eH$dU KoVmo.
3)
gXJwU EH$d$nr Amho (Virtue as a whole) :-
Amn`m AZw^dmVrb {df` H$_r OmV d$nmV g` Agy eH$VmV. EImXr dVy BVHo$ Q>Ho$
MmJbr Amho nU {VVHo$ Q>Ho$ MmJbr Zmhr Ago Amn`m AZw^dmV Agy eH$Vo. gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo dVy_mUo
A{eH$ g`mMr ^mfm gXJwUm~m~V dmnaVm òV Zmhr. hUOo ehmUnU hm gXJwU 70 Q>Ho$ `mo` d 30
Q>Ho$ A`mo` Ago `m gXJwUm`m ~m~VrV hUVm òV Zmhr. `m gX^mV gmHo${Q>g hUVmo H$s _mUyg
ehmUm Agob AWdm ehmUm Zgob, _mUyg Y`dmZ Agob AWdm Y`dmZ Zgob. hUOo `m` hmo`. CXm. A
Am{U ~ XmoKohr H${Z> boI{ZH$ AgyZ XmoKmMrhr godm g_mZ dfmMr Agob Va `m XmoKmZmhr g_mZ doVZ XoUo
hUOo `m` hmo`.
ehmUnU `m gXJwUmMo {ddoMZ H$aVmZm gmHo${Q>g hUVmo, H$s ehmUnU d ~w{_mm `mMr JbV
H$$ Zò. ehmUnU hUOo _mUgmMr gmamgma {dMma~wr. Amn`m gmamgma ~wrMm Cn`moJ H$$Z
gJmZwgma, n[apWVrZwgma Omo `mo` VmoM {ZU` KoVmo, `mo` VrM H$Vr H$aVmo Vmo ehmUm hmo`. CXm. "j'
hm ~w{_mZ nmobrg A{YH$mar Amho. `m`mda g_mOmVrb H$m`Xm d gw`dWm amI`mMr H$m`Xoera
O~m~Xmar Amho. `mg Amd`H$ Vohm Jmoir~ma H$a`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. `m`m H$m`mb`mda OZVoMm
_mooMm Am`mda Vmo A{YH$mar Jmoir~mamMm AmXoe XoD$ eH$Vmo d _moMm nmJdy eH$Vmo. _m _moM}H$ar Zo`mer
gmhmXnyU MMm H$$Z, OZVo`m ^mdZm bjmV KoD$Z gm_O`mZo Vmo _moM}H$`mZm emV H$aVmo. `m CXmhaUmV
nmobrg A{YH$m`m`m ~w{_monojm `mMo ehmUnU A{YH$ Cn`wV R>aVo. hUyZ gmHo${Q>gMm Agm AmJh
hmoVm H$s g_mOmbm ehm`m _mUgmMr A{YH$ JaO Amho. ehmUnUmV kmZ {df`mMr nwaoer JhU j_Vm,
nwaonya AmH$bZ d mg{JH$ {ZU` j_Vm `mMm g_mdoe Agbm nm{hOo Ago gmHo${Q>gMo _V Ago.
Y` hUOo `Vr`m AJr Agbobr YmS>gmMr dmr. gJmbm gm_moao Om`mMr dmr, n[apWVr
nmgyZ nbm`ZdmX Z drH$maVm `m n[apWVrbm OmUrdnydH$ gVH$VoZo Vm|S> XoUo hUOo Y` hmo`. gmHo${Q>gMo
_Vo eyamMm JwU hUOo Y`. gmHo${Q>g g_mOmbm Z{VH$VoMo {ejU XoV AgVmZm g_mOmVrb òH$mZo
OrdZmVrb Y` hm gXJwU AJr ~mUbmM nm{hOo `m~m~V AmJhr Ago. g_mOmVrb ôH$S>m`m \$mOonojm EH$
eyadra Ho$hmhr lo> R>aVmo. gXJwUm~m~V Am{eH$ g` hr H$nZm MwH$sMr R>aVo.
gmHo${Q>g`m Z{VH$ {eH$dUrV `mZo Mm[a`mMm {dMma Ho$bm Amho. `mMo _Vo _mUyg d mUr `mV
_mUyg eVnQ>rZo lo> Amho Vmo Mm[a`m`m H$nZo_wio. `mMo dmJUo `m`, ZrVr, gm_m{OH$ AmXe, _yò
`mZm AZwg$Z AgVo Agm _Zw` Mm{a`dmZ hmo`. OrdZmV BVa Jmo>r {_iVrb d OmVrb nU Mm[a` _m
gnmXZ H$amdoM bmJob. Mm[a`m{edm` _Zw` hr H$nZmM H$adV Zmhr. hUyZ _mUgmZo gj_ Mm[a`
66
gnmXZ H$amdo. Mm[a`dmZ _mUgo XrKH$mi g_mOm`m _aUmV amhVmV.

_mZdm`m ^m{VH$ JVr~m~V gmHo${Q>g hUVmo H$s, Ho$di ~m-^m{VH$ JVrd$Z _mZdr g_mOmMo
_moR>onU _moObo OmV Zmhr Va _mZdr g_mO AmV[aH$Q>m {H$Vr g_mYmZr Amho ho A{YH$ _hdmMo Amho.
_mUyg {dMma, H$nZm, gXJwU, g_mOerbVm, kmZbmbgm, am>r` Ap_Vm `m~m~V {H$Vr g_ Amho
`md$Z `mMo gwI-g_mYmZ _moObo nm{hOo. Z{VH$ OrdZ _mZdm`m >rZo {H$Vr lo> Amho `m~m~V gmHo${Q>g
hUVmo H$s, ""^m{VH$ g_mYmZmZo VV Agbo`m newnojm Ag_mYmZr {dmZ Ho$hmhr lo> hmo`.'' (It is
better to be a man dis-satisfied than to be a pig satisfied.)
Zr{V_moMo lo>d gmJVmZm gmHo${Q>g hUVmo H$s, _mUgmVyZ Zr{V_mm dOm Ho$`mg {ebH$ amhVmo
Vmo ney. gmHo${Q>g`m >rH$moZmVyZ gXJwUm~ahHw$_ AmMaU H$aUo, òH$ H$VrJ{UH$ `m`-Zr{V `mMm
Adb~ H$aUo hrM _mZdr Am`mMr Iar {gr hmoo`.
gmame :mMrZ JrH$ VdkmZmV {ddmg~Yr {ddoMZ Ho$bo. _m gmHo${Q>g hm n{hbmM VdqMVH$ H$s `mZo
_mZdH|$r - _mZdr OrdZmg~Yr _hdm`m {df`mZm ne Ho$bm. gmHo${Q>gbm Ago A{ôV hmoVo H$s, _mZdr
g_mO {MaVZ d AmXe _y`mda AmYm[aV Agbm nm{hOo. `m g_mOmbm emdVVoMo A{Y>mZ AgV Zmhr
`m g_mO OrdZmMr dmVmhV hmoVo. `mMo R>iH$ CXmhaU hUyZ gmHo${Q>gZo AWog JrH$ ZJa am`mMm hmg
ho {Xbobo Amho. Z{VH$ {dMmamMo g_WZ H$aVmZm `mZo ^m{VH$mbm JmU WmZ {Xbobo Amho. g_mOmMo lo>d
g_mOmVrb ^m{VH$ gwYmaUmda Adb~yZ ZgyZ g_mOmVrb Mm[a`dmZ, Zr{V_mZ _mUgmda H$go Adb~yZ
Amho ho XmIdyZ {Xbo Amho. gmHo${Q>gZo VdkmZm`m B{VhmgmV ge` nVrbm _mZmMo WmZ {_idyZ {Xbo.
_m `mMr ge`nVr ge`mgmR>r ge` Aer ZgyZ g`mdofU- g`mMm emoY KoUmar ge` nVr
Amho, kmZ {dVma H$aUmar nVr Amho.
6.2.3 boQ>moMr kmZ{df`H$ Cnnmr (Plato's Theory of Knowledge) :boQ>monydu gmo{\$> VdkmZm_ò moQ>Jmoag `m gmo{\$> VdqMVH$mZo "gdoXZ nVrbm' kmZmMr Cnnmr
hUyZ _m`Vm {Xbr hmoVr. moQ>JmoagMo _Vo Amn`mbm ^m{VH$ dVyMm gdoXZm`m nmVirda Omo AZw^d
òVmo Vo Amnbo dVy{df`H$ kmZ hmo`. òH$ km`mbm òUmam AZw^d hUOo `mMo kmZ hmo`. `md$Z
"_Zw` hmM gd Jmo>tMm _mnXS> hmo`' (Man is the measure of all things) hmM kmZmMm {ZH$f
_mZbm. gdoXZ hoM kmZmMo _mU gmYZ hmo`, nVr hmo`. kmZ ho gdoXZmVyZ O_mbm òVo d gdoXZ hmM
kmZmMm AmYma hmo` Agm moQ>JmoagZo >rH$moZ drH$mabm hmoVm.
Amnbr kmZ|{ò Amn`m AZw^dmVrb kmZ{df`mMo AZw^d KoVmV, `m AZw^dmMo JhU hmoVo d `m
AZw^dmVyZ Amn`mbm kmZmVr hmoVo Ago moQ>JmoagZo n> Ho$bo Amho. gmo{\$>m`m gdoXZO` kmZmMo
boQ>moZo Amn`m "moQ>Jmoag' `m gdmXmV IS>Z Ho$bo Amho. ho IS>Z hUOoM boQ>moMr kmZ Cnnmr hmo`.
boQ>mo`m kmZ CnnmrV moQ>Jmoag`m darb {gmVmda Imbrb Amjon KoVbobo AmhoV 1) boQ>moMo _Vo Amnbo B{`mZw^d gmaIo ~XbV Ag`m_wio B{`mZw^dm_wio EImm kmZ {df`mMo
{d_mZ kmZ ^{d`H$mbrZ kmZmnojm {^Z Agy eHo$b.
2) EH$mM dVyMr gdoXZo {^Z H$maMr Agy eH$VmV. CXm.H$mdri Pmbo`m `Vrg g_moa`m
gdM dVy {nd`m {XgVmV. _J dVy Zo_H$s H$er _mZmd`mMr ? {nm `mYrZo JV Agbo`m `Vrbm
67
gmIahr H$Sy> bmJVo. _J gmIa H$Sy> _mZmd`mMr H$m ?

3) gdoXZ CnnmrZwgma òH$ `VrMo gdoXZ d AZw^d {^Z Ag`m_wio "gm_m`kmZ {gmV'
H$YrM ApVdmV òD$ eH$Uma Zmhr.
4) g`m{df`r moQ>Jmoag hUVmo H$s, `mbm `mbm {^Z Jmo>r g` dmQy> eH$VmV `mda boQ>moMo
{VnmXZ Ago H$s, moQ>JmoagMm g`mMm {ZH$f _mZbm Va "gm_m` g`' H$YrM gmJVm òUma Zmhr.
5) Amn`mbm òUmam AZw^d hm Ho$di B{`mmao mV hmoV Zmhr. òUm`m AZw^dmMm AW bmd`mMo
_hdmMo H$m` ~wrMo Amho.
6) kmZ {H$òV gmo{\$>mZr ~wr `m KQ>H$mH$S>o nyUnUo Xwbj Hoo$bo Amho.
7) gmo{\$> VdkmZmV kmZ d _V `mV \$aH$ Ho$bobm Zmhr. EImm Jmo>r~m~V AmnU _Vo (Opinions) ~Z{dV AgVmo. H$mbMo _V AmO ~Xby eH$Vo. _V dadaMo XoIrb Agy eH$Vo. _m kmZm`m ~m~VrV
Ago Agy eH$V Zmhr. hUOoM moQ>Jmoag d gmo{\$>mZr kmZ CnnmrMm `mnH$ Ame` d AW bjmV
KoVbobm Zmhr Ago {XgyZ òVo.
6.2.4 boQ>moMr H$nZm{df`H$ Cnnmr (Plato's Theory of Ideas) :boQ>mo`m VdkmZmVrb _hdmMr Cnnmr qH$dm {gmV hUOo boQ>moMr H$nZm Cnnmr hmo`. Amn`m
AZw^dmV AZoH$ `Vr, dVy Agy eH$VmV. CXm. {hadm M|Sy>, {ndim M|Sy>, Vm~S>m M|Sy> `m gd CXmhaUmV
MoSy> VrZ AmhoV - dVy VrZ AmhoV. `m VrZhr M|Sy>Mo aJ {^Z AmhoV Var `m gdm_ò "M|Sy>' hr H$nZm
EH$M Amho. `mMr H$nZm Cnnmr hUOo _mZdr {dMmamZm dmV{dH$ AZw^dm`m nmVird$Z dMm[aH$
nmVirda ZoUo hmo`.
boQ>mo`m H$nZm {gmVmZwgma H$nZmMr d{eQ>o Imbrb_mUo 1) H$nZm `m_H$ AmhoV (Ideas are Substances). Oo H$emdahr Adb~yZ ZgVo, dV:M
{ZYm[aV AgVo `mg ` hUVmV. CXm._mUyg hm Ord hdm, AZ, nmUr `mda Adb~yZ Amho. nU
"_Zw`' hr H$nZm `mnH$s H$emdahr Adb~yZ Zmhr.
2) H$nZm gmdXo{eH$ AgVmV (Ideas are Universal). `mMm AW H$nZm gd AgVmV. H$nZmZm
WbH$mbmMo ~YZ ZgVo. CXm.H$moU`mhr Jmd`m, Xoem`m _mUgm_ò _Zw` hr H$nZm AgVo. EImXm
AZmoiIr _mUyg ôQ>bm Var `mbm AmnU _mUygM hUVmo. H$nZm ^yVH$mimV hmo`m, AmO dV_mZH$mir
AmhoV d ^{d`H$mimVhr AgVrb.
3) H$nZm nXmW n qH$dm dVy$n ZgyZ {dMma$n AgVmV (Ideas are not things but they are
thoughts). AZw^dmVrb dVyMo AWdm nXmWmMo ApVd ho ^m{VH$ ApVd AgVo. dVyMm kmZ|{`mZm
AZw^d KoVm òVmo. _m dVy`m H$nZm kmZ|{`m`m H$joV òV ZmhrV Va {dMmamZoM g_Oy eH$VmV.
CXm.gwXa dVy S>mo`mZm {XgVo nU gwXa dVyVrb gmX` {dMmamZrM g_Oy eH$Vo.
4) H$nZm Eo`$n AgVmV (Ideas are Unitary). `mMm AW dVy AZoH$ Agy eH$VmV nU `m
AZoH$ dVyVrb H$nZm EH$M AgVo. CXm._mUgo CM, _`_, ~wQ>H$s, dmWu, m_m{UH$, b~mS> Aer Agy
eH$VmV nU `m gdmVrb "_Zw`' hr H$nZm _m EH$M AgVo. `mbmM {Z`_ EH$_ AZoH$mZwJV_ (one
among many) Ago hUVm òBb.
68
5) H$nZm n[adVZr` AgVmV (Ideas are unchanging). AZw^dmVrb dVy_ò gmaIo n[adVZ
hmoV AgVo. dVyMo d$n gmaIo ~XbV AgVo. CXm. _mVrnmgyZ Hw$^ma KQ> ~Z{dVmo. AmOMm KQ> H$mhr
dfmZr doJim dmQ>ob d ZVa \w$Qy>Zhr OmBb. _m KQ> \w$Q>bm hUyZ KQ>mMr H$nZm Z> hmoUma Zmhr.
6) òH$ H$nZm ho nyUd AgVo (Every Idea is a perfection). AZw^dmVrb dVy_ò Va-V_d
AgVo hUOo dVy bhmZ-_moR>m Agy eH$VmV. dVy bhmZ Agmo dm _moR>m AgmoV `md$Z bhmZ dVyVrb
H$nZm bhmZ, _moR>m dVyVrb H$nZm _moR>r Ago _m Agy eH$V Zmhr. CXm.ndV bhmZ Agmo dm
{h_mb`mgmaIm _moR>m Agmo "ndV' hr H$nZm nyUV: AgVo.
7) H$nZm \$V ~wrZoM OmU`m OmD$ eH$VmV (Ideas are known by reason alone). H$nZm
d$nmZo ^m{VH$ dVygma`m Zg`mZo `mMm B{` gdoXZmZo `` òD$ eH$V Zmhr. CXm.Jm`r Amn`mbm
B{` gdoXZmZo {XgVmV nU Jm`t_ò Oo "Jmod' AgVo Vo \$V {dMmamZo qH$dm ~wrZoM g_Oy eH$Vo.
6.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z :1)
A)
`mo` n`m` {ZdSy>Z {dYmZo nyU H$am.

1)
gmHo${Q>gMr nVr ------------ Amho.

( gdmXm_H$ / AZw^dm_H$ / m_m`m_H$ )
2)
gmHo${Q>gMo _Vo ------------ hUOo kmZ.

( gXJwU / gdoXZ / AVkmZ )
3)
gmHo${Q>gMr nVr ------------ Mm emoY KoUmar Amho.

( g`m / Ag`mMm / b~mS>rMm )
4)
boQ>moMo VdkmZ ------------ Amho.

( AmXedmXr / OS>dmXr / AZw^ddmXr )
5)
AmXe am`H$ma^mamg~Yr boQ>moZo ------------ hm JW {b{hbm.

( [anpbH$ / {\$S>mo / nm{b{Q>g )
6)
gmo{\$>m`m kmZ {gmVmMo IS>Z boQ>moZo -------- `m gdmXmV Ho$bobo Amho.

( moQ>Jmoag / `w{W\$mo / Ho$Q>mo )
~)
Imbrb ZmMr EH$m dm`mV Cmao m.

1)
gmHo${Q>gZo H$moUVo gXJwU gm{JVbo AmhoV ?
2)
gmHo${Q>gbm H$moUVo {df meZ H$a`mMr {ejm {Xbr Jobr ?
3)
AWog òWo boQ>moZo WmnZ Ho$bo`m kmZ H|$mMo Zmd H$m` ?
4)
H$nZmMr gmdXo{eH$Vm hUOo H$m` ?
69
5)
boQ>moZo JWboIZ H$moU`m d$nmV Ho$bo Amho ?
6)
boQ>moZo g`m`m dVw{Z>VoMr MMm H$moU`m gdmXmV Ho$br Amho ?
6.4 nm[a^m{fH$ eX :gdmX
nanam_Yrb g^mfU
Vd_r_mgm
EImm {dMmamMo {ddoMZ qH$dm MMm
gVVd
ApVd{df`H$ Vd
^m{VH$ {dd
Amn`m g^modVrMo OJ
AH$S>o_r
kmZH|$
gdoXZ
kmZ|{`mZr hmoUmao kmZ
6.5 d` A``Z ZmMr Cmao :1) A)

~)
1) gdmXm_H$
2) gXJwU
3) g`mMm
4) AmXedmXr
5) [anpbH$
6) moQ>Jmoag
1) g`_erbVm, `m`, ehmUnU d Y` ho Mma gXJwU gm{JVbo AmhoV.

2) gmHo${Q>gbm "ho_bmH$' {df meZ H$a`mMr {ejm {Xbr hmoVr.
3) AWog òWo boQ>moZo "AH$S>o_r' ho kmZ H|$ WmnZ Ho$bo hmoVo.
4) H$nZm gd AgUo hUOo H$nZmMr gmdXo{eH$Vm hmo`.
5) boQ>moZo JWboIZ gdmXm_H$ d$nmV Ho$bo Amho.
6) g`m`m dVy{Z>VoMr MMm boQ>moZo {WA{Q>Q>g `m gdmXmV Ho$br Amho.
6.6 gmame :mMrZ JrH$ VdkmZmV {ddmg~YrMo {ddoMZ Ho$bo Jobo Amho. _m gmHo${Q>g hm n{hbmM VdqMVH$
H$s `mZo _mZdH|$r - _mZdmg~Yr, am` `dWog~Yr _hdm`m {df`mZm ne Ho$bm. gmHo${Q>gbm Ago
A{ôV hmoVo H$s, _mZdr g_mO {MaVZ d AmXe _y`mda AmYm[aV Agbm nm{hOo. `m g_mOmbm
emdVVoMo A{Y>mZ AgV Zmhr `m g_mOmMm hmg hmoVmo ho AWog`m CXmhaUmd$Z XmIdyZ {Xbo Amho.
g_mOmMr nS>PS> amoI`mgmR>r g_mOmbm Z{VH$ {eH$dU XoUo JaOoMo Amho Ago AmJhmZo Vmo gmJVmo.
g_mOmMo lo>d g_mOmVrb Zwg`m ^m{VH$ gwYmaUmda Adb~yZ ZgVo Va g_mOmVrb Mm[a`dmZ,
Zr{V_mZ _mUgmda H$go Adb~yZ Amho ho XmIdyZ Xo`mgmR>r gXJwUmMo g_WZ Ho$bo Amho. gmHo${Q>gZo
gèmoYZmgmR>r ge` nVrbm _hdmMo WmZ {_idyZ {Xbo.
boQ>moZo Amn`m VdkmZmV AmXe am`mMr H$nZm n> Ho$br Amho. kmZm`m jomV Umbr~
VdkmZ gmJUmam boQ>mo hm n{hbm VdqMVH$ R>aVmo. amOZr{V, {ejU, gm{h` Aem AZoH$ {df`mda `mZo
AmXedmXr Q>rH$moZ gm{JVbo. gmo{\$>m`m gdoXZ {gmVmMr g{_jm H$$Z kmZ{gmVmMr WbH$mb
70
{ZanojVm {VnmXZ Ho$br. boQ>moMr H$nZm Cnnmr hUOo _`m{XV Aem AZw^dm`m OJmn{bH$S>o nmh`mMm
~w{dmXr >rH$moZ hmo`. H$nZm Cnnmrmao `mZo Amn`m AZw^dmMo ~m{H$sH$aU Ho$bo Amho.
gmHo${Q>g`m gdmX nVrMo d$n {deX H$am.
2)
gmHo${Q>g`m gXJwUmMr MMm H$am.
3)
gmHo${Q>gMr Z{VH$ {eH$dU n> H$am.
4)
EH$ _hmZ {ejH$ hUyZ gmHo${Q>gMo H$m` gmJm.
5)
boQ>moMr kmZ Cnnmr n> H$am.
6)
boQ>mo`m H$nZm CnnmrMo d$n n> H$am.
6.8 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$ :H$n`m JWm`m eodQ>r gyMr nhm.

666
71
KQ>H$ - 7
gV Wm_g A{$Zmg ( St.Thomas Acquinas )

7.0 C{Q>o
7.1 mVm{dH$
7.2 {df` - {ddoMZ
7.2.1
Bdaem d VdkmZmMm g~Y
7.2.2
lm d ~wr
7.2.3
BdamMo d$n d
Bdam`m ApVdmg~YrMo nwamdo
7.3 d`-A``ZmgmR>r Z
7.6 gmame
7.0 C{Q>o :`m KQ>H$m`m A`mgmZVa Amn`mbm * Bdaem d VdkmZmMm g~Y g_Oob.
* lm d ~wr `m`mVrb g~Y n> hmoBb.
* BdamMo d$n d Bdam`m ApVdm`m nwam`mMr _m{hVr hmoBb.
7.1 mVm{dH$ :_``wJrZ H$mbIS>m`m Ama^mnmgyZ Vo ~moYZ H$mimn`V `wamon_ò Y_gmoMm OrdZm`m gd
jomda {deof ^md hmoVm. Y_ VdkmZ hoM OrdZmMo VdkmZ _mZbo OmV Ago. Y_gmo`m ^mdH$mimVM
gV Wm_g A{$ZmgMo OrdZ Jobo. A{$ZmgMm O_ B.g.1224-25 _ò EH$m Hw$brZ Kam`mV Pmbm.
`mMo dS>rb A{$Zmo òWo H$mD$Q> hmoVo. A{$ZmgMo ma{^H$ {ejU H${gZmo`m {MZ Y_ _R>mV (Abbey
of Mante Cassino) Pmbo. A~Q> {X JoQ> `m {MZ Y_ n{S>Vm`m ghdmgmV amhZ `mZo 1252 n`V
{dm``Z Ho$bo.
72
Wm_g A{$ZmgZo Summa Cantra Gentiles d Summa Theologiae ho XmoZ _hdmMo JW

{b{hbo. `m Xmohr JWm_ò `mZo {MZ Y_ VdkmZ d BdaemmMo {dVV {ddoMZ Ho$bo Amho.
7.2 {df` {ddoMZ :7.2.1 Bdaem d VdkmZmMm g~Y Wm_g A{$Zmg Y_ VdkmZmMm {deof A`mgH$ Ag`mZo `mZo Y_VdkmZ d VdkmZmMm g~Y
XmIdyZ {Xbm Amho. `mMo _Vo Y_VdkmZ hm _mZdr OrdZmMm A{d^m` ^mJ Amho. Y_Vdm`m AmYmao
_mZdmbm Y_m_mUo AmMaU H$am, BVamMm of H$$ ZH$m, nanamda o_ H$am, nmnmMo AmMaU H$$ ZH$m,
gXd Iao ~mobm `mgma`m CXmm VdmMr {eH$dU {Xbr OmVo. Bdaem hm Y_emmMm EH$ Cn{d^mJ
AgVmo. BdaemmZwgma {ddmV Bda gdlo> Amho. AmnU Oo H$m_ H$aVmo Vo Bdam`m BN>oZwgmaM
H$arV AgVmo. ApdZmgZo Y_emo, JrH$ VdkmZ d {MZ VdkmZmMm A`mg H$$Z `mVrb Bda,
Am_m `m _hdm`m H$nZm {ZdS>`m. Bdaem hm Y_emmMm mU Amho. `m {ddmV Oo Oo H$mhr
KS>Vo Vo Bdam`m BN>oZwgmaM KS>Vo Aer `mMr lm hmoVr.A{$ZmgZo BdaemmMo Oo g_WZ Ho$bo Amho
Vo A[aQ>mQ>b`m gmmemmVrb Bda {dMmamMoM H$Q>Z Amho. Bdaem _mZdr g_mOmbm Am`mp_H$
~R>H$ mV H$$Z XoVo. Bdaem VddmXmer {MH$Qy>Z amhUmao Ag`mZo BdaemmV _mZdr {dMma
dmV`mbm \$maer _w^m ZgVo. BdaemmV {d (Trinity), AdVma H$nZm (Incarnation) d H$m{bH$
gOZVm (Temporal Creation) `m H$nZmZm {deof _hd AgVo.
VdkmZ _mZdr OrdZmMm gd ~mOyZr {dMma H$aVo. A{$ZmgMo _Vo VdkmZ hUOo gnyU _mZdr
OrdZmbm `mnyZ Q>mH$Umam {dMma hmo`. VdkmZmV Y_em-Bdaem, gH$Vr, _yèm d {dkmZmMmhr
g_mdoe hmoVmo. Bdaem d VdkmZmMm g~Y XmI{dVmZm Vmo hUVmo H$s, Bdaem OrdZm`m Am`mp_H$
AJmMm {dMma H$aVo. `mV BdamMm {dMma d Bdam`m Amkm hm _w` ^mJ AgVmo. Bdaem _mZdr
AmMaUm`m ewVobm lo> _mZVo. BdaemmZwgma _mZd H$moR>o O_bm `md$Z Vmo lo>-H${Z> R>aV Zmhr
Va Vmo H$em H$maMo AmMaU H$aVmo `md$Z _mZdmMr lo>Vm-H${Z>Vm R>a{dbr OmVo. VdkmZ _mZdr
ApVd, Z{VH$Vm, gH$Vr, {dMma nVr CXm.AZw^ddmX, ~w{dmX, Bdaem `m gdM AJmMm {dMma
H$aVo. VdkmZmMo A`mgjo \$maM `mnH$ AgVo. Bdaem d VdkmZ ho Xmohrhr _mZdr ApVdmgmR>r
Amd`H$ Ag`mZo `m`mV {damoY Agy eH$V Zmhr. `m Xmohm|V g~Y Amho Ago gmJ`mMm hoVy hUOo
{MZY_ d A[aQ>mQ>bMo Y_em d VdkmZ{df`H$ {dMmamV `mbm _oi ~gdmd`mMm hmoVm.
7.2.2 lm d ~wr
(Faith and Reason)
:-
{MZ Y_ VdkmZmV Y_dMZmZm {deof _hd Amho. `m VdkmZmV g`, Aqhgm, o_, H$Um,
emVr, X`m `mZm OrdZmMr emdV _yò _mZbo Amho. `m OrdZ _y`mZm _mZdr OrdZmV CM WmZ Agbo
nm{hOo. A{$ZmgMo _Vo lm hUOo Bdamda AT>i {ddmg AgUo, Bdam`m ApVdm{df`r {ddmg, Bdam~b
na_ AmXa AgUo hUOo lm hmo`. lm hr _mZdr OrdZmMr Am`mp_H$ ~mOy Amho. lo_ò `{${Z>Vm AgVo.
òH$ `VrMr Bdamda lm AgUo Amd`H$ Amho. _``wJmV òH$ Jmo>rMo {ZÙ H$aUmao Vd hUyZ BdamH$S>o
nm{hbo OmV Ago. `mVyZM Bdalm T> Pmbr. Amnbo H$V` BdamnU ~wrZo H$amdo hUOoM Amn`m H$V`mda
lm AgUo hmo`.A{$ZmgZo _``wJmVrb Bdar H$no`m OJmbm ^m{VH$ OJmMr OmoS> {Xbr. `mMo _Vo lm
d ~wr `m EH$mM gnyU ApVdm`m XmoZ nmV`m AmhoV.
~wr - _mZdm`m emar[aH$ {H$`m CXm.MmbUo, nmhUo, EoH$Uo d AmV[aH$ {H$`m Aem XmoZ H$ma`m {H$`m
73
AgVmV. H$nZm H$aUo, {dMma H$aUo, _aU H$aUo `m AmV[aH$ {H$`m hmoV. `m AmV{aH$ {H$`mnojm C
nmVirda ~wrMo H$m` MmbVo. ~wr {ddoH$erb d {d_eerb (Reflective) AgVo. `mo` H$m` A`mo` H$m`
ho R>a{dUo {ddoH$~wrMo H$m` AgVo d `mo`-A`mo` H$m` ho R>a{d`mZVa `mo` VoM H$aUo hUOo {d_eerb
~wr hmo`. ~wr KQ>ZmMo, {dMmamMo AW bmdVo, {dbofU H$aVo. gXd {dMma H$aUo ho ~wrMo d{eQ> hmo`.
A{$ZmgMo _Vo ~wr Ho$di AZw^dmVrb gdo dVyMo kmZ H$$Z XoV Zmhr Va Vr gnyU ApVdmMm
{dMma H$aVo. ~wr Am`mbm {dm`m Am{XVdmH$S>o di{dVo. lm d ~wrMm g~Y n> H$aVmZm
A{$Zmg hUVmo H$s, `m XmohrV {damoY Agy eH$V Zmhr. lm hr `{$JV ~m~ Amho. _mZdr ~wr loMr
{M{H$gm H$$ eH$Vo. lm hr Am`mp_H$ _mUgmMr JaO AgVo Va {dMmar _mUgmbm {d_eH$ ~wrMr
JaO AgVo. kmZ gnmXZmgmR>r lm d ~wr `m XmohrMrhr JaO AgVo. "lmdmZ b^Vo kmZ_' hr CVr
{gM Amho. lo{edm` ~wr H$moaS>r R>aVo Va ~wr{edm` lm AmYir R>aVo.
7.2.3 BdamMo d$n d `m`m ApVdmMo nwamdo {MZ Y_ VdkmZmV BdamMo ApVd _mZbobo Amho. gV AmJQ>mBZ, gV Ago_ `mZr Bdar
^y{_Ho$Mm CKS> nwaH$ma Ho$bm Amho. `m VdkmZmV Bdam{df`r "Xdr H$nZm' (Divine Idea) drH$mabr
Amho. _mZdr B{VhmgmV {Vm`m $nmZo BdamMo EH$ H$Q>Z - AdVma Pmbm Amho Aer `m VdkmZmMr
lm Amho. Wm_g A{$Zmg BdamVrgmR>r MM ho EH$ _m`_ _mZVmo. MMMr _XV Z KoVm Ho$di
dV:`m `Zm`m ~imZo _mZd Bdamn`V nmohmoMy eH$V Zmhr. MMH$Sy>Z {_iUm`m Ym{_H$ gH$mamMr
BdamVrgmR>r JaO Amho.
A{$Zmg`m VdkmZmZwgma Bda qH$dm _mZdr Am_m `{da{hV (Matterless) AgVmV. ^m{VH$
`mZm Ago qH$dm Vgo {d{e> AmH$ma AgVmV _m Bda `{da{hV AmH$ma (Pure Form) Amho. Bda hm
ew AmH$ma Amho, ew gmjmVVm (Pure Actuality) , {ddmVrb gd dVy_Yrb ôX BdamV {dbrZ hmoVmV,
Vmo A{Vr` (unique) Amho. Bda hm "na_OmVr' (Absolute Genus) Amho. `mZoM {ZgJ, _mZdr Am_m d
XodXyV {Z_mU Ho$bo AmhoV.
BdamMo ApVd {g H$a`mgmR>r A{$ZmgZo nwamdo hUyZ Imbrb `wVrdmX gm{JVbo AmhoV 1)
AMb MmbH$mMm `wVrdmX (Agrument of Unmoved Mover) :-
A{$ZmgMm hm `wVrdmX A[aQ>mQ>b`m "AMb MmbH$' {dMmamgmaIm Amho. Amn`m AZw^dmVrb

gd dVy n[adVZr` AmhoV, JVr_mZ AmhoV. `m gd dVyZm JVr XoUmar EH$ eVr Agbr nm{hOo. BVa
dVyVrb eVr hiyhiy H$_r hmoV OmVo. _m gd dVyZm JVr d eVr XoUmao Vd gXd eVr_mZ Agbo
nm{hOo. `m_mUo dmhZ MmbH$ dV: AMb amhZ dmhZ Mmb{dVmo VgoM `m {ddmMo Agbo nm{hOo. hUyZ
`m {ddmMm MmbH$ Agbobm Bda hm dV: AMb Agbm nm{hOo. OJm`m ma^r AgUmao d OJmMo oaH$
Vd hUOo BdaM hmo`.
2)
{Z{_m H$maUmMm `wVrdmX (Agrument of Efficient Cause) :-
gOZm`m {H$òV òH$ dVybm {d{e> H$maU AgVo. R>am{dH$ H$maUmnmgyZ R>am{dH$ H$m` {Z_mU
hmoVo. hUOo dVy m dV:Mo H$maU Agy eH$V ZmhrV. H$maU ho H$m`m`m AmYr Agmd`mg hdo. òH$
H$maUmMo H$maU _mZmdo bmJVo d `m H$maU nanaoV _mJo OmV-OmV Oo Ama^rMo H$maU Agob Vo _yi H$maU
Bda Agbm nm{hOo. A{$Zmg Bdambm OJmMo {Z{_m H$maU _mZVmo.
74
3)
A{Zdm` ApVdmMm `wVrdmX
(Argument of necessary Existence)
:-
OJmV dVy, mUr ApVdmV òVmV d {ZgJH$_mV Z>hr hmoVmV. Aem ApVdmbm Z{_{mH$
ApVd Ago hUVmV. `m H$mhr H$mimnwaVoM ApVdmV Agbo`m dVyZm H$mhrVar A{Zdm`- Amd`H$
Ago ApVd JhrV YamdoM bmJVo. H$Yrhr Zme Z nmdUmao ho A{Zdm` ApVd hUOoM Bda hmo`.
4)
gdmoMVoMm `wVrdmX (Agrument of Supremaly) :-
`m OJmV dVy bhmZ-_moR>m, nyU-AnyU, gwXa-Hw$n AmhoV. hUOoM AZw^dm`m OJmV VaV_d AmT>iyZ òVo. _m VaV_^mdmZo Oo gdmV lo>, A{YH$m{YH$ n[anyU d nyUV_ Ago H$mhrVar Agbo
nm{hOo d Oo gdmV n[anyU AgUmao gdm} ApVd (Maximens) hUOo BdaM hmo`. A{$ZmgMm gdmo
ApVdmMm hm {dMma gV AmJQ>mBZ d gV Ago_ `m`mhr VdkmZmV AmT>iyZ òVmo.
5)
`moOZdmXr `wVrdmX
(Teleological Agrument)
:-
`m OJmVrb òH$ {Z{_Vrbm hoVy AgVmo. AmnU dVy {Z_mU H$aVmo `m g_mOm`m Cn`moJmgmR>r
dVyZm dV:Mo C{> ZgVo. ~w{_mZ mUr Amn`m hoVygmR>r - `mdhm[aH$ JaOmgmR>r dVyMm Cn`moJ
H$aVmV. Bdambm _m dV:Mm H$moUVmhr hoVy ZgVmo. Bda hm `m OJmMm {Z`Vm, {enH$ma, Am`moOH$
(Designer) Agbm nm{hOo. Bdam`m {grMm hm `wVrdmX ZVa H$mQ>`m VdkmZmVhr drH$mabobm
AmT>iVmo.
WmoS>`mV A{$ZmgMm Bda nyU, {Zad`d, kmZr, AZV, A{dZmer Agm Amho.
7.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z :1)
`mo` n`m` {ZdSy>Z Imbrb {dYmZo nyU H$am.

1)
A{$ZmgZo ------- `m Y_n{S>Vm`m ghdmgmV A``Z nyU Ho$bo.

( A~Q> {X JoQ> / Agog / AmJQ>mBZ )
2)
------- hm A{$ZmgMm Y_emmdarb JW Amho.

( Summa Theologiae / Republic / Politics )
3)
lm d ~wr `m`mV ------- Agbm nm{hOo.

( gwgdmX / {damoY / `mKmV )
4)
Bda hm ------- AgVmo.

( na_OmVr / dVw$n / AmH$man )
5)
Bda hm ------- Amho.

( AMb MmbH$ / J{V_mZ / MMb )
6)
BdamMo ApVd ------- ApVd Amho.

( A{Zdm` / Z{_{mH$ / AnH$mbrZ )
75
2)
Imbrb ZmMr EH$m dm`mV Cmao m.

1)
A{$ZmgMo ma{^H$ {ejU H$moR>o Pmbo ?
2)
A{$ZmgZo Bdaemmda H$moUVo JW {b{hbo ?
3)
BdaemmV H$moU`m VrZ H$nZm _hdm`m AmhoV ?
4)
gnyU ApVdmMo kmZ H$em_wio hmoVo ?
5)
{d_eerb ~wr hUOo H$m` ?
7.4 nm[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW :{_d
{nVm, nw d n{d Am`mMo EH$rH$aU
lm
na_odamda {ddmg R>odUmar ~wr
Bdaem
Bdam`m ApVdmda lm R>odUmao em
gOZVm
Zdo {Z_mU H$a`mMr eVr - j_Vm
_y`
OrdZmV _mZmd`mMr d nmimd`mMr Vdo
Xdr H$nZm
AZw^dmn{bH$S>rb H$nZm
`moOZ
hoVy
gdm} ApVd
`m ApVdmnojm Xwgao lo> ApVd ZgVo.
7.5 d` A``Z ZmMr Cmao :1)

2)
`mo` n`m` -
1) A~Q> {X JoQ>
2) Summa Theologiae
4) na_OmVr
5) AMb MmbH$
3) gwgdmX
6) A{Zdm`
EH$m dm`mV Cmao :

1)
A{$ZmgMo ma{^H$ {ejH$ H${gZmo`m {MZ Y_ _R>mV Pmbo.
2)
A{$ZmgZo Bdaemmda Summa Cantra Gentile d Summa Theologiae ho JW {b{hbo.
3)
BdaemmV {_d, AdVma d H$m{bH$ gOZVm `m VrZ _hdm`m H$nZm AmhoV.
4)
gnyU ApVdmMo kmZ ~wr hmoVo.
5)
{d_eerb ~wr - mJ{VH$ d dVnUo {dMma H$aUmar ~wr hUOo {d_eerb ~wr hmo`.
7.6 gmame :gV Wm_g A{$Zmg {MZ Y_VdkmZmMm _hmZ CnmgH$ hmoVm. `mZo Amn`m VdkmZmV
Y_VdkmZmMr _mZdr OrdZmVrb JaO {deX Ho$br. _Zw`mUr Ho$di ^m{VH$ OrdZm`m AmYmao OJy eH$V
Zmhr. `mbm Am`mp_H$ kmZmMrhr JaO AgVoM. _mZdr OrdZmV lm _hdmMr Amho. Vd, {dMma,
H$m`-H$V` `m`m nyVVogmR>r loMr Amd`H$Vm Amho. lm d ~wr `mMm OdiMm g~Y Amho. `m`mV
{damoY Zmhr ho `mZo AmJhnydH$ {VnmXZ Ho$bo Amho. `m {ddm`m _wimer EImXo A^m{VH$ Vd Agbo
76
nm{hOo. `m loVyZ `mZo Bda{df`H$ {dMma n> Ho$bo. BdamMo ApVd OS> dVy`m ApVdmnojm {^Z
Amho d ho ApVd `wVrdmXm`m AmYmao {g H$a`mMm `Z `mZo Ho$bm Amho.
BdaemmMr JaO n> H$am.
2)
lm d ~wr `mMo d$n {deX H$am.
3)
Bdaem d VdkmZmMm g~Y n> H$am.
4)
A{$Zmg BdamMo ApVd {g H$a`mgmR>r H$moUVo `wVrdmX (nwamdo) XoVmo ?

JWm`m eodQ>r {Xbobr gyMr nhmdr.
666
77
KQ>H$ - 8
aoZo XoH$mV ( Rene Descartes )

8.0 C{Q>o
8.1 mVm{dH$
8.2 {df` - {ddoMZ
8.2.1
ge` nVr
8.2.2
_r OmUVmo hUyZ _r Amho
8.2.3
eara _ZmMo V
8.2.4
Bdam`m ApVdmMo nwamdo
8.3 d`-A``ZmgmR>r Z
8.6 gmame
8.0 C{Q>o :`m KQ>H$m`m A`mgmZVa Amn`mbm * AmYw{ZH$ VdkmZmMo d$n bjmV òBb.
* aoZo XoH$mV`m VdkmZmVrb ge` nVrMo d$n g_Oob.
* "_r' `m ApVdm{df`r _m{hVr hmoBb.
* eara-_ZmMm g~Y n> hmoBb.
* Bdam`m ApVdm{df`rMo nwamdo g_OVrb.
8.1 mVm{dH$ :aoZo XoH$mVMo VdkmZ AdmMrZ (AmYw{ZH$) VdkmZmMm ^mJ _mZbo OmVo. AdmMrZ `wJmMm ma^
B.g.1453 nmgyZ _mZbm OmVmo. AdmMrZ VdkmZ m_w`mZo _mZdr ~wrMo ghm`mZo {ZgJ d _mZdr
OrdZmVrb g`mMm emoY KoUmao Amho. `m VdkmZmV VdkmZmVrb _hdm`m gH$nZmMo AZw^d d ~w{{Z>
d$nmMo {dbofU H$a`mMm `Z AmT>iVmo.
78
_``wJrZ H$mbIS>mZVa VdkmZm`m B{VhmgmV AZw^ddmX, ~w{dmX `mgmaIo {dMmadmh CX`mg

Ambo. H$maU _``wJmV {dMmam`m jomV, kmZm`m jomV VdkmZmMo (Dogmatism) d Y_VdmMo m~`
{Z_mU Pmbo hmoVo. `m_wio dV _mZdr {dMmamZm _hdM Cabo ZhVo.aoZo XoH$mVMm O_ 31 _mM 1596
amoOr Pmbm. aoZo XoH$mV ~w{dmm`m nanaoVrb Am VdqMVH$ _mZbm OmVmo. XoH$mV J{UV VdkmZmMm
nwaH$Vm hmoVm. XoH$mVZo Meditations on First Philosophy hm VdkmZmdarb n{hbm JW {b{hbm. {ZgJ
{dkmZmMm A`mg H$$Z `mda `mZo Le Mande ZmdmMm JW {b{hbm. XoH$mV hm AdmMrZ VdkmZmMm
OZH$ (Father of Modern Philosophy) Amho Ago _mZbo OmVo. H$maU XoH$mV`m {dMmamZo VdkmZm_ò
gw`dpWVnUm, VH$ewVm d dVw{Z>Vm {Z_mU Ho$br.
8.2 {df` {ddoMZ :8.2.1 ge` nVr (Method of Doubt) :XoH$mV`m ~w{dmXr VdkmZmV `mZo ge`nVr dmnabr Amho. `m nVrbm H$mQ>}{e`Z nVr
(Cartesian Method) Agohr hQ>bo Amho. _mZdr _Zm`m H$mhr j_Vm AgVmV CXm.kmZ {df`mMm AW
bmdUo, `mMo JhU H$aUo, Vo _aUmV R>odUo. XoH$mVMr nVr _Zm`m dm^m{dH$ H$bm_mUo kmZ {_i{d`mg
_XV H$aVo. `m`m nVrV _Zm`m XmoZ H$mèVr _mZ`m AmhoV. `m H$mèVr hUOo AVkmZ
(Intuition) d {ZJ_Z (Deduction) `m hmoV.
1) {ZJm_r - Oohm H$moU`mhr kmZ _m`_m{edm` (CXm.S>moim, ZmH$, B.) Amn`mbm kmZ {_iVo
Vohm `mg AVkmZ Ago hUVmV. AVkmZmV AdYmZnydH$ d {Z:g{XY Aer ge`{da{hV gH$nZm
AgVo. AVkmZ hr ~wrMr {H$`m AgyZ ~wrbm hmoUmao n> kmZ AgVo. `mda ge` KoVm òV Zmhr.
XoH$mV`m nVrV {ZJ_ZmMmhr g_mdoe Amho. {ZJ_ZmV nmàr-nmàrZo {ZH$f H$mT>bm OmVmo. CXm.J{UVmVrb
EImXo CXmhaU gmoS>{dVmZm nmàr-nmàrZo {ZH$f hUOo Cma {_i{dbo OmVo. XoH$mVMo _Vo kmZmMo n{hbo
qH$dm Am Vd AVkmZmZo {_iVo d kmZmVrb {ZH$f {ZJ_ZmZo {_iVmo.XoH$mV`m nVrMo _hdmMo d{eQ>
hUOo Amn`m _ZmV `m H$nZm AgVmV, Amnbo Oo {ddmg nHo$ Pmbobo AgVmV `mMr N>mZZr H$aUo
qH$dm {M{H$gm H$aUo ho hmo`. XoH$mVMr ^y{_H$m ~w{dmXr Amho ho `md$Z n> hmoVo. Amnbr g`m{df`rMr
Or ^y{_H$m AgVo Vr Zoh_r VnmgyZ KoVbr nm{hOo. hUOoM g`m{df`rMr ^y{_H$m `j Agbr nm{hOo.
2) _m{bH$ d$nmMr - XoH$mVMr ge`nVr VdkmZmV A`V _m{bH$ nVr _mZbr OmVo.
XoH$mV`m ge`mbm EH$ dV WmZ Amho. XoH$mVMr ge`nVr gm_m` _mUgmMr ge`nVr Zho.
gm_m` _mUgm`m ge`mbm V`mMm AmYma AgobM Ago Zmhr. CXm.EImXr `Vr A{daVnUo H$>
H$aVo, OrdZmMr H$meò mV H$aVo d Am`w`mV Cm_ è {_i{dVo. gm_m` _mUgmbm `m èmV
H$mhrVar H$mio~oao {XgVo. hUOo `mMm ge` amV dmQ>V Zmhr.
VmpdH$ d$n - XoH$mVMm ge` hm "VmpdH$ d$nmMm (Philosophical Doubt) ' Amho. Ho$di
ge`mgmR>r ge` KoUo Ago ZH$mam_H$ d$n `m`m ge`dmXmV Zmhr. EImm Jmo>r`m {ZpMV kmZmg
OmD$Z nmohmoMUo `m`m ge`mMo C{> Amho. `m ge` nVrZwgma _ZmVrb gd {dMma, EImm Jmo>r`m
g`m{df`rMr _Vo, {ddmg, _mZdm`m lm `m`m g`Vo{df`r W_ ge` `V H$amd`mMm, `mg
nwam`mMm AmYma md`mMm. Oa nwam`mZVa "g`' ho g`M amhmV Agob Va Vo g` IaoM hmo` d
g`mda AmnU Omo ge` KoVbobm AgVmo Vmo ge`M ImoQ>m hmo`.
79
4) {M{H$gH$ - XoH$mVMm ge` emr`, {M{H$gH$ d gèmoYZ H$aUmam Amho. `mV MmJ`mda
{MIb\o$H$ Zmhr qH$dm Ag`mbm g` hUyZ pdH$maUohr Zmhr. XoH$mV`m H$mbIS>mV nmpM_m`
Xoem_ò ~w{dmXmMo Oo dMm[aH$ dmao dmhV hmoVo `mMm ^md ge`nVrda nS>bobm AmT>iVmo. ~w{dmXr
VdkmZ _mZdr _Zmbm {M{H$gH$ ~Z{dVo, òH$ Jmo>rMr {M{H$gm H$$Z Vr drH$ma`mMm AmJh YaVo.
VmpdH$ kmZmbm h>mJhdmXm`m (Dogmatism) ^mdmVyZ _wV H$aUo XoH$mV`m ~w{dmXmMo bjU Amho.
8.2.2 _r OmUVmo hUyZ _r (ApVdmV) Amho
(Cogito Ergo Sum)
:-
XoH$mV`m VdkmZmV `m`m ge`dmXmbm AZ`gmYmaU _hd Amho. ge`dmXmZwgma Amn`m

g^modVr`m H$moU`mhr Jmo>rMr g`Vm W_XeZr ge`mnX Agy eH$Vo. Amnbo {dMma, {ddmg, lm,
AmZw^{dH$ g` `m gdm{df`r ge` Agy eH$Vmo. `m JmoQ>ro`m g`Vo~m~V AmnU CnpWV Ho$bo`m eH$m
nwam`m`m / _mUm`m AmYmao ImoSy>Z H$mT>Vm òVmV. hUOoM H$moU`mhr Jmo>r`m ge`mMo {ZamH$aU
qH$dm dOZ Ho$bo H$s {ZIi g` hmVr bmJbo. {dkmZmVrb {MVr VdmMm Cn`moJ H$$Z ge` ImoQ>m
R>a{dVm òVmo.XoH$mVMo "_r OmUVmo hUyZ _r Amho' ho Vd hUOo `m`m VdkmZmVrb Am_ VdmMm {dMma
Amho. "_r' Mo ApVd Amn`m òH$ AZw^dmV n> hmoV AgVo. _r gwaob JrV EoH$bo, Ago Oohm AmnU
hUVmo Vohm Vo JrV Amn`m H$mZr nS>bo, Vo gwaob Amho Ago AmnUmg AmH$bZ Pmbo. `m gd {H$`m_ò
Amnbo ApVdmV AgUo W_ Amd`H$ Amho. Amn`m AZw^dmVrb kmZ {df`mMo d$n Ago Amho qH$dm
Vgo Amho `m{df`r AmnUmg ge` òD$ eHo$b. nU ge` KoUmam ApVdmV Ag`m{edm` ge` ZmdmMr
{H$`m Agy eH$V Zmhr. {dMma Ag`mgmR>r {dMma gmJUmam, {dMma H$aUmam ApVdmV AgbmM
nm{hOo. hUOo {dMma gmJUm`mda ge` ZmdmMr {H$`m MwH$sMr R>aVo. ge` Agob Va Vmo H$embm Var
Agob d H$moUmMm Var Agob `md$Z Ago hUVm òBb H$s ge`md$Z "ge` KoUmam' `{OV hmoVmo (Doubt
implies Doubter). VH$emm`m gab n[a^mfoV Ago hUVm òBb H$s Oa ge` Agob Va ge`m`m
AmYr ge` KoUmam ApVdmV Agbm nm{hOo. `m gX^mV XoH$mV hUVmo H$s, "_r OmUVmo hUyZ _r Amho (I
think therefore I am) ' ho _m`m VdkmZmMo Am Vd Amho.XoH$mVMo "_r OmUVmo hUyZ _r Amho' ho {dYmZ
Ho$di AZw_mZm_H$ Zmhr Va OmUUmam "Oo' Amho `mMo ApVd hr EH$ dmV{dH$Vm Amho. AmnU OmUV
Ag`mVM Amnbo ApVd AV^yV Amho. Amn`m ApVdmMr OmU`mIoarO A` H$moU`mhr nwam`mZo
{gVm Xo`mMr JaO Zmhr. "_r OmUVmo hUyZ _r Amho' ho A`V n> d d`{g g` Amho Am{U ho Vd
Vd_r_mgoMm Ama^{~Xy Amho.
darb {ddoMZmd$Z ho n> hmoVo H$s, XoH$mV`m VdkmZmMm nm`m "Am`mMo ApVd' hm Amho.
Amn`m ge` Ko`m_òhr Am`mMo ApVd AgVoM. Amn`m kmZ|{`m`m gmhm`mZo Am_VdmMr
{MVr KoVm òV Zmhr. `j B{` AZw^dm`m nmVirda ^m{VH$ dVy_mUo `mMo ApVd {g H$aVm
òV Zmhr. Am`m`m ApVdm{edm` "OmUrd' qH$dm kmZ hmoUo e` Zmhr. Am_m hUOo Amn`mbm
hmoUm`m kmZmMr A{Zdm` Aer nyd CnmYr (necessary precondition) Amho. Am`mMo ApVd ZmH$ma`mVhr
Am`mMo ApVd AgVoM. Am`mg~Yr "Ho$Z' Cn{ZfXmV hQ>bo Amho H$s, Oo S>mo`mZr {XgV Zmhr nU
`m`m gmhm`mZo S>moio nmhVmV, Oo H$mZmZr EoH$Vm òV Zmhr nU `m`m gmhm`mZo H$mZ EoH$VmV Vgm
Am_m {XgV Zmhr. Amn`m OmUrdnydH$ `m `m {H$`m hmoVmV `m gdm_ò Am_m CnpWV AgVmo.
ge` KoUmar, {dMma H$aUmar, H$nZm H$aUmar, H$nZm ZmH$maUmar, AmH$bZ hmoUmar, _aU hmoUmar Or
"AdWm' Amho Vr "_r' hr Amho.
80
"_r OmUVmo hUyZ _r Amho' `m Vdm`m AmYmao XoH$mV ~w{dmXm`m WmoS>o nwT>o OmVmo Ago _mZmdo
bmJob. H$maU ~wrda AmYm[aV gd {H$`m_òhr "_r' hUOoM Am`mMo ApVd _m` H$amdoM bmJVo.
`md$Z XoH$mV hUVmo H$s, Am_Vd hUOo _mZdr kmZmMo W_ JhrVdM hmo`.
8.2.3 eara_ZmMo V
(Dualism of Body and Mind)
:-
XoH$mV`m VdkmZmV eara-_Z g~Ymda _hdnyU MMm Ho$bobr AmT>iVo. XoH$mVMo VdkmZ ~w{dmXr
VdkmZ Ag`mZo `mZo eara-_Z g~YmMr MMm ~w{dmXr >rH$moZmVyZ Ho$br Amho. XoH$mVZo eara d
_Zmbm dV ò _mZbo AmhoV. Vo dV AgyZ EH$_oH$mhZ {^Z AmhoV. {dVma hm earamMm JwU _mZbm
Amho Va {dMma hm _ZmMm JwU _mZbm Amho. hUOo earambm Ago qH$dm Vgo CXm.geV, gS>nmVi Ago
n[a_mU Amho. eara OmJm `mnVo. hUOo ^m{VH$ `mMo JwU earamV {XgyZ òVmV. Va _Zmbm ^m{VH$
`m_mUo {dVma Zmhr. hr XmoZ ò nana {^Z (`mdVH$) AmhoV ho `m`m d$nmd$Z gmJVm òVo.
CXm. earambm n[a_mU Amho (hUOo _mPo dOZ 55 {H$bmo J_, 60 {H$bmoJ_ Amho Ago hQ>bo OmVo)
_Zmbm BVHo$ qH$dm {VVHo$ n[a_mU Zmhr. eara OmJm `mnVo, _Zmbm OmJm bmJV Zmhr. eara >r gdoXZmZo
H$iVo _Z >rgdoXZmZo H$iV Zmhr.
XoH$mV eara-_Z VdmXmV Ago {VnmXZ H$aVmo H$s, Oar eara-_Z d$nV: {^Z Agbo Var
`m`mV A`V {ZH$Q>Mm g~Y Amho. CXm.Amn`mbm VhmZ^yH$ bmJbr Va Ord H$mgmdrg hmoVmo. Amn`m
H$m`mda Amnbo bj bmJV Zmhr. earambm ~m Jmo>t_wio AWdm earamVJV ~Xbm_wio OI_ Pmbr Va
_Zmbm doXZm hmoVmV, Amnbm Ord {dhiVmo. EImXm {ZgJa` XoImdm nm{hbm, H$U_Yya gJrV EoH$bo Va
_Z Ch{gV hmoVo. hUOoM darM H$ma`m emar[aH$ {H$`m KS>`m Va _Zmbm gwIX AWdm Xw:IX
AZw^d òVmV. `mMm AW earamV hmoUmao ~Xb d emar[aH$ {H$`m_wio _Zmda AmKmV hmoD$Z _ZmV ~ao-dmBQ>
~Xb KS>dyZ AmUVmV. darb {ddoMZmVyZ earamVrb ~XbmMo qH$dm {H$`mMo _Zmdarb n[aUm_ n> hmoVmV.
`mM_mUo _ZmV hmoUm`m ~Xbm_wio earamda n{aUm_ hmoVmo. Amnbo _Z `m H$nZm H$aVo `m
H$nZmZm AZwg$Z H$m` H$a`mg eara gO hmoVo. CXm._r Am`w`mV èdr hmd`mMo Aer {Vkm
Ho$br Va Am`w`mV èdr hmo`mgmR>r H$am`m bmJUm`m òH$ H$Vr-H$m`mgmR>r eara gO hmoVo.
XoH$mVMo _Vo _mZd hUOo eara d _ZmMo g`wJ Amho. eara d _ZmMo Amho. eara-_ZmMm g~Y OhmO
d `mMm H$VmZ `m`m g~YmgmaIm ZgVmo hUOoM `m{H$ d$nmMm ZgVmo. Amn`m _ZmMm earamer
{ZH$Q>Mm g~Y ZgVm Va Amn`mbm ^yH$ bmJ`mda AmnU `mHw$i Pmbmo ZgVmo. earambm gJmZwgma
hmoUm`m doXZmZr AmnU Xw:Ir, AmZXr AWdm amo_m{MV Pmbmo ZgVmo.
eara d _Z hr Xmohr ò dV d {^Z Agbr Var `m`mV Eo` Pmbobo AgVo d `m XmoKmMohr
ApVd dVnUo n> hmoV AgVo. eara d _Z `m`mV AmVa{H$`m KS>V AgVmV. AmVa{H$òV XmoKmMm
EH$_oH$mer gVV g~Y òV AgVmo. eara d _Zm_ò KS>Um`m AmVa{H$`m H$maU - d$nm`m AgVmV.
H$m`H$maUm_ò Ogo H$maUmV ~Xb Pmbm Va H$m`mVhr ~Xb KS>Vmo `m_mUo earamV hmoUm`m ~XbmMm
_Zmda n[aUm_ hmoVmoM. AmVa{H$`mdmXmZwgma Am`mMm earamer Omo g`moJ hmoVmo `mMm _w` AmYma
hUOo _|XyVrb {n{Z`b JWr hm hmo`. {dVma d {dMma ho AZwH$_o eara d _ZmMo Oo JwUY_ AmhoV `mMo
EH$rH$aU _|XyVrb {n{Z`b JWr_ò hmoVo. {n{Z`b JWr_ò Or nXZo (hmbMmb) {Z_mU hmoVmV Vr
_ZmZo gH${_V hmoVmV. _Zmbm Oohm EImXr {H$`m H$a`mMr BN>m hmoVo Vohm W_ {n{Z`b JWrV nXZo
{Z_mU hmoVmV d `mmao earamV Vr {d{e> {H$`m H$a`mgmR>r hmbMmbr hmoVmV. `md$Z Ago n> hmoVo
81
H$s, eara d _ZmMm g~Y H$maU VdmZwgma òVmo d `m XmohmoV {H$òZwgma `mo` `m hmbMmbr KS>`mg
{n{Z`b JWrMm _m`_ hUyZ Cn`moJ hmoVmo. XoH$mV`m darb {ddoMZmbm AmVa{H$`mdmX (Interactionism)
Agohr hQ>bo OmVo.
`mVrb ^yVmMr H$nZm (The Ghost in mechine) - XoH$mV Amn`m VdkmZmV Ago n>
H$aVmo H$s Oar eara-_Z dV ò Agbr Var `mVrb EH$mMm Xwg`mer g~Y bmd`m{edm` _mZdr
ApVdmMm AWM bmdVm òV Zmhr. XoH$mVMo _Vo eara d _ZmMm g~Y `mVrb ^yVm`m H$nZo_mUo
Amho. `mVrb ^yVmMr H$nZm hUOo `mVrb H$m` H$aUmar eVr Zo_H$s `m`m H$moU`m ^mJmV AgVo
ho R>m_nUo gmJVm òV Zmhr. `m_mUoM eara d _ZmMm Zo_H$m g~Y H$moR>o òVmo ho XoIrb gmJVm òV Zmhr.
XoH$mV`m `mVrb ^yVm`m H$nZoZo VdqMVH$mZm g^_mV Q>mH$bo Amho. H$maU ^yVm`m Ag^d H$nZoMm
_mZdr ~wrbm nQ>Umam AW gmJVm òV Zmhr. 20 `m eVH$mVrb mo.{Jb~Q> amBb `m`mgma`m
{dmZmbmhr XoH$mV`m darb H$nZoZo g^_mV Q>mH$bo Amho. mo.amBb `mMo _Vo eara d _Z `m dV d
nana {^Z `mZm EH$ AmU`mMm XoH$mVZo VH$emmV Z ~gUmam g~Y AmUbm Amho d hr XoH$mVMr
MyH$ Amho. XoH$mV`m `m ^y{_Ho$bm "nXmWmVa _mX' (Category Mistake) Ago hQ>bo OmVo.
WmoS>`mV XoH$mVZo eara-_Z VdmXmV eara d _ZmMo d$n n> H$$Z `m`mV Agbobm d
`j _mZdr AZw^dmV òUmam g~Y XmI{d`mMm `Z Ho$bm Amho.
8.2.4 Bdam`m ApVdmMo nwamdo (Proofs for the Existence of God) :XoH$mV hm ~wrdmXr nanaoVrb VdqMVH$ hmo`. ~w{dmXr VdkmZmMr nanam {dkmZm`m {dH$mgm~amo~a
A{YH$ gH$s` Pmbobr AmT>iVo. ~w{dmXr VdqMVH$mZr {dkmZmVrb `jdmX, AZw^ddmX _mZbm Agbm
Var "Bda' `m gH$nZoMo OmoaXmanUo g_WZ Ho$bobo AmT>iVo. ~w{dmXmZwgma AZw^d J`Vm d ~w{J`Vm
`mV {damoY Ag`mMo H$maU Zmhr.
XoH$mVnydu gV Agoc_, gV AmJQ>mBZ `m Y_-VdqMVH$mZr BdadmXmMo (Theism) {VnmXZ
Ho$bobo AmT>iVo. XoH$mVZo 17 `m eVH$mV BdadmXmMm nwaH$ma Ho$bm `mda _``wJrZ H$mbIS>mVrb
Y_VdmMm ^md OmUdVmo. XoH$mVMm Bdam{df`rMm >rH$moZ Ho$di VH$mda AmYm[aV Zmhr Va ApVddmXr
d$nmMm Amho. XoH$mV CnOV H$nZmMo ApVd _mZVmo. `mMo _Vo Amn`mbm O_V:M AZoH$ H$nZm
mV AgVmV. CXm.dVyMo {hado, {ndionU Amn`mbm Z {eH${dVm H$iVmV. `mAWu {hado, {ndio
`m{df`r`m H$nZm O_OmV AmhoV Ago Vmo R>m_nUo gmJVmo. nwT>o Vmo Agohr hUVmo H$s, BVa H$nZm_mUoM
_bm _m`m _ZmV "Bda' hr H$nZm gmnS>br. Vr ~mho$Z H$moUr _m`mda bmXbobr Zmhr. hUOo _m`m
_ZmV hr H$nZm ~mho$Z gdoXZ AWdm BVa kmZ _m`_mVyZ Ambobr Zmhr. `md$Z Bda ApVdmV
Agbm nm{hOo Ago _mZ`mV Vm{H$H$ {dgJVr {XgV Zmhr. XoH$mVZo Amn`m VdkmZmV BdamMo ApVd
{g H$a`mgmR>r Imbrb nwamdo/`wVrdmX {Xbobo AmhoV.
1) H$maU `w{$dmX (Agreement of Causation ) :H$m`H$maUmMm {dMma H$aVmZm XoH$mV hUVmo H$s, H$maU ho H$_rVH$_r H$m`mBVHo$ Var _moR>o Agbo
nm{hOo. VgoM Amn`m AZw^dmVrb H$moUVrhr Jmo> n[anyU Zmhr. Oo dV:M n[anyU Zmhr Vo `m`mnojm
A{YH$ n[anyU Agbo`m Jmo>rbm H$go {Z_mU H$arb ? _r d _mPo ApVd ho n[anyU Zmhr. _mPr d
Amnbr n[anyU hmo`m`m >rZo dmQ>Mmb Mmby Amho. `md$Z XoH$mV Ago {VnmXZ H$aVmo H$s, Amn`mnojm
n[anyU Ago Bdam{edm` H$mhrhr Agy eH$V Zmhr. n[anyUVo_ò ApVd AV^yV AgVo. ho ^m{VH$ {dd
82
A`V `mnH$ Amho, _moR>o Amho. `m A`V `mnH$ Aem {ddmMo H$maU Bdam{edm` Xwgao H$moUVohr Agy
eH$V Zmhr. hUyZ Bda ApVdmV Agbm nm{hOo Ago _mZmdoM bmJVo.
2)
gmV- AZV g~Y (Finite-Infinite Relation) :-
XoH$mVMo _Vo Amn`m AZw^dmVrb H$moUVrhr dVy _`m{XV Amho. gmV hUOo `mbm AV Amho,
_`mXm Amho Ago. Oa AmnU n[anyU AgVmo Va AmnU dV:bm nm{hOo Vgo ~Zdy eH$bmo AgVmo. Amn`mbm
kmZ, eVr `m~m~V _`mXm AmhoV ho AmnU OmUVmo. `mMm AW Amn`mnojm H$mhrVar A_`mX Amho, AZV
Amho. `md$Z Vmo hUVmo H$s, Amn`m ApVdm`m VwbZoV Oo AZV Amho Vo BdaM Agbo nm{hOo.
3)
{Z{_Vr{df`H$ `w{$dmX (Argument of Creation) :-
XoH$mVMo _Vo Amn`m AZw^dmVrb òH$ dVy hr {Z_mU Pmbobo H$m` Amho. H$maU Vdm`m
_r_mgoZwgma òH$ {Z{_Vrbm, H$m`mbm H$maU AgboM nm{hOo. H$maU ey`mVyZ H$emMrhr {Z{_Vr hmoD$
eH$V Zmhr. ey` AgUo hUOo ZgUo d Oo ZgVoM Vo H$embmhr O_ XoD$ eH$V Zmhr. {dd ho {Z{_V H$m`
_mZbo Va `mMo H$maU H$mhrVar AgboM nm{hOo. _J `m H$maUmnmgyZ ho {dd {Z_mU Pmbo Agob `mMohr
AmUIr {VgaoM H$maU _mZmdo bmJob d Ago H$maUmMo H$maU emoYV AmnU _mJo _mJo Jobmo Va eodQ>r Oo
H$maU hmVr bmJob `mMo H$maU H$moUVo hm Z amhVmoM. Aem [aVrZo `m {ddmMo Zo_Ho$ H$maU AmnUmg
gmnS>UmaM Zmhr `m gJmbm VdkmZmV "AZdWm gJ' Ago hUVmV. hUyZ XoH$mV hUVmo H$s, {dd
{Z{_Vr {H$òV gdmV eodQ>r AmnU OoWo Wm~Vmo Vmo BdaM Agbm nm{hOo.
{MZ Y_ VdkmZmV gV Ago_ d gV AmJQ>mBZ `mZrhr Bdam{df`r AgmM `wVrdmX
Ho$bobm Amho.
4)
{Zanoj Bda (Absolute God) :-
{ddmVrb òH$ ApVd H$emer Var {ZJS>rV Amho. òH$ ApVdmbm AmH$ma, d$n Amho d
EH$ ApVd Xwg`mnojm {^Z Amho. Aem ApVdmbm gmnoj ApVd Ago hUVmV. Bdambm {d{e>
AmH$ma, H$ma AWdm `{$_d Zmhr Va Bda {Zanoj `m_H$ Amho. {Zanoj `mMo ApVd d`{ZYm[aV
AgVo, d`^y AgVo, Xwg`mda Adb~yZ ZgVo. Oo ApVdmgmR>r H$emdahr Adb~yZ ZgVo. Vo ApVdmV
ZgVo Ago _mZUo hUOo Am_`mKmV drH$maUo hmo`. hUyZ XoH$mV hUVmo H$s, {Zanoj `m_H$ Bda
ApVdmM AgbmM nm{hOo. XoH$mV Bdambm n[anyU, gd`mV, gdk, {MaVZ d dV:M dV:Mo H$maU
Agbobm d `m {ddmMo _Jb_` erdVd (Goodness of the world) hUyZ _mZVmo.
8.3 d` A``ZmgmR>r Z :A)
`mo` n`m` {ZdSy>Z {dYmZo nyU H$am.

1)
XoH$mVZo _Zm`m AVkmZ d ------------ `m XmoZ H$mèVr _mZ`m AmhoV.

1) {ZJ_Z
2)
2) {dJ_Z
3) AZw^d
XoH$mVMm ge` ------------ Amho.

1) CWi
2) VmpdH$
83
3) ^mfmemr`
3)
ge`md$Z ge` KoUm`mMo ApVd ------------ hmoVo.

1) `{OV
4)
2) ~m{YV
XoH$mV`m eara-_Z VdmXmbm ------------ Agohr hUVmV.

1) AmVa{H$`mdmX
5)
2) g_mVadmX
2) AZw^ddmXr
3) AV:kmdmXr
XoH$mV`m `mVrb ^yVm`m H$nZobm ------------ hUVmV.

1) nXmWmVa _mX
~)
3) ^mS>dbdmX
XoH$mVMo VdkmZ ------------ Amho.

1) ~w{dmXr
6)
3) I{S>V
2) H$mn{ZH$
3) AmZw^{dH$
EH$m dm`mV Cmao m.

1)
XoH$mV`m XmoZ JWmMr Zmdo H$moUVr ?
2)
kmZmMo AmVd H$emZo {_iVo ?
3)
h>mJhdmX hUOo (Dogmatism) H$m` ?
4)
XoH$mV`m BdamMo d$n H$go Amho ?
5)
XoH$mVMo _Vo eara-_ZmMm g~Y H$em_wio òVmo ?
6)
nXmWmVa _mX hr H$nZm H$moUr gm{JVbr ?
8.4 nm[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW :VdmX (Dualidm)
XmoZ Vdo _mZUmam
h>mJhdmX
Amn`mM Vdmbm {MH$Qy>Z amhUmam
VmpdH$ ge`dmX
EImm Jmo>rMo {dMmam`m nmVird$Z gèmoYZ

H$aUmar _Zmodmr
`{OV hmoUo
{ZnZ hmoUo
{Zanoj Bda
{ZJwU Bda
(Dogmatism)
8.5 d` A``Z ZmMr Cmao :A)
`mo` n`m` - 1) {ZJ_Z

4) AmVa{H$`mdmX
2) VmpdH$
3) `{OV
5) ~w{dmXr
6) nXmWmVa _mX
84
~)
EH$m dm`mV Cmao 1)
Meditations on first philosophy and Le Mande.
2)
kmZmMo AmVd AVkmZmZo {_iVo.
3)
Amn`mM ^y{_Ho$bm, Vdmbm qH$dm {dMmambm {MH$Qy>Z amhUo.
4)
XoH$mV`m BdamMo d$n {Zanoj `m_H$ Amho.
5)
eara-_ZmMm g~Y {n{Z`b JWr_wio hmoVmo.
6)
mo.{Jb~Q> amBb `mZr nXmWmVa _mX hr H$nZm gm{JVbr.
8.6 gmame :XoH$mVMo VdkmZ ho ~w{dmXr VdkmZ Amho. XoH$mVZo AmYw{ZH$ VdkmZmMm nm`m KmVbm.
`m_wio `mg AmYw{ZH$ VdkmZmMm OZH$ _mZbo OmVo. ~w{dmXr >rH$moZmVyZ `mZo ge`dmXmMo {ddoMZ
Ho$bo d Vo VH$ew {aVrZo {g Ho$bo Amho. VdkmZmVrb AVkmZ, {ZJ_Z d {ZXeZm_H$ nVtMm dmna
H$$Z `mZo ge`dmXmMo n>rH$aU Ho$bo Amho. "_r' Mo hUOoM Am`mMo ApVd {g H$aVmZmhr `mZo
VH$em, VdkmZ d {dkmZdmXr >rH$moZmV {damoY Agy eH$V Zmhr ho XmIdyZ {Xbo. eara-_Z g~Y{df`H$
VdmX gmJyZ `mMm nanag~Y H$gm XmI{dVm òVmo ho `mdhm[aH$ AZw^dm`m AmYmao XmIdyZ {Xbo
Amho. Bda H$nZm _m` H$$Z ~w{dmX hm AZw^dmn{bH$S>rb g`mMo ~w{{Z> d gd_m` hmoD$ eHo$b
Ago n>rH$aU H$$ eH$Vmo ho XmIdyZ {Xbo Amho. BdamMo ApVd {g H$aVmZm _``wJrZ Y_n{S>Vm`m
_Vmer ~w{dmXmMm {damoY Agy eH$V Zmhr ho m_m{UH$nUo n> Ho$bo Amho.
8.8 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$ :JWm`m eodQ>r gyMr nhmdr.
666
85
KQ>H$ - 9
OmZ bmH$ ( John Locke )

9.0 C{Q>o
9.1 mVm{dH$ - M[a, H$m` d VdkmZ
9.2 {df` - {ddoMZ
9.2.1
O_OmV H$nZm
9.2.2
H$nZmMr Cnmr d H$ma

- gm`m d g{_l H$nZm
9.2.3
kmZ{gmV
- kmZmonmr
- kmZmMo d$n d H$ma
9.2.4
A_yV H$nZm
9.2.5
d` A``ZmgmR>r Z
9.3 nm[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW, B`mXr

9.4 d`-A``Z ZmMr Cmao
9.5 gmame
9.0 C{Q>o :
*
`m KQ>H$m`m A`mgmZo Amn`mbm AZw^ddmXmMm OZH$ - OmZ bmH$`m OrdZ M[amVrb

R>iH$ KQ>ZmMr, VgoM `m`mdarb gH$ma (^md) Am{U `mMr VdUmbr `m {df`rMr
_m{hVr {_iob.
bmH$`m VdkmZmMo d$n, _wI {gmV d gH$nZm `m{df`rMo kmZ {_iob.
O_OmV H$nZmMo `mZo H$go IS>Z Ho$bo Amho Vo g_OyZ _mZdr kmZmMo d$n, H$ma, H$nZmMr
Cnmr d A_yV H$nZm `m{df`rMr {M{H$gH$ {__mgm nQ> hmoD$ eHo$b.
9.1 mVm{dH$ - M[a, H$m` d VdkmZ :

OmZ bmH$ hm AZw^ddmXr VdkmZmMm OZH$ _mZbm OmVmo. `mMm O_ 29 E{b 1632 _ò
{~Q>bOdi [aQ>Z `m Jmdr EH$m _`_dJu` Hw$Qw>~mV Pmbm. bmH$Mo dS>rb H$m`XonS>rV hmoVo. O_mZo Vmo
86
`yarQ>Z nWmMm hmoVm. `yarQ>Z nWr` {dMmaUmbrMm `m`mda IynM ^md nS>bobm hmoVm. `mVyZM nm{d`,
XyaXeunUm, m_m{UH$Vm, CmoJerbVm, dmdb~Z Am{U dmV` o_ `m Jmo>r Vmo {eH$bm hmoVm.
1646 Vo 1652 n`V `mMo {ejU bS>Z òWrb doQ>-{_{ZQ>a {dmb`mV Pmbo. 1652 _ò
Amg\$S> {dmnrR>mV mBQ> MM H$mboO_ò `mZo doe KoVbm. 1659 n`V VoWo `mZo A``Z Ho$bo.
Amg\$S> {dmnrR>mVrb `mMo A``Z VdkmZmnwaVo _`m{XV Z amhVm `mZo nXmW{dkmZ, agm`Zem
Am{U dH$em `mMmhr A`mg Ho$bm. 1660 Vo 1666 `m H$mimV bmH$Zo Amg\$S> {dmnrR>mV A`mnZmMo
H$m` Ho$bo. 1674 _ò `mZo dH$emmVrb nXdr gnmXZ Ho$br d dH$s` `dgm`mMm nadmZm {_i{dbm.
1685 _ò BbS>_Yrb amOH$s` n[apWVr_wio `mbm BbS> gmoSy>Z hmbS>bm Omdo bmJbo. hmbS>_ò Vmo
AkmVdmgmV am{hbm. `m H$mimV Ho$bo`m qMVZmVyZ bmH$Zo "Essay Concerning Human Understanding"
hm {g JW {b{hbm. 1689 _ò Vmo BbS>_ò naV Ambm. `mZo {d{dY {df`mda boIZ Ho$bo. 1704
_ò `mMo {ZYZ Pmbo.
bmH$ hm {d{dY A{^$Mr Agbobm {dMmadV (Man of many interests) hmoVm. gw$dmVrg `mbm
Bda_r_mgm emm~b (Theology) AmH$fU dmQ>V hmoVo. nU ZVa Vmo dH$emmH$S>o dibm. `mZVa
nXmW{dkmZ d agm`Zemm`m A`mgm{df`r `mMr A{^$Mr dmT>br. `m{edm` `mZo Ym{_H$ d amOH$s`
g_`mMm A`mg Ho$bm. XoH$mV`m ~w{dmXr VdUmbrMm ^md bmH$da {XgyZ òVmo. VgoM `m`m
H$mimVrb {g agm`Zemk ~ob Am{U {d`mV earaemk {gS>Zoh_ `m`mer bmH$Mo d`{$H$ _rMo
g~Y hmoVo. `m`mH$Sy>Z `mZo AZw^d{Z> nVrMm AJrH$ma Ho$bm. VgoM `mbm AZw^ddmXr {dMmamMr oaUm
{_imbr. {edm` `yQ>Z`m J{UVr {gmVm_wio bmH$`m H$nZmeVrg MmbZm {_imbr. {dMmam`m _wb^yV
d gdm}M VdmZm AmhmZ XoD$Z `mZo kmZm`m jomVrb JmoYi, g{XYVm Xya H$a`mMm `Z Ho$bm.
_mZdr _ZmVrb O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmg~Yr Q>rH$m H$$Z bmH$Zo Amn`m VdkmZmMr _mS>Ur Ho$br.
`mZo kmZ{gmV qH$dm kmZ{__mgm `mH$S>o {deof bj H|$rV Ho$bo. OrdZm`m òH$ jomV AZw^dmMm AmYma
KoD$Z _mZdr _yò emoY`mMm bmH$Zo `Z Ho$bm. "AZw^dmg òBb VoM g`' Am{U "gd kmZ ho AZw^dO`
AgVo' `m ^y{_Ho$Mm `mZo nwaH$ma Ho$bm. VdkmZm`m jomV AZw^ddmXr {dMmaUmbrMo ~rOmamonU bmH$Zo
Ho$bo d kmZemr` AZw^ddmX {VnmXZ Ho$bm. hUyZM `mbm "AZw^ddmXmMm OZH$' Ago hQ>bo OmVo.
bmH$ZVa AZw^ddmXr ^y{_Ho$Mm {dVma ~H$bo Am{U y_ `mZr Ho$bm. AemH$mao {~Q>Z_ò AZw^ddmXr
VdkmZmMr EH$ nanamM {Z_mU Pmbr.
9.2 {df` {ddoMZ :
9.2.1 O_OmV H$nZm
(Innate Ideas)-
bmH$Zo Amnbr kmZ{df`H$ ^y{_H$m d H$nZm`m {Z{_VrMr Cnnmr _mS>`mnydu O_OmV (CnOV)
H$nZm {gmVmda OmoaXma Q>rH$m H$$Z `mMm ApdH$ma Ho$bm Amho. Bgdr gZ nyd H$mimnmgyZMm A{Ve`
mMrZ dmagm Agbo`m O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmg VdkmZmV \$ma _hd Amho. JrH$ Vdk boQ>moZo g_WZ
Ho$bobm hm {gmV nwT>o _``wJrZ Vdk AmJQ>rZ `mZohr {VnmXZ Ho$bm Amho. AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV XoH$mV,
pnZmoPm d bm`ZrQ>P `m ~w{dmXr VdkmZr O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmMo g_WZ Ho$bo Amho. `m`m_Vo
{ZpMV d gwn> kmZ O_OmV H$nZmda AmYm[aV AgVo. EdT>oM Zho Va XoH$mVZo BdamMo ApVd {g
H$a`mgmR>r O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmMm AmYma KoVbm Amho. XoH$mV`m _Vo _mZdm`m _ZmV CnOVM
H$nZmMo ApVd AgVo. Aem H$nZm Amn`m _Zmda H$moUrhr $O{dbo`m ZgVmV, `m ~mho$Zhr Ambo`m
87
ZgVmV. hUyZ `m H$nZm O_V:M Amn`m _ZmV AgVmV `mZm O_OmV H$nZm Ago hUVmV.
Aem H$nZm B{` gdoXZmVyZ {Z_mU Pmbo`m ZgVmV. CXm.XoH$mV`m _Vo J{UVmVrb Vdo, ^y{_VrVrb
_oò, VH$emr` {Z`_ d BdamMo ApVd `m`m H$nZm CnOV AgVmV.
OmZ bmH$Zo "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" `m JWmV gw$dmVrg O_OmV H$nZm
{gmVmMo IS>Z Ho$bo Amho. bmH$`m _Vo Amn`m _ZmV H$moU`mhr H$ma`m CnOV qH$dm O_OmV H$nZm
ZgVmV. H$moU`mhr H$maMr O_OmV Z{VH$ qH$dm J{UVr qH$dm VH$emr` Vdo Amn`m _ZmV AmYrnmgyZM
CnOVnUo ApVdmV AgyM eH$V ZmhrV. H$maU bmH$`m _Vo gd kmZ ho AZw^dmVyZ {Z_mU hmoVo. _Z ho
O_V: EImm H$mo`m H$mJXmgmaIo qH$dm nyUnUo H$mo`m nmQ>rgmaIo (Blank Sheet / Tabula rasa) AgVo.
_Z _yiV: gH$mahrZ AgVo. B{` gdoXZmVyZ `mda N>mn qH$dm R>go C_Q>VmV d ~m dVy`m {V_m
V`ma hmoVmV Am{U `mVyZ {V_m qH$dm H$nZmMr {Z{_Vr hmoVo. O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmMo IS>U H$$Z
Aem H$ma`m O_OmV (CnOV) H$nZm ZgVmV ho {g H$a`mgmR>r bmH$Zo Ho$bobo `w{$dmX Imbrb_mUoO_OmV H$nZm {gmVmdarb Q>rH$m : bmH$Mo `w{$dmX 1)
gmdXo{eH$ (gmd{H$) g_Vrda AmYm[aV `w{$dmX - (Argument of Universal Assent)
bmH$Mm hm `w{$dmX gd _mUgm`m gmdXo{eH$ g_Vrda AmYmabobm Amho. `m`m _Vo H$mhr
`mdhm[aH$ Vdo Aer AgVmV H$s `m~m~V gd bmoH$mMo EH$_V hmoVo. H$mhr H$nZm gmd{H$nUo `{$JV
AZw^dm{edm` ApVdmV AgVmV. hUyZ Aer `mdhm[aH$ Vdo qH$dm H$nZm CnOV d$nmV ApVdmV
AgVmV Ago hQ>bo OmVo. naVw bmH$`m _Vo hm `w{$dmX Iam ZgyZ Vmo \$gdm Amho. H$mhr Vdm`m ~m~VrV
gdM _mUgmMo EH$_V hmoV AgVo Ago g_OUo MyH$ Amho. H$maU bhmZ _wbo, doS>r _mUgo, AS>mUr d {Z~w
`Vr `mZm Aem VdmMo kmZ A{O~mV ZgVo. `md$Z O_OmV H$nZmZm gmdXo{eH$ g_Vr AgVo ho _V
`WmW Zmhr. `m{edm` bmH$ Agohr n> H$aVmo H$s, gd _mUgmMo H$mhr Vdm{df`r Oar gmd{H$ EH$_V
(g_Vr) AgVo ho Oar Iao _mZbo Var `md$Z hr Vdo CnOV AgVmV ho {g hmoV Zmhr.
2) Z{VH$ Vdo d gXJwU (Virtue) `m`m ~m~VrV Or gmdXo{eH$ g_Vr AmT>iyZ òVo `mMo H$maU bmH$`m _Vo - `mMo CnOV d$n Zho, Va Vr gdmZm gma`mM [aVrZo {hVH$maH$ d Cn`wV AgVmV
hUyZ gd bmoH$ `mMm drH$ma H$aVmV, Aer dVwpWVr AgVo. `md$Z Z{VH$ VdmMm drH$ma gdmZr
Ho$bm Amho hUyZ Vr O_OmV AmhoV Ago hUUo ~amo~a R>aV Zmhr Ago bmH$ n> H$aVmo.
3) Amn`m _ZmV H$mhr H$nZm O_OmV ApVdmV AgVmV hr Jmo> Oar JhrV Yabr Varhr bmH$`m
_Vo Amn`m _ZmVrb H$nZmnH$s H$moU`m O_OmV AmhoV Am{U H$moU`m A``ZmZo mV Pmbo`m AmhoV
`mVrb \$aH$ n> H$aUo H$R>rU Amho. hUyZ O_OmV H$nZm ApVdmV ZgyyZ gd H$nZmMr {Z{_Vr Amn`m
XZ{XZ AZw^dmVyZ hmoV AgVo.
4) Vm{H$H$ `w{$dmX - Oa Aer O_OmV Vdo (H$nZm) AgVrb Va A``Z {H$òMo EH$Xa d$nM
CbQ> {XeoZo OmUmao dmQ>Vo Ago bmH$ n> H$aVmo. gm_m` VdmMm drH$ma H$a`mnyduM AmnUmg {d{e>
{dYmZmMo g` g_OVo Ago `md$Z n> hmoVo. naVw A`V A{Zdm` d `wV d$nm`m {dYmZmH$S>o Amnbo
bj Jo`m{edm` Vr AmnUmg g_OV ZmhrV. `md$Z CnOV H$nZmMo ApVd `Vr`m _ZmV O_V:M
AgVo, nU `mMo kmZ `mbm ZgVo Ago hUUo VH$ {dgJV Amho.
5) XoH$mVZo AmJhr {VnmXZ Ho$`m_mUo Z{VH$ Vdo qH$dm Zr{V{Z`_ O_OmV ZgVmV Ago bmH$
88
n> H$aVmo. `m`m_Vo gmd{H$ d d`{g d$nmMr Z{VH$ Vdo AmnUmg AmT>iV ZmhrV. H$maU gd
Zr{V{Z`_ d `mo`-A`mo` H$nZm Wb-H$mi n[apWVrgmnoj d$nm`m AgVmV. VgoM Z{VH$ VdmMo
Zoh_r n>rH$aU d g_WZ H$amdo bmJVo. EdT>oM Zho Va Z{VH$ AmMaUmg {Xem XoUmar gXgX{ddoH$ ~wr
j{UH$, Am_{dgJV, `{$nado ~XbUmar Am{U EH$mM `Vr`m ~m~VrV {d{dY gJr gKfO` AgVo.
hUyZ Z{VH$ {Z`_ CnOV ZgVmV.
6) `m{edm` Ym{_H$ lm, gd Y_mMr _wb^yV Vdo Am{U BdamMr gH$nZm `m gwm O_OmV
ZgVmV ho bmH$ n> H$aVmo. `m`m _Vo `m H$nZm gmd{H$ ZgVmV. H$maU H$mhr {d{e> O_mVrV Bda
H$nZoMm nyUnUo A^md {XgyZ òVmo. VgoM Ym{_H$ lm nana{damoYr d$nm`m AgVmV. `m{edm` {ZgJ
{Z`_mMo kmZ AmnUmg CnOVM AgVo `m _VmMohr bmH$ IS>Z H$aVmo. VgoM Oa H$mhr Vdo d H$nZm
CnOV AgVrb Va Vr gd _mZdr `Vr_ò {ZandmXnUo {XgyZ Ambr nm{hOoV nU dVwpWVr Ver AmT>iV
Zmhr.
7) eodQ>r bmH$ Ago n> H$aVmo H$s, Oa `m gd H$nZm O_OmV (CnOV) AgVrb Va `m AZw^dmmao
{MVrg Am`m nm{hOoV. VH$emmVrb A{Zdm` gò (Necessary truths), J{UVmVrb Vdo qH$dm
Zr{V{Z`_ O_OmV ZgVmV.Aem H$mao O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmMo IS>Z H$$Z bmH$ Ago {VnmXZ H$aVmo
H$s, Amnbo gd kmZ AZw^dmVyZ mV hmoVo. O_V: Amnbo _Z ho H$mo`m H$mJXm_mUo qH$dm AYm`m Imobr_mUo
(Dark Chamber) AgVo. O_V: _Z H$moU`mhr H$nZmnmgyZ _wV AgVo. B{` gdoXZ d qMVZ `mmao
_Zm_ò gH$mamMo R>go C_Qy>Z `mVyZM H$nZmMr Cnmr hmoVo.
9.2.2 H$nZmMr Cnmr
(Origin of Ideas)
O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmMo IS>U H$$Z bmH$ Amn`m kmZ {gmVmMr {dYm`H$ ^y{_Ho$VyZ _mS>Ur
H$aVmo. H$nZmMr Cnmr H$er hmoVo ho n> H$arV AgVm gd kmZ AZw^dmVyZ {ZnZ hmoVo (All knowledge
is derived from experience) Ago bmH$ {VnmXZ H$aVmo. Amnbo _Z O_V: H$mo`m nmQ>rgmaIo AgyZ gd
H$nZm AZw^dmmao gnm{XV Ho$`m OmVmV. `m`m _Vo B{` gdoXZ (sensation) Am{U qMVZ (reflection)
`mmao _Zm_ò H$nZmMr Cnmr hmoVo. AZw^d qH$dm ~m gdoXZmmaoM _ZmV H$nZm {Z_mU hmoVmV. H$moUVrhr
H$nZm O_OmV ZgVo Ago Vmo n> H$aVmo.
Aem H$mao bmH$`m _Vo B{` gdoXZ d qMVZ hrM kmZmMr XmoZ gmYZo AgyZ `mmao _Zm_ò
H$nZmMr {Z{_Vr qH$dm CJ_ hmoVmo. gd kmZ ho AZw^dmVyZ mV hmoV AgVo. Amn`m _Zm`m AYm`m
Imobr_ò kmZ H$memMr {H$aUo doe H$a`m`m XmoZ {IS>`m hUOoM B{` gdoXZ Am{U qMVZ hr gmYZo
hmoV. `mmao V`ma Pmbo`m _ZmVrb H$nZm hUOo kmZ hmo`. H$nZmMo bmH$Zo XmoZ _wI H$ma Ho$bo
AmhoV. 1) gm`m H$nZm (Simple Ideas) Am{U 2) g{_l H$nZm (Complex Ideas).
1) gm`m H$nZm - bmH$`m _Vo gm`m H$nZm B{` gdoXZmVyZ _ZmZo JhU Ho$bo`m AgVmV. VgoM
gm`m H$nZm AUygma`m A{d^m` AgVmV d `mMr nwZamdmr H$aVm òVo. `mMm nwhm nwhm AZw^d
KoVm òVmo. CXm.dVyMm aJ, JY, ne, AmdmO, AmH$ma d $nmMr H$nZm hUOo gmYr H$nZm hmo`. gm`m
H$nZm hUOoM {Zad`d H$nZm hmoV. _mZdr _Zm`m AmV[aH$ {H$òmao hUOoM qMVZmmao gwm gm`m
H$nZmMr {Z{_Vr hmoV AgVo. qMVZmmao AmnUmg Amn`m AmV[aH$ AdWmMr OmUrd hmoV AgVo.
CXm.BN>m, gXoh, gdoXZ, {dMma, B`mXr. `m{edm` B{` gdoXZ Am{U qMVZ `m`m EH${H$aUmVyZ gm`m
H$nZmMo nwwhm Mma H$ma Ho$bo AmhoV. 1) \$V EH$mM kmZ|{`mH$Sy>Z {Z_mU hmoUm`m gm`m H$nZm hUOoM
89
EHo$p` H$nZm hmoV. CXm.aJ, AmdmO, $Mr, CUVm, WS>r, KZVm, B`mXr. 2) EH$mMdoir AZoH$
kmZ|{`mH$Sy>Z {Z_mU hmoUm`m H$nZm CXm.{XH$, {dVma, AmH$Vr, pWaVm d JVr B`mXr H$ma`m >r
d ne doXZ|{`mH$Sy>Z {_iUm`m H$nZm. 3) qMVZmVyZ {Z_mU hmoUmar gmYr H$nZm. CXm.gdoXZ, {dMma,
gXoh, BN>m, B. AmV{aH$ AdWm`m H$nZm. B{`mH$Sy>Z {Z_mU hmoUm`m H$nZmMo dJuH$aU, A_yVuH$aU,
g`moOZ d {d^mOZ _ZmZo H$$Z Oohm dVyMo kmZ hmoVo Vo qMVZm`m d$nmMo AgVo. 4) B{` gdoXZ
Am{U qMVZ `m XmoZ gmYZm`m g`wV ^mdmZo V`ma hmoUm`m gm`m H$nZm - CXm.gwI-Xw:ImMo doXZ,
eVr, ApVd, EH$Vm Am{U H$_ `mg~Yr`m H$nZm.
2)
g{_l H$nZm -
bmH$`m _Vo gm`m H$nZmnmgyZ g{_l H$nZm {Z_mU hmoVmV. gm`m H$nZmMo doJdoJ`m H$mao
EH$rH$aU d OwiUr H$$Z AmnUmg g{_l H$nZm ~Z{dVm òVmV. hUyZM AZoH$ gm`m H$nZmMo
EH$rH$aU (combination), VwbZm qH$dm g~Y (relation) Am{U A_yVuH$aU (abstraction) `mmao _Zm_ò
g{_l H$nZmMr {Z{_Vr Ho$br OmVo. WmoS>`mV AZoH$ gm`m H$nZmMo g{_lU d g`moOZ H$$Z `mVyZ
Or g`wV H$nZm {Z_mU Ho$br OmVo {Vbm g{_l H$nZm hUVmV. CXm.dVy - dVyVrb g~YmMr H$nZm,
gmX`, H$VkVm, g`, {dd, B. Aem H$mao gm`m H$nZmMr gm_Jr dmn$Z `m`mnmgyZ AmnUmg nm{hOo
Vem H$ma`m doJdoJ`m g{_l H$nZm _mZdr _Z V`ma H$arV AgVo. bmH$Zo g{_l H$nZmMo nwhm
VrZ H$ma Ho$bo AmhoV- {dH$ma (Modes) , ò (Substances) Am{U g~Y (Relation).
1)
{dH$mamMr H$nZm (Idea of Modes) -
Oohm AZoH$ gm`m H$nZm EH${V H$$Z `mMr EH$ {d{e> g{_l H$nZm V`ma Ho$br OmVo Vohm
{Vbm {dH$mamMr H$nZm hUVmV. CXm.{H$moU, S>PZ, _r, H$VkVm, gmX`, B. bmH$Zo {dH$mamMo bmH$Zo
XmoZ H$ma Ho$bo AmhoV - A) gmYo {dH$ma (Simple Modes) hUOo Ho$di EH$mM H$ma`m H$nZmMo EH$rH$aU
hmo`. CXm.S>PZ. `md$Z EH$mM H$ma`m ~mam dVy`m H$nZm EH$ H$$Z S>PZ hr g{_l H$nZm
~ZVo. {VbmM gmYm {dH$ma hUVmV. ~) g{_l {dH$ma (Complex Mode) - hUOo AZoH$ doJdooJ`m
H$ma`m gm`m H$nZmMr EH${V qH$dm g`wV H$nZm hmo`. CXm._r hr doJdoJ`m gm`m H$nZm`m
EH${H$aUm_wio ~Zbobr g{_l H$nZm hmo`. VgoM gmX` hr g{_l {dH$mamMr H$nZm hUOo _mU~Vm,
b`~Vm, aJ, AmH$fH$Vm, _mYw` `m`m EH${H$aUmVyZ ~Zbobr H$nZm hmo`.
2)
`{df`H$ g{_l H$nZm (Idea of Substance) -
`mZm dV:Mo dV ApVd AgVo Aem AZoH$ dVy`m gm`m H$nZm`m g`moJmVyZ V`ma Pmbobr
g{_l H$nZm hUOo ` hmo`. CXm.`mMr AYwH$ qH$dm {\$H$Q> aJmMr H$nZm qH$dm `m`m Q>UH$VoMr
H$nZm hr `m H$maMr AgVo.
3)
g~Y{df`H$ g{_l H$nZm (Idea of Relations) -
hUOo EH$m H$nZoMr Xwg`mer VwbZm Ho$`mZo qH$dm XmoZ H$nZm`m nana g~YmVyZ V`ma hmoUmar
g{_l H$nZm hmo`. CXm.H$maU{df`H$ H$nZm, Wb-H$mb g~YmMr H$nZm hr `m H$maMr AgVo. H$maU
hr H$nZm AZoH$ KQ>H$m`m nanag~YmVyZ ~ZVo. AemH$mao bmH$Zo B{` gdoXZ d qMVZ hr kmZmonmrMr
XmoZ gmYZo _mZbr AgyZ `m gmYZmVyZM gm`m H$nZm d g{_l H$nZm V`ma hmoVmV Ago hQ>bo Amho.
90
9.2.3 kmZ {gmV (Theory of Knowledge) OmZ bmH$`m kmZ {gmVmbm kmZ{__mgoV AZ`gmYmaU _hd Amho. _mZdm`m kmZ {H$òMr
VnerbmV OmdyZ {M{H$gm d gemoYZ H$aUmam bmH$ hm n{hbm Vdk _mZbm OmVmo. bmH$`m nydu gmHo$Q>rg
boQ>mo, A[aQ>mQ>b, XoH$mV, ~oH$Z d hmO `mZr _mZdr kmZm{df`rMr _r_mgm Ho$br Amho. naVw `m gdmnojm
bmH$Mr kmZ{df`H$ ^y{_H$m d{eQ>nyU Am{U Zm{d`nyU Amho. bmH$Zo _mZdm`m AmH$bZmMo d$n, `mMr
`mVr d _`mXm `m{df`r gemoYZ Ho$bo. `mZo Amn`m VdkmZmV kmZmMr Cnmr, kmZmMr CJ_WmZo,
kmZmMo d$n-H$ma d _`mXm `mg~Yr Vnerbdma {ddoMZ Ho$bobo Amho. Amnbo gnyU VdqMVZ kmZmMo
AdofU H$a`mV Kmb{dUmam bmH$ hm EH$_od Vdk hmo`. AmYw{ZH$ VdkmZmV kmZ {df`H$ g_òbm Oo
_hd mV Pmbo Amho `mMo gd lo` bmH$bm Amho. `mZo kmZemr` AZw^ddmXmMr ^y{_H$m 'Essay Concerning human understandinng' `m JWmV {dVmamZo _mS>br Amho.
kmZmonmr (Origin of Knowledge) bmH$`m _Vo gd kmZ AZw^dmVyZ {Z_mU hmoV AgVo d AZw^dmdaM AmYmabobo AgVo. _ZmV CnOV
H$nZmZm _wirM ApVd ZgVo Ago Vmo n> H$aVmo. gd H$ma`m kmZmMm AWdm H$nZmMm CJ_ AZw^dmVyZ
hmoV AgVmo Aer AZw^d{Z> ^y{_H$m KoD$Z bmH$Zo kmZ_r_mgm Ho$bobr Amho. `m`m _Vo O_V: _mZdmMo
_Z H$moar nmQ>r qH$dm H$mo`m H$mJXmgmaIo AgVo. _Zm_ò gw$dmVrg gH$ma AWdm H$nZm `mnH$s H$mhrhr
ZgVo. B{` gdoXZ d qMVZ `mmao _ZmV N>mn qH$dm R>go C_Qy>Z _JM `mnmgyZ gH$ma, H$nZm d gH$nZm
`mMm hiyhiy doe hmoV AgVmo. Aem [aVrZo kmZmMr Cnmr hmoV AgVo. B{` gdoXZ Am{U qMVZ `mmao
{Z_mU hmoUm`m gm`m d g{_l H$nZmmao kmZmMr Cnmr hmoVo.
kmZmMo d$n d H$ma - bmH$`m _Vo Amn`m _ZmMm `j g~Y \$V H$nZmerM òVmo d `j
^m{VH$ dVyn`V AmnU H$nZm`m _m`_mVyZ nmohmoMVmo. H$nZmVrb nana g~YmVyZ kmZmMr {Z{_Vr
hmoVo.
`m`m - bmH$Zo kmZmMr `m`m Imbrb_mUo Ho$br Amho - ""H$moU`mhr H$nZmVrb nana g~Y,
Ad` (gdmX) qH$dm `{VaoH$ ({dgdmX) Am{U {damoY `mMo gdoXZ hmoUo hUOo kmZ hmo`.''("Knowledge
seems to be nothing but the perception of the connection and agreement or disagreement and repugnancy
of any of our ideas")
Aem H$mao B{` gdoXZ Am{U qMVZ `m`m _mJ} H$nZmMr {Z{_Vr hmoD$Z `mVyZ
kmZmMr Cnmr hmoVo. bmH$`m _Vo `WmW qH$dm `wV kmZ hmo`mgmR>r H$nZm gwn> (clear) Am{U {ZpMV
(distinct) d$nm`m Ag`m nm{hOoV. H$maU An> d Xw~m}Y H$nZmmao g` d dmVd kmZ {_iy eH$V
Zmhr. {edm` H$nZm n`mV Ag`m nm{hOoV, H$maU n`mV H$nZmZrM {df`mMo kmZ nyUnUo hmoD$ eH$Vo.
VgoM bmH$`m _Vo Amnbo gdmV {ZpMV kmZ ho H$nZm_ò AgUmam Ad`, `{VaoH$ d {damoY `mMo
gdoXZ AgVo. `m doJdoJ`m _mJmZr _Z H$nZm_Yrb nanag~Y nmhVo `mZwgma kmZmMr n>Vm ~XbV
AgVo. kmZm`m n>Vo`m AemZwgma `mMo d$n d nmVir R>aVo. bmH$Zo _mZdr kmZm`m VrZ nmV`m
n> H$$Z kmZmMo VrZ H$ma gm{JVbo AmhoV.
kmZmMo H$ma 1)
AVkmZ (Intuitive Knowledge)
2)
{ZXeZm_H$ kmZ (Domonstrative Knowledge)
3)
gdoXZm_H$ kmZ (Sensitive Knowledge)

91
1) AVkmZ - `m kmZ H$mamV `Vr Amn`m _Zm`m ghm`mZo H$nZmVrb g~Y BVa H$nZmMr
_XV Z KoVm Wm{nV H$arV AgVo. hUOo Oohm _Zmbm H$nZm_Yrb Ad` d {dgdmX BVa H$nZmMr
_XV Z KoVm Wm{nV H$arV AgVo. hUOo Oohm _Zmbm H$nZm_Yrb Ad` d {dgdmX BVa H$nZm`m
_`Wr{edm` `j XeZmZo H$iVmo Aem kmZmbm AVkmZ hUVmV. CXm.dVwi ho {H$moU ZgVo, XmoZ Am{U
XmoZ {_iyZ Mma hmoVmV. `m H$maMo kmZ gdmV lo> XOmMo AgVo. Vo gy`H$memBVHo$ dN> d n> AgVo.
`m H$ma`m kmZm~b _ZmV gXoh, ge` d A{ZpMVVm `mZm dmd ZgVmo. `m kmZm`m {gVoMr JaO
ZgVo. bmH$`m _Vo AVkmZ ho gdmV A{YH$ n>, dN> d {ZpMV AgVo. `mMr gwn>Vm d {ZpMVr
{g H$aUo e` ZgVo. H$maU Vo d`{g d d`H$mer AgVo.
2) {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ - Oohm XmoZ H$nZm_Yrb Ad` qH$dm {dgdmX BVa H$nZm`m _`Wr{edm`
`jnUo {Xgy eH$V Zmhr, Vohm BVa H$nZmMo ghm` KoD$Z `m XmohmoVrb g~Y n> Ho$bm OmVmo. Vohm
Aem kmZmg {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ Ago hUVmV. {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ ho ~w{{Z> Am{U VH$ew AgVo. `mV
m_w`mZo J{UV d ^y{_VrVrb kmZmMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. bmH$`m _Vo {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ ho AVkmZmBVHo$ n>
d {ZpMV ZgVo. H$nZm_ò Oa VH$m{Y{>V g~Y Zgob Va {ZXeH$ kmZmbm _`mXm nS>VmV.
3) gdoXZm_H$ kmZ - kmZ|{`m`m gmhm`mZo qH$dm _`WrZo hmoUmao kmZ hUOoM gdoXZm_H$
kmZ hmo`. ~m OJmVrb dVyMo kmZ AmnUmg gdoXZmZo hmoVo. CXm.gy`, M, Zm, S>m|Ja, B. dVyMo AmnUmg
gdoXZmZo hmoUmao kmZ. ho kmZ BVHo$ n> d dN> AgVo H$s `mMr n>Vm d {ZpMVVm AmnU ZmH$maUo
e`M ZgVo. naVw Amnbr kmZ|{ò hr Zoh_rM dVwMo dmVd kmZ H$$Z XoVmV Ago Zmhr. H$mhrdoim AmnUmg
hmoUmao kmZ ^_m_H$ (Illusion) AgVo qH$dm \$mago AdVwgdoXZ AgVo. hUyZ gdoXZm_H$ kmZmg AVkmZ
qH$dm {ZXeZm_H$ kmZmBVH$s n>Vm d {ZpMVVm ZgVo. H$maU ho kmZ gddr kmZ|{`mda Adb~yZ AgVo.
VgoM H$mhrdoim A{VXyaMr qH$dm A{VOdiMr dVy ZrQ>nUo kmZ|{`mZm {XgV Zmhr. `m_wio gdoXZm_H$
kmZmV ^_ Am{U {d^_ `mgmaIo Xmof {Z_mU hmo`mMr e`Vm AgVo. VgoM B{` gdoXZmMo d$n ApWa,
MMb, `{${Z>, gXmof d _`m{XV d$nmMo AgVo. VWm{n gdoXZm_H$ kmZ _aUm_H$ kmZmnojm Am{U
dZmVrb AZw^dmnojm {ZpMV AgVo Ago bmH$ n> H$aVmo.
bmH$Zo darb VrZ H$ma`m kmZmV Omo \$aH$ Ho$bm Amho Vmo kmZmMo {ZpMV d gwn> d$n
XmI{d`mgmR>r Ho$bm Amho. gwn>Vm d {ZpMVVo`m d$nmZwgma `mZo kmZmMo VrZ H$ma qH$dm AdWm
n> Ho$`m AmhoV. `mnH$s AVkmZ gdmV A{YH$ n> d {ZpMV AgVo, `mZVa {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ hr
AdWm òVo. nU gdoXZm_H$ kmZmV BVH$s {ZpMVVm ZgVo. bmH$`m _Vo AmnUmg dV:`m ApVdmMo
AVkmZ AgVo, Bdam`m ApVdmMo {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ AgVo Am{U ~m OJmVrb gd dVyMo gdoXZm_H$
kmZ AgVo. B{` gdoXZmmao AmnUmg ^m{VH$ dVyMo hmoUmao kmZ ho dV:`m d Bdam`m kmZmBVHo$ Oar
{ZpMV Zgbo Var `mdhm[aH$ >rZo Vo {ZpMV AgVo.
9.2.4 A_yV H$nZm
(Abstract Ideas)
bmH$Zo Amn`m kmZ{gmVmMo {VnmXZ H$aVmZm A_yV H$nZmZm _hd {Xbobo Amho. AmnUmg ^m{VH$
dVyMo kmZ H$go hmoVo ho n> H$aVmZm `mZo A_yV H$nZm {gmV _mS>bm Amho. `m`m _Vo ^m{VH$ dVyMo
XmoZ H$maMo JwUY_ AgVmV - mW{_H$ d Xw`_ JwUY_. JwUmZm AmYma AgUmar dVy ApVdmV AgVo.
Aem A_yV JwUm`m mao Vmo A_yV H$nZmMo ApVd _m` H$aVmo. bmH$`m _Vo A_yVuH$aUm`m qH$dm
{d`moJrH$aUm`m {H$òoVyZ A_yV H$nZm V`ma hmoVmV. A_yVuH$aU (abstraction) H$aUo hm _mZdr d^md
92
AgyZ Amn`m kmZm`m gmo`rgmR>r A_yVuH$aU Ho$bo OmVo. A_yVuH$aU hUOo OJmVrb dVyZm {Xbobr
dJdmMr qH$dm gm_m` Zmdo hmoV. OJmV AZV dVy AmhoV VgoM AZV H$nZm AmhoV. `m AZV dVyZm
{d{e> Zmdo XoD$Z AmoiImdmd`mMo Pm`mg gdM Zmdo bjmV R>odUo Ae` hmoBb. `mgmR>r AmnU ^mfoV
H$mhr gm_m` H$nZm V`ma H$aVmo. `m_wio {dMmamMr XodmUKodmU e` hmoVo. AemH$mao OJmVrb {d{dY
dVy Am{U H$nZm `m`mV Agbobm gmYmaU JwU bjmV KoD$Z _mZdr _Z A_yVuH$aU H$arV AgVo d`mVyZ
A_yV H$nZm V`ma Ho$`m OmVmV. CXm.gd _mUgmV AmT>iyZ òUm`m "_Zw`d' `m gmYmaU JwUm`m
AmYmao "_Zw`' hr A_yV H$nZm AmnU V`ma H$aVmo.
`md$Z A_yV H$nZm hUOo {d{dYVo_ò gm_m`d emoYyZ V`ma Ho$bobr H$nZm hmo`. VgoM
{d{dYVoV EH$Vm emoY`mMm `Z hUOo A_yVuH$aU hmo`. `mbmM gm_m` H$nZm Agohr hQ>bo OmVo.
OJmV Ag` dVy AgyZ `m gd dVy - \w$bo, \$io, mUr, njr hr d`{$H$[a`m bjmV R>odUo Ae`
R>aVo. bmH$`m _Vo dJ qH$dm gm_m` nXo dmna`m{edm` {dMmamMr XodmU-KodmU H$aVm òUma Zmhr. hUyZM
^mfoMr XodmU-KodmU gwb^VoZo H$a`mgmR>r gm_m` nXo qH$dm A_yV H$nZmMo ghm` Amd`H$ R>aVo. CXm.Jm`,
KmoS>m, dj, \$io, _mUyg, S>m|Ja, ZXr, gmJa, B`mXr gm_m` nXm`m gmmZo OJmVrb gd Jm`r, gd
KmoS>o, gd dj, gd \$io, gd _mUgo, gd S>m|Ja, gd Zm, gd gmJa {ZX}{eV Ho$bo OmVmV. hUOo `{$dmMr
nXoM gm_m` nXo qH$dm A_yV H$nZm ~ZVmV. dVy_ò {XgyZ òUm`m gm_mBH$ JwUY_mZm EH$ H$$Z
Or gm_m` H$nZm V`ma Ho$br OmVo `mg "A_yV H$nZm' Ago hUVmV. A_yV H$nZm Wb-H$mbn[apWVr {Zanoj AgVmV. `m H$Yrhr Zmhrem hmoV ZmhrV. `m {Z`, An[adVZr` d pWa AgVmV.
9.2.5 d`-A``ZmgmR>r Z 1) Imbrb {dYmZo MyH$ H$s ~amo~a Vo gmJm.
A)
bmH$ hm ~w{dmXr Vdk hmo`.
~)
bmH$Zo O_OmV H$nZmMo g_WZ Ho$bo Amho.
H$)
bmH$Zo H$nZmMo XmoZ _wI H$ma Ho$bo AmhoV.
S>)
bmH$`m _Vo gd kmZ AZw^dmVyZ mV hmoVo.
B)
A_yV H$nZm hUOoM g{_l H$nZm hmoV.
2) [aH$m`m OmJr `mo` n`m` {ZdSy>Z Imbrb {dYmZo nyU H$am.

1)
----------- hm AZw^ddmXmMm OZH$ hmo`.

A) bmH$
2)
~) ~mH$bo
bmH$Zo ----------- {gmVmMo IS>U Ho$bo Amho.

A) O_OmV H$nZm~) A_yV H$nZm
3)
H$) Bda
B{` gdoXZ d qMVZ hr ----------- Mr gmYZo AmhoV.

A) kmZmMr
4)
H$) y_
~) g`mMr
H$) {dMmamMr
bmH$`m _Vo ----------- H$nZmnmgyZ g{_l H$nZm {Z_mU hmoVmV.

A) A_yV
~) gm`m
93
H$) gm_m`
5)
{dH$ma, ` Am{U g~Y ho ----------- H$nZmMo VrZ H$ma AmhoV.

A) gm`m
6)
~) VrZ
H$) Mma
bmH$`m _Vo ----------- kmZ gdmV lo> XOmMo AgVo.

A) AVkmZ
~) {ZXeZm_H$
9.3 nm[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW, B`mX

AZw^ddmX - Empiricism
kmZ{__mgmem - Epistemology
~w{dmX - Rationalism
O_OmV (CnOV) H$nZm - Innate Ideas
gm`m H$nZm - Simple Ideas
g{_l H$nZm - Complex Ideas
B{` gdoXZ - Sensation
qMVZ - Reflection
A_yVuH$aU - Abstraction
A_yV H$nZm - Abstract Ideas
` - Substance
{dH$ma - Modes
g~Y - Relations
AVkmZ - Intuitive Knowledge
{ZXeZm_H$ kmZ - Demonstrative Knowledge
gdoXZm_H$ kmZ - Sensitive Knowledge
^_ - Illusion
gm_m` H$nZm - General Ideas
A{Zdm` g` - Necessary Truth
9.4 d`-A``Z ZmMr Cmao 1)
H$) A_yV
bmH$Zo kmZmMo ----------- H$ma Ho$bo AmhoV.

A) XmoZ
7)
~) g{_l
A)
MyH$
~)
MyH$
94
H$) gdoXZm_H$
2)
H$)
~amo~a
S>)
~amo~a
B)
MyH$
1)
A) bmH$
2)
A) O_OmV H$nZm
3)
A) kmZmMr
4)
~) gm`m
5)
~) g{_l
6)
~) VrZ
7)
A) AVkmZ
9.5 gmame OmZ bmH$ hm AZw^ddmXmMm OZH$ AgyZ `mZo kmZ{gmVmda {deof â {Xbm Amho. gd kmZ ho
AZw^dmVyZ mV hmoVo Ago Vmo n> H$aVmo.bmH$Zo O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmda Q>rH$m Ho$br AgyZ _mZdr
_ZmV O_V: qH$dm CnOV H$nZm Agy eH$V ZmhrV ho {g H$a`mgmR>r `mZo `w{$dmX _mS>bo.bmH$`m
_Vo _mZdr _Z ho O_V: H$mo`m H$mJXm_mUo gH$mahrZ AgVo. B{` gdoXZ d qMVZ `mmao _Zm_ò
gH$mamMo R>go C_Qy>Z `mVyZM H$nZmMr {Z{_Vr hmoVo.H$nZmMo XmoZ H$ma bmH$Zo Ho$bo AmhoV.
1) gm`m H$nZm - B{` gdoXZmVyZ _ZmZo JhU Ho$bo`m H$nZm hUOo gm`m H$nZm hmo`.
gm`m H$nZm AUygma`m A{d^m` AgyZ `mMr nwZamdmr H$aVm òVo. gm`m H$nZmMo Mma H$ma
AmhoV.
2) g{_l H$nZm - gm`m H$nZmMo doJdoJ`m H$mao EH${H$aU d OwiUr H$$Z g{_l H$nZm
{Z_mU Ho$`m OmVmV. `m VrZ H$ma`m AgVmV - `, {dH$ma Am{U g~Y.
kmZ{gmV - gd kmZ AZw^dmVyZ {Z_mU hmoV AgVo d AZw^dmdaM AmYmabobo Ago bmH$ Amn`m
kmZ_r_mgoV n> H$aVmo.
kmZmMr `m`m - H$moU`mhr H$nZmVrb nana g~Y, Ad` qH$dm `{VaoH$ Am{U {damoY `mMo
gdoXZ hUOo kmZ hmo`.
kmZmMo VrZ H$ma 1) AVkmZ - `Vr Amn`m _Zm`m ghm`mZo H$nZmVrb g~Y BVa H$nZm`m _XVr{edm`
ôQ> Wm{nV H$aVo `mg AVkmZ hUVmV.
2) {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ - BVa H$nZm`m gmhm`mZo Oohm XmoZ H$nZm_Yrb g~Y n> Ho$bm OmVmo
Vohm `mg {ZXeZm_H$ kmZ hUVmV.
3) gdoXZm_H$ kmZ - hUOo kmZ|{`m`m gmhm`mZo hmoUmao kmZ hmo`.
95
A_yV H$nZm - {d{dYVo_Yrb gm_m`V: emoYyZ V`ma Ho$bobr H$nZm hUOo A_yV H$nZm hmo`.
OJmVrb AZV dVwZm {Xbobr dJdmMr qH$dm gm_m` Zmdo hUOo A_yV H$nZm hmoV.
9.6 gamdmgmR>r dm`m` 1) O_OmV H$nZm {gmVmMo bmH$Zo H$go IS>U Ho$bo Amho Vo n> H$am.
2) H$nZm`m Cnmr g~Yr`m bmH$`m {gmVmMo nQ>rH$aU H$am.
3) gm`m d g{_l H$nZmMo d$n d H$ma n> H$am.
4) bmH$Mr kmZ{df`H$ Cnnmr n> H$am.
5) _mZdr kmZmMo bmH$Zo gm{JVbobo H$ma n> H$am.
6) Q>rnm {bhm - A) bmH$Mm AZw^ddmX
~) A_yV H$nZm
9.7 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$ H$n`m JWm`m eodQ>r gyMr nhmdr.
666
96
KQ>H$ -10
~H$bo$( Berkeley )
10.0 C{Q>o
10.1 mVm{dH$ - M[a, H$m` d VdkmZ
10.2 {df` - {ddoMZ
10.2.1
bmH$ - ~H$bo g~Y
10.2.2
A_yV H$nZmMo IS>U
10.2.3
"ApVd hUOo gdoXZ'

( "Esse est percipi" )
10.2.4
A^m{VH$dmX
10.2.5
BdamMo WmZ
10.2.6
d`-A``ZmgmR>r Z
( Immaterialism )
10.3 nm[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW, B`mXr

10.4 d`-A``Z ZmMr Cmao
10.5 gmame
10.0 C{Q>o :
`m KQ>H$m`m A`mgmZo Amn`mbm * bmH$ Am{U ~H$bo `m`mVrb g~YmMo d$n g_OyZ òBb.
* bmH$`m A_yV H$nZm {gmVmda ~H$bo `mZo Ho$bobr Q>rH$m n> H$aVm òBb.
* "ApVd hUOoM gdoXZ' `m ~H$bo`m VdkmZmVrb _`dVu {gmVmMo d$n, `mVr d
_hd `m{df`r _m{hVr {_iob.
* OS>`m`m dV ApVdmMo `mZo Ho$bobo IS>U - hUOoM ~H$bo`m A^m{VH$ dmXmMo d$n
n> hmoBb.
* ~H$bo`m VdkmZmVrb BdamMo WmZ H$m` Amho `m{df`r _m{hVr {_iy eHo$b.
10.1 mVm{dH$ : M[a, H$m` d VdkmZ
~H$boMm O_ EH$m Bpbe Hw$Qw>~mV 12 _mM 1685 amoOr Am`bS>_ò Pmbm. 1700 _ò `mZo
97
{Q>{ZQ>r H$mboO_ò doe KoVbm. VoWo `mZo J{UV, ^mfm, VH$em d VdkmZ `m {df`mMm A`mg Ho$bm
Am{U 1704 _ò ~r.E. hr nXdr gnmXZ Ho$br. nwT>o 1707 _ò `mM H$mboO_ò Vmo \o$bmo (Fellow)
hUyZ $Oy Pmbm. 1709 _ò Bpbe MM_ò {~en hUyZ `mMr Zo_UyH$ Pmbr. VgoM `mZo Amnbm
A`V _hdnyU JW - An Essay towards a new Theory of Vision {g Ho$bm.
~H$bo`m {dMmamda bmH$ Am{U _mb~e `mMm ^md {XgyZ òVmo. bmH$`m AZw^ddmXmMm Vmo dmag
_mZbm OmVmo. H$nZm`m Cnmr{df`rMo bmH$Mo _mZgemr` {dbofU `mZo _m` Ho$bo. ~H$boZo Oar
bmH$`m AZw^ddmXmMo g_WZ Ho$bo Agbo Var Vmo bmH$Mm AmYim AZw`m`r ZhVm. `mZo bmH$`m A_yV
H$nZm {gmVmda Ho$bo`m Q>rHo$d$Z ho n> hmoVo. `mMo VdkmZ bmH$`m VdkmZmnojm doJio AgyZ
`mZo AZw^d{Z> {MXdmXmMm (Empirical Idealism) nwaH$ma Ho$bm Amho.
~H$bo hm Ho$di VdqMVH$ ZhVm Va Va Vmo EH$ MmJbm {OrMm d Vi_irMm H$m`H$Vmhr hmoVm.
`mZo {ejU gmamMo H$m` Ho$bo Amho. VgoM gm_m` OZVoMo `mdhm[aH$ OrdZmV ^m{VH$ d A`mp_H$
H$`mU hmdo Aer `mMr Vrd BN>m hmoVr. Y_m}nXoeH$ hUyZ `mMr H$m_{Jar IynM _hdmMr Amho. `mMo
OrdZ d VdkmZ ho Ym{_H$ d A`mp_H$ H$m`mbm dm{hbobo hmoVo. `m_wio ~H$bo hm "Ym{_H$ ~moYZH$Vm'
_mZbm OmVmo. ~H$bo `mZo {d{dY d$nmMo boIZ Ho$bo AgyZ `mMo _hdmMo JW Imbrb_mUo AmhoV 1)
Arithmetica
2)
A Treatise Concerning the principless of Human Knowledge
3)
The Minute Philosopher (1732)
Amg\$S> òWo `mZo eodQ>Mo {Xdg Kmb{dbo. 14 OmZodmar 1753 amoOr ~H$boMo {ZYZ Pmbo.
10.2 {df` {ddoMZ :10.2.1 bmH$ - ~H$bo g~Y ~H$bo hm AZw^ddmXr nanaoVrb EH$ _hdmMm VdqMVH$ hmo`. AZw^ddmXmMr gw$dmV {~Q>Z_ò
OmZ bmH$Zo Ho$br. kmZmMr {Z{_Vr d d$n, H$nZmMr Cnmr `m{df`r bmH$Zo Ho$bobr {__mgm ~H$bo `mZo
_m` Ho$br AgyZ bmH$`m AZww^ddmXmMo `mZo g_WZ Amho. bmH$`m AZw^ddmXr gXm`mMm dmagm
~H$bog {_imbm Ag`mZo `m`m VdkmZmda bmH$Mm ^md {XgyZ òVmo. VWm{n bmH$`m VdkmZmVrb
gdM {gmV `mg _m` hmoVo Ago hUVm òV Zmhr. H$maU bmH$`m A_yV H$nZm {gmVmda ~H$bo `mZo
{Q>H$m Ho$br Amho
bmH$ Am{U ~H$bo `mMo {dMma d VdkmZ `mV ~aoM gm` {XgyZ òVo. H$maU ~H$bo hm bmH$Zo gw$
Ho$bo`m AZw^ddmXmMm nwaH$Vm hmoVm. bmH$`m AZw^ddmXr kmZ{gmVmer Vmo gh_V hmoVm. B{` gdoXZ
d qMVZ `m _mJmZr kmZmMr {Z{_Vr hmoVo hr AZw^ddmXr {dMmagaUr bmH$_mUo `mbm _m` hmoVr. ^m{VH$
OJmMo kmZ B{` AZw^dmVyZ hmoVo Ago ~H$bogwm _m` H$aVmo. ~H$boMm bmH$er Agbobm g~Y `m`m
AZw^ddmXr VdkmZm`m nwaH$mamVyZ n> hmoVmo. {~Q>re AZw^ddmXm`m {dH$mgm_ò bmH$ d ~H$bo `mMo
`moJXmZ _hdmMo R>aVo.
Aem [aVrZo ~H$bo hm bmH$`m AZw^ddmXr VdkmZmMm AmYma KoD$Z {MXdmX Wm{nV H$aVmo.
bmH$ AZw`m`r AgyZhr `mMo VdkmZ bmH$nojm doJio Amho. `mZo AZw^d{Z> {MXdmXmMm nwaH$ma Ho$bm
98
Amho. VgoM ~H$bo `mZo ^m{VH$dmXmMo Am{U {Z[adadmXmMo IS>U Ho$bobo Amho. OmUrd {Zanoj d dV Ago
OS>`mg ApVd AgyM eH$V Zmhr Ago ~H$bo nQ> H$aVmo. `md$Z bmH$ d ~H$bo `m`m VdUmbr_ò
Ago gm` AmT>iyZ òVo. `mM_mUo ôXhr {XgyZ òVmo. bmH$`m A_yV H$nZm {gmVmda Q>rH$m H$$Z
~H$bo Ago n> H$aVmo H$s _Zmbm A_V H$nZm V`ma H$aVm òVmV Ago hUUo MyH$ Amho.
10.2.2 A_yV H$nZmMo IS>U bmH$Zo Amn`m kmZ{gmVmMo {VnmXZ H$aVmZm A_yV H$nZmMo ApVd _m` Ho$bo Amho. `m`m
_Vo _Zw` Amn`m kmZm`m gmo`rgmR>r A_yVuH$aUmMo ghm` KoV AgVmo. A_yVuH$aU hUOo OJmVrb
dVyZm {Xbobr dJdmMr qH$dm gm_m` Zmdo hmoV. WmoS>`mV, A_yV H$nZm hUOo {d{dYVoV gm_m`d
emoYyZ V`ma Ho$bobr H$nZm hmo`. AZoH$ dVy_ò {XgyZ òUm`m gm_mBH$ JwUY_mZm EH${V H$$Z Or
gm_m` H$nZm V`ma Ho$br OmVo `mg A_yV H$nZm hUVmV. CXm. gd _mUgmV AmT>iyZ òUmam
"_Zw`d' hm gmYmaU JwU AgyZ `m`m AmYmao AmnU "_Zw`'hr A_yV H$nZm V`ma H$aVmo. bmH$`m
_Vo A_yV H$nZm Wb-H$mb {Zanoj AgVmV. `m H$Yrhr Zmhrem hmoV ZmhrV. `m H$m`_ AgVmV.
bmH$`m A_yV H$nZm {gmVmda ~H$bo Imbrb_mUo Q>rH$m H$aVmo.
~H$boMr A_yV H$nZodarb Q>rH$m 1) OJmVrb gd dVy d KQ>Zm `m`mVrb gmYmaU JwUY_ bjmV KoD$Z _mZdr _Z A_yV
H$nZm V`ma H$arV AgVo Am{U `m A_yV H$nZo`m ghm`mZoM nwhm {d{e> dVy d KQ>Zm `mMo kmZ
hmoVo. `m bmH$`m {dMmamer ~H$bo gh_V Zmhr. ~H$bo`m _Vo Aem A_yV H$nZm aM`mMr j_Vm
_Zm_ò ZgVo. {edm` A_yV H$nZm AmnUmg H$Yrhr AZw^dmg òV ZmhrV. A_yV H$nZm `m eXmZr
{ZX}{eV Ho$`m OmVmV Vo \$V "eX' AgVmV. eXmhZ A{YH$ BVa H$mhrhr ZgVo. CXm.{H$moUm`m
gm_m` H$nZobm AZw$n Agm H$moUVmhr gm_m` {H$moU dmVd OJmV ApVdmV ZgVmo.
2) A_yV H$nZoZo {ZX}{eV hmoUmar Jmo> `j/dmV{dH$ OJmV AZw^dmg òV Zmhr. hUyZ
"A_yV H$nZm' hUOo Xwgao {Vgao H$mhrhr ZgyZ Ho$di EH$ "eX' AgVmo Ago ~H$bo n> H$aVmo. hm eX
{d{e> dVyMm {ZX}e H$a`mgmR>r AmnU AZoH$doim dmnaVmo d `m_wio Vmo "gm_m`' ~ZVmo. dmVdmV
gm_m` eX qH$dm A_yV H$nZm hr Ho$di EH$ VrH$ Amho. Ho$di EH$ eX Amho.
3) ~H$bo`m _Vo _Zmbm A_yV H$nZm V`ma H$aVm òVmV Ago hUUo MwH$s`m g_OwVrda
AmYm[aV Amho. EImXm eX {Z_mU Pmbm hUOo `m eXmZo {ZX}{eV Ho$bobr dVy `jmV ApVdmV
Agbr nm{hOo Ago g_OUo MyH$ Amho. WmoS>`mV, eX Agbm hUOo `mbm AZw$n Aer dVy/KQ>Zm
`j OJmV AgVoM Aer MwH$sMr g_OyV H$$Z KoV`m_wio Iyn Jm|Yi {Z_mU Pmbobm Amho. eX Am{U
dmVd dVy `mZm EH$M g_OUo MyH$ Amho. hUyZ ~H$bo n> H$aVmo H$s, eX ~mOybm R>odyZ `j dVy`m
H$nZmZmM AmnU OmdyZ {^S>bo nm{hOo. eXmMm AS>ga Xya Ho$`m{edm` AmnUmg dVyMo g` kmZ hmoD$
eH$V Zmhr.
4) eodQ>r ~H$bo Agm `wVrdmX H$aVmo H$s, A_yV H$nZm aMUo Ho$di Ae` Amho. `m_wio
bmH$Mm A_yV H$nZm {gmV AdrH$mamh Amho. CXm."_Zw`' `m A_yV H$nZoV gd _mUgmMo {d{dY,
nana{damoYr JwU AV^yV AgyM eH$V ZmhrV. H$maU Amnbm AZw^d Agm Amho H$s, ^modVmb`m OJmV
{d{dY _mUgo AgyZ `m`m {R>H$mUr {d{dY nana {damoYr d$nmMo JwUY_ AmhoV. `m`m~m~VrV
H$mhrhr gm` Zmhr. CMr, aJ, d^md, $n-gmX`, ~w{_mm, B. JwUY_m-~m~VrV `Vr-`Vr_ò
99
{^ZVm qH$dm {d{dYVm {XgyZ òVo. `m_wio nana {damoYr JwU Agbo`m `Vr`m {R>H$mUr gm_m`d
qH$dm gm_m` JwU H$gm Agy eHo$b ? `md$Z Aem nana {damoYr JwUmZm gm_mdyZ KoUmar A_yV H$nZm
ApVdmV AgUo Ae` Amho Agm ~H$boMm {ZH$f Amho.
AmYw{ZH$ _mZgemkmZmhr ~H$boMr A_yV H$nZm {gmVmMo IS>U H$aUmar ^y{_H$m _m` Amho.
H$maU `m`m_Vo AmnU "gm_m` _mUyg' qH$dm "gm_m` {H$moU' Aem H$maMr H$nZm _ZmV V`ma H$$
eH$V Zmhr. H$moUVrhr H$nZm ({V_m) hr EImm {d{e> _mUgmer qH$dm {d{e> {H$moUmer g~{YV
AgVo. hUyZ "{H$moU' hr A_yV H$nZm hUOo Ho$di EH$ eX hmo`.`m gd `wVrdmXmd$Z ~H$bo Ago
nQ> H$aVmo H$s, _Zmbm A_yV H$nZm V`ma H$aVm òV Zmhr Am{U A_yV H$nZm `m Ho$di eX/Zm_
AgVmV. dmVdmV `m H$mhrhr ZgVmV. A_yV H$nZmZm eXm{edm` Xwgao _hd Zmhr. AemH$mao
~H$boZo A_yV H$nZmMo IS>U Ho$bo Amho.
10.2.3 "ApVd hUOo gdoXZ'
("Esse est percipi") -
~H$bo`m VdkmZm`m XmoZ ~mOy AmhoV - {ZfoYm_H$ (Negative) Am{U {dYm`H$ (Positive). gdW_
`mZo bmH$`m A_yV H$nZm {gmVmMo IS>U Ho$bo Amho. `mZVa OS>`mg dV OmUrd {Zanoj
ApVd ZgVo Ago Vmo nQ> H$aVmo. kmZmMr Cnmr d kmZmMr gmYZo (B{` gdoXZ d qMVZ) `m{df`rMr
bmH$Mr AZw^ddmXr _r_mgm `mZo _m` Ho$br Amho. naVw ~H$bo`m _Vo ^m{VH$ dVy`m {V_m, R>go qH$dm
gH$ma `mZm _Zm~mhoa ApVd ZgVo. `m `m doir ^m{VH$ dVyMo kmZ hmoVo `mdoir Vr ^m{VH$ dVy
Amn`m (`Vr`m) _ZmV AgVo. `Vr`m _Zm{edm` ^m{VH$ dVyMo kmZ hmoD$ eH$V Zmhr. `md$Z
^m{VH$ dVy`m ApVdmMo kmZ _Z gmnoj AgVo Ago ~H$bo hUVmo. ~H$bo`m VdkmZmMr hr {dYm`H$
~mOy hmo`. "ApVd hUOoM gdoXZ (Existence is perception)' hm `m`m VdkmZmVrb _`dVu
{gmV AgyZ `mMo gd VdkmZ `m {gmVmdaM AmYm[aV Amho.
_Zm{edm` ^m{VH$ dVyMo kmZ d ApVd {g hmoV Zmhr hr ~H$boMr ^y{_H$m VH$ew AgyZ `mMm
hm {dMma ~hVoH$ gd {dMmadVmZr _m` Ho$bm Amho. `Vr`m _Zm{edm` H$nZm AJa {dMma `mZm
dV ApVd ZgVo ho n> H$$Z ~H$bo ^m{VH$ dVy`m kmZmg~Yr d ApVdmg~Yr {dMma H$aVmo.
`m~m~V bmH$Mr ^y{_H$m ~H$bobm _m` Zmhr. `m`m _Vo gdoXZm{edm` ^m{VH$ dVyMo dV ApVd
Ae` Amho. ~H$bo`m _Vo `mMo gdoXZ hmoV Zmhr Aer ^m{VH$ dVy ApVdmV AgUo e` Zmhr.
gdoXZm{edm` ^m{VH$ dVyMr AmnUmg H$nZm XoIrb H$aVm òUma Zmhr. AgdoXZr` d AkmV `mMr
H$nZm Ae` hmo`. ~H$bo`m _Vo OJmV OS>dVy AmhoV ho AmnUmg Ho$di H$nZm`m _m\$V g_OVo
Am{U H$nZm _Zm{edm` Agy eH$V ZmhrV. H$nZmZm _ZmVM ApVd AgVo. gdoXZj_ _Zm{edm`
H$nZmMo kmZ hmoD$ eH$V Zmhr.
"dVyZm ApVd AgVo' `m {dYmZm`m Zo_`m AWm{df`r ~H$bo {M{H$gm H$aVmo. gdo dVyZm
ApVd AgVo Ago Oohm AmnU hUVmo Vohm "gdo' `m eXmMm Zo_H$m AW Vmo n> H$aVmo. Vmo hUVmo
"_r `m Q>o~bmda {b{hVmo Amho Ago Oohm _r hUVmo Vohm `mMm AW _r Vo nmhVmo d Vo _bm OmUdVo'. _r
Imobr`m ~mhoa Jo`mdahr - "ImobrV Q>o~b Amho' Ago _r hUVmo. Vohm _m`m hU`mMm AW Agm H$s,
_r Oa ImobrV Agob Va Vo _bm {Xgbo AgVo. nU AkmV d Ako` ^m{VH$ `mMo ApVd H$go {g
H$aVm òBb ? hUyZ ~H$bo`m _Vo Oo AkmV Amho `mMo gdoXZ hmoUma Zmhr Am{U `mMo gdoXZ hmoUma Zmhr
`mMr H$nZmhr V`ma hmoUma Zmhr. `m_wio H$nZm Zgob Va ^m{VH$ ` ApVdmV Amho Ago hU`mg
100
H$moUVmhr Vm{H$H$ nwamdm Amn`mOdi Zmhr. AemH$mao gd dVyMo d ^m{VH$ OJmMo ApVd `Vr`m
_Zmbm hmoUm`m gdoXZmda Adb~yZ AgVo Ago n> H$$Z ~H$bo "ApVd hUOoM gdoXZ' hm {gmV
_hdmMm _mZVmo.
~H$bo`m _Vo `mMo `mMo AmnUmg gdoXZ hmoVo Vo gd ApVdmV AgVo. Amnbo {dMma d H$nZm
Amn`m _ZmV ApVdmV AgVmV. `mMo ApVd ho AmnUmg `mMo gdoXZ hmo`mV gm_mdbobo AgVo.
AemH$mao ~H$bo "ApVd = gdoXZ' Ago g_rH$aU _mSy>Z XmoKmZm nanamer EH$$n g_OVmo. hUOo
EImXr Jmo> - _J Vr aJ, AmH$ma H$mhrhr Agmo - Omon`V EImXr `Vr gdoXZm`m _mJmZo Vr AZw^drV
AgVo, Vmon`V {Vbm ApVd AgVo. `m OJmV Oo H$moUm`mhr AZw^dmg H$Yrhr Ambobo Zmhr, `mbm
ApVd AgVo Ago hUUo ~H$bo`m _Vo "dXVmo `mKmV' Amho. hUyZM dVyMo ApVdmV AgUo hUOo
{VMo gdoXZ hmoUo d Vr _ZmV AgUo hmo` Ago ~H$bo n> H$aVmo (To be is to be percieved).
"A{Vd hUOo gdoXZ' `m ~H$bo`m _wI {gmVmVrb R>iH$ JmoQ>r Imbrb_mUo1) Amn`m H$nZm, {V_m Am{U ^mdZm `mZm _Zm~mhoa qH$dm _Zm{edm` ApVd Agy eH$V
Zmhr. (Our ideas, feelings and images have no existence apart from the mind.)
2) OmUUm`m `Vr{edm` gwm H$nZmZm ApVd ZgVo. hUOo `Vr`m _Zm~mhoa H$nZm
AgVo Ago hUVm òV Zmhr. (Ideas independent of the knower also have no existence.)
3) Oohm "ApVd' hm eX ^m{VH$ dVy`m gX^mV dmnabm OmVmo Vohm `mMm AW gdoXm{edm`
BVa H$mhrhr ZgVmo. hUOo EImXr dVy ApVdmV Amho `mMm AW Vr gdoXZr` Amho Agm hmoVmo.
4) H$moU`mhr dVyMm {dMma H$aVmZm qH$dm `m dVy~b ~mobVmZm Vr dVy gdoXZr` Zmhr Ago
hUUo AWhrZ d {Z$n`moJr Amho. hUOoM dVy "Amho' nU Vr gdoXZr` Zmhr Ago hUUo {ZaWH$ Amho.
hUyZM ApVdmV AgUo hUOoM gdoXZ hmoUo hmo`.
~H$bo`m {gmVmdarb Q>rH$m 1)
_wa-agobMr {Q>H$m -
^m{VH$ dVyMo ApVd `Vr`m OmUrdoda qH$dm gdoXZmda Adb~yZ AgVo. VgoM ^m{VH$
dVybm OmUrd {Zanoj dV ApVd ZgVo Ago ~H$bo n> H$aVmo. Amn`m "Esse est percipie' `m
{gmVmMo g_WZ H$aVmZm ~H$bo hUVmo H$s, ^m{VH$ dVyMr OmUrd Am{U ^m{VH$ dVy `m Xmohr EH$M
AgyZ ^m{VH$ dVy ApVdmV AgUm`mgmR>r `Vr`m OmUrdoMr JaO Amho. naVw _ya d agob `mZm ho
_m` Zmhr. _ya Am{U agob `mZr ^m{VH$ dVy`m ApVdm~b dmVddmXr ^y{_H$m drH$mabr Amho.
`m`m _Vo ^m{VH$ dVyZm OmUrd {Zanoj, dV d d`^y ApVd AgVo. VgoM OmUrd d OmUrdoV
òUmar ^m{VH$ dVy `m Xmohr Jmo>r {^Z AgyZ ^m{VH$ dVybm dV dmVd ApVd AgVo.
~H$bo`m {gmVmda Q>rH$m H$aVmZm _ya d agob Ago n> H$aVmV H$s, OmUrd hr _mZ{gH$ AdWm
AgyZ ^m{VH$ dVy `m OmUrdobm H$maU hmoV AgVmV. ^m{VH$ dVy _Zm~mhoa AgVmV. VgoM OmUrd hr
_mZ{gH$ {H$`m AgyZ ^m{VH$ ` hr ~m dVwpWVrV Agbobr Jmo> Amho. hUyZ _ya-agob `m`m_Vo
OmUrd d ^m{VH$ dVy `m Xmohr Jmo>r {^Z AmhoV ho _m` Ho$`m{edm` ^m{VH$ dVyMo kmZ hmoUo Ae`
Amho. CXm.aJ hr ^m{VH$ dVy dV ApVdmV AgyZ {VMr OmUrd Amn`m _ZmV Amho. hUyZ {ndim
aJhr _ZmV Amho Ago hUUo MwH$ Amho. OmUrdobm H$maU hmoUm`m ^m{VH$ dVybm OmUrd g_OyZ ~H$boZo
101
_moR>r MyH$ Ho$br Amho ho _ya-agob hUVmV. hUyZ "ApVd hUOo gdoXZ' hm ~H$boMm {gmV _wimVM
gXmof Amho.
2)
Zd- dmVddmmMr Q>rH$m -
Zd dmVddmmZr ~H$bo`m ApVd hUOo gdoXZ `m {gmVmVrb Imbrb_mUo Xmof XmI{dbo

AmhoV1) Am_H|$rV {ZH$f H$mT>`mMm Xmof- `m~m~V Zd dmVddmXr {dMmadV Ago n> H$aVmV H$s,
Amn`m ^modVmbr AZV nXmW AgVmV. "_r' `m dVy AJa KQ>Zm nmhVmo `m gdm`m H|$WmZr "_r'
(Self / Ego) AgVmoM. Oohm Oohm "_r' H$mhrVar nmhVmo qH$dm AZw^{dVmo Vohm Vohm `m`m H|$WmZr "_r'
gXd AgVmoM, {H$~hZm OmUUmam "_r' Oa Ho$WmZr Zgbmo Va hmoUmao kmZ _mPo dV:Mo AgUma Zmhr.
`m_wio _mUgmbm Ago dmQ>Vo H$s, _m`m OmUrdodaM (kmZmdaM) nXmWmMo ApVd Adb~yZ Amho. `mbmM
Am_H|$rV {ZH$f H$mT>`mMm Xmof hUVmV. ~H$bo`m {gmVmV hm Xmof {XgyZ òVmo.
2) {deofrH$aUmMm Xmof- ~H$bo Amn`m {gmVmV nXmWmZm gHw${MV d$n XoVmo. OJmV EImXm
nXmW EH$ jomer g~YrV AgVmZm Vmo BVa jomer gwm g~{YV AgVmo hr dVwpWVr ~H$bo {dgaVmo.
hUOoM ^m{VH$ nXmW Amn`m OmUrdoer g~{YV AgVmZm BVa jomerhr nXmWmMm g~Y AgVmo ho _m`
Ho$bo nm{hOo. naVw ~H$bo Ago Z H$aVm nXmWmg dV:`m OmUrdoer g~{YV H$$Z `mMo d$n gHw${MV
H$aVmo, Am{U OmUUm`m qH$dm nmhUm`m `VrdaM ^m{VH$ nXmWmMo ApVd Adb~yZ AgVo Agm
{ZH$f H$mT>Vmo. `m_wio gdoXZ hmoUo hUOoM nXmW (dVy) Agm {deofrH$aUmMm VH$Xmof òWo {Z_mU hmoVmo.
3) ^m{VH$ dVy`m ma{^H$ gdoXZmbmM `mòV Ko`mMm Xmof ~H$bo`m ^y{_Ho$V {XgyZ òVmo.
10.2.4 A^m{VH$dmX
(Immaterialism)
~H$bo hm bmH$_mUoM AZw^ddmXr Vdk Amho. nU bmH$Zo ^m{VH$ `mMo dV ApVd _m`
Ho$bo Va ~H$bo `mZo ^m{VH$ `m`m dV OmUrd{Zanoj ApVdmMr e`Vm ZmH$mabr. hUyyZ Vmo
A^m{VH$dmXr _mZbm OmVmo. ~H$bo`m _Vo OJmV \$V XmoZ H$ma`m dVy ApVdmV AmhoV `m hUOo
- gdoXZm`m AZw^d KoUmam Am_m Am{U gdoXZm`m {df` hmoUm`m H$nZm. Am_m (Soul) Am{U H$nZm
(Ideas) `m{edm` OJmV H$mhrhr ApVdmV ZgVo. `mH$mao ~H$bo ^m{VH$ `m`m ApVdmMr e`Vm
ZmH$maVmo. bmH$`m ^y{_Ho$g {damoY H$$Z `mZo Amnbm A^m{VH$dmXmMm {gmV _mS>bm Amho.
bmH$`m _Vo ^m{VH$ `m`m {R>H$mUr mW{_H$ d Xw`_ JwU AgyZ `mZo mW{_H$ d Xw`_
JwUmVrb \$aH$ nQ> Ho$bm Amho. bmH$`m _Vo Xw`_ JwUmMo kmZ _Zmda Adb~yZ AgVo, Va mW{_H$ JwU
AkmV ^m{VH$ `mV AgVmV H$s, Oo ^m{VH$ ` _Zm~mhoa AgVo. hUOoM mW{_H$ JwUmZm YmaU
H$aUmao ho AkmV ` H$s Oo _Zm~mhoa ApVdmV AgVo `mg bmH$Zo ^m{VH$ ` (Matter) Ago hQ>bo
Amho. `m`m _Vo Xw`_ d mW{_H$ JwU ho dmdb~r d d`nyU ZgVmV. `mZm YmaU H$a`mgmR>r EImXr
AmYma^y_r qH$dm A{Y>mZ bmJVo. hUyZ `m JwUmZm YmaU H$aUmao ` hUOo ^m{VH$ ` hmo`.
AemH$mao bmH$Zo ^m{VH$ `mMo dV ApVd _m` Ho$bo Amho. `mCbQ> ~H$bo `mZo ^m{VH$ `mMo
dV ApVd ZmH$mabo Amho.
^m{VH$ `m{damoYrMo ~H$boMo `wVrdmX ^m{VH$ `m`m dV ApVdmMo IS>U H$a`mgmR>r ~H$bo Imbrb_mUo `wVrdmX H$aVmo
102
1)
^m{VH$ `mMo mW{_H$ JwUhr `{${Z> AgVmV-
bmH$Zo {VnmXZ Ho$bobr mW{_H$ Am{U Xw`_ JwUmVrb ôXmMr _r_mgm ~H$bo _m` H$aVmo. bmH$`m
_Vo mW{_H$ JwU An[adVZr` AgyZ Vo `Vr{Zanoj AgVmV, Va Xw`_ JwU n[adVZr` AgyZ Vo
`Vrgmnoj AgVmV. ~H$bo`m _Vo ^m{VH$ `m`m Xw`_ JwUm_mUoM mW{_H$ JwUgwm `{${Z>
AgVmV. H$maU ^m{VH$ `mMr `mnH$Vm, JVr Am{U AdH$me `m mW{_H$ JwUmMo kmZ `Vr{edm`
qH$dm OmUUm`m _Zm{edm` hmoD$ eH$V Zmhr.
2)
AkmV ^m{VH$ ` JwUmMm AmYma Agy eH$V Zmhr -
bmH$`m _Vo JwUmZm AmYma qH$dm A{Y>mZ hUyZ ^m{VH$ ` _m` H$amdo bmJVo. nU ^m{VH$ `
ho AkmV d Ako` AgVo. nU ~H$bog bmH$Mo ho _V _m` Zmhr. ~H$bo`m _Vo, JwUmZm AmYma XoUmao ^m{VH$
` ho `Vr`m kmZmMmM ^mJ AgyZ Vo AkmV Amho Ago hUUo MyH$ Amho. hUyZ ^m{VH$ ` Am{U
`m`m JwUmMo kmZ `Vr`m _Zmda Adb~yZ AgVo. _Zm{edm` qH$dm _Z{Zanoj Ago ^m{VH$ `
JwUmMm AmYma AgyM eH$V Zmhr.
3) bmH$Zo ^m{VH$ ` {H$`mhrZ AgVo Ago hQ>bo Amho. naVw ~H$bo Agm `wVrdmX H$aVmo H$s,
{H$`mhrZ ^m{VH$ ` Amn`m _ZmV H$nZm {Z_mU H$$ eH$V Zmhr. Am{U Oa Vo `Vr`m _ZmV
H$nZm {Z_mU H$a`mg Ag_W Agob Va Vo ApVdmV Amho `mbm nwamdm H$moUVm ? {H$`merb _ZM
H$nZm {Z_mU H$$ eH$Vo, {H$`mhrZ ^m{VH$ `m`m ghm`mZo H$nZm {Z_mU hmoV ZmhrV Ago ~H$bo
_mZVmo. hUyZM _Zm{edm` ^m{VH$ ` ApVdmV AgV Zmhr.
4) ~H$bo`m _Vo AkmV ^m{VH$ `mMr H$nZm Ag` AgyZ Vr H$nmobH$pnV Amho. bmH$ hUVmo
`m_mUo ^m{VH$ ` AkmV ZgVo. `mMm AW ^m{VH$ ` AZw^dmg òV Zmhr, Vo AZw^d n{bH$S>o Amho
Agm hmoVmo. ~H$bo`m _Vo `mMo Amn`m kmZ|{`mZm doXZ hmoV Zmhr, Oo Amn`m AZw^dmg òD$ eH$V
Zmhr `mMo _bm kmZ H$go hmoD$ eHo$b ? hUyZM Oo AZw^dmg òD$ eH$V Zmhr Ago AkmV ^m{VH$ `
Ag` AgyZ _Zm{edm` ^m{VH$ `mMr H$nZmM H$aVm òUma Zmhr. AemH$mao OmUrd {ZanojnUo hUOo
OmUUm`m `Vr`m OmUrdo~mhoa ^m{VH$ ` dVnUo ApVdmV AgyM eH$V Zmhr.
~H$bo`m darb `wVrdmXmd$Z Ago n> hmoVo H$s, Xw`_ JwUm_mUo mW{_H$ JwU gwm `Vr`m
_Zmda Adb~yZ AgVmV Am{U ho JwU YmaU H$aUmar ^m{VH$ dVyhr _Zmda Adb~yZ AgVo. hUOo bmH$
hUVmo `m_mUo ^m{VH$ dVy _Z{Zanoj ZgyZ Vr _Zgmnoj - `Vrgmnoj AgVo. H$moUVrhr H$nZm
_Zm{edm` ApVdmV Agy eH$V Zmhr. OJmV ^m{VH$ dVy AgVmV `mMm AW `m Hw$Um`m Var AZw^dmMm
{df` AgVmV. `mMm Hw$Umbmhr AZw^d òV Zmhr Aer OmUrd {Zanoj AkmV ^m{VH$ dVy ApVdmV
AgUo e` Zmhr Ago ~H$boMo {VnmXZ Amho.
`md$Z ^m{VH$ dVy ApVdmV Amho `mMm AW Vr gdoXZr` Amho Agm hmoVmo. hUyZ "ApVdmV
AgUo hUOo gdoXZr` AgUo' Agm {gmV ~H$bo _mS>Vmo. "Oo Oo gdoXZr` Amho Vo Vo ApVdmV Amho'
(Existence is perception), `mMo gdoXZ hmoV Zmhr Ago H$mhrhr ApVdmV Agy eH$V Zmhr. OmUrdo{edm`
dV d d`^y Ago ^m{VH$ ` ApVdmV Agy eH$V Zmhr Ago ~H$bo n> H$aVmo.
10.2.5 ~H$bo`m VdkmZmVrb BdamMo WmZ
(Place of God) -
~H$bo Amn`m VdkmZmV OS>`mMo dV ApVd ZmH$maVmo. VgoM ^m{VH$dmX d {ZardadmX

103
ZmH$maVmo Am{U `{${Z> qH$dm AZw^d{Z> {MXdmXmMr _mS>Ur H$aVmo. OS> `m`m d ^m{VH$ OJm`m
ApVdmMm {dMma H$arV AgVm ~H$bo BdamMr H$nZm _m` H$aVmo. ~H$bo`m {gmVm_mUo dVyMo
ApVd Oa Amn`m gdoXZmda Adb~yZ Agob Va AmnU S>moio {_Q>`mda gd OJ {XgoZmgo hmoD$Z
Zmhrgo hmoVo H$m` ? dVy _bm {XgV ZmhrV hUyZ `m ApVdmV ZmhrV Ago hUVm òBb H$m` ? ~H$bo
hUVmo H$s, amr _r Pmon`mda _mPo Ka, AJUmVrb PmS>o, KamVrb dVy, g_moaMm S>m|Ja d ZXr hoo gd
_bm {XgoZmgo hmoVmV. `mMm AW `mMo ApVd Zmhrgo hmoVo H$s H$m` ? nwhm gH$mir Oohm _r S>moio CKSy>Z
nmhVmoo Va `m gd dVy hmo`m Vem Am{U VoWoM AgVmV. hUOo `m dVy {Z`nUo AgVmVM. ~H$bo`m
_Vo _r Pmonr Jo`mda `m dVy {XgoZmem Pm`m Var `mMo gdoXZ BVa OmU`m `Vr`m _Zmbm hmoV
AgVo Am{U gd EH$mMdoir Pmonbr Var `m Bdam`m _Zmbm {XgV AgVmV. Bda gXd OmJV
Ag`mZo d `mMo ApVd {Z` d emdV Ag`mZo OJm`m ApVdmMr Bdam_wio h_r {_iVo.
Aem [aVrZo ~H$bo Amn`m VdkmZmV EH$ H$mao BdamMr `moOZm H$aVmo. Oohm dVyMo _bm gdoXZ
hmoV Zmhr qH$dm BVa H$moUmbmM gdoXZ hmoV Zmhr Aemdoir Vr dVy ApVdmV Zmhr Ago hUVm òV Zmhr.
H$maU Aem dVyMo gdoXZ _m`m{edm` qH$dm BVa _mZdr _Zm{edm` Bdambm hmoV AgVo Ago ~H$bo
hUVmo. `m`m _Vo Oohm EImm dVyMo _bm/BVamZm gdoXZ hmoV Zmhr, Vohm Vo Bdar _Zmbm hmoV
Agbo nm{hOo. hUyZ Bda ApVdmV Agbm nm{hOo. H$maU A{Ib {ddmVrb dVy_mmMm H$Vm, gdk,
gdeVr_mZ Agm Bda AgyZ `mbm gd dVw_mm`m ApVdmMo kmZ hmoV AgVo Ago ~H$bo hUVmo.
`m`m_Vo `m gnyU OJmMm d {ddmMm >m, gdoXH$ Bda AgVmo.
~H$bo`m _Vo AmnUmg `mMo gdoXZ hmoVo Aem dVy hUOo Bdam`m gdoXZmVrb {MaVZ
H$nZm`m {VH$Vr hmoV. Oohm AmnUmg gdoXZ hmoV Zmhr Vohm `m gd dVyZm Bdam`m _ZmVrb
H$nZm hUyZ ApVd AgVoM. Bda hUOo gd dVw_mmMo _yi H$maU AgyZ `m`m {R>H$mUr gd
dVyZm ApVd AgVoM. AemH$mao "ApVd hUOo gdoXZ' `m Amn`m _wI {gmVmMm BdamMo
ApVd {g H$a`mgmR>r EH$ `w{$dmX hUyZ ~H$bo Cn`moJ H$aVmo. `m`m_Vo H$moU`mhr dVyMo ApVd
gdoXZ qH$dm OmUrdo{edm` Agy eH$V Zmhr d A{V_V: `m dVyMo ApVd gdk Aem Bdam`m _ZmV
AgVo.
~H$bo`m _Vo Bda hUOo EH$_odm{Vr` gdk, gd`mnr Ago {MXVd AgyZ òH$ dVyMo
ApVd Bdamda Adb~yZ AgVo. Bda hUOo gdmV n[anyU Ago ApVd, ew {H$`merbVm Am{U
dmgZm {da{hV d ew ~wrMr AdWm hmo`. Bda hm na_m_m Ag`mZo Vmo gd {Z{_VrMo _yi AgVmo.
Bda {Z`, gZmVZ, gd dVyMm {Z_mVm d YmaUH$Vm AgVmo. ~H$bo`m _Vo Agm Bda hUOo EH$_od
A_`mX gX^md`wV, kmZr d n[anyU AgVmo.
AemH$mao "ApVd hUOo gdoXZ' hm Amnbm _yi {gmV A~m{YV d H$m`_ R>odyZ `mVrb
AS>MUr Q>mi`mgmR>r ~H$bo Amn`m VdkmZmV BdamMr `moOZm H$aVmo. dVw_mmMo qH$dm OJmMo ApVd
{dMmamV KoV AgVmZm Vmo Bdar gdoXZmMm {dMma H$aVmo. `m`m_Vo gnyU OJmMo ApVd ho Bdam`m
gd `mnH$, {Z`, emdV, {Z`{_V d gw`dpWV Aem gdoXZmda Adb~yZ AgVo. `md$Z ~H$boMo
VdkmZ _mZdH|$r Z amhVm BdaHo$r ~Zbo Amho.
Aem BdamZo kmZ AmnUmg H$go hmoVo `m~m~V ~H$bo Ago nQ> H$aVmo H$s, Bdam`m ApVdmMo
AmnUmg gdoXZ hmoV Zmhr. Vmo Amn`m OmUrdo`m H$joV òV Zmhr. Bdam{df`r _`m{XV _mZdm`m _ZmV
H$nZm {Z_mU hmoD$ eH$V Zmhr. Va {dd`mnH$ MV` qH$dm gdk Aem Bdam{df`r AmnU n[anyU
104
H$nZm (Notion) H$$ eH$Vmo. Amn`m ~wrg BdamMo AmH$bZ hmoV Zmhr. hUyZ ~H$bo`m _Vo Bda
hUOo EH$ H$maMo A`mp_H$ ` (Spiritual Substance) hmo`.
10.2.6 d`-A``ZmgmR>r Z :1)
Imbrb {dYmZo MyH$ H$s ~amo~a Vo gmJm.

1)
~H$bo hm bmH$Mm AZw`m`r hmoVm.
2)
~H$boZo A_yV H$nZmMo ApVd _m` Ho$bo Amho.
3)
A_yV H$nZm hUOoM gm_m` H$nZm hmoV.
4)
A_yV H$nZm hUOo Ho$di EH$ eX hmo`.
5)
OS>`mg dV ApVd AgVo Ago ~H$boMo _V Amho.
6)
~H$bo `mZo A^m{VH$dmXmMo g_WZ Ho$bo Amho.
7)
~H$bo BdamMo ApVd ZmH$maVmo.
8)
~H$bo hm `{${Z> {MXdmXr hmo`.
9)
Bdam`m ApVdmMo AmnUmg gdoXZ hmoVo Ago ~H$bo hUVmo.
10) Bda hUOo A`mp_H$ ` hmo`.

2)
[aH$m`m OmJr `mo` n`m` {ZdSy>Z Imbrb {dYmZo nyU H$am.

1)
--------- `m A_yV H$nZm {gmVmda ~H$bo `mZo Q>rH$m Ho$br Amho.

A) XoH$mV
2)
H$) Cn`wV
~) ~H$bo
H$) y_
~) {MXdmX
H$) `{${Z> {MXdmX
~H$bo`m _Vo OS> `mbm OmUrd {Zanoj d dV ApVd --------A) AgVo
7)
~) Ae`
~H$bo`m VdkmZmbm --------- Ago hQ>bo OmVo.

A) OS>dmX
6)
H$) O_OmV
"ApVd hUOo gdoXZ' hm {gmV --------- `mZr _mS>bm Amho.

A) bmH$
5)
~) {d{eQ>
AgdoXZr` d AkmV `mMr H$nZm --------- AgVo.

A) e`
4)
H$) bmH$
~H$bo`m _Vo --------- H$nZm aM`mMr j_Vm _Zm_ò ZgVo.

A) A_yV
3)
~) y_
~) ZgVo
H$) gmJVm òV Zmhr
~H$bo`m _Vo --------- hUOo A`mp_H$ ` hmo`.

A) ^m{VH$ OJ
~) Bda
105
H$) Am_m
10.3 nm[a^m{fH$ eX, eXmW, B`mXr :AZw^d{Z> {MXdmX
Empirical Idealism
A_yV H$nZm
Abstract Ideas
^m{VH$ `
Matter
A^m{VH$dmX
Immaterialism
{MXdmX
Idealism
`{${Z> {MXdmX
Subjective Idealism
10.4 d`-A``Z ZmMr Cmao :1)
2)
1) MyH$
2) ~amo~a
3) MyH$
4) ~amo~a
5) MyH$
6) ~amo~a
7) MyH$
8) ~amo~a
9) MyyH$
10) ~amo~a
1) H$) bmH$
2) A) A_yV
3) ~) Ae`
4) ~) ~H$bo
5) H$) `{${Z> {MXdmX
6) A) AgVo
7) ~) Bda
10.5 gmame :bmH$ Am{U ~H$bo `m`m VdkmZmV ~aoM gm` AgyZ ~H$boZo bmH$Mr AZw^ddmXr kmZ_r_mgm
_m` Ho$br Amho. VWm{n bmH$`m A_yV H$nZm {gmVmMo `mZo IS>U Ho$bo Amho. `m`m _Vo A_yV
H$nZm aM`mMr j_Vm _Zm_ò ZgVo. A_yV H$nZm hUOo Ho$di "eX' AgVmV. dmVdmV `m
H$mhrhr ZgVmV.~H$bo`m VdkmZmVrb _`dVu {gmV "ApVd hUOo gdoXZ' hm AgyZ `mZwgma
dVyMo ApVdmV AgUo hUOo {VMo gdoXZ hmoUo hmo`.~H$boZo ^m{VH$ `m`m OmUrd {Zanoj d dV
ApVdmMo IS>U H$$Z A^m{VH$dmXmMm drH$ma Ho$bm Amho. `mgmR>r `mZo `wVrdmX Ho$bo AmhoV.~H$bo`m
VdkmZmVrb BdamMo WmZ _hdnyU AgyZ `mZo "ApVd hUOo gdoXZ' `m {gmVmg AZwg$ZM
BdamMo ApVd _m` Ho$bo Amho. `m`m _Vo Bda hUOo EH$_odm{Vr` gdk, gd`mnr d {Z`
d$nmMo {MXVd AgyZ Vmo gd {Z{_VrMo _yi d n[anyU ApVd hmo`. ~H$bo`m AZw^ddmXmg `{${Z>
{MXdmX Ago hQ>bo OmVo.
bmH$ d ~H$bo `m`mVrb g~Y n> H$am.
2)
~H$boZo A_yV H$nZmMo IS>U H$go Ho$bo Amho Vo nQ> H$am.
3)
"ApVd hUOo gdoXZ' `m ~H$bo`m {gmVmMo g{dVa n>rH$aU H$am.
4)
OS> `m`m dV ApVdmg~Yr ~H$boZo Ho$bobr Q>rH$m n> H$am.
5)
~H$bo`m VdkmZmVrb BdamMo WmZ d d$n n> H$am.

106
6)
Q>rnm {bhm :A) bmH$ - ~H$bo g~Y

~) A^m{VH$dmX
H$) BdamMo WmZ
10.7 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$ :Q>rn : nwVH$m`m eodQ>r `mXr {Xbr Amho.
666
gX^ JW
1. lr. h. Xr{jV : ^maVr` VdkmZ
2.
Ho$VH$a ^m. J. (AZwdmX) : ^maVr` VdkmZmMr $naofm (nwUo {dmnrR>)
3. nr. S>r. MmYar : ^maVr` VdkmZmMm B{Vhmg
A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r nwVHo$

1.
M. Hirryanna : Outlines of Indian Philosophy (Allen and Unwin)
2.
S.Radhakrishnan : Indian Philosophy Vols. I and II
3. OmoJ d. dm. : ^maVr` XeZ gJh

4.
F. Copleston : A History of Philosophy
5.
D.J.O'Connor : A critical History of western philosophy
6. J. Zm. Omoer : nmMm` VdkmZmMm B{Vhmg IS> 1 d 2

7.
Datta and Chatterjee : Introduction to Indian Philosophy
8.
Stace, Wright : A critical History of Greek Philosophy
9.
W. K. Wright : A History of modern Philosophy
10. {d. `. XoenmS>o : AdmMrZ nmMm` VdkmZ ^mJ 1 d 2

11. Xo. X. dmS>oH$a : _amR>r VdkmZ _hmH$moe IS> 1 Vo 3
12. J. {d. Vwinwio : JrH$ VdkmZ
13. J. Zm. Omoer : ^maVr` VdkmZmMm ~hX B{Vhmg
666
107

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"VdkmZmMr naofm'

~r. E. ^mJ-1 : VdkmZ

oedmOr odm[rR>, H$m{hm[ya

Hw$bg{Md, {edmOr {dmnrR>, H$mohmnya (_hmamQ>)

Xya oejU H|$, oedmOr odm[rR>, H$m{hm[ya

_m. m. (S>m.) E_. E_. gmiwI>{ ,

S>m. amO| X. H$mH$na`m

lr. ]r. Eg. [mQ>rc

gMmcH$, _hmodmc`rZ odH$mg _S>i,

odm d c{Im AoYH$mar,

lr. E. gr. [m{dma

m. (S>m.) Cm_amd ^m{BQ>{

cmc ]hma emr _mJ, ^maVr` odm[rR>, [wU{.

S>m. E. EZ. Om{er

S>m. ]r. [r. gm]i{,

gMmcH$, oejUem odmemIm,

"AWdgmX' Q>r-3, 32/11, Vmam]mB [mH$, H$m{hm[ya.

S>m. (lr_Vr) dmgVr amg_

lr. O{. Ama. OmYd

AoYR>mVm, gm_moOH$ em{, oedmOr odm[rR>, H$m{hm[ya.

AoYR>mVm, H$cm odmemIm, oedmOr odm[rR>, H$m{hm[ya.

S>m. H{$. EZ. gmJi{

S>m. Q>r. ]r. OJVm[

m. (S>m.) hr. Eg. [mQ>rc,

m. S>m. (lr_Vr) gr_m `{dc{ (gX` goMd)

AoYR>mVm, dmoU` odmemIm, oedmOr odm[rR>>, H$m{hm[ya.

AoYR>mVm, odkmZ odmemIm, oedmOr odm[rR>, H$m{hm[ya.

m. (S>m.) Eg. E. ]mar,

A`j - lr. ZmJa{ H$Uamd ]S>m{]m

lr. o[Q>H{$ gwYra _mYd

_wYm{Or H$mc{O, \$cQ>U, oO. gmVmam.

VdkmZ AoYod^mJ, [wU{ odm[rR>, [wU{.

lr. dmK_m{S>{ amOmam_ gm{Zm

]idV H$mc{O odQ>m, Vm. ImZm[ya, oO. gmJcr.

S>m. Jm{Ic{ [r. [r.

lr. aKwZmW gmXmJa ohad{

Xya oejU H|$

A`mg KQ>H$mMo boIH$

lr. ZmJao H$Uamd ~S>mo~m

lr. {nQ>Ho$ gwYra _mYd

lr. \$aVmao Ama. hr.

lr. dmK_moS>o amOmam_ gmoZm

lr. {hado Ama. Eg.

m. Ho$. ~r. ZmJao, H$amS>

m. Ama. Eg. {hado

m. Eg. E_. {nQ>Ho$, g_d`H$

^maVr` VdkmZmMo d$n

`{H$ KQ>H$mMr gwdmV CoQ>mZ r hm{Bc

VdkmZ hUOo H$m`?

^maVr` XeZmMo dJuH$aU

^maVr` VdkmZmMr g_mZ d{e>o

VdkmZ ho emmMo em Amho. (Philosophy as Science of all Sciences.)

VdkmZ hUOo kmZm~Xc kmZcmcgm, AmnwcH$s ~miJUo, kmZmda o_ H$aUo hmo`.(Philosophy

VdkmZ hUOo gd H$mhr Amho Am{U / gd H$mhr Zmhr.(Philosophy as evertyhing / or Nothing)

5) nyd_r_mgm 6) Cma _r_mgm (doXmV)

`mVrc AV doXmV `m d{XH$ XeZmMm Am{U

doX ho Mma H$maMo AmhoV. 1) F$doX

{dm_mJrc A{V_ `o {H$Vr d H$moUVr AmhoV?

lw{VMo m_m` _mZmdo H$m`?

BamMo ApVd _mZmdo H$m`?

Am_m A_a Amho H$m`?

EH$m dm`mV Cmao {chm.

VdkmZmMm CJ_ Ho$hm Pmcm?