TEACHING WRITING:

DEVELOPING CRITICAL LEARNERS

By: Emi Emilia

Contents
Foreword...... ...................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements............................................................................................ 4
Chapter 1: An overview of theories that inform this book ........................... 5
Chapter 2: A language and literacy program for the tertiary level .......... 39
Chapter 3: A language program at the secondary level .............................. 82
Chapter 4: The teaching of writing at the primary level of an Australian
classroom ................................................................................... 129
Chapter 5: Conclusion, policy context and future research ..................... 160
Bibliography .................................................................................................. 164

Foreword
This book provides clear and well-informed guidelines and advice to teachers of English in
Indonesia, though its arguments and proposals would be of value in any contemporary
country seeking to teach English as a second or foreign language to its people. English is a
very significant world language, widely used throughout the planet, and its impact is
apparent in all areas of the contemporary globalised world community: in commerce, trade,
tourism, inter-governmental co-operation, in international scholarship and in the exchange of
research and ideas. It is important that English be well taught, both because of its
significance in the modern world and because of the potential benefits and opportunities to
anyone who gains a good control of the language.
Emi Emilia is to be congratulated for the industry, initiative and enterprise she has displayed
in researching and writing this book, based as it is on her own research and wide reading,
developed over several years of work. She demonstrates a wide knowledge of the literature in
several scholarly traditions, and she draws on all of these to advance a theoretical framework
that can inform modern English teaching in Indonesia. Arguing the importance of critical
thinking in modern schooling, she herself reveals a capacity to evaluate critically the research
and theories of others, firmly stating her own views, while showing a scholarly concern for
accuracy in judgment and in expression of opinion. In these ways she offers a model of good
writing and scholarship to her readers.
Frances Christie
Emeritus Professor of language and Literacy Education
University of Melbourne
and
Honorary Professor of Education and Linguistics
University of Sydney

Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge, first and foremost, Prof. Frances Christie from the University of
Melbourne and the University of Sydney, who has contributed in many ways to the writing of
this book. At various stages in its conception, development and birth, I have been most
fortunate to receive her supervision, support, encouragement, guidance and advice to keep
going. Thank you for your generosity in sharing with me your expertice and experiences in
writing a book, and for being willing to read and to comment on every chapter of the book,
since early drafts. I also thank you for writing the foreword for this book and your hospitality
during my stay in Sydney.
I would also like to thank Prof. Marie Emmitt, Dean of Faculty of Education in Australian
Catholic University, for her supervision in my postdoctoral study under the Endeavour
Program in 2007. The results of the study have been included in this book.
I am also grateful to the schools and the teachers I have had the priviledged to work with.
Thank you for your generosity in sharing your classrooms with me. I have been especially
priviledged to have contact with the teacher in Indonesia, who was brave enough to have her
class observed, and to try action research in her class and to open up her explorations to
learn to better her teaching practices to help students gain better results in learning. My
thanks to the students whose work conveys important pedagogical messages and have been
included in this book. I thank you from the bottom of my heart.
I would like to gratefully acknowledge the Directorate General of Higher Education,
Department of National Education in Indonesia for the Academic Recharging scholarshipin
2009 that allowed me to recharge my understanding of my interests and thus has made the
writing of this book a possibility.
My particular thanks go to the authorities at the Indonesia University of Education, to the
Rector and Vice Rectors, to the Dean of Faculty of Language and Arts Education, to the
Director and Assistant Directors of School of Postgraduate Studies, to the Head of the
English Department of Faculty of Language and Arts Education, for their support and
permission for me to get involved in the Academic Recharging Program, despite so much
responsibility that I had to leave. I am very grateful to my colleagues, especially Dr. Safrina,
who was willing to fill in my big shoes during my absence. Thank you very much.
My sincere thanks are due to my parents and sisters for their endless love, care and prayers
for me that have contributed to my strength and spirit to make all efforts to finish the project.
I particularly thank Teh Fei and Kak Upi for being my childrens company in my absense.
Finally, thank you to my wonderful supportive family: my husband Tizani, my son Mizan,
and my daughter Najmi, for your understanding and thoughtfulness during difficult times.
Not even one page of this book would ever have appeared without your support,
encouragement and patience. Thank you, Yah, Kak, De!

Chapter 1: An overview of theories that inform this book

1.1. Introduction
One of the simple facts of life in the present time is that the English language skills of a good
proportion of its citizens are seen as vital if a country is to participate actively in the global
economy and to have access to the information and knowledge that provide the basis for both
social and economic development (Burns & Richards, 2009: 1). Central to this enterprise,
Burns and Richard further argue, are English teaching and English language teachers and
thus there is consequently increasing demand worldwide for competent English teachers and
for more effective approaches to help students learn English successfully.
In the Indonesian context, apart from these matters, since the commencement of the Reform
Era, which started with the retirement of President Soeharto on May 21st, 1998, increasing
the general levels of performance in English is now seen as an important part of building a
much more critical and independent community of people in Indonesia. The development of
critical thinking and critical literacy in the workforce at all levels is now seen as of great
national importance, and the teaching of English assumes a new significance as a means by
which critical capacities can be promoted.
This chapter brings together key concepts, insights, issues and debates that inform the
practices of the teaching of English writing described in this book, based on three different
classroom practices, two of which were in the Indonesian context and the other in the
Australian context. The overarching principle of this book is that some synthesis of
theoretical concepts described in this chapter is possible and desirable at all levels of
education to help students both children and adult learners - develop their English literacy,
critical thinking and critical literacy. Overall, in fact. It is argued that this synthesis is
relevant to education at all levels in modern Indonesia.
This chapter will introduce the major traditions of research and theory that will be drawn on
to offer accounts of good practices for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia.
Research and theory in each area is explained and taken up again in later chapters in greater
detail. These areas of theory concern:

Critical thinking (CT);

Critical literacy (CL);
Critical pedagogy (CP);
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL), especially the systemic functional linguistic
genre-based approach to teaching literacy (The SFL GBA);
Whole language, especially the process approach to teaching writing;
English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) pedagogy, especially to do with
the use of students L1 in ESL/EFL contexts.

1.2 Critical Thinking (CT)

Critical thinking has become more important as a skill because individuals are faced with
having to make an increasing number of important decisions affecting themselves and
society in general (Halpern, 1996,1998, cited in Renaud & Murray, 2008:85). In Indonesia,
critical thinking has become a new buzzword over the last ten years, especially since the
Reform Era. Critical thinking has been one aspect that has assumed a great importance in the
policies of the government, especially in education (Depdiknas, 2001a,b, Alwasilah, 1998).
The concept of CT that can be adopted by teachers of English in Indonesia can be drawn
from the CT movement and is pursued more fully in Chapter 2. In the literature, there are two
broad conceptions of CT in the CT movement. They are the general and the specific. Thus:
The general conception says that CT is generalisable, that is, once someone learns
CT, she/he will be able to apply it in other contexts and about other matters (Paul,
1993; Nosich, 2001; Moore and Parker, 1995).
The subject specific conception argues that CT is context specific, dependent on the
background knowledge involved and thus one might be critical in one subject matter
but not in another (Mc Peck, 1981, 1990, 1992).
Despite a heated debate on these two conceptions, this book argues that the two conceptions
are complementary rather than contradictory. In this book it is argued that CT should be
taught as a generalisable skill, although reference to specific contexts also makes it more
powerful.
Regarding this, Sternberg (1987) states:
Thinking cannot occur in the absence of knowledge. One needs something to think about. It is a mistake
to concentrate only upon knowledge to the exclusion of thinking skills, because such concentration risks
generating students who know a lot but who are unable to evaluate their knowledge. It is equally a
mistake to concentrate only on thinking skills, because the results may be students who know how to
think but who have nothing to think about (1987: 254; see also Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985: 4950; Reichenbach, 2001: 30 for a similar observation).

This has also been stated by one of the students in Emilias (2005) study, who was aware of
the importance of learning both critical thinking as a skill and having sound background
knowledge about what she thought. She said:
by knowing CT we can explore the knowledge better than before we know CT. If we have
knowledge without understanding CT, we will just take the knowledge as it is. We will never
think about what is behind it, what makes it happen, etc., that relates to the knowledge. So, I think
we need to know both (Riya).

Accordingly, the definitions of CT can be based on the work of both the general and the
specific conceptions. From the general conceptionists the definitions are as follows:

CT is a careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about
a claim - and of the degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it (Moore and Parker, 1995: 4).
CT is based on articulately intellectual standards and hence is intrinsically subject to assessment by those
standards such as: clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, significance, fairness, logic, depth, and
breadth, evidentiary support There is an intimate interrelation between knowledge and thinking (Paul,
2002. 3). CT involves using knowledge to bring about reasonable changes (Lipman, 2003: 211).

On the other hand, the definition of CT from a subject specific conceptionist is below:
CT is always thinking about X, manifests itself in connection with some identifiable activity or subject
area and never in isolation (McPeck, 1981: 13, see also McPeck, 1990, 1992).

The definitions above suggest that the teaching of CT should emphasise the following
aspects:
CT standards, which can be regarded as a way of gauging how well CT skills are
performed (Barnett, 1997:70-71), including: commitments to clarity in arguments,
relevance of data and evidence used to the main point, accuracy of the quality of the
arguments, depth and breadth and sufficiency in the arguments and precision in the
sense of being specific about detail.
Improvement of students ability in making sound arguments (as argument is the
heart of CT) and students understanding of basic notions of CT, such as the issue,
reasons, facts and opinion (Moore and Parker, 1995; Reichenbach, 2001; Picciotto,
2000).
Development of CT dispositions, especially: to be well-informed - using and
referring to credible sources; to be open-minded - considering seriously other points
of view than ones own; to take a position or a stance (and change a position) when
the evidence and reasons are sufficient to do so (which to Hyland, 1999:106, is an
important feature of academic writing, especially at the tertiary level); to be
systematic - following a line of reasoning consistently to a conclusion (Ennis, 1987;
Beyer, 1997). This can be done through practice in writing, especially writing an
argumentative text, as will be described in Chapter 2.
Development of thoughtful, careful work habits (Nickerson, Perkins and Smith
1985).
With respect to assessment, the teacher can use some of techniques for gathering
information on students CT as suggested by Norris and Ennis (1990). These, as will be
described in Chapter 2, include use of journals, classroom observations and students
argumentative texts. To judge the enhancement of thinking skills, it is important that some
criteria be used, regarding intellectual performance in a general way (Nickerson, Perkins and
Smith, 1985), referring to some CT standards (Nosich, 1995; Hughes, 2000; Lipman, 2003),
dispositions and abilities that a critical thinker usually has, as described above. Moreover,
analysis of arguments using systemic functional grammar, as will be shown in Chapter 2, can
7

also be really useful to enable the teacher to read representations in texts critically
(Threadgold, 1994: 22). Analysis of arguments can also be used to judge CT improvement
using the criteria to assess arguments, including the structure of arguments (see Chaffee,
2000; Chaffee, et al, 2002; Hughes, 2000; Lipman, 2003) (and the use of evidence.
As CT is the aim of critical pedagogy (Giroux, 1992a), it is of crucial importance that
teachers understand CP. Therefore, some principles which can be considered relevant to the
Indonesian context, as observed in Emilia (2005), will be taken up.
1.3 Critical Pedagogy
The field of second or foreign language education, as with other areas of language teaching,
has also been influenced by the issues posed by critical theory and critical pedagogy (Burns
& Richard, 2009: 7; Hawkins & Norton, 2009). While the CT tradition is concerned
primarily with criteria of adequacy in arguments, aiming at self-sufficiency, CP, as Burbules
& Berk (1999:47) state, begins from a very different starting point. It regards specific belief
claims, expressed in language, not primarily as propositions to be assessed for their truth
content, but as part of systems of belief and action that have aggregate effects within the
power structures of society. CP, Burbules & Berk further assert, asks first about these
systems of belief and action, who benefits? and the primary preoccupation of CP is with
social justice and how to transform inequitable, undemocratic, or oppressive institutions and
social relations (see also Morgan 1997). Critical pedagogy is directly concerned with social
action and educational change (Hawkins & Norton, 2009:31).
However, the teaching practice which applies CP should be context-specific (Auerbach,
1996, 1999; Kincheloe and Steinberg, 1998; OBrien, 2001; Pari, 1999), working with the
cultural and cognitive complexities represented by students varying personalities, learning
styles, genders, developmental levels, ideologies and backgrounds (Brookfield, 1995: 209).
In the Indonesian context, the principles of CP that can be used are only those relevant to the
current Indonesian condition, such as those used in Emilia s (2005) study, which will be
described in Chapter 2. There are three principles of CP, two of which are from Freire (Freire
& Macedo, 1987), to do with reading the world and the word and dialogic education
and the other from Giroux (1988b, 1997), concerned with classroom as a democratic public
sphere. Each principle will be delineated below.
Reading the Word and the World
The principle of reading the word and the world (Freire and Macedo, 1987) has had a very
influential impact on the practice of critical literacy and also the form of CL adopted in this
book. To Freire, reading and writing are transitive verbs; that is texts are always about
something in the world. Reading, accordingly, always entails engagement with problems and
values of the social world (Freire, 1970, cited in Luke and Walton, 1994: 1195). Reading,
for Freire is a means of achieving critical consciousness, an understanding of the forces and
ideologies that shape ones life; writing is a means of clarification, articulation, and liberation
of the oppresseds voice, position, interests, and possibilities for action (Freire and Macedo,
1987, see also Luke and Walton, 1994: 1195). In reading texts, it is said that students should
8

be encouraged to read the world, to read texts by focusing on how different audiences might
respond to them, thus highlighting the possibilities of reading against, within, and outside
their established boundaries (Giroux, 1992b: 30).
Freire suggests the use of authentic materials, such as filmstrips, materials presenting
propaganda - from advertising commercials to ideological indoctrination as a problemsituation for discussion (1998: 93) and topics focusing on what is taking place today inside
various social movements (Freire and Macedo, 1987; Freire and Faundes, 1998). Moreover,
like a critical view of literacy and the GBA (which will be discussed later), Freire attaches
importance to grammar, semantics and other linguistic aspects, saying if I teach Portuguese,
I must teach the use of accents, subject-verb agreement, the syntax of verbs, noun case, the
use of pronouns, the personal infinitive (Freire, 1997: 75).
Dialogic Education
Dialogue refers to the encounter between men (human beings), which is mediated by the
world, in order to name the world (Freire, 1993:69). Freire sees education as a question of
establishing dialogue, of taking an anti-authoritarian and interactive approach. The teacher,
like his/her students, is an apprentice, someone who is also seeking and learning (Freire,
1985; Freire and Shor, 1987; Gadotti, 1997; McLaren, 2000). Students should actively
participate in their own learning rather than just passively accept what the teacher says
(Degener, 1999), and the teacher should also be full of respect for what the students say, all
the questions deserve to be answered, and the teacher may not have the answer, but possibly
one of the answers (Freire and Shor, 1987).
In the ESL context, a relationship of respect between the teacher and student plays a very
important role, as Cummins notes:
Techniques and strategies will be effective only when teachers and students forge a relationship of
respect and affirmation; when students feel that they are welcomed into the learning community of the
classroom and supported in the immense challenges they face in catching up academically; and when
the students feel that their teachers believe in them and expect them to succeed in school and in life
(1996: 74).

A question that has arisen in the literature on dialogic education centres on who selects the
object to be known. Regarding this, based on her study in critical English for academic
purposes (EAP), Benesch (2001), concludes:
The most effective way to engage students might be to try a mix of teacher and student choice with
whole class selection of a theme. whole-class selection of a shared topic requires democratic
decision making, an important component of community building in a critical classroom (2001: 82).

Emilia (2005) also found out that it is necessary that some times the teacher gives students
choice about the topic and some other times the teacher decides, which students think is
really useful, as reflected in the following statements:

The teacher always involved the students in making a decision regarding the learning teaching
process, by asking for the students agreement in doing the activities (Nia).
When you asked about the choice of topics, it was part of the democratic atmosphere in this
program, because you allowed us to make our choice based on what we liked (Wati).

Corresponding to the authority and the directive role of the teacher, in dialogic education the
authority and directive roles of the teacher still exist (Freire and Shor, 1987: 101; Freire and
Macedo, 1996: 199-228). In the teaching program outlined in Chapter 2, the directive role of
the teacher is confirmed by the principle of explicit teaching and apprenticeship, in which the
teacher should act as an expert and teach in an authoritative way, as suggested by the GBA
which will be discussed later.
The Classroom as a Democratic Public Sphere
The term public sphere refers to a zone of connection between social systems and the life
world, the domain of everyday living, in which people can deliberate on matters of social
and political concerns as citizens and in principle influence policy decision (Habermas, 1984,
cited in Fairclough, 2003: 44; Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999).
Applied in education, this principle, which corresponds to dialogic education above,
concerns the creation of conditions in classrooms, which are conducive to support individual
freedom and social justice, regarding schools as democratic sites dedicated to forms of self
and social empowerment (Giroux, 1988b: xxxiii, 1997). Giroux states:
Schools are public places where students learn the knowledge and skills necessary to live in an
authentic democracy. Schools as democratic public spheres are constructed around forms of critical
inquiry that dignify meaningful dialogue and human agency. Students learn the discourse of public
association and social responsibility (1988b: xxxiii).

In applying the notion of the public sphere at university level, Giroux (1997) argues that
teachers of higher education, or public intellectuals, to use Girouxs (1997) term, need to
define higher education as a resource vital to the moral life of the nation. Students should be
given opportunity to practise democracy in the classroom or in organisations.
As critcal pedagogy can be realised in critical literacy classrooms (Kincheloe, 2000), the
following discussion will centre around critical literacy.
1.4 Critical Literacy
Critical literacy (CL) is open to multiple interpretations (Cheah, 2001) and may take a
diversity of forms (Frye, 1997; Pennycook, 2001). The concept of CL that has informed the
practices described in this book has been shaped by the work under the following theories:
The CT movement, as discussed in Section 1.2, with special relevance to reading and
writing.

10

 CP, especially reading the word and the world;

Critical social literacy, that is literacy as a social construct (Heath, 1983; Luke and
Walton, 1994; Kress, 2003), supported by critical language awareness (CL,
Fairclough, 1992; Wallace, 2001; 2003);
The SFL GBA, which assists students to gain a mastery of argumentative genres
(genres of power).
As a social activity, there are many types of literacy and the focus is always on literacies, as a
plural set of social practices (Pennycook, 2001; Lankshear & Knobbel, 2006) in their social
contexts, as social literacies (Gee, 1990; Lankshear et al, 1997); or multiliteracies (Cope and
Kalantzies, 2000) or multiple literacies (Huot, Stroble, Bazerman, 2004). The theory also
sees literacy involving not just the mastery of an arbitrary code for writing the meanings we
make with language but also as a critical arena for cultural domination and social control. In
this context, Luke and Freebody state:
Writing and reading are social activities. That is, we are always reading something, written by
someone or writing something for someone. These others are always in some relationship to us-often
materially or symbolically unequal relationships of power but always relationships in which versions
of ourselves and others are implicated and constructed. Even those texts we read or write that come
from or are intended for people we do not know assemble versions of our identities and positions as
readers - as men and women, students and teachers, taxpayers and newspapers readers, and so forth.
(1997b: 193).

One crucial work under this perspective which is relevant to the Indonesian context is the
work in the EFL reading context in Great Britain by Wallace (1992a: 114, 1992b; 2001).
Following Kress (1985a; see also 2003). Wallace suggests that students should be exposed
to questions, as will be shown in Chapter 2, that lead them to have awareness of a text as a
social construct and, among things, to consider other ways the topic might be approached.
Regarding materials, theorists of CL, like those of CT and CP, argue for use of multiple texts
(Luke and Freebody, 1997; Frye, 1997) which should be authentic (Wallace, 1992a,b;
Varaprasad, 1997). For ESL /EFL contexts, Wallace (1992a:71) suggests that a text should
also:
Be a vehicle for teaching specific language structure and vocabulary;
Present content which is familiar and of interest to the learners; and
Be at the appropriate language level.
In terms of topics, it is suggested that teachers should also engage with issues that are often
controversial, certainly contemporary (Gilbert, 1993, cited in Lankshear et al, 1997: 47).
This section and the previous sections have discussed theories to do with being critical from
the perspective under the influence of the CT movement and critical theory. The following
section will discuss the theory of linguistics which has informed this book: namely systemic
functional linguistics (SFL). The theory has been influential in many contemporary English
classrooms while the associated teaching, to do with SFL genre based approaches (GBA) to
pedagogy, will be described in later chapters.

11

1.5 Systemic functional linguistic theory

Systemic functional linguistics falls within the definition of a general linguistic theory
(Halliday, 2009:59). It is general, Halliday further argues, in the sense that is a general theory
for particular description. It is linguistics, Halliday suggests, in the sense that it takes
language as its object of inquiry. This does not mean, of course, that description has to cover
whole languages: Most descriptive studies, to Halliday, especially comparative and
typological, will be concerned with certain features of a language rather than with a language
as a whole (2009:59).
SFL is one of the main functional theories of language developed in the twentieth century
and which continues to evolve in this century (Martin, 2010:14). SFL is a social theory of
language which has been developed and influenced by previous linguists. SFL has been
influenced by Malinowski, Firth, Pike and Hymes specifically in terms of the concept of
context of situation and context of culture (as cited in Halliday, 1976; Halliday, 1985c;
Christie, 1987; Matthiessen & Bateman, 1991; Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Matthiessen and
Nesbitt, 1996; Martin, 2010). It has also been influenced by the Prague School of Linguistics,
concerning its notion of functional sentence perspective, examining utterances in terms of the
information they contain and the role of each part of the utterance in terms of its semantic
contribution to the utterance as a whole (Halliday, 1994a; Paltridge, 1997; Connor, 1996).
SFL also owes much to the work of Whorf in its focus on the relationship between language
and culture, and Saussure and Hjelmslev, regarding interpreting linguistic theory as a
semiotic system, specifically the notions system (the paradigmatic range of linguistic
choices available to the user of a language) and function (syntagmatic combinations of
linguistic structures described in terms of their functional role within the clause) (Bloor and
Bloor, 1995; Paltridge, 1997; Butt, 1996; Matthiessen and Nesbitt, 1996).
SFL has had an impact on educational studies throughout the world (Connor, 1996) and its
most obvious impact has been on the teaching of writing (Wells, 1999) as revealed in the
discussion in the SFL genre pedagogy later. SFL has several key aspects, which will be
discussed below.
1.5.1 Key concepts and notions in SFL
There are several key concepts of the SFL, will be summarised in the table below, taken from
Feez, Iedema & White (2008:44).
Table 1.1 Key aspects of systemic functional linguistics
(From Feez, Iedema, & White, 2008:44)
Language is a system of choices. Language users choose from the resources
Language as a resource
of the language system to make meanings which are appropriate to the social
for meaning
context. The social context constrains the choices that are made from the
linguistic system.
Language users communicate in texts, not isolated words or sentences.
Texts as the basic unit of
Texts, no matter how long or short, are the basic units of meaning in
meaning
language. The study of language should look at the structure and

12

Systematic relationship
between text and context.

Functional labels

organisation of language in texts not at isolated and idealised extracts.

All language occurs in social contexts. There is a symbolic relationship
between language and the social context in which it is used. Social contexts
exerts influence on the choices that are made from the linguistic system and
language itself helps shape social contexts. SFL gives a detailed systematic
account of the relationship between text and context.
SFL identifies and labels elements of text according to the function they
perform in making meaning. Terms such as participant, process, and
circumstances are functional labels.

From a systemic functional perspective, language is a social semiotic (Halliday, 1985c:. 3;

1994c; Butt, 1996; Christie, 2002; Eggins, 1994). This is the crucial characteristic of SFL,
which is also called the theory of language in context, that is its orientation outside linguistics
towards sociology and this orientation brings with it a view of language as a social semiotic
(Teich, 1999). We can only learn how language works if we consider the way it is used in
particular contexts, both cultural and situational. Halliday argues If we want to understand
functional variation in language, for example, we will need to know something about the
sociological foundation of human relationships and interaction (Halliday, 2009:59). Drawn
from Saussures concept that language is a system of signs, the union of a form which
signifies (signifiant or signifier) and an idea signified (the signifie or signified) (Culler,
1976: 19; 1975: 16), this principle implies that a language is a signing system (Halliday,
1985c: 4). SFL locates language, in its turn, as one among a wider class of systems called
semiotic systems system of meaning (Halliday, 2009:60).
In Saussures (1960) theory, semiotics, as described by Kristeva (1989: 296), refers to the
study of all verbal and nonverbal systems as languages, that is as systems in which signs are
articulated by a syntax of difference. Similarly, in SFL the term semiotics is also often used
to refer to the general study of meaning-making (semiosis), including not just meanings we
make with language, but meanings we make with every sort of object, event or action in so
far as it is endowed with a significance, a symbolic value in our community (Lemke, 1995:
9). Halliday (2009:60) argues that language has the further property, that is a semogenic
system: a system that creates meaning. To Halliday, not all semiotic systems are also
semogenic: a system of traffic sygnals for example, is a system of meaning, its meaning
potential is fixed-it cannot create meanings that are not built into it. By contrast, Halliday
further argues, the meaning potential of a language is open ended: new meanings always can
be, and often are being created.
Regarding the social concept of language, Halliday (1985c) states that the term social
suggests two things simultaneously. One is social used in the sense of the social system,
which is synonymous with the culture. The other is the term social used to indicate that
SFL is concerned particularly with the relationships between language and social structure,
considering the social structure as one aspect of the social system. This principle, applied in
the GBA as will be discussed later, has commonalities with the social theory of literacy
discussed above.

13

All the basic points of SFL have been summarized by Eggins, who notes:
common to all systemic linguists is an interest in how people use language with each other in
accomplishing everyday social claims about language: that language use is functional; that its function is
to make meanings; that these meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they
are exchanged and that the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making
meanings by choosing (1994: 2).

In addition to the basic points above, there are some essential notions of SFL, including: text
and context, and metafunctions of language, which will be delineated below.
1.5.1.1 Text and context
The term text, comes from the Latin word for weaving, referring to words and sentences
woven together to create a single whole (Christie and Misson, 1998: 8). The concept of text
in SFL refers to the socially and contextually complete unit of language (Kress, 1993: 24),
which may be written or spoken (Eggins, 1994:.5). The consideration of language as a text,
has nothing to do with its size or length or form, but with meaning of the stretch of language
working together as a unified whole (Feez and Joyce, 1998a:4).
In addition, the word context originally meant being woven together, where the prefix con
carried the sense of being together and over the passage of the centuries, it has come to refer
to those elements that accompany a text (Christie and Misson, 1998: 8).
Following Malinowski and Firth, Halliday identifies two types of context:
Context of situation - referring to the immediate environment of language, and
Context of culture - referring to a broader background against which the text has to
be interpreted (Halliday, 1985c:46).
Halliday argues that there are three aspects in any situation that have linguistic consequences:
field, mode, and tenor, which are also called the register variables (Halliday, 1976, 1985c;
Christie & Derewianka 2008; Feez, Iedema & White, 2008). .
Field refers to the ongoing activity or subject matter, or what is happening, the nature of the
social action that is taking place. In writing it refers to the topic that is written about. In
activities, examples of fields, according to Martin (2010:16), are tennis, opera, linguistics,
cooking, building construction, farming, politics, education and so on.
Tenor refers to who is taking part, or the role relationship between interactants; their relative
status and the amount and type of contact they have with each other. Tenor, to Martin
(2010:16) refers to the way we relate to other people when doing what we do. Martin goes on
to say:
Our society, like other human societies we know of, is structured in such a way that people have power
over one another. This power is various kinds: mature people tend to dominate younger ones,
commanding their respect; bosses dominate employees; teachers dominate students and so on. There is
no escaping this, however nice we try to be about it. When you think people are bossy or above

14

themselves it is usually because they are asserting an inordinate amount of power over you. When
you think someone is quiet, evasive and looking insecure, it is often because they are being overly
diferential to you. And of course you can resist, as when feminists struggle to renovate the power
relations between women and men. Renovation is hard work as we all know, and however democratic
our ideals, there always seems to be a lot of power pushing us around (2010:16).

Mode refers the role played by language in a context, and the simplest distinction is between
spoken and written language (Macken-Horarik, 2002: 24). Mode also refers to the channel of
communication (Martin, 2010:16). The distance between the people communicating in terms
of time and space, whether they are face to face or separated by time or space fundamentally
determine the nature of the language (Feez and Joyce, 1998a).
Context of culture refers to the broader cultural context in which any context of situation
occurs. Any culture has accepted ways of conducting any socialactivities, all of which affect
what occurs in the particular context of situation. For example, Australia and Indonesia both
have context of situation in which people trade with each other. In the Indonesian culture, it
is appropriate that one bargains, but that is not acceptable in the Australian culture in most
situations.
Context of culture also shapes purpose and meaning to a text (Eggins, 1994: 30), and this
allows us not only to describe the register of the text, but also to suggest what the overall
purpose or function of a text is, that is the genre the text belongs to (Eggins, 1994:. 26).
Included in genre is the schematic structure or stages of a text, and therefore, genre has been
defined as A staged, goal oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as
members of our culture (Martin, 1984: 25, cited in Eggins, 1994: 26).
Regarding the relationship between text and context, Martin (2010) gives an example below:
Suppose you are sitting in a room, and hear someone yell: John, dont do it there mate! (if you know
about another language, think about how you would say this in that language). Now, however
faithfully you translate this sentence into another language, it will still be the case that unless you know
what John was doing, you cant really know what the person talking to him meant. You dont know
what John was doing, what he was doing it to, and where he was doing it. If however you had a
translation of this sentence, and a description of the context of situation in which it is uttered (say John
dumping a load of broken mud bricks inro a drainage through), then you would be able to understand
the text. So, in order to explain the meaning of a sentence, you need both a description of that sentence
and of the context in which it was used (2010:15).

Halliday sees the relationship between text and context as dialectical: the text creates the
context as much as the context creates the text. Meaning arises from the friction between the
two (1985c: 47), and each variable of context interacts with the metafunction of language,
which will be discussed below.

1.5.1.2 Metafunctions
There are three metafunctions of language that SFL argues that all natural languages have.
These three metafunctions are:

15

 The ideational metafunction concerns how language is used to represent experience,

or to organize, understand and express our perceptions of the world and our
consciousness. This metafunction can be classified into two sub-functions: the
experiential function, which is concerned with content or ideas, and the logical
function with the relationship between ideas.
The interpersonal metafunction is to do with the use of language to set up and sustain
interaction between people using language.
The textual metafunction concerns how language works to create connected and
coherent discourse (textual function) (Halliday, 1975; Christie and Unsworth, 2000;
Bloor and Bloor, 1995).
According to Halliday, there is a systematic correlation between the three metafunctions and
specific contextual features - each function interacts with variables of context (field, tenor
and mode, where field focuses on institutional practices, tenor on social relation, and mode
on textual) and each metafunction has its own distinctive grammar (Christie and Unsworth,
2000, Colombi and Scleppegrel, 2002).
The relationship between all various elements can be represented in the following in Figure
1.1 below from Christie & Derewianka (2008:7).
C
O
N
T
E
X
T

L
A
N
G
U
A
G
E

CONTEXT OF CULTURE
Genres as social processes for achieving purposes within the culture.
CONTEXT OF SITUATION
Registers as particular configurations of the field, tenor and mode.
FIELD
TENOR
MODE
(eg subject matter or topic)
(eg roles and relationships)
(eg along a continuum from
most spoken to most
written)
IDEATIONAL
INTERPERSONAL
TEXTUAL
METAFUNCTION
METAFUNCTION
METAFUNCTION
Clause level
Clause level
Clause level
Experiential metafunction: Resources for interaction (eg the
Theme and Rheme (the
The types of processes
MOOD system: questions,
beginning and end of the
involved in the activity, the statements, commands, offers).
clause).
participants in those
Beyond the clause
Beyond the clause
processes and the
Resources for creating patterns of Cohesive devices to form text.
surrounding circumstances. evaluation and engagement with
the audience.
Beyond the clause
Logical metafunction:
The logical relationships
between events (eg where?
when? how? why?).
Figure 1.1 Relationship between language, register and genre
(From Christie & Derewianka, 2008:7)

16

Eggins (1994) summarises that the three types of meaning can be related both upwards (to
context) and downwards (to lexico-grammar):

The field of a text can be associated with the realization of experiential meanings, realized through the
Transitivity patterns of the grammar.
The mode of a text can be associated with the realization of textual meanings, realized through the
Theme patterns of grammar.
The tenor of a text can be associated with the realization of interpersonal meanings, realized through
the Mood patterns of the grammar (Eggins, 1994: 78).

Given the correlation between the organization of context with the organization of grammar,
according to Martin (1993), if we know something about a texts context, we can make
predictions about its grammar; and conversely if we analyse a texts grammar, we can
recover information about its context.
Each metafunction and and its system of grammar will be taken up in greater detail below.
The Theme system will be discussed first, because it plays a significant part in constructing
the flow of a discourse (text) (Halliday, 1994a;b) which is the first aspect looked at in texts
analyses undertaken in the studies reported in this book. Then the section will go on to
discuss the Transitivity system, to do with how the text organises experience, one part of the
ideational function of language. This will be followed by the discussion of the Conjunction
system - the other aspect of the ideational function, to do with the logical aspect the logicosemantic relation of clauses. In addition, the discussion on interpersonal meaning will cover
aspects of modality (including mood). The section will then be concluded by a brief
delineation on grammatical metaphors, which also constitute an important signal of students
developments in various aspects investigated in this study.
Examples of each pattern of grammar (except for few taken from Halliday, 1994a) have been
taken from samples of students texts analysed throughout this book. The significance of the
presence of each pattern of grammar will not be discussed, as it will be alluded to later in
Chapters 2,3,4.
1.5.1.2.1 The Theme system: The realisation of the textual metafunction
The Theme system is concerned with the organisation of information within individual
clauses, and through this, with the organisation of a larger text (Martin, 1992; Martin,
Mathiessen, and Painter, 1997: 21). The Theme system is realised through a structure in
which the clause falls into just two main constituents: a Theme and a Rheme. A Theme is
the point of departure of the message or the starting point for the message: what the clause
is going to be about and the Rheme is the part of the clause in which the Theme is
developed or everything that is not the Theme is the Rheme (Halliday, 1994a: 37; Halliday
and Mathiessen, 2004: 64).
In connection with students texts analysis in Chapters 2-4, several aspects will be
approached, including: the boundary of Theme; longer unit Theme; Thematic progression
and higher level Theme.

17

 The boundary of Theme

There are three different types of Themes: topical (experiential), interpersonal, and textual
elements (Eggins, 1994). The topical Theme is the first element in the clause that expresses
some kind of representational meaning (Martin, Mathiessen and Painter, 1997: 24). It is
realised in Transitivity structure, as: a Participant , a Circumstance or a Process (see the
discussion on the Transitivity system below). If the first topical element of a declarative
clause is also the Subject of the clause, including the Subject it it is called unmarked
Theme, and if the Theme is non-Subject, it is called marked Theme. Examples of each type
of Theme will be given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Examples of Topical Theme
Did lots of flexible things.

Participant as a Theme

They

Circumstance as a
Theme
Process as a Theme

A couple of weeks ago

I went a nice caf in Eltham.

Dont leave

any belongings on board

(Halliday, 1994a: 47).
Rheme

Topical Theme

the

aircraft!

The interpersonal Theme is the interpersonal part of the Theme, and to follow Eggins (1994),
interpersonal Themes can be categorised into:
The unfused finite (in interrogative structure), typically realised by an auxiliary verb,
signaling that a response is needed;
Some categories of Modal adjuncts, especially Mood Adjuncts (some of which
realised in interpersonal metaphors of modality, such as I think) and Comment
Adjuncts, (typically realised by an adverb, providing the speakers comment or
attitude towards the message, such as inevitably). Examples of interpersonal Themes
are given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Examples of Interpersonal Theme
You
Please help Sacred Mission?

Unfused Finite as a
Theme
Modal Adjunct as a
Theme:
Mood Adjunct

Can

I believe

Capital punishment

Still neeeds to be implemented in

Indonesia.

Comment Adjunct

Inevitably

the death penalty

Interpersonal
Theme

Topical Theme

has been imposed most frequently

on the poor .
Rheme

The textual Themes are elements which do not express any interpersonal or experiential
meaning, but which are doing important cohesive work in relating the clause to its context
(Eggins, 1994: 281). Examples of textual Themes realised in conjunctions are illustrated in
Table 1.4

18

Coordination

Table 1.4 Examples of Textual Theme realized in instances of conjunctions.

Lets put aside those benefits and drawbacks,
and lets see it in an objective way.

Subordination

War cannot be approved,

because it will leave nothing but misery.

Relative

in order to realize his hidden agenda,

which is [[controlling Iraq oil possession for U.S own favour]].

Conjunctive

Besides, the argument [[which is launched by the U.S government of attacking

Iraq]] is not making any sense.

Examples of the interpersonal and textual Themes above indicate that while it is possible for
a clause to realise only one Thematic element, (in which case it must be a topical Theme), it
is far more common that a clause contains a sequence of Themes, with often several textual
and/or interpersonal Themes occurring before the obligatory topical Theme (see Eggins,
1994; Thompson, 1996). Where there is a textual Theme, it always comes first.
Longer unit Themes
Apart from being represented by a single clause constituent, as examples above, Themes may
also be constituted by a longer unit. Drawn from the work of Halliday (1994: 54-61) and
Martin, Matthiessen and Painter (1997: 35), longer unit Themes, as also found in students
texts collected in Emilias (2005) study, can be realised in:
Embedded clauses (Wh-clauses, non-finite, and that-clauses);
Long nominal groups, including those which extend beyond the main noun, and
which may involve clause embeddings;
Group and phrase complexes, or Appositions;
Predicated Theme.
Examples of longer unit Themes are provided in Table 1.5 below.
Longer Unit Themes
Embedded clauses:
Wh-clause

Table 1.5 Examples of Longer Unit Themes

Examples
[[What no one seemed to notice ]]

was the writing on the wall (Halliday,

1994a, p. 45).

Non-finite Clause

Publishing academic books

is one of the programs [[applied by the

Department of Education]].

That- clause

[[That participating in the Miss

Universe Pageant can promote
tourism of the participants country]]

has also been stated by Miss St. Marten

(2000).

Long nominal groups:

Nominal groups which
involves clause

The first argument [[proposed by the

opponents of death penalty]]

is regarding deterrence.

19

embeddings;
Group and phrase
complexes
Predicated Theme

Javis, another opponent of the Miss

Universe Pageant from India,

suggests .

It is they themselves

who create the war [[and violate the

peace .
Rheme

Topical Theme (unmarked)

From the examples in Table 1.5 above, it can also be noted that all longer unit Themes are
unmarked. There is another type of longer unit Themes used in students texts, but they
function as marked Themes, realized in Wh-clause, finite and nonfinite clauses. They occur
in hypotactic clause complexes, whose ordering of clauses is also marked, that is the
dependent clause comes before the main clause, as will be shown in Table 4.5 below.
Circumstance of
time
Dependent clause of
condition
Dependent
Nonfinite clause

Table 1.6 Examples of Longer Unit Marked Theme

After the bays birth
she was tired
If law discrimination persists,
After looking at both sides of arguments,

it is improper [[to employ capital

punishment]]
I really believe

Topical Theme (marked)

Rheme

However, the clause complexes exemplified in Table 1.6, when each clause has its own
Theme-Rheme structure, can also be analysed in the same way as in unmarked ordering of
clauses above.
Higher level Themes: Macro- and Hyper-Themes
Apart from the Theme of a clause or a sentence as discussed above, there are also higherlevel Themes, which are called: hyper-Theme and macro-Theme. Hyper-Theme is the Theme
of a paragraph. This is an introductory sentence or group of sentences which is established to
predict a particular pattern of interaction among strings, chains. Macro- Theme can be
defined as a sentence or group of sentences (possibly a paragraph which predicts a set of
hyper-Themes). This is the introductory paragraph of school rhetoric (Martin, 1992: 437;
2002, see also Martin and Rose, 2003; Coffin, 1997: 218-219). Hyper-Theme can also be
considered as the opening generalisation in a paragraph which predicts the pattern of clause
Themes and elaboration, and macro-Theme in a text which predicts its overall development.
The proportionalities, as Martin further describes, is as follows:
Theme: clause;
Hyper-Theme: paragraph;
Macro-Theme: text (1992: 437).

In longer texts, Martin (1992: 443) further argues, the pattern of macro Themes predicting
hyper-Themes can be extended, with hyper-Themes themselves functioning as macroThemes in their own right. Once texts develop to this level of internal complexity, titles,
subtitles, headings and subheadings are commonly deployed to keep track of the composition

20

structure being erected. Therefore, it is possible that a macro-Theme is labeled as macroTheme i, ii , up to macro-Theme n (Martin and Rose, 2003: 193-194). Schematically, the
thematic relationships can be seen in Figure 1.2 below, with the proviso that a text may be
organised thematically around more than the three levels shown. The lowest level hyperThemes in a text are referred to traditionally as Topic sentences and the highest level macroThemes as introductions (Martin, 1992: 443-444).

Macro-Theme
Macro-Rheme
Hyper-Themes
Hyper-Rhemes
Themes
Rhemes

Figure 3. 1 Solidarity across levels of Theme

(From Martin, 1992: 443)

Apart from being woven through Theme, the range of meanings in a text can be woven
through New. While macro-theme, hyper-Themes and clause Themes project forward,
scaffolding the text to its rhetorical purpose (i.e. its genre); macro-New, hyper-News and
clause-News on the other hand, look back, gathering up the meanings which have
accumulated to elaborate a text field (Martin, 1992: 456; 2002). As will be shown in Chapter
2, the Recommendation stage of a Discussion genre that students at the tertiary level wrote in
the joint and independent construction stages, can be considered as the macro-New, as it
accumulates the main points amassed (Martin, 1992: 457). This signals students
developments in writing skills, critical thinking and critical literacy developed in the
program.

Thematic progression
Based on the Theme choices in students texts, there are three types of Theme progressions,
in which the texts develop the ideas they present (Eggins, 1994; Ravelli, 2000). The thematic
progression in students texts can be classified into:
The zig-zag pattern, or a linear thematic progression: The content of the Theme of
the second sentence or clause derives from the content of the previous Rheme, the
content of Theme 3 derives from Rheme 2, etc. For example:

21

It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking and corruption cases

Because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large.
The theme re-iteration: The Theme enters into relation with a number of different
Rhemes, or the same element occurs regularly as Themes. For example:
that such contests are against our values and morals,
that they only demean women,
rather than (they) benefit them.
The multiple Theme pattern or progression with derived Themes: The passage as a
whole concerns a single general notion, and the Themes of the various constituent
clauses all derive from that general notion, but are not identical to one another.
On the other hand, the opponents of capital punishment adopt three positions,
The first argument
The second position
The last argument of the opponents of capital punishment .
Other examples of each type of thematic progressions will be revealed in Chapters 2-4,
especially on analysis of students texts.
The next section will now turn to focus on another metafunction of language, that is the ideal
metafunction with its grammar system, that is the Transitivity system.
1.5.1.2.2 The Transitivity system: The realisation of the experiential metafunction
The Transitivity system belongs to the experiential metafunction and is the overall
grammatical resource for construing or expressing what is going on (Martin, Mathiessen and
Painter, 1997: 100). The term transitivity in functional grammar is related to the transitivity
in traditional grammar, but it is dealt with to some extent differently. The transitivity in
functional grammar is not a way of distinguishing between verbs according to whether they
have an object or not, but refers to a system for describing the whole clause, rather than just
the verb and its object (Thompson, 1996: 78).

22

The Transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process
types (Halliday, 1994a:106), and it discriminates six different types of processes in English:
material, mental, verbal, relational, behavioural and existential. Each process, Halliday
(1994a, p. 107) further suggests, consists, in principle of three components: the process itself;
the participants; and circumstances. Below is the discussion of process types, along with its
participants, then a brief description of circumstances.
Process types
As mentioned above, in systemic functional grammar, process types in English can be
categorised into: material, mental, verbal, relational, behavioural, existential. These process
types, to follow Christie & Derewianka (2008) can be described in the following table 1.7.

Process type
Material
processes

Behavioural
processes
Mental
processes

Verbal
processes
Relational
processes

Existential
processes

Table 1.7 Process types in English

(Adapted from Christie & Derewianka, 2008:9)
Aspect of experince
Example taken from students texts described in the
book
Doings and happenings in Last school holiday we went to Yogyakarta.
the material world outer In Italy I played football.
experience.
The doctor examined my brother.
Capital punishment is still needed to be imposed in our
country.
Law discrimination continues to happen in Indonesia
Physiological
and When she walked into the theatre people were still
psychological behaviour
laughing .
Wendys dog licked the glass sliding door.
I could smell coffee toast and pasta.
Processes of consciousness I really liked the caf
inner experience
I believe that capital punishment should be implemented in
Indonesia.
Feminists think that the Miss Universe Pageant makes an
unachievable standard for women
Processes of saying and Dr. Khodijah said there is still hope .
meaning
Statistics in the US, also reveal that of 3,860 persons
executed in the US from 1930 up to the time of the writing
of the article, 2,066 or 54 % were black.
Processes of being and The spring roll felt oily but tasted nice.
having,
creating In the caf they have a mini bookshop.
relationships
between Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant
elements of experience
to a sentence of death imposed by a competent court.
Sacred Heat Mission is an organisastion .
She was sooo embarrased.
Existing
There have been 71 murders committed by people who
have been released after serving life sentences in the
same period

Particpants
Each process type involves different set of Participants. In the case of material processes,
potential participant roles are: an Actor (the Doer of the process), a Goal (or the Thing

23

affected), a Range (or the Thing over which the whole process is completed), a Beneficiary
(or the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place). These can be seen in the
examples below.
Material process with an Actor and a Goal (active)
II
Actor

bought
Process: Material

A lot of souvenirs
Goal

In Yogyakarta
Circumstance: Loc: Time

Material process with a Range and a Beneficiary:

The so-called beauty queens
Actor

have never done

Process: Material

anything
Range

for the nation

Beneficiary

Unlike material processes, mental processes must always have two participants (Eggins,
1994: 242). These are: a Senser, which must be realised by a human or at least conscious
participant and a Phenomenon, by a nominal group or embedded clause summing up what is
thought, wanted, perceived or liked/disliked. This can be seen in the example below:
I
Senser

Enjoyed
Process: Affection

the holiday
Phenomenon

Sometimes mental processes are used to project a clause as in:

I
Senser

do believe
Process: Cognition

that capital punishment

Goal

is still needed to be imposed

Process: Material

In our country
Circumstance: Location: Place

Moreover, participant roles of verbal processes, to follow Eggins (1994); Halliday (1994a)
and, Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004) can be classified into:
A Sayer: The participant responsible for the verbal process;
A Receiver: The one to whom the saying is directed; it may be the Subject in a
passive clause;
A Verbiage: the function that corresponds to what is said (This may mean: content of
what is said or name of the saying, like a question in the expression to ask a
question);and
A Target: the entity that is targeted by the process of saying.
He

told

me

a story

Sayer

Process: Verbal

Receiver

Verbiage

Verbal processes can also project (quoting or reporting). This occurs, among others, in:

24

The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant

Sayer
that

this contest
Actor

emphasises
Process: Material

claim
Process: Verbal
three principles: Brain, Beauty, Behaviour
Goal

The teacher

praised

the student

Sayer

Process: verbal

Target

In relational clauses, there are two main participant roles:

Carrier + Attribute in attributive clauses, as in:
Capital punishment
All lives
Carrier

is
are
Process: Intensive

against the value of humanity.

valuable
Attribute

Token (that which stands for what is being defined) + Value (that which defines) in
identifying ones.
Capital punishment

is

the most effective way

[[to reduce
crime
Process: Material

Token

Process:
Intensive

Goal

rather than life imprisonment]]

Circumstance: Comparison

Value

Unlike attributive relational clauses, identifying relational clauses are reversible. So, the
identifying clauses above can be changed into passive, as indicated below:
The most effective way
[[to reduce
crime
Pro: Material

Goal

is

capital punishment

Process: Intensive

Token

rather than life imprisonment]]

Circumstance: Comparison

Value

Other types of relational processes occurring in students' texts are: circumstantial and
possessive. Circumstantial relational processes encode meanings about circumstantial
dimensions: location, manner, cause, etc., and relational possessive process of ownership
and possession between clausal participants (Eggins, 1994, p. 262). Examples of each type of
clauses are shown as follows:
Causative clause:
The gas chamber
Token

causes
Process: Cause

a slow and cruel death

Value

Possessive clause:
Capital
punishment

has

a unique power
[[to deter
people
Pro: Material

Possessor

Process: Possession

Goal

from [[committing

crimes]] ]]

Process: Material
Circumstance: Matter

Goal

Possessed

25

The last type of relational processes found in students' texts occur in a causative relational
type, with causation expressed through a make + be (Process: intensive) structure, as in:
The teacher
Agent/Initiator

made
Process: Cause

the students
Carrier

Quiet
Attribute

Moreover, participants in a behavioural process must be conscious beings and are called the
Behaver (Eggins, 1994: 250), as in:
The audiences
Behaver

were still laughing

Process: Behavioural

Finally, the only obligatory participant in an existential process which receives a functional
label is called the Existent, and this can be seen in:
There

have been

71 murders

[[ committed
Process: Material

Process: existential

by people ]]
Actor

Existent

Circumstances
Circumstance in functional grammar is the name given to those elements which carry a
semantic load, but are neither process nor participant (Bloor and Bloor, 1995: 126). Halliday
(1994a:151) identifies nine types of circumstances, as illustrated in Table 1.8 below, with
examples (in italics) taken from students texts.

Types of Circumstances
Extent
Location
Manner

Table 1.8 Types and Examples of Circumstances

(Adapted from Halliday, 1994a:151)
Examples
We had a holiday in Yogyakarta for five days. (duration).
In Italy I played football. (place).
In 1980 there was one murder for every 5,924 Texans (time).
Indian people cannot get benefit from the fact [[that Indias contestant
becomes the winner of the Miss Universe Contest]] (means).
Some death sentences are carried out unfairly (quality).

Cause
Contingency
Accompaniment

We cant assure that the capital punishment will be effectively

implemented in Indonesia if the condition of justice in Indonesia remains
like today (comparison).
My brother suffered from typhus. (reason).
If the school policy changes it, then it will appear [[what we call a fashion
show]] among the students (condition).
Though it is not comfortable, it makes the students neat (concession).
I went to Yogyakarta with my family. (accompaniment)
such contests, along with the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion
world, only serve to perpetuate the myth [[that women are only worth

26

Role

Matter
Angle

something [[if they are young, long legged and beautiful ]] ]].
The execution of capital punishment is considered as a real punishment
(guise).
The Miss Universe pageant can be used as an arena [[to promote
business]]
(product).
where the participants were questioned about their general knowledge
and the way [[they think]].
According to David Hoekema, punishment is punishment .

All aspects of the Transitivity system have been briefly discussed and now the discussion
will turn on the other system, which is part of the ideational metafunction, that is the logical
multifunction, realised in the conjunction system.
1.5.1.2.3 The Conjunction system: The realisation of the logical metafunction
Conjunction helps to build cohesion (Halliday, 1994a: 324). The cohesive pattern of
conjunction, or conjunctive relations, refers to how he writer creates and expresses logical
relationship between the parts of a text (Eggins, 1994: 105). Conjunctive relations help to
build clauses of elaboration, extension, and enhancement.
Elaboration refers to a relationship of restatement or clarification, whereby one
sentence is (presented as) a re-saying or representation of a previous sentence
(Eggins, 1994: 105). Common conjunctions used to express this relation are: in other
words, that is (to say), I mean (to say), for example, for instance, thus. Elaboration
occurs, among others in: the Miss Universe pageant covers a vast spectrum of
academic fields. They are, for example, law students, aspiring journalists; Thus,
after examining all the arguments
Extension refers to a relationship of either addition (one clause adds to the meaning
made in another), or variation (one sentence changes the meanings of another by
contrast or by qualification (Halliday, 1994:105). Common conjunctions used to
express this relation are: and, also, moreover, in addition, nor, but, yet, on the other
hand. For example: Moreover, the Miss Universe pageant is also inappropriate to
Indonesias oriental values.
Enhancement refers to ways by which one clause can extend on the meanings of
another, in terms of dimensions such as time, comparison, cause, condition, or
concession (Eggins, 1994: 106). Types of conjunctions used in enhancement and
examples of clauses in which the conjunctions occur are given in Table 1.9 below.
The presence of conjunctive relations as discussed above, according to Halliday (1994: 327)
can enhance the texture of the text.

27

Table 1.9 Types of conjunctions and examples of clauses used in enhancement

Examples
Clauses Using the Conjunctions in Students
Texts
then, next, afterwards, until,
After she died, ;
at the same time, before, after
until she delivered her baby
a while, etc
Comparative
likewise, similarly, in a
Similarly, Javis, another opponent of the Miss
different way
Universe pageant from India suggests.
Causal
so, then, therefore,
Therefore, we recommend Indonesia should not send
consequently, hence, because
an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant.
of that, for, in consequence, as
a result, etc
Conditional
If, if not, otherwise, e
Only death can incapacitate murderers, otherwise
the murderers can harm prison staffs, other
prisoners and even the society.
Concessive
yet, still, even though, etc
Even though it can incapacitate criminals,
Types of
Conjunctions
Temporal

Another system of grammar that relates to one of the metafunction is the MOOD system,
related to the interpersonal metafunction. However, for reasons of space, and the fact that
there are many aspects of grammar that are related to the interpersonal metafunction, in the
subsequent section, the discussion will offer only modality as an aspect of the interpersonal
metafunction.
1.5.1.2.4 Modality-As part of the realisation of the interpersonal metafunction
Modality refers to a complex area of English grammar which concerns the different ways in
which a language user can intrude on his/her message, expressing attitudes and judgments of
various kinds (Eggins, 1994: 179). These judgments can be of probability or certainty and
usuality or of obligation and inclination (of the doing of something). The former is called
modalisation (epistemic modality) and the latter modulation (deontic modality) (Halliday,
1994a; Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004; Fairclough, 2003). These two types of modality, as
found in students texts, can be subjectively or objectively oriented. Subjective orientation,
or first person statement indicates the writers commitment to what she/he is saying and
objective orientation, or third person statement shows the writers detachment to what she is
saying, making statements on behalf of others (Halliday, 1994a; Fairclough, 2003:171).
Moreover, the two types of modality can be expressed in different degrees of the writers
commitment, or different values, which are: low, median, and high, either in positive or
negative polarity. There are several markers of modality found in students texts, including:

modal operators: will, can, may, might;

modal Adjuncts: really, inevitably, highly;
modal operator +modal Adjunct: should undoubtedly;
participial adjectives: needed;
mental process clauses: I think, I believe;
modal adjectives: possible, important;
relational processes (processes of appearance): seem.

28

Illustration of modality system, drawn from Halliday (1994a) and Halliday and Matthiessen
(2004) and examples from students texts written in the three studies reported in this book
will be given below in Table 1.10
In addition to the examples illustrated in Table 1.10, there are also cases of objectively
oriented expressions, realised in projecting mental or verbal clauses, both in active and
agentless passive constructions, especially in writing written by students at the tertiary level,
such as: they say, they argue, they believe, they think, it is said, it is argued, it is claimed, it
is revealed.

Types of
Modality
Modalisation:
Certainty,

Probability

Table 1.10 Modality: Types, Orientation, Value and Polarity

(Adapted from: Kress, 1985a, Halliday, 1994a: , Eggins, 1994)
Examples
Orientation Value

Polarity

The doctor said that my appendix was really

bad

Subjective

High

Positive

It is obvious [[that Indonesia

Objective

Median

Positive

Here, I can say .

Subjective

Median

Positive

Those [[who murder whites]] were more

likely to be sentenced to death .

Objective

Median

Positive

Indonesia may have opportunity .

Modalisation:
Usuality
Modulation:
Obligation

Subjective

Low

Positive

The higher middle class will perhaps not feel

any effect .

Objective

Median

Negative

it is almost impossible [[for the prison system

in Indonesia to gain publics confidence]].

Objective

Median

Negative

The US government never takes into account

the misery .
Singapore always employs death penalty.

Objective

High

Negative

Objective

High

Positive.

On Monday morning I must go to school.

Subjective

High

Positive

Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the

Miss Universe pageant.*

Subjective

Median

Positive

It is improper [[ to employ death penalty]].

Objective

High

Negative

Objective

High

Positive

It is very important [[for us to heal

reputation of our country .

the

In response to this, I would like to share Subjective

Low
Positive
Modulation:
Inclination
opinions.
Note: the clauses with an asterisk indicate that both modalisation and modulation may occur in the same
clause (see Eggins, 1994: 190).

29

Another category of modality found in students texts is modality of ability or potentiality

(Halliday, 1994a: 359). This modality can also be subjectively or objectively oriented.
Subjective orientation occurs, among others, in: [[ Participating in the Miss Universe
Pageant]] can promote tourism of the participants country, and objective orientation in:
Unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes; [[that some criminals [[who
still serve their punishment in jail]] are still capable of [[committing crimes]]. From the
examples above, it is clear that modality signals that meaning is contingent and subject to
negotiation (Coffin, 2002:. 510).
1.5.1.2.5 Grammatical metaphor
Metaphor in general involves a transference of meaning in which a lexical item that
normally means one thing comes to mean another (Martin and Rose, 2003:103).
Grammatical metaphor or metaphorical modes of expressions can be defined as the
expression of a meaning through a lexico-grammatical form which originally evolved to
express a different kind of meaning (Thompson, 1996: 163).
There are two main types of grammatical metaphors in the clause and found in the students
texts: metaphors of transitivity (ideational metaphors) and metaphors of mood
(interpersonal metaphors) (Halliday, 1994a: 343) which will be illustrated below.
Ideational metaphor
Ideational metaphor involves a transference from one kind of element to another, and can be
classified into experiential, concerned with elements of figure, and logical, with reconstruing
a conjunction between figures as if it were a process, quality circumstance or thing (Martin
and Rose, 2003:. 104). Experiential metaphors in students texts, as will be discussed in
Chapter 2, can be seen mostly in nominalisations, the conversion of a verb into a noun-like
word, and semantically of a process into an entity (Fairclough, 2003: 143) Nominalisations
occur among others,
Indonesian people still prefer the implementation of capital punishment.
If we express this is in a more congruent way, it will be:
Indonesian people still prefer that people be punished by being executed.
Moreover, logical metaphors, as will be noted in Chapter 2, are found mostly in more mature
texts. They are realised in some relational (causative) processes, such as: cause and lead to,
as in:
The gas chamber causes a slow and cruel death;
Capital punishment could lead to the execution of innocent people.

30

Logically, in those expressions, there is a relation of consequence between the two

participants: the gas chamber and a slow and cruel death; and the execution of innocent
people, which is usually congruently expressed in if then (Martin and Rose, 2003: 140141). In those examples, the relation is reconstrued as a process (causes, could lead to). Thus,
such a sequence can be unpacked as that related by conjunctions:
If the gas chamber is used, then people will die cruelly.
If the death penalty is implemented, then innocent people may be executed.
The strategy above, as Martin & Rose (2003:140) suggest, also compresses a sequence of
two activities into a single figure, by means of experiential metaphor. Experientially, the
participants a slow and cruel death; and the execution of innocent people, represent activities
(dying slowly and cruelly and executing innocent people) that are reconstrued as things.
Regarding the logical metaphor, Martin & Rose (2003: 141) further state that the logical
metaphor of relation as process, as exemplified above, incorporates more than simply
consequence. For one thing, Martin & Rose add, the probability of the result can be graded as
could lead to (see the example above) in contrast to high probability, as will certainly lead to.
So, to Martin & Rose, one of the reasons that writers use logical metaphors for conjunctions
is that they can grade their evaluation of relations between events or arguments. This, Martin
and Rose say, is a crucial resource for reasoning in fields such as science and politics, in
which it is important not to overstate causal relations, until sufficient evidence has been
accumulated (2003: 141). This is relevant to the the conmcept of critical thinking and some
critical thinking standards and dispositions focused in this book, as taken up earlier in this
chapter.
Interpersonal metaphor
Interpersonal metaphor, especially in persuasive texts (like those presented in Chapter 2),
plays a very important role, as a powerful weapon in cases where the speaker or writer
wishes, for whatever reason, to avoid negotiation, with its possible outcome of rejection
(Thompson, 1996:172). According to Halliday (1994: 354-367), interpersonal metaphors are
categorized into two:
Metaphors of modality, where in each case the mental process that prefaces what is
said is a metaphor for an adjunct expressing modality: I think; I believe; I strongly
argue or it is obvious that ; it is true that;
Metaphors of mood, occur especially in some commands, realised in statements
(see clauses with must, should and impersonal it in modulation described in Table
1.10 above).
After discussing SFL and SFG, it is now time to give an account to the SFL genre pedagogy
and approach which was used in all the teaching programs described throughout the book.

31

1.6 The SFL genre-based approach to teaching writing (The SFL GBA)
The SFL GBA to teaching writing has been developed in Australia, based on SFL developed
by Halliday (1975, 1985, 1994). The SFL GBA is also called an interventionist pedagogy
(Rothery, 1996) or a pedagogy of overt instruction (The New London Group, 2000). The
SFL GBA has influenced the entire state educational systems in Australia, and has been
adopted in primary, secondary, tertiary, professional and community teaching contexts in
programs for native speakers of English, ESL and academic literacy programs (see Martin &
Rose, 2007:12).
In the genre-based approach, genres have been defined as ways we get things done through
language the ways we exchange information and knowledge and interact socially
(Callaghan, Knapp and Knobble, 1993: 193). Based on their obligatory and optional stages
(as well as the social purpose), genre theorists have proposed a large number of genres
(Christie & Derewianka, 2008; Martin & Rose, 2008). Many of them found in schools will be
discussed in later chapters.
1.6.1 Major goals and principles in the SF genre traditions
The goals of the GBA are basically to help students become more successful writers (and
readers) of academic and workplace texts (Hyon, 1996: 700); and to help students make
sense of not only the structure of texts but also a wide range of compositional concerns
(Brooks, 2002). To realize its aims, genre pedagogy stresses several basic principles below.
Language learning is a social activity
This principle derives from Hallidays theory that learning is, above all, a social process, and
knowledge is transmitted in social contexts, through relationships, like those of parent and
child, or teacher and pupil, or classmates, that are defined in the value systems and ideology
of the culture (Halliday, 1985: 5).
This concept of learning is parallel to Vygotskys view that learning is a social activity, that
Learning awakens a variety of internal development processes that are able to operate only
when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with
peers(1978: 90).
Learning occurs more effectively if teachers are explicit about what is expected
of students
Under this principle, the GBA suggests that teachers should be more explicit in teaching
several aspects, such as how language works to make meaning; the text organization; and
linguistic forms that characterize different genres (Feez and Joyce, 1998a: 25). A strong text
organisation and linguistic features, according to Christie & Dreyfus (2007), are an indication
of development of students ability in writing, as the result of explicit teaching.

32

 Students learn under the guidance of the teacher in apprenticeship

Under this principle students learn as apprentices with the teacher in the authoritative role of
expert on language system and function (Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Feez, 2002; MackenHorarik, 2002).
There are some model of the SFL GBA, and the model used in the programs described in
this book is basd on the work of Rothery, which covers four stages: Building Knowledge of
the Field, Modelling, Joint Construction and Independent Construction. The explanation
about each stage will be presented in Chapter 2.
1.7

Whole language philosophy as the umbrella of the process approach to teaching writing

Whole language is a philosophy that draws on knowledge of child development (Muijs &
Reynold, 2005:204) and one of the most prominent architects of this philosophy is Goodman,
(1976, 1985, 2005). Whole language also refers to the instructional philosophy that reflects
consistently the view that meaning and natural language are the basis of literacy learning
(Smith, 1988: 301; see also Barchers, 1998:50; and a critique of natural learning by Christie,
2004 and Cruickshank, 2006). Whole language, Goodman (2005) says, is not a dogma to be
narrowly practised. It is a way of bringing together four pillars, to do with a theory of
learning, a theory of language, a basic view of teaching and the role of teachers, and a view
of curriculum. Each pillar will be described in the following subsection.
A learning theory.
Whole language builds on Piagets constructivist theory and Vygotskys learning principle,
that is children construct their own knowledge through approximating, practicing, and
interacting with knowledgeable others (Vygotsky 1977, cited in Wortman & Matlin, 1995).
Vygotskys view of learning is relevant to the concept that language learning is a social
actitity and this been one of the basic principles of the SFL GBA, as mentioned above.
Regarding the social constructivist view of learning theory, Susan Hill (2006) states that this
view of learning, apart from drawing on the theories of Vygotsky (1978) draws on the
theories of Dewey (1964). Both theorists, Hill suggests, view learning as social,
collaborative, and active. This view of learning, as will be alluded to later in Chapter 3, is
also put forward by Halliday (1985) and has been one of the basic principles of the SFL
GBA, mentioned above (see Wells, 1999; Derewianka, 1990; Feez & Joyce, 1998).
A language theory
Whole language, as Goodman (2005: 26) argues, is also based on scientific knowledge and
theories about language. Whole language believes the following:
There is no language without symbols and system. Every dialect of every language
has register and grammar.

33

 Whole language also considers language as whole.Language is inclusive and it is

indivisible. Whole text, connected discourse in the context of some speech or literacy
event, is really the minimal functional unit, the barest whole that makes sense. When
teachers and pupils look at words, phrases and sentences, they do so always in the
context of whole, real language texts that are part of real language experiences of
children.
A view of teaching
Whole language, according to Goodman (2005), views that respect for understanding of
learning and language is matched by respect for and understanding of teaching. Goodman
says that whole language teachers regard themselves as professionals, draw constantly on a
scientific body of knowledge in carrying out their work; know about language, learning,
children, curriculum, and methodology; understand that learning ultimately takes place one
child at a time; try to create appropriate social settings and interactions, and to influence the
rate and direction of personal learning; and utterly convinced that teachers guide, support,
monitor, encourage, and facilitate learning. More recent work of whole language also puts a
strong emphasis on explicit teaching (see an edition on The explicit teaching of reading,
edited by Hancock, 1999 and Hill, 2006). Which is one of the principles of the SFL GBA, as
outlined above.
A view of curriculum
Whole language philosophy focuses on several key concepts in terms of curriculum. These,
to Goodman (2005), include:
Integration - language is learned best and easiest when it is whole and in natural
context, then integration is a key principle for language development and learning
through language. Language development and content become a dual curriculum
(2005: 30);
Choice, Ownership and Relevance- authenticity is essential, that children need to
feel that what they are doing through language they have chosen is useful, or
interesting, or fun for them;
Language across the Curriculum - whole language argues that language should be
applied across the curriculum. Content area teachers are urged to consider how
language is used in their fields and then think of their curriculum as a dual curriculum
with the double agenda it implies. For example, maths teachers need to think of the
language of maths as a special register and to help students learn to control it as they
deal with math concepts and the solution of math problems.
Thematic Units - whole of or a large part of the curriculum should be organised
around topics or themes. They can be science units, social science units, literature
units, or units that integrate all three.

34

Under the whole language philosophy, there are a number of approaches and strategies in
teaching English literacy. One approach that is relevant to the discussion in this book, is the
process approach, that will be discussed in Chapter 4, in the account of the teaching of
writing at the primary level in Australia.
The last theory that has been drawn on in this book is related to the work under English as a
Second or Foreign Language, that is reagrding the use of L1 or in this case bahasa Indonesia
in Indonesian EFL classrooms.
1.8 The use of native language (L1) in ESL(EFL) contexts
It is probably fair to say that in EFL classes in general, at least until recently, there has been a
tendency to discourage learners and teachers from using the students first language
(Wigglesworth, 2005:2). The reasons for this, Wigglesworth adds, are quite clear: teachers
want classroom activities to maximise use of the target language in order to enhance learners
opportunities for interaction in their second language and to encourage learning of the target
language. This has led to the policy of English only in the classroom which has been
widespread both in ESL and EFL contexts, including Indonesia. In the literature, there have
been a number of contributors to the pervasiveness of the policy of English only in the
classroom.
The first contributor is of course the work on ESL/EFL teaching methodology. Some
teaching methods and strategies in ESL/EFL require teacher and students use only the target
language, that is English. One of these methods is the Direct method. One main principle of
this method is that no L1 use is allowed in the classroom (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Another
method of English teaching which require students and the teacher to speak English only in
communicative language teaching (Wigglesworh, 2005). These methods have led to the
prevalence of the teachers belief in implementing an English only classroom.
Other contributors, are to do with historical tradition and political imperative. Regarding this,
Wigglesworth (2005) described several contributors below.
First of all, English speaking countries have inevitably tended to be leaders in English
teaching policy and research, and many of these countries most notably Australia, Canada,
England, New Zealand, and the United States have also been the recipients of large
numbers of immigrants from a wide variety of language backgrounds. In many ways, the
English only classroom is a natural result of language classes composed of learners who have
varied first languages, where the necessity of developing teaching approaches appropriate to
multilingual classes has made the use of the first language is difficult. However,
Wigglesworth argues, the use of L1 is not precluded simply because classroom participants
come from multiple language backgrounds. Nevertheless, since research and theoretical
underpinnings of language teaching pedagogy tend to come out of English speaking
countries, there has been a tendency for English only classrooms to be seen as the most
efficacious for language learning in EFL contexts as well.

35

Another contributor, as Phillippson (1992, cited in Wigglesworth, 2005) is a rather pervasive

linguistic imperialism, that is, the reason for the English only classroom has been staunchly
maintained to the extent that native speakers are often preferred (and even required) in many
EFL settings. According to Phillipson, The English only policy provides an advantage for
native speaking teachers who are able, and often do, teach almost anywhere in the world
without having to make the efforts to learn another language.
Based on the description above, and results of research in ESL/EFL teaching (Wigglesworh,
2005; Murray & Wigglesworth, 2005; Emilia, 2005; Emilia et al, 2008; Macaro, 2003, 2009;
Turnbull & Dailey OCain, 2009; Evans, 2009) it is now timely to review the English only
policy, especially when the students are generally homogenous, where the majority of
learners in the classroom share their first language with the teacher, as in the Indonesian
context.
Evidence of the advantage of the use of L1, as Macaro (2009) suggests, can be seen from
three perspectives.
The first of these is cognitive processing theory, which says that both first and second
language lexical items, in long term memory, are activated when a bilingual speaker is trying
to process language. Since connections with the first language (especially in nonbalanced
bilinguals) are going to be much stronger than connections with the second language, then to
ignore the first language during the process of second language learning is to ignore an
esssential tool as the learners disposal (Macaro, 2009, see also Auerbach, 1993, 1996).
The first language can be used to explain the meaning, to explain the aims of a lesson, to
evaluate learners understanding, or to discuss the main ideas of a piece after reading (Willis,
1981, cited in Wigglesworth, 2005). If the first language is not used at all, tasks and activities
must be kept simple so that the instructions cannot be understood in the second language.
This, Wigglesworth says, may mean that learners spend a lot of time trying to work out what
to do rather than doing what the task requires. In adult classes, avoiding the first language,
with low learners in particular, may make the learners feel that they are being treated like
children. Thus, the use of first language allows the introduction of concepts and discussion of
conceptually more demanding material which is of interest to adults (Gunn, cited in
Wigglesworh, 2005). The use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL contexts, as reported in
Emilia (2005) can provide students with additional support that allows them to analyse
English. Emilias study supports previous study on the use of students L1 in L2 contexts as
reported by Storch and Wigglesworth (2003: 760) in that the use of bahasa Indonesia, can
also enable students to work at a higher level than would be possible were they restricted to
sole use of English, and to increase their basic understanding about how English and bahasa
Indonesia work.
The second theory supporting a first language facilitative effect, Macaro (2009) further says,
is cociocultural theory, which suggests that inner voice and private speech are essential
contributors to the way we think and act, and that they are almost always performed in the
first language. Many studies, suggest the role of the first language interactions used by
learners can function as a psychological tool that enables learners to construct effective

36

collaborative dialogue in the completion of meaning-based language tasks by performing

three important functions: construction of scaffolded help, establishment of intersubjectivity,
and use of private speech (Anton & DiCamilla, 1998:337, cited in Wigglesworth, 2005:7; see
also those working under critical pedagogy perspective, such as Auerbach, 1993, 1996;
Cummins, 1996, 2000 about the benefits of the use of L1 in ESL/EFL contexts). From a CP
perspective that has been described above, the inclusion of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian
EFL classrooms may provide a place where students use multiple discourses to comprehend
their relations with the wider society and thus to ensure their active participation, without
having to silence the language they brought to class.
The last perspective is the perspective of codeswitching in naturalistic environments
(language alteration which occurs in nonformal, noninstructional context, Macaro, 2009;
Evans, 2009). The use of learners language in code switching in the class room is really
useful in terms of a pragmatic strategy. From a pedagogical perspective, Evans (2009)
reports, many of the examples of code switching were an expression of the role of peer
learning. Pupils often switch language either as a way of sharpening the interpersonal edge or
a particular message or as a way of appealing for help with the language.
Apart from those perspectives, the use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL contexts is
relevant, especially with the development of bilingual classes in a number of school in
Indonesia. Bilingual education, which has existed for a long time (Fishman, 1976, cited in
Gracia, 2009:12) and which encourages the use of both students L1 and the target language,
is considered to be appropriate for all levels of education and for all learners. Fishman says:
Bilingual education is good for all language majorities, that is, powerful ethno linguistic groups, as
well as language minorities, those without power. An education that is bilingual is good for the rich
and the poor, for the powerful and the lowly, for indegenous peoples and immigrants, for speakers of
official and /or national languages, and for those who speak regional languages. Bilingual education is
not only good for children in gifted and talented programs but also good for children in vocational and
technical education, as well as for those in special education. Bilingual education is also good for
adults in lifelong language learning situations, since bilinguals enjoy cognitive and social advantages
over monolinguals (1976, cited in Gracia, 2009:12).

Moreover, according to Gracia (2009), bilingual education has the potential of being a
transformative school practice, able to educate all children in ways that stimulate and expand
their intellect and imagination, as they gain ways of expression and access different ways of
being in the world. To follow Bordieu (1982), Gracia (2009:12) further states that bilingual
education can lead students to gain linguistic capital - ability to use languages effectively, to
use appropriate norms of language. Being able to use languages effectively, Bordieu argues
(cited in Gracia, 2009:12), increases ones wealth, because it allows one to interact with
others in various social contexts. In a sense, knowing how to use a language is a way of
gaining cultural and symbolic capital and by using a language effectively, one can gather
information and build self-worth through social interactions.
This follows that teachers and policy makers of English teaching in Indonesia should start to
rethink about the English only policy and thus to allow the use of bahasa Indonesia in the
classroom by both the teacher and the students to help students gain the benefits mentioned
above.
37

1.9 Outline of the book

The subsequent chapters will be framed as follows.
Chapter 2 focuses on a teaching program, conducted at a tertiary EFL context in Indonesia.
The program was informed by four broad main theories reviewed above, to do with critical
thinking, critical literacy, critical pedagogy and systemic functional linguistics, especially the
SFL GBA in teaching a Discussion text.
Chapter 3 takes up a teaching program in the Indonesian context, based on action research
between university researchers and a teacher of English at the secondary level. The program
has been informed by the Indonesian curriculum of English and the SFL GBA in teaching a
Recount text, while it also demonstrates how to use action research..
Chapter 4, looks at the teaching of writing in a native language context, based on the results
of the writers observation in a primary classroom in Australia. The chapter will show how
the teacher in Australia tends to use an eclectic approach in teaching writing to five graders.
Chapter 5 turns to conclude and propose recommendations based on the discussion in the
earlier chapters.

38

Chapter 2: A language and literacy program for the tertiary level

This chapter will demonstrate how four major traditions of scholarship should inform the
development of critical language and literacy programs for tertiary students of English. They
are:
Critical thinking a tradition of scholarship that draws to some extent on psychology,
philosophy and educational theory;
Critical literacy a tradition devoted to interrogation of texts with a view to analysis
of the values, ideologies and interests of persons involved in texts;
Critical pedagogy a tradition devoted to dialogic education and interrogation of
texts, democracy in the classroom and liberation;
Systemic functional linguistic (SFL) theory- a linguistic tradition devoted to analysis
of texts and identification of different text types or genres for teaching purposes.

39

2.1 Introduction
Students of English education at the tertiary level have a number of requirements if they are
to succeed in their studies and become successful teachers. They must be competent readers
and writers, and able to interpret arguments in written texts as well as being able to write
independent texts of their own, showing capacity for critical thinking.
This chapter outlines a program devoted to teaching skills of reading and writing critically
and independently to tertiary students of English. The program proposed is based on a study
(Emilia, 2005) which was conducted in an Indonesian tertiary institution, whose aim was to
develop skills of critical thinking and critical reading and writing practices. The background
theory drawn on to develop the program used work in critical thinking (e.g.Paul, 1993;
Lipman, 2003; Wilks, 2004a,b), critical literacy (e.g. Luke & Freebody, 1997; Morgan, 1997)
and SFL genre based theory (e.g. Feez, 2002; Christie, 2005), all of which were introduced in
chapter 1. It is argued that we can develop a strong teaching program for the audience of
tertiary level students which synthesizes elements of all these scholarly traditions, for they
should all inform the professional preparation of teachers for teaching English as a foreign
language in Indonesian schools.
The proposed program to some extent can be considered similar to content-based language
programs (Met, 1998; Gracia, 2009) because it emphasizes both the students understanding
of the content involved and the language in which it is expressed. A knowledge of content
and of language is essential in the development of students critical thinking dispositions.
Critical thinking would be impossible without the knowledge of content or of the language
that expresses it. The program proposed here focuses on language growth as a necessary
aspect of development of analytical and argumentative skills.
The proposed teaching program has these phases:

A planning phase in which (i) topics to be taught and materials to be used are
identified, and (ii) some principles for evaluation and assessment are established.

A teaching phase devoted to active exploration of topics and texts, selected to

engage students in learning critical and analytic skills, especially in their reading, where
these are assessed in the process of teaching and learning.

A teaching phase devoted to introduction to SFL-related concepts and genre-based

pedagogy.

A teaching phase devoted to writing discussion genres, drawing on both SFL theory
and the critical and analytic skills developed in the earlier phase; evaluation and assessment
are conducted qualitatively and quantitatively.
Below, we shall discuss each of these phases, seeking to clarify how they should be
implemented.

40

2.2 Phase 1: Planning a teaching program devoted to teaching critical literacy skills at
the tertiary level
When working with students of foreign and second languages, as Met (1998) argues,
planning must be based both on an understanding of the students and their prior knowledge
and capacities, and an understanding of their needs, in this case in developing critical literacy
skills. Planning must also consider the most effective texts students should read as well as
write. Caudery (1998), Gibbons (2002), and Gracia (2009: 361) state that in choosing texts
for students who learn English as a foreign language, it is important that they be authentic,
and ideally, not specifically written to teach language, or to teach reading in particular. This
is because analysis shows that many texts written specifically to teach reading to beginners
are often poorly expressed and even difficult to read. Gracia proposes that the selected texts
relate to students backgrounds and reflect the bilingual realities of students lives and their
multiculturalism (2009: 362).
In the contemporary world it is important in selecting texts that they be multiple in
character (Luke and Freebody 1997; Frye 1997), and hence taken from various sources, such
as magazines, newspapers, reports (Feez, 2002) and the Internet (Gibbons, 2002) to allow for
more varied analysis of content and language (Varaprasad, 1997; Gibbons, Gracia 2009;
Mohan 2001). Materials taken from the mass media provide generative themes, (Mazurek,
1999: 309) in that they can give topics that embody contradictions in contemporary ideology
and explorations of these can potentially lead to critical reflection and even point to political
empowerment. Similarly, texts from the Internet are important resources as they can ensure
that all modes of communication (visual, as well as auditory) are fully exploited in the
English language classroom (Gracia, 2009: 362). The Internet, it has been suggested, brings
the entire world closer, and bilingual students must develop the ability to go beyond printed
texts, including those provided by state authorities. Students can also be encouraged to find
various sources themselves to enrich information for the English classroom, both in their
reading and their writing.
As the overall suggested program involves an important writing phase, it is essential that in
the planning phase the teacher selects sample texts to model the target genre to be written. In
the program outlined here the target genre, as already indicated, is the Discussion genre (to
be explained more fully below). While the SFL theory devoted to teaching genres is by now
quite extensive, there may not always be sufficient examples of target genres to use, so the
teacher may need to develop appropriate models, being careful to ensure authenticity. The
recent adoption of genre based pedagogy as part of the national English curriculum
(Depdiknas, 2006) no doubt helps in this regard. In the study Emilia (2005) conducted,
several sample discussion genres were created, and this was necessary even at the tertiary
level.
In the planning phase, attention needs to be given to principles of evaluation and assessment.
In language education programs in general, there has been a long tradition of attaching
particular importance to quantitative methods of evaluation, though as has been noted, there
has been a myth about the values claimed for quantitative methods over qualitative methods
(Best & Kahn, 1986; Fetterman, 1988). Both methods of evaluation have their role, though it

41

is argued here that many of the capacities taught in the name of critical thinking or genrebased pedagogy are not readily evaluated in any quantitative way. For example, the teacher
can observe and judge changed capacities in students in challenging the values of the texts
they read, or in writing texts that sustain strong well supported arguments. In this context it is
notable that Piaget (Best & Kahn, 1986) argued that changes in human behaviour are best
assessed qualitatively.
In summary, the planning phase addresses all matters of preparation, including identification
of appropriate texts for work with students, both for reading and for analysis of target genres,
and decisions about evaluation procedures to be adopted. Once these matters have been
attended to, the teacher can proceed to the next phase of work, involving commencement of
teaching, which initiates critical thinking as a theme and leads to eventual critical writing.
2.3 Phase 2: Critical thinking and critical literacy
In order to build interest in topics selected for work, and in helping to build some critical
reflection, students can sometimes be consulted about the topics for examination, research
and discussion, especially in a program devoted to building independent thought.
Alternatively, the teacher can select a list of possible topics and invite the students to
consider those they would like to explore. Such a consultative approach is based on
principles of dialogic education as advocated by (i) de-schoolers (e.g. Benesch, 2001;
Berlin, 1993; Freire and Shor, 1987), (ii) some genre theorists (e.g. Derewianka, 1990), and
certain ESL specialists (Nunan, 1988: 2-4). In Emilias study, for example, the topics
included, among others: The Miss Universe Contest, Abortion, Capital Punishment, Sex
Education, Working Women, and the Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia. Those
topics were selected because they were controversial, which seemed to suit the teaching of
CT, critical reading and writing. The topics of Capital Punishment, Sex Education,
Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia and the Miss Universe Contest were all current
controversial Indonesian issues at the time of the study, and they remain so. CP has always
declared that a radical and critical education has to focus on what is taking place today
inside various social movements (Freire and Macedo, 1987: 61). Since Indonesian
students are not used to being consulted about the topics they will explore, they may insist
that the teacher decide. Where this occurs, the teacher should nonetheless urge the students to
exercise a choice, and this may be decided on a chorus of voices. Both Emilia (2005) and
Auerbach (1996, 1999) had this experience. In Emilias case, the topics selected over the
various phases were the Miss Universe Contest, Working Women and Capital Punishment .
2.3.1 Introducing aspects of critical thinking.
Before students commence work on their chosen topics, they should be given some direct
teaching about principles of critical thinking, examining and learning about the following
matters, already introduced in chapter 1:
definitions of critical thinking;
essential components and notions of CT: argument, the issue, reason (including faulty
reasonings), facts and opinion;

42

 CT standards (including aspects contributing to the soundness of arguments);

skills of CT, dispositions and abilities involved in CT (including capacity to identify
fallacies in reasoning)
activities that make up CT;
the relationship between CT and CL (writing and reading), and how CT can be
sharpened through reading, writing and collaboration in group work, as will be shown
later.
Identification of vague words, as in:
I had a nice time yesterday;
This book is interesting.
The words nice and interesting are rather general and not very meaningful, and
students should be advised to use more effective language.
Identification of ambiguity in statements, such as in:
He fed her dog biscuits;
The duck is ready to eat.
Identification of stereotypes, as in
Women are very emotional;
Politicians are corrupt.
Moreover, students need to be taught expressions that suggest that opinion rather than
prejudiced positions should be expressed. Thus, for example, they can use:
Modality (possibly; maybe);
Modal verbs (can, might, must, should).
Students can also use generic deictic rather than specific (e.g. Some people believe .; the
boy said .). In addition, students can use verbal groups (e.g: It seems to be the case ; It
appears to be true).
This helps students recognise certainties or credible arguments and distinguish the
differences between absolute statements and statements of possibility. However, it should
also be explained that continued use of the above expressions can lead to the readers or
listeners doubt about the writer/speakers capacity regarding the topic communicated.
Most exercises to promote critical thinking should be done in groups to encourage the
students to share with and learn from friends and thus to develop their CT. From the
perspective of EFL, this is useful to offer opportunities for cooperative learning and real
English language practice (Hyland, 1991, cited in Lunt, 2001:18) with consequent gains in
language proficiency (Bejarano, 1987, cited in Lunt, 2001:18; see also Nunan and Lamb,
1996).
Students CT development in this phase of the teaching program can be seen from their
attempts to apply CT knowledge in their outside classroom activities, as revealed in a journal
entry below:

43

Outside we talked about movies, etc. and since we learned how to be a critical thinker, we tried to
respond to what was being discussed from several points of view and to appreciate others opinion
(Nuri, 31st Jan, in Emilia, 2005)

Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death; The

journal entry above appears to show that explicit teaching of critical thinking can lead to
students awareness of at least some features of CT in focus.
A desirable step after CT exercises have been introduced is to involve students in group
activities as the following discussion reveals.
2.3.2 Observing critical thinking (CT) in social practice
As CT is a social practice (Atkinson, 1997; Chaffee, 2000; Canagarajah, 2002), students
should be encouraged to see how CT takes place in a social context. It should be made clear
that one social activity to enhance CT is discussion, in which students can do the following:
Listening to each other;
Supporting their views with reasons and evidence;
Responding to the points being made;
Asking and trying to answer important questions;
Trying to increase their understanding rather than simply winning the argument
(Chaffee, 2000:70-73).
Assessing the strengths and accuracy of reasons and evidence in each statement
made by the participants, based on several aspects, including reference to
authorities, factual evidence, and personal experience (Toulmin et al, 1984;
Nosich, 2001).
Assessing whether the participants view situations from different perspectives
and support diverse viewpoints with reasons and evidence (Chaffee et al, 2002,
Diestler, 2001; Lipman, 1991, 2003).
Assessing whether the participants in the discussion tell the readers, or show
them by providing specific details and relevant examples (Chaffee et al, 2002:
79). This awareness is very important especially when students are to write an
argumentative text. Good writers try to persuade the readers by providing specific
details as exemplified below, while weak writers only tell their readers. Regarding
this, the following example can be given to the students.
Telling: Michael Jordan is a great basketball player
Showing: During the 1995-1996 seasons, Michael Jordan led the NBA with a scoring average of
30.4 points per game.
That same season he ranked second on the Bulls for rebounding and assists.
He was chosen for the NBA All-Star team in his first nine seasons.
He has won four league MVP awards and two Olympic medals (Chaffee et al,
2002:79).

As the core of critical thinking is arguments, students should be exposed to argumentative

texts to help them develp their CT and CL, and this will be exemplified in the subsequent
section.

44

2.3.3 Dealing with texts on argument: Developing students CT and CL

This activity aims to engage students in extended discussion about issues, which is a very
effective means for developing the CT dispositions and the CT strategies and tactics (Norris
and Ennis, 1990:150; Perkins, 1987b), introducing students to CL and encouraging them to
have diverse opinions without fear of being judged wrong. Most texts used should be in
English to provide students with an opportunity to learn not only the content but also the
language of the texts.
The text below, about Why own a 4WD ( taken from Mc Gregor, 2002: 4) can be a good
example for discussion because the topic and language are appropriate while the writers
stance is ironic and not necessarily obvious to the readers. This is useful to foster students
critical reading skills (Perkins, 1998, Gibbons, 2002: 82) as this kind of text allows students
to debate, to weigh and judge the writers stance from the linguistic structure of the text
(Luke, OBrien and Comber, 1994), essential for students CL development.
The text, as can be seen below uses irony, the intertextual nature of which is that that it
echoes someone elses utterance (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, cited in Fairclough, 1992b:
123) and that words can imply more than is being said, and the actual intent can be
expressed in words which carry the opposite meaning (Saxby, 1993: 70). This use of
language exists in bahasa Indonesia and the students must have learnt to recognise irony in
the national language while they are at school. However, as the data below will reveal, some
students, even high achievers, see the text just from the surface level, though this is probably
because it is an English text. Understanding ironies in a foreign language can be very hard
for a student.
Thus, to help students understand the text more easily, scaffolding on cultural background
knowledge may be needed to build up students knowledge that is relevant to the text
(Gibbons, 2002: 83). For example, such knowledge about Australians is important,
particularly regarding the point that is mentioned in the text You can pretend that you are
actually going somewhere on weekends when youre just going to the shops. This point
suggests that Australians value adventurous activities, enjoy doing interesting things like a
picnic than doing domestic things, driving through different country roads. Some vocabulary
should also be explained, such as roos and a grate because some students might not know
the meaning of these words.
Why Own a 4WD
Intelligent people know there are several good reasons why everybody should own a four-wheel
drive. They are:

You pay less tax.

You can see further down the road, but those behind you cant see ahead at all.
You can feel you are really someone when you are up above everybody else.
If you crash into an ordinary car, you are less likely to be hurt.
You can pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when youre just going
to the shops.
You can show you despise greenies and energy-conservers, by using twice as much fuel as

45

they do.
Although there are no bulls or roos in the area, you can have a grate attached to the front of
your Urban Assault Vehicle for protection against pedestrians.
Everyone knows they cost a lot.
If you reverse over someone, you wont notice (cited from McGregor, 2002, p. 04).

Questions regarding CL, as suggested by Wallace (1992a,b) below can be very useful to
guide students in reading such a text:

Why is this topic being written about?

How is this topic being written about?
What other ways of writing about the topic are there?
Who is writing to whom and what is the topic?

Moreover, questions to analyse linguistic choices can be exploited, using systemic functional
linguistic theory, to do with Field, Tenor and Mode. These questions are among others:
Who takes what subject positions in sentences?
What types of process and participants dominate?
How are active and passive constructions allocated?
What modal constructions are employed? (Cope, 2002; Fairclough, 1989;
Wallace, 1992b).
Then the discussion can go on to deal with questions regarding arguments, such as those
proposed by Mc Gregor (2002:4) below:

What do you think is the writers contention or stance on the issue of 4 WDs?
In what ways does the letter support this stance?
According to the writer, what attitude do 4WD owners have to other people? Which statement
suggests this attitude?
Imagine you are a 4WD owner. Would this argument annoy or upset you? Why or why not?
If you think it would annoy you, which particular statements, words, or phrases, would have this
effect. Why?
Why do you think the writer uses the phrase Urban Assault Vehicle?
Is the use of this phrase a hyperbole or irony?
This letter is an example of an implied point of view which readers gather from reading the piece.
The writers stance is not stated. Why do you think the writer chose to present the argument in this
form?

As Emilias (2005) study shows, the students given the text on 4WD could generally answer
all the questions above, but tensions can emerge due to variations in students opinion, as
shown in the following dialogue:
Teacher : What do you think of the stance of the writer on 4 WD?
Wati : (high achiever and articulate): I think he agrees with 4 WD and he mentions the benefits
of 4WD for the owner.
Teacher : Ok, Wati thinks that the writer supports 4 WD. Any other opinion?
Candra : I dont think so. I think he doesnt agree with 4WD.
Wati
: But thats what he says, (mentioning what the writer says in the text).
Candra : Yes, but actually the writer doesnt agree with 4WD. He says it in a cynical way.

46

Teacher: Yes, thats right. Have you ever heard the term irony in Bahasa Indonesia?
Wati: Oh ... yes.... yes... .

The excerpt above may suggest two aspects of the teaching of reading and critical literacy:
(i) There are multiple interpretations of a text and there is a wrong interpretation (Gee,
1990: 111), which may be due to the students lack of cultural knowledge of the text.
Thus, scaffolding regarding cultural background of a text prior to the reading activity is
important and should be more emphasised.
(ii) A high achievers interpretation, based on only the surface level, may reflect the teaching
of reading in EFL so far, which is often considered unproblematic (Wallace, 1992b;
Pennycook, 2001: 76). The use of irony, as mentioned above, exists in bahasa Indonesia,
and the students must have learned it.
The next activity to heighten students awareness of other ways in which a topic could have
been written about can be discussing and comparing two texts which deal with the same
topic, comparing lexico-grammatical choices in the texts, and identifying the unspoken
beliefs of the writers (Luke & Freebody, 1997; Perkins, 1998; McGregor, 2002a,b). Students
should be encouraged to adopt the role of a text analyst and critic in that they are encouraged
to recognize that all texts represent a particular view of the world and that readers are
positioned in a certain way when they read them (Luke and Freebody, 1990: 8-14; 1997:214,
see also Gibbons, 2002; Comber, 2002). This can be done, among others, by asking the
questions below:
What does this text do to me? (Luke and Freebody, 1997:114; Comber, 2002:1)
Who would feel left out in this text and why?
Do any of the claims made in this text clash with your values, beliefs, or experiences?
How is the reader positioned in relation to the author (e.g. as a friend, opponent,
someone to persuade, invisible, or someone who agrees with the authors views)?
Are there gaps or absences, or silences in this text? If so what are they? Is there a
group of people missing who logically should be included? (Thompson, 1998; Love
et al, 2001).

From all these activities, in this phase students development of critical literacy can be seen,
for example in a journal entry written by a student after each session, in Emilias (2005)
study below:
I learnt that in every text we can analyse who the writer is, to whom the writer writes, why the
writer writes, what the text is about, when the text was written, and perhaps the answers can be
more than one (Ina, in Emilia, 2005).
When I read a text now, I can assess the clarity, accuracy, and relevance of a text. I can see that the
writer of a text has an interest and so I dont think that I should always follow the text. I will see its
relevance with my environment, my situation, in recent condition and the facts that support the
writers argument. This skill is very important in recent condition in Indonesia (Ira).

47

In this phase, students also have a lot of opportunities to speak in English as they improve
with practice and they can be encouraged to take risks. This is in line with the belief among
ESL (EFL) students and teachers that they should use their English as much as possible in an
ESL (EFL) setting (see the discussion in Storch and Wigglesworth, 2003: 760;
Wigglesworth, 2005), without taking risks of being judged wrong in terms of English or
ideas (Janks, 2001, see also Pari, 1999: 110).
However, when students find difficulty in expressing ideas in English, students can be
allowed to speak in their mother tongue or bahasa Indonesia in the Indonesian context.
Regarding this, some teachers might find it confusing as there is an assumption that English
should be taught entirely monolingually(Auerbach, 1993:12-15; 1996:18; Philips, 1993;
Turnbull & Dailey-Ocain, 2009) and the teachers should speak English all the time to show
a good model, and this assumption is prevalent among Indonesian English teachers and
students (see the discussion in Chapter 1). However, research by Emilia (2005) and Emilia et
al (2008) shows that the use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classes is esssential, as
knowledge of the learners first language should be considered an important teaching
qualification (Auerbach, 1996:15; see also Denise & Wigglesworth, 2005; Wigglesworth,
2005; and Dailey-OCain & Liebscher, 2009). In addition, the use of the first language can
give the following benefits:
Providing students with additional support that allows them to analyse the
second/foreign language;
Enabling students to work at a higher level than would be possible were they
restricted to sole use of English;
Increasing students basic understanding of how languages work;
Promoting students linguistic and cognitive development, because the fact that
bilinguals have two words for the same idea or object and two ways of expressing the
same thought may lead them to objectify or become aware of their linguistic
operations (Vygotsky, cited in Cummins, 1996:105; see also Dailey-OCain &
Liebscher, 2009);
Providing a place in the classroom where students use multiple discourses to
comprehend their relations with the wider society and thus to ensure their active
participation, without having to silence the language they brought to class (Thonis,
1990, cited in Auerbach, 1996:19), relevant to a critical pedagogy (CP) perspective.
This can lead to the establishment of dialogue, of taking an anti-authoritarian and
interactive approach where the teacher, like his/her students, is an apprentice,
someone who is also seeking (Freire, 1985; Freire and Shor, 1987; Gadotti, 1997;
McLaren, 2000). It can also lead to a relationship of respect between the teacher and
student, which plays a very important role, as Cummins notes:
Techniques and strategies will be effective only when teachers and students forge a
relationship of respect and affirmation; when students feel that they are welcomed into the
learning community of the classroom and supported in the immense challenges they face in
catching up academically; and when the students feel that their teachers believe in them and
expect them to succeed in school and in life (1996: 74).

48

The teaching technique outlined above can promote students awareness of the importance of
freedom and courage to express ideas and to answer questions. In Emilias (2005) study, this
can be seen from a journal entry written by a student below:
Learning needs courage. It wont do to have plenty of ideas in your head but no courage to speak
up (Candra, in Emilia, 2005)

Upon explicit teaching of critical thinking and critical literacy, students understanding and
skills in these aspects can be applied in writing. The treatment below will accordingly focus
on the teaching of writing an argumentative text, especially a Discussion, using a genrebased pedagogy. This pedagogy, as the discussion will show, is compatible with classroom
practices advocated by critical thinking and critical literacy theorists drawn in the program.
2.4 Phase 3: Implementation of the SFL genre-based approach
This section will describe the implementation of the SFL GBA in teaching the Discussion
genre. At this stage students critical thinking and critical literacy can be further developed
and applied through the classroom interactions. This phase can start with a brief explanation
about some aspects of SFL and SFG, as mentioned in Chapter 1, to enable students and the
teacher to interrogate texts in later stages, such as in the Building Knowledge of the Field
stage, to debate, to weigh, to judge and to critique texts from different linguistic structures,
which was a crucial part of text analysis. Introduction to systemic functional grammar can be
useful, and in an EFL context, Functional grammar, as Wallace suggests:
is part of the resources that students can put to use in the scrutiny of particular texts, more specifically
in making judgments regarding the manner in which and the degree to which choices in texts,
ideationally, interpersonally, or textually, challenge or confirm prevailing ideologies (2001: 216).

The teaching of SFL and SFG can also be useful to make the Modelling stage in the teaching
cycle of the GBA not so complicated and not too challenging (DSP, 1989: 11), especially
when the teacher and the students interrogate texts in terms of its SFG-based linguistic
features. The role of the teacher at this stage should be mostly as the one who directs the
teaching learning process (Butt et al, 2000) and who gives assistance in the form of direct
telling (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 50).
In implementing the teaching cycle of the genre-based approach, there are several models
than can be followed. The oldest and best known model of genre-based pedagogy is set out
in Figure 2.1

49

Figure 2.1 A model of genre-based pedagogy (Rothery, 1996: 102)

The model in Figure 2.1, which is similar to that in Figure 2.2, and which is similar to the
model offered by Feez (2002) is probably the model with which Indonesian teachers are most
familiar.
Martin (2010), as can be seen in Figure 2.2, represents essentially the same model though it
has been a little revised over the years. Where the model proposed has four stages, Martins
model has reduced the four stages to three.

50

Figure 2.2 A model of genre pedagogy (Martin, 2010)

Thus, Rotherys model has these stages: Building of the Field for writing; Modelling of the
target genre; Joint Construction of a target text; and Independent Construction of the target
genre. The model from Martin has three stages: Deconstruction; Joint Construction and
Independent Construction. Both models aim to achieve the same general purpose, though it
is probable that Rotherys model in Figure 2.1 is better for the Indonesian context. That is
because Indonesian teachers and students need to devote a separate stage to Building of the
Knowledge of the Field for writing. Indonesian students are learning English as a second
language and they must be assisted to learn a great deal of relevant vocabulary about the field
before they commence writing.
The four stages in Figure 2.1 may be explained as follows:
Building Knowledge of the Field (Negotiating Field)
This phase, as the name indicates, aims to build students background knowledge about the
topic they are going to write. From the critical thinking and critical literacy perspectives, this
phase in important as a core element of critical thinking, as argued by the critical thinking
movement, is strong background knowledge.
Modelling (Deconstruction)
This phase is critical for the students CL for it involves analysis and discussions about how
and why examples of a particular genre are organized to make meaning. Deconstruction
allows students to analyse the representations of a text, as suggested by a critical social
theory of literacy. Deconstruction is also a critical element of a radical pedagogy (Giroux,
1977) to enable students to understand the world, one of the principles of CP.

51

 Joint Construction
This phase provides a chance for students to practise writing in groups and apply their critical
thinking skills in working in groups, in discussing with peers, which constitutes one of the
ways to promote critical thinking. In this stage, students write several drafts in several
sessions, at least three sessions, to make them aware that writing is a recursive process, and
not a one shot activity.
Independent Construction
Independent constructions provide a chance to practice individually the CT and CL skills
students have grasped from the previous stages. Like in the joint construction, the students
write the independently constructed text in several meetings with several drafts before they
come to a neat final draft.
It is important to understand that throughout all four stages, there are plenty of opportunities
for students to speak, to read and to listen in both languages, often crossing from one
language into the other (Gracia, 2009:363) and all the stages do not go in a linear way, to
meet the students need and contextual condition (Feez, 2002). Moreover, the four stages
should be extended over several lessons, some stages taking more lessons than others. The
complete cycle should always in fact last for several lessons: genre based pedagogy is not to
be conducted in just one or two lessons, as some people have wrongly concluded at times in
the past.
Hence, Building Knowledge of the Field should normally be conducted over at least two
lessons prior to the Joint Construction and Independent Construction stages respectively, to
allow the students not only to gain the content of what they are reading but also to develop
their CT skills and CL. Often times only two stages may be conducted, such as Building
Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction, as reported in Emilia (2005) and
Emilia et al (2008). Modeling and Joint Construction can be skipped (Feez, 2002: 67) but
only if the students already have a relatively good control of the schematic structure and
linguistic features of the text in focus. This can be a possibility in the Indonesian context, as
students learn several types of texts both in junior and senior high schools. When students
already learn a certain type of texts in previous grades, and they have a good control of those
texts, the teacher will not need to explain again in detail about the text. This emphasises the
flexibility of the GBA, and the idea that the teaching cycle does not work as a lockstep
sequence for the whole class (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 48) and there is no right way
to sequence teaching learning activities (Macken-Horarik, 2002: 26).
In various stages of the teaching cycle, the directive role of the teacher can be obvious and
scaffolding can be very strong, especially in some part of Building Knowledge of the Field
and Modeling phases. Then the strong scaffolding is weakened (Feez, 2002) and gradually
removed in the Joint and Independent construction stages, when the teacher begins to
relinquish responsibility to the learners as the learners expanding knowledge allows them to
take over ( Feez, 2002). An example of the implementation of the genre-based approach,
based on Emilia (2005) on teaching a Discussion text will be presented below.

52

However, before moving on to the implementation of each stage of the SFL genre-based
approach, it is necessary to provide an overview of grammatical features of the focal text,
that is the Discussion genre. Therefore, the following section will be dealing with an
overview of some of the major grammatical features of the Discussion genre.
2.4.1 An overview of grammatical features of a Discussion genre
A Discussion is an argumentative genre that requires the writer to adopt a position and argue
for it by debating two or more sides of an issue before reaching a conclusion (Christie &
Derewianka, 2008: 133). In other words, a Discussion text discusses an issue in the light of
some kind of frame or position and provides more than one point of view on an issue, as
Macken-Horarik (2002: 23) suggests. Discussion genres build argument and opinion, so
their tendency is to include these linguistic choices:
Generic rather than specific participants (e.g. Proponents of capital punishment
argue);
Verbal processes that report evidence (e.g. The study reports that );
Causal relationship between events (e.g. Capital punishment can lead to execution of
innocent people).
One important aspect of Discussion genres worth mentioning here is the manner in which
they build thematic progression, already referred to in chapter 1. Theme, it will be recalled, is
part of the textual metafunction, and it has to do with the manner in which the overall text is
organised and its meanings are developed. In a Discussion genre, since the purpose is to
organise and progress arguments, thematic progression is most important.
As in all genres, unmarked Theme choices are the most common, as in:
Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996.
However, Marked Themes have an important role in identifying relevant information and/or
progressing the argument forward as in:
In the report [[we read]] it is said that ).
These examples of Theme are important within each of the clauses in which they appear, but
thematic progression also occurs across several longer passages in texts, helping to achieve
the overall cohesive development of the text, making it function smoothly to make its
meanings. The following is an example of what is called a zig zag pattern (see Chapter 1)
The second argumment [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishmnet]] is related to humanity.
They believe

Another similar example, involving reiteration appears in:

53

 that the death penalty is barbaric

and it is against the value of human life.

An example of thematic progession across a much longer passages of text is achieved, using
a multiple Theme pattern, such as the following:
Meanwhile the opponents of death penalty adopt three positions, concerned with deterence, humanity and
injustice.
The first argument [[proposed by the opponents of death penalty]] is regarding deternece.
The second argument [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishment is related to humanity.
The last argument [[advocated by the opponents of capital punishment]] is to do with injustice.

With respect to the multiple Theme pattern above, students should be made aware that the
use of ordinal numbers such as first, second and third help the text move forward, and this
also shows that the text is clearly-planned (Eggins, 1994:305).
Moreover, the teacher can explain some aspects of Transitivity, like different types of verbal
processes such as proposed, argued, advocated, to give the students a variety of
process types that they can use when they write the same text type. This is important to avoid
repetition of a process in the text they write. Modality is another issue worth introducing to
students as they prepare to write Discussion genres. Modality is typically not used in the
opening element of a Discussion genre, as we shall see below, because in that element the
aim is to identify the issue to be discussed. However, later in the genre, and particularly in
the final element, modality has an important role, because it is in this element that the writer
must say what he/she believes should be the case, or what should occur, or perhaps
what might occur. Apart from modal verbs, English provides many adverbs and adjectives
of modality (e.g. possible, probable, certain, possibly, probably, certainly.)
Finally, with respect to grammatical metaphor, which was introduced in Chapter 1, we can
show that expressions like The first argument, The second argument and The last
argument are examples of grammatical metaphor, which are expressed by using
nominalisation. If they are expressed congruently, they will read: Firstly, they argue and
so forth. This is an important resource for building arguments as in a Discussion genre.
Regarding the length of the text, students at tertiary level, especially those who will become
teachers of English in Indonesia, should be made aware that although the length of a text is
one indication of students proficiency in writing (Gibbons, 2002) a longer text is not
necessarily better than a shorter one. This should be made clear to student teachers as the
study by Emilia et al (2008), (reported in Chapter 3 ), reveals that teachers may sometimes
score a longer text higher than short ones, without taking into consideration the effectiveness
of the language the writer uses.

54

Finally, expressions that can be used in writing a Discussion genre below, based on the work
of mainly DSP (1989) and Derewianka (1990) and was used in Emilia (2005) can be given
to the students to help them create a better text with various linguistic resources in the stages
Joint Construction and Independent Construction later.
Some language features of a discussion genre:
Focus on generic human and nonhuman participants, e.g. advertisements, newspapers, advocates of
capital punishment or Miss Universe Contest, etc.
Use of simple present tense.eg. are. Have, is, promote, compete, saves, sells, take up, etc.
Use of logical conjunctive relations.eg. while, why, and, because, on the other hand, firstly, also.
Use of material, relational, and mental and verbal processes.
Some saying verbs that are usually used in a discussion genre:
state, claim, argue, point out, point to ... , suggest, say, observe, assert, contend, ... put it ...,
reiterate, write, provides a good example of ..., stresses that..., sees/ saw s.t as ... indicates,
represents, highlights, focus.., recommends, comment, inform, discuss, maintain, believes.
Conjunctions used to set contrasts between what goes before and what comes after (ways to
introduce another point):
however, but, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the other side, In contrast, On the reverse, In
contrast to ... expert who assert the contrary are ..., on the opposite side, despite this, ultimately we
must realize, however,
Ways to express arguments for:
The proponents of ... claim ... positions
Supporters of ..... say ...........
The advocates of .... Those who are in favour of/defend ..... argue ...
Abortionists .......; Those who argue for abortion/capital punishment/the Miss Universe Contest...;
.... strongly supports ..The survey found out that..... favour abortion.
The first argument claimed by supporters of .... is related to/regards, is concerned with, is to do with
...; The third position adopted by supporters of ... is .., It is argued that ...; The argument for ... is
that ...; On one hand, some people agree that
Ways to express arguments against:
On the other hand, the opponents of ... adopt three positions.... To begin, .....
Those who are against ... argue ....
Strong arguments against ... come from ....
But then on the other hand, ......
On the other hand, there are a growing number of people in the community who oppose ...
The first reason for the argument against ... stated by opponents of abortion is that ....
On the other side some people say that ...
On the against side some people believe....
Ways to sum up and to introduce recommendations:
Thus, in summary,
To sum up,
In summary
After looking at both sides I believe that ; ... should/ need /must .....
Therefore after examining all arguments , it is recommended that / it is important that ....
The weight of evidence would suggest
My point of view is
My recommendation after looking at both sides .
It would appear reasonable to conclude then
It would seem that

55

Ways to write about cause and effect

As a consequence of
An effect of
As result of
... led to ..
... resulted in

After an overview of linguistic features of the Discussion genre, each stage of the SFL genrebased approach can be implemented, as will be described below.
However, before moving to the next section, it is of interest to note that students may find
most information that they learnt at this phase unfamiliar, especially the concepts related to
functional grammar, such as Themes, processes. One student in Emilia (2005) wrote in her
journal entry as follows:
It was excited to learn a lot of new information... Mrs Emi taught how to choose Themes in order to build
the cohesion of the text. And we also learn what a text is. At first I thought text had something to do with
length in written form. But then I know that every kind of spoken or written language which has meaning is
considered as a text (Ira, in Emilia, 2005).

Students may also find it interesting to learn functional grammar as reflected in the journal
entry below.
I found it interesting to learn this new concept of grammar, since from the beginning I studied
English, it was always about subject, object, etc. (Elli., in Emilia, 2005).

2.4.2 Building Knowledge of the Field

This stage, as the name indicates, is intended to build up background knowledge, and so the
focus should primarily on the content of the topic (Gibbons, 2002: 61; Rothery, 1996). The
teacher and students cooperatively build up a shared knowledge of the field, based on the
texts compiled in the planning phase. Students can be encouraged to make a semantic web on
the topic. For example, in Emilias (2005) study, when students wrote a text on the Miss
Universe Contest, they wrote a semantic web below:
Participation,
host sex objects
ambassador tourist promotion
eastern country
feminist
rate of rapes revenue
charity physical beauty
swim suit parade a waste of money
business
commodity
arguments
Brain, beauty and behaviour. contestant
business point/perspective
cultural, religious value and moral value

This stage can then be followed by a critical interrogation of several texts, as discussed
above regarding critical literacy. A dialogical relationship with the students, and the teachers
role as a co - participant should be sustained, to encourage students to speak and express their
ideas and to enable the teacher to learn from them (Freire and Shor, 1987, see also Wallace,
1992b, 2001).
As the materials can be ample, the students should be encouraged to take notes about what
they have read, so that they do not need to read the articles again when writing a jointly-or
56

independently constructed text later and thus to save their time. From the CT point, taking
notes is also important to promote students metacognition, which refers to their awareness
and control of their own thinking (Costa, 2003:61).
During the teaching learning process in this stage, it should be understood that some students
might have a different level of understanding in terms of what they have learnt. Some
students may need more assistance and more than one experience of explicit teaching about
some learning materials. This emphasizes the idea that the relationship between teaching and
learning is not identical to that of complementary transactions, such as giving and taking,
buying and selling. When someone does some buying this means that some selling also
occurs. When learning occurs, teaching may or may not be effective. When teaching occurs,
learning may or may not take place ( van Lier, 1988, to follow Widdowson, 1981, 1983).
When students already have a strong background knowledge about the topic, the students
and teacher can move on to the next step, which is modelling of the text, which will be
discussed below. Relevant to the genre in focus, the modelling stage will also exemplify the
teaching of Discussion text.
2.4.3 Modelling (Deconstruction)
This stage aims to introduce and to familiarize the students with the text in focus, in this case
a Discussion genre. The students can read it and deconstruct it (Martin & Rose, 2008;
Christie & Derewianka, 2008) and build up their understandings of the purpose, overall
structure, and language features of the genre. Activities involved in this stage can include:
Familiarising students with the function and social context of the text in focus, say
Discussion genre;
Presenting the schematic structure of the text;
Presenting a model text (and one or two other texts in the same genre);
Presenting an overview of grammatical features of a Discussion genre.
Step 1: Familiarising the students with the function and social context of the text
The first step should be familiarising the students with the social context of the text in
English (which takes a similar form in Indonesian) and in the current Indonesian context. It
should be made clear that the Discussion genre, which weighs up two or more sides of an
issue, enables the students to practise the concept of decision making and conflict
resolution through rational debate, i.e. arguments for, arguments against and recommended
course of action (Anderson & Anderson, 1997; Christie, 2005; Christie & Derewianka,
2008: Martin & Rose, 2008).
Step 2: Presenting the schematic structure of the Discussion genre

57

In presenting and explicitly explaining the schematic structure of a Discussion genre, the
teacher can use an overhead transparency (Gibbons, 2002:64, Emilia, 2005) or power point.
This is important to enable the teacher and the students to share comments and to talk about
the text as a class more easily. Each student can also be given a copy which they can use for
their own reference on future occasions when they write a Discussion genre (Callaghan and
Rothery, 1988: 40). A possible transparency on the schematic structure of a Discussion genre
with the function of each stage can be seen in Table 2.2 below.
Table 2. 1 Schematic structure of a Discussion genre
Elements of structure/ Function
stages of a Discussion
genre
Preview of the issue
Tells the reader the problem and what will be
argued about it.
Gives information about the issue and how it is
to be framed.
Arguments for
Tells the reader points to be developed
Arguments against
Tells the reader points to be developed
Recommendation
Tells the reader the position held by the writer. It
is also presented as the most logical conclusion.
Recommends a final position on the issue.

During this stage, students attention can be drawn to learning how the genre works to
achieve its social purpose through the function of its stages. When the students understand
about the schematic structure of the text, the next step is presenting an example of a model
text, which will be presented below, to show how the each element of the text works.
Step 3: Presenting a model text of a Discussion genre
The model of a Discussion genre can then be presented as a whole (Butt, et al, 2000; Feez
and Joyce, 1998a; Gibbons, 2002) and the text can be taken from any source available. Text
2.1 below, from Christie (2002:62; 2005:174-175), can be used as model of a Discussion
text, although it was written by a junior secondary student in Australia. Marked Theme
choices are indicated on the text while some important linguistic features are referred to in
the column to the right of the table.

Schematic
structure

Text 2.1 A Model of a Discussion Text

(From Christie, 2005:174-175)
Should we use animals for entertainment?
Linguistic Features

Statement
of issue

Should we use animals for entertainment is the

name of the topic were talking about in this essay.
Below I have stated the positive and negative points
for this issue.

Use of the modal verb should

indicates matters of judgment are
involved. Personal opinion suggested
with use of the first person (I).

Arguments
for

In the report we read it is said that in order to let

a particular species survive, we need to at least

Opening marked theme in the report

[[we read]] and verbal process said,

58

Arguments
against

Recommen
dation

capture a few to show to the public, to let them

learn about the animals and then may be the public
would do something to help the endangered
animals. It said the animals are never tortured
during training or the performances and they are
kept in very clean, natural yards while not
performing. At one stage it said that animals are
the core element of circuses and the statistics
proved that people like the animals best at the
circus, therefore human circuses would not meet the
public demand. Most people judge circuses on their
old ways, not on the current, improved ways.

indicate some research. Other uses of

verbal processes build sense of using
research. Relevant field language
expressed in noun groups : a
particular species, the endangered
animals. Uses of modality in we
need to at least capture ... ; and
maybe the public would do
something...; human circuses would
not meet ...
Another marked theme (at one stage)
helps progress the text forward.

But then on the other hand, animals like the

elephants and bears are very prone to stress so they
make a habit of standing in one place and rocking
or swaying, which is bad for their joints and feet.
Things like constant traveling and performing in
front of very large audiences nearly every day
affect this. Theyre nearly always in confined
spaces and the biggest places they are ever in are
the circus arena or tent, which is also really small.
The animals are not usually kept in their natural
habitat, which stops their basic instinct like fighting
for mates, building nests, hunting, etc, from being
used to such a large extent like they do in the wild.
An alternative is to use humanism circuses because
they cant exactly force people to join, they have to
be voluntary.

Use of contrastive conjunction (but

then) signals shift to new element,
assisted by the marked topical
theme: on the other hand.

After looking at all these facts, I believe that its

wrong for us to keep animals in circuses for our
entertainment. We should be able to entertain
ourselves, not rely on animals. For this reason,
and the one I have mentioned before, I believe it
is wrong for us to train and force animals to
perform in circuses.

Marked theme in a dependent clause,

to shift to a new element of structure:
After looking at all these facts. Use
of mental process of cognition (used
twice) and first person I believe to
stress opinion being stated. Use of
modal verbs: we should be able to
entertain ourselves.

Some large noun groups: animals

like the elephants and bears; a habit
of standing in one place and rocking
or swaying; things like constant
travelling and performing in front of
very large audiences.
Modal adverbs build expressions of
judgment; theyre nearly always in
confined spaces; the animals are not
usually kept in the natural habitat.

The teacher and the students can collaboratively identify the purpose, the schematic
structure, the function of each stage in the model text and the linguistic features, as displayed
at the right side of the text, including:
Generic participants: Animals, circuses;
Tense: Present tense: Animals are never tortured, animals are the core element of
circuses;
Patterns of process choices: Verbal processes: I have stated ; It said ; mental
processes: I believe ; People judge circuses ; relational processes: Animals
are very prone to stress
Modality: Should we use We should be able The animals are not
usually kept in their natural habitat;

59

 Conjunctions: and the one I have mentioned ; therefore human circuses

would not meet the public demand; because they cant exactly force people to
join; But then, on the other hand, animals, like the elephants and bears are very
prone to stress;
Reference: Animals are very prone to stress they make a habit ;
...animals like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress... Theyre nearly
always in confined spaces...
Passive voice: Animals are not usually kept ....
It is also possible for the teacher and students to collaboratively highlight the significance of
each linguistic feature in the text, to show how the grammar aspects function in the context
of language use (Gibbons, 2002: 65). To enhance the students CT, the text can also be
interrogated using questions regarding CT and CL, to make the critical interrogation of texts
a routine (Perkins, 1998) for them. The directive role of the researcher in this discussion
can be limited to facilitate dialogue with the students.
To strengthen students understanding of the text in focus and to enrich the linguistc sources
they can use in their own writing in the later stages, students can be presented with the
second and third Discussion texts to strengthen students understanding of the schematic
structure and to show the students various linguistic features and expressions that could be
employed in their writing later. Then it is important that students in pairs identify the
schematic structure and linguistic features (as listed above) of each text, and with the whole
class, the texts can be critically interrogated in the same way as mentioned earlier.
A hand out on expressions used in each stage of the Discussion genre, based on the work of
the DSP (1989), Derewianka (1990) and Emilia (2005) can be used. This is to help
strengthen students understanding of the power of language in persuasive writing, and to
enrich their understanding of expressions to use in writing a Discussion genre in the Joint
and Independent Constructions later. These expressions that students can use in their writing
are really helpful for students even in tertiary level. Successful control of writing, as Christie
(2010) suggests, depends on capacity to marshal and deploy a range of linguistic resources.
When students already have a good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features
of a Discussion genre or (other focal genre), the activity can move on to the Joint
Writing/Construction of the text.
2.4.4 Joint Construction
At this stage, as Gibbons (2002) suggests, students are ready to think about writing, although
they will not yet write alone. This joint writing, as Derewianka (1990) suggests, can be done
in two ways. The teacher can write together with the students, while the teacher acts as a
scribe in front of the classroom, as is discussed in Chapter 4. Alternatively, students may
write in groups of four or three, as happened in Emilia (2005) and Emilia et al (2008), and
will be shown later. If the second alternative is used, four or five steps, as reported in Emilia
(2005) can be involved:

60

 Grouping the students into threes and familiarizing them with the task they will do in
the stage;
Approaching each group at the start of the Joint Construction;
Observing students development in CT and control of the Discussion genre
Observing students perceptions of the Joint Construction;
Consultation with each group on their draft.
Step 1: Grouping the Students into Threes and Familiarizing Them with the Task They
Will Do in this Stage
The teacher can first of all ask the students to make groups of threes, the members of which
can be entirely decided by them. Writing in groups allows the students to practise activities
that make up CT, particularly seeing an issue from various perspectives discussing ideas
in an organised way, which can best be nurtured by communicating with others and
engaging in dialogue (Chaffee, 2000:154; Norris and Ennis,1989, Reid, 2002). Although in
this stage the teacher is still a guide (Gibbons, 2002: 67), the students enter into a more active
participation in learning to write the text in focus. The strong scaffolding of the teacher in
some part of the Building Knowledge of the Field and Modeling stage can be gradually
weakened (Feez, 2002:66).
Step 2: Approaching Each Group at the Start of the Joint Construction
At the beginning of the joint writing, the teacher can approach each group, asking some
guiding questions, such as:
What will you start with?
How many arguments or points will be included in the arguments for and against? In
this case, the researcher stressed that the arguments for and against should be
balanced (Smith et al, 1995).
Why will you take those arguments?
Do you have enough data/evidence to support the arguments?
When the students are half way through their writing, the teacher can approach each group
again to make sure which group has gained what (Gee, 1992) or need more assistance
(Derewianka, 1990; Callaghan and Rothery, 1988; Feez and Joyce, 1998a). Over the
consultation, the teacher can remind the students about aspects of CT in writing and
encourage the students to use some technical terms or language relevant to the issue, as a
way to develop students vocabulary in a meaningful context (DSP, 1989: 60).
Each consultation with each group should be conducted in a context of shared experience
(Painter, 1985; Rothery, 1996; Martin, Christie, and Rothery, 1994) with the teacher playing
an authoritative role (Derewianka, 1990; Feez and Joyce, 1998a). Assistance in constructing
texts can be of two kinds (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988:50): a direct telling of what to say,
such as how and when to say some distancing devices such as it is said, it is argued, and

61

the other might be questions and comments that provide scaffolding for the students to make
the text better, such as:
What do you mean with this statement?
Is this already showing or just telling the readers?
Why do you take say, tourism aspect in your arguments for the Miss Universe
Contest?
At this stage, it is crucial to encourage students to focus on all aspects of writing (Gibbons,
2002: 67), to give assistance not only to shape the genre but also to use language that is
appropriate for written text (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 51). Students should also be
encouraged to avoid awkward and irrelevant expressions to written texts, such as dont,
arent. This is important to create students awareness that their writing is a formal piece,
composed for readers with a distant social relationship and to bring about students
understanding of the difference in ways of formulating meanings that are usual in speech
from those that are common in writing (Dudley-Evans, 2002: 230; McCarthy and Carter,
1994).
In this joint construction stage, it should also be noted that scaffolding does not have to come
from the teacher, as Muijs & Reynolds (2005: 64) suggest. Students, Muijs & Reynolds
further argue, can effectively scaffold each others learning in a small group task, like the
joint construction of the text.
Step 3: Observing Students Development in CT and Emergent Control of the
Discussion Genre
Monitoring students progress should be conducted throughout the teaching learning process.
However, because at this stage the teacher does not have to teach the whole class, he/she can
more closely observe students development from their group discussions. From the
perspective of CT, this can be used to evaluate whether lessons specifically designed to
encourage students CT abilities and dispositions are meeting their immediate goals (Norris
and Ennis, 1989:150).
Regarding CT, the students can start to apply CT knowledge in their writing, as indicated in
what a student said to his classmate, showing an instance of his development in reasoning
skills and awareness of the necessity to support arguments with data (Lipman, 2003: 170).
Ari: Dont take a social aspect of the Miss Universe Contest, because we dont have a lot of data
to support it (Researchers note, in Emilia, 2005).

Then in another group, the researcher could hear a discussion as follows:

Cinta: What if we say that participating in the Miss Universe Contest, Indonesia will be famous
like Botswana and Venezuela.
Riya : No, Thats not a fact, thats opinion (Researchers note, in Emilia, 2005).

62

Riyas response reflects her consciousness of the difference between facts and opinions, and
her capacity to recognize situational differences and sensitivity to context and to recognize a
faulty reasoning, which is a classic case of faulty analogy (Diestler, 2001:185). What
works in Botswana, does not or will not necessarily work in Indonesia. These constitute
instances of inquiry skills, as described by Lipman (2003).
Moreover, students control of the linguistic features of the Discussion genre can be seen
from their developing awareness of various verbal processes that they can employ, as
represented in the following journal entry:
Dont use the verb argue all the time (Researchers note, Feb, 7 th, 2003).

Students at this stage may have been aware of a variety of conjunctions they can employ and
thus try to avoid repetition of conjunctions, as represented in students statement below:
We were confused to use the conjunctions without doing repetition (Ira, Journal entry, Feb, 10 th, 2003).

In this joint construction, a handout of expressions usually used in a text in focus is really
important to help them create a more-written like texts. This is also evidenced in the
language program in secondary school which will be delineated in Chapter 3.
Step 4: Observing Students Perceptions of the Joint Construction
It is profitable to discuss with the students the ways they think they learn best at this stage,
especially for Indonesian students who will mostly find this stage new. There is a possibility,
that joint construction is not uniformly welcomed by all students. Some students may find the
stage useful, as reflected in a journal entry below:
It is important to discuss with my friends about how to arrange an essay. It seems easier if we
work in groups. Having a Joint Construction is a nice activity, because we can join our ideas to
construct a good essay discussing our ideas, rearranging an essay with friends are fun (Puri,
in Emilia, 2005).

Other students, however may complain that the stage is time consuming, as represented by a
journal entry below:
The Joint Construction took a longer time than writing alone. It was very difficult even to write a
statement of issue (Elli, in Emilia, 2005).

Regarding this, there are several aspects that a teacher should pay attention to:
Grouping can be problematic (see Nunan and Lamb, 1996, Leki, 2001 in an ESL
context) and one potential problem is that quieter or less confident students may
contribute nothing (Doughty and Pica, 1986, cited in Wallace, 1992a:96; see also the

63

discussion on small group work as a teaching strategy by Killen, 2007:162). This is

exemplified in the following journal entry by a high achiever.
I felt that Joint Construction is helping but not helping too much. We didnt really discuss
something when I said something, they only said yes, thats good (Ina, in Emilia, 2005).

The problem of group work can be related to the Indonesian education system so far,
which to some degree has fostered passivity for a long time (Shor and Freire, 1987;
Shor, 1992, cited in Boyce, 2003). This may have created the students assumption
that learning is information gathering from the teacher who knows it all (Frye,
1999; Boyce, 1996) and thus students resistance to practices that required
engagement, and listening to classmates (Boyce, 1996; Auerbach, 1996), as
represented by a journal entry below:
I know that we should share ideas and listen to others. But its hard for me to listen (to friends)
more than speak up until now. Anyway I hope it will change as time goes by while I am joining
this class, because in this class we are learning to discuss and correct each other (Nuri, Feb, 13 th,
2003).

Regarding this, it should be noted that although joint construction or group work can be
problematic, this does not mean that we have to abandon it. Working in groups, as Gibbons
(2002:26) says, is a learned skill even some adults are not good at it If learners are unable
to work collaboratively, Gibbons further says, even the best-designed teaching activities are
unlikely to be successful (see also Muijs & Reynolds, 2005 and Killen, 2007 on problems in
small group work). Students should thus be made accustomed to working in groups, helping
each other, discussing the topic, writing a good text collaboratively.
Step 5: Consultation with each group on their draft
Consultation is important to give students feedback about their writing, which is really
important for the students writing development. However, when a teacher is doing a
consultation with a group, she/he needs to remain aware of whatever else is happening in the
room (Killen, 2007:173). Teachers, as Stringer et al (2010: 8) suggest, must be alert to the
nuances of action and behaviour and need to constantly be aware of what is happening, what
the students are doing and how well they are accomplishing the assigned activities.
Regarding this, Stringer et al (2010) suggest that teachers need to engage in conversation and
discussions with students to ascertain the degree of understanding they have attained, or to
understand why students are unable to perform adequately or appropriately. According to
Killen (2007:173), it would be better that the teacher move close to a group that she/he
anticipates will experience a problem.
In this consultation, the teacher should focus first of all on the strengths of the students
writing (Feez and Joyce, 1998a) to encourage and reinforce students first attempts at
approximating the genre, even though the text produced may not contain all the ideal
language features or show full control of the generic structure (DSP, 1989: 60). Assistance
can be made available in both direct telling on what to say or comments or questions that
provided scaffolding for the students to create a better text (Callaghan and Rothery,
64

1988:50) and covers all aspects of writing, including CT-related aspects, and modelled the
process of writing, when she can cross out, amend and add words.
This consultation is very useful for both the teacher and students. For the teacher it can be
an appealing way to respond to the students work (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000,
:160), and to find out clearly which group had gained what (Gee, 1990), and to help
promote students thinking (Baron, 1987: 232). From a perspective of writing process, it
provides many opportunities to teach drafting, editing and proofreading skills (DSP, 1989:
60) which might not be possible to teach in a discrete way. From the perspective of English
as a second or foreign language teaching, this consultation, in which the teacher provides
feedback to students, is really important as providing feedback to students has come to be
recognised as one of the ESL (EFL) teachers most important tasks (Hyland & Hyland, 2006:
xv; Macaro, 2003). Feedback is to a teacher, Macaro (2003:239) argues, as swimming is to a
fish.
Pursuant to the consultation, the students can revise the text and the benefit of this revision
can be twofold: to show students that writing is a process (Gibbons, 2002:67, Butt, et al,
2000: 267; Bizzell, 1992), that it is not unusual for a writer to write several drafts before
she/he comes to the neat, finished one, as mentioned above, and to enhance their
metacognition (Marzano et al, 1988). When no student needs further assistance, it is time to
move to the Independent Construction, described in the subsequent section.
An example of a Discussion text written in this joint construction (Text 2.2), based on
Emilias (2005) study can be presented below. The text was written in several sessions and
the students wrote several drafts before they had a neat final draft. Embedded clauses are
shown with squared brackets, ([[.]], and enclosed phrases are shown thus: <>, as expained
in chapter 1.
Text 2.2 responds to the question Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe
Contest?
Text 2.2: Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant
Statement of Issue
Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996. But since 2000, the government has allowed Yayasan Putri
Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia Foundation) to re-organize the contest. This means [[that the winner of this
contest owns a ticket [[to participate in the Miss Universe Pageant ]]b ]]a.
However, there has been a heated debate [[whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the Miss Universe
Pageant]]. This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesias participation in the Miss
Universe Pageant.
Arguments in favour
Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions, to do with the concept of Brain, Beauty,
and Behaviour, tourism aspect, and business point of view. The first argument is related to the concept of
Brain, Beauty, and Behaviour. The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant claim that this contest
emphasises on (on should be omitted) three principles, Brain, Beauty and Behaviour, not merely on
(on should be omitted) beauty and behaviour. This, it is argued, has been proved by the fact that there is

65

an interview session in the Miss Universe Pageant here the participants were questioned about their
general knowledge and the way they think . This has been justified by a participant from Egypt who
says, We were questioned on everything, whether on the status of women over the last century,
or on general knowledge or simply, on the way we think. (Al Ahram weekly online, 10-16 May
2001/issue no.533). Besides that, the Miss Universe Pageant, it is said, covers a vast spectrum of
academic fields. They are, for example, law students, aspiring journalists, would-be clinical
psychologists, etc.
Secondly, those who are in favour of the Miss Universe Pageant argue that Indonesias participation in
the contest will be beneficial for the country, especially for the development of tourism. In this context,
Alya Rohali, a contestant from Indonesia in 1996, says, We can introduce our own country to the
world community especially when the situation in Indonesia is not stable. It is very important [[for us to
heal
our
reputation
from
any
media
including
the
Miss
Universe
Pagean
(http://ferondi.triped.com/missindonesiadunofficial/id15.html). That participating in the Miss Universe
Pageant can promote tourism of the participants country has also been stated by Miss S. Marten (2000)
as saying, I see my participation in the pageant as a good promotion for the island.
to me the true meaning of a pageant like this is young women proudly representing their home
nations
[[and
inviting
others
to
have
a
visit
(http://www.internatonalspecialreport.com/archieves/00/smaarten/17.html). Therefore, the proponents of
the Miss Universe Pageant believe that Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the Miss Universe
Pageant so as to promote the country in order to create a good image throughout the world, which can
eventually invite visitors to Indonesia.
The third argument proposed by the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant]] is concerned with
business. It is argued that the Miss Universe Pageant can be used as an arena to promote business.
In relation to this, Madhu Kishwar, an Indian Journalist, states, Big national and international
companies spent millions of dollars of promoting their products and images through association to the
contest and the winner (http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/users/sawwab/sawnet/beauty.html). A good
example can be seen from the 1999 Miss Universe Pageant held in Trinidad and Tobago, where 26
investment representatives from Europe, the United States and Latin America were invited
(http://www.tidco.co.tt/corporate/tidcotimes/august99/business.html). So, the supporters of the Miss
Universe Pageant assert, that participating in this contest particularly if Indonesia becomes the host
country, Indonesia may have opportunities [[to invite investors, [[who can help to develop the business
life of the country.
Arguments against
On the other hand, the opponents of Indonesias participation in the Miss Universe Pageant adopt three
positions related to oriental value, social aspect and feminism point of view. To begin, those who are
against Indonesias participation in the Miss Universe Pageant highlight Indonesias oriental values,
regarding Indonesias culture and religion background. For Indonesia, they claim, as the biggest Moslem
Country in the world, [participating in such contest, in which each participant should participate in a
swim suit, is a disgrace. In addition, that participating in the Miss Universe Pageant does not suit
Islamic value has also been heralded by Gamal Hesmat, a member of Egypt Muslim Brotherhood. He
says I believe that such contests are against our values and morals, that they only demean women,
rather than benefit them. Moreover, the Miss Universe Pageant, they say, is also inappropriate to
Indonesias oriental values. This is stated by the Indonesian Minister for womans role, Taking part in
the
Miss
Universe
Election
is
against
our
oriental
values
(http://compositeuqam.ca/videaz/doc5/hesien.html).
Another argument put forward by the opponents of the Miss Universe Pageant is that participating in the
Miss Universe Pageant does not bring any advantages to the society They point out that Indonesias
participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not give any significant effect for Indonesia especially for
eradicating poverty. In this context, they point to what has happened in India, which has won the Miss
Universe title several times. Indias poor people cannot get benefits from the fact that Indias contestant
becomes the winner of the Miss Universe Pageant. In this context, Viviek Sharma, an opponent of the

66

Miss Universe Pageant from India, says The Miss Universe Pageant does not mean anything to the poor
population But personally to me it is the absolute wastage of time and money which should rather be
spent on the elimination of poverty in the nation and on education. Moreover, the so-called beauty
queens have never done anything for the nation in terms of social service or national pride
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking-point/debates/south_asian/1037264.stm). Similarly, Javis, another
opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from India, suggests,
All beauty pageants are a waste of money. With that money the poor can be well supported.
The last argument against the Miss Universe Pageant is revealed by feminists. Feminists think that the
Miss Universe Pageant makes an unachievable standard for women. The feminists believe that such
contests, <along with the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion world>, only serve to perpetuate the
myth [[that women are only worth something if they are young, long legged and beautiful
(http://news.btt.co.uk/1/hi/talking-point/33749.stm)
Regarding this, Imran Ahmad, an Indonesian opponent of beauty pageants, states, These
competitions
unrealistically
standardise
the
standard
of
feminine
beauty
(http://news.bbc.uk/1/hi/talking_point/debates/south_asian/1037264.stm). .
Recommendation
In summary, after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant, it is obvious
[[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. Although Indonesias
participation in the Miss Universe Pageant may bring advantages in terms of womens quality, tourism
aspect and business, it seems not to suit Indonesias religious, cultural and oriental values.
In addition, Indonesias participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not contribute to the attempts
of poverty eradication in Indonesia. Furthermore, [[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] may
create a bad impact on Indonesian women due to the possible emergence of women standard, which
emphasizes beauty.
Therefore, we recommend Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant.
It will be better if Miss Indonesia concentrates on domestic social service so that she can share the
benefit of [[being Miss Indonesia]] with the society.

Text 2.2 functions essentially to discuss the issue whether Indonesia should send an envoy to
the Miss Universe Contest (henceforth called MUC). In the interest of space and because of
the fact that the text is quite long, an evaluation of this text will only be concerned with its
schematic structure. An example of evaluation of linguistic features will be given below in
discussing Text 2.3, written in the Independent Construction stage. The two texts have
similar characteristics in both their schematic structures and linguistic features.
The schematic structure of the text suggests that the text has the essential elements of a
Discussion genre as mentioned above. These are:
Preview of issue: introduces the issue and establishes the existence of the debate
about the issue. This introductory element can successfully function as the opening
generalisation in a text which predicts its overall development (Coffin, 1997: 218).
The introductory paragraph also successfully predicts a set of Themes in the
following paragraphs. This is done by explicitly stating:
Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996. But since 2000, the government has
allowed Yayasan Putri Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia Foundation) to re-organize the
67

contest. This means [[that the winner of this contest owns a ticket [[to participate in
the Miss Universe Pageant ]] ]]However, there has been a heated debate [[whether
or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. This essay will
discuss the arguments for and against
Indonesias participation in the Miss
Universe Pageant.
In fact, the whole element constitutes what Martin (Martin and Rose 2007: 197-8)
calls a macro-Theme, a term he uses to indicate the main preoccupation (or topic) of
the whole text, and this preoccupation is returned to periodically in waves as the
text unfolds. The text is to be primarily concerned with the Miss Universe Contest
(henceforth referred to as MUC) and arguments about whether Indonesia should
participate in it.
Arguments in favour: presents three arguments in favour of the MUC. These three
arguments constitute the hyper-Themes (Martin and Rose 2006: 197-8) of this
element of the text. The term hyper-Theme is used to capture that the three both refer
back to the macroTheme for the element, and forward to the matters to be discussed
in this element. They thus serve to give structure and order the text. The hyper-Theme
is: Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions, to do with the
concept of Brain, Beauty and Behaviour, tourism aspect and business points of view.
This provides a general statement and it predicts what is to come. In this sense, this
statement also functions as a macro-Theme (i) for the element (Martin, 2007: 198).
To make this clear, the same pieces of the text can be, on the one hand, hyperThemes,
in that they look back to the opening macroTheme in the first element, and a
macroTheme (i) within this element itself. Each of the three arguments is explained in
some detail.
Arguments against: This stage has a similar element to that in the previous one.
Thus, its hyper-Theme is: On the other hand, the opponents of Indonesias
participation in the Miss Universe contest adopt three positions related to oriental
value, social aspect and feminism point of view. These three positions become the
arguments developed in this element and they are thus both he hyper-Themes for this
element, in that they link back to the opening macroTheme in the first element, while
they also constitute macro-Theme (ii), meaning they create a macro-Theme for this
element.

Recommendation: presents the writers critical stance or position as it is based on

the arguments for and against the issue (Barnett, 1997). The element begins: In
summary, after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant,
it is obvious [[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe
pageant]]. Although Indonesias participation in the Miss UniversePageant may
bring advantages in terms of womens equality, tourism aspect and
business, it
seems not to suit Indonesias religious, cultural and oriental values.
This statement constitutes hyper-Theme for this element in that it identifies three
matters (Indonesias religious, cultural and oriental values), which refer back to

68

matters discussed earlier. In addition, the element concludes with the writers
recommendation: Therefore, we recommend Indonesia should not send an envoy to
the Miss Universe Pageant. It will be better if Miss Indonesia concentrates on
domestic social service so that she can share the benefit of being Miss Indonesia with
the society. In Martins terms (2007: 198) this whole element constitutes macroNews, because it both refers back to the opening element with its macro-Theme, and
it brings the text to a close, by reviewing the points amassed as well as draws
conclusions from what has been discussed in the previous stages, i.e. the possible
advantages and negative impacts of Indonesias participation in the MUC. (See
Chapter 1 for discussion of higher level Themes).
From the review of the schematic structure, Text 2.2 shows students understanding and
mastery of the demands of generic form of a Discussion genre, showing that they understood
and achieved the purpose and the function of the genre. In terms of CL, this relates closely to
the students awareness of why the text was written that is its communicative function
(Wallace, 1992a: 34). The schematic structure indicates that the text is interactive,
involving the management of the flow of information and thus serves to guide readers
through the content of the text (Thompson, 2001: 59), with the elements of the schematic
structure overtly marked by appropriate Themes (as the detailed grammatical analyses will
also reveal). As indicated above, and will be shown later, the text projects forward through
the employment of the introductory paragraph. It also projects back through the use of
Recommendation, as they unfold. This results in a textured sandwich (Martin, 1992: 456),
which suggests real improvement in writing and an instance of indications of good writing
(Ibid: 397; Thompson, 2001), relevant to the genre (Coe, 2002). Over all, the schematic
structure of Text 2.2 suggests that the text is a reasonably effective example of a Discussion
genre. The text signals the shift in the discussion from clause to clause. In addition, as the
analysis of macro-Theme, hyper-Themes and macro-New has shown, the overall organisation
of the text flows clearly in waves as certain information is introduced, then reintroduced and
finally the text is concluded.
As far as CT is concerned, the schematic structure shows a good sense of clarity, precision
and relevance at text level. This also indicates the students capacity in discussing ideas in
an organised way (Chaffee, 2000) or information-organizing skill (Lipman, 2003) taught
in the teaching program. The presence of the arguments for and against, revealing various
arguments from different perspectives also suggests sufficiency and breadth two key
aspects of CT standards, as well as the writers capacity to cluster information in terms of
their similarities and thus their grasp of the concept (Lipman, 2003, p. 180-181) of the MUC.
In addition, because of the texts genre, the text signals the writers willingness to listen to
other peoples ideas (Ennis, 1987; Lipman, 2003) and the writers awareness of multiple
perspectives or multiple interpretation (Gee, 1990) on the MUC a signal of a movement
toward CL. The balanced arguments also signal the writers endeavour to provide a fair
presentation (Norris and Ennis, 1989: 140), to treat various arguments as equal (McPeck,
1990). This suggests objectivity or impartiality (Lipman, 2003: 58) one aspect of a good
disposition, with which a good critical thinker would have strived to think about an issue
(Langrehr, 1994: 76). Finally, the presence of a recommendation suggests students ability in
CT is developing, regarding their capacity to decide on a course of action, where they often

69

do this best by tentatively deciding what to do (Ennis, 1987: 15; see also Nickerson, 1987
on characteristics of a critical thinker).
2.4.5 Independent Construction of the Text
This is the final stage when students write individually or in pairs (Gibbons, 2002; Gracia,
2009) and the teacher reminds them of the process (Gracia, 2009:363). For an example
here, which is still to do with writing a Discussion genre, students can choose another topic
which is also controversial such as Working Women or Capital Punishment and the issue can
be Should Women Work out side the Home? or Should Women Become Homemakers? Or
Should capital punishment be implemented in Indonesia?
The steps taken in this stage will include: Building Knowledge of the Field to build students
background knowledge and in particular the necessary English vocabulary, to enable them to
write a sound and successful Discussion text and the Independent Construction itself.
Students achievement can be seen from the schematic structure and linguistic features of the
text. An example of a students text written at this stage, Text 2.3, can be seen below.
Text 2.3 Should capital punishment be implemented in Indonesia?
Preview of Issue
Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death imposed by a competent
court. It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many countries,
including Indonesia. However, capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people
whether capital punishment is suitable and should be implemented or whether it should be abolished.
Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalization of capital punishment.
Arguments in favour
The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions. The first argument they claim is that
capital punishment is able to deter people from committing crimes. In this case, David R. Frances states,
Capital punishment has a unique power to deter people from committing crimes (http://www.
nber.org/digest/oct98/w6484.html). Although some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can
deter crimes, the proponents of capital punishment provide a proof that there is actually a declining crime
rate found in some countries which implement capital punishment such as the US and Singapore. In USA,
for example, there has been a 26% reduction of murder rate. The murder rate in USA dropped from 24, 562
in 1993 to 18, 209 in 1997, which was the lowest for years during a period of increased use of the death
penalty (http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts/html). This fact, it is reported, also happens
in Singapore. It is said that as Singapore always carries out death sentences where the appeal has been
turned down, its population knows precisely what will happen to them if they are convicted of murder or
drug trafficking (ibid).
The second argument proposed by those who defend capital punishment relates to the incapacitation of
criminals. They believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime rather than life
imprisonment. Life imprisonment, it is said, would expose prison staffs and fellow prisoners to dangerous
murderer, and the risk later extends to the community, since such person may escape or be pardoned.
Therefore, the proponents of capital punishment think that life imprisonment would not be equally effective
with capital punishment. It is also claimed that unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes,
either within prison or after escaping or after being released. Regarding this, statistics from the Home
Office in Britain shows that in the country, between abolition in 1964-1998, the murder rate more than

70

doubled (to around 750 per annum) and there have been 71 murders committed by people who have been
released after serving life sentences in the same period
(http://www.richards.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts.html). So, capital punishment, it is asserted, is
aimed to assure that criminals cannot commit crimes anymore. This has also been stated by Edward Koch,
a former mayor of New York city, in his article Death and Justice that capital punishment is to assure
that convicted murderers do not kill again. Only death penalty can accomplish this end ( in Axeliod &
Cooper, 1987, Reading critically, writing well).
The third argument upheld by the advocates of capital punishment, particularly in Indonesia is connected
with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself. Most Indonesian people, it is said, still prefer the
implementation of capital punishment rather than just put criminals behind bars due to the lack of publics
confidence in the credibility of the prison system in Indonesia. This has been revealed by the Director of
the YLBHI (a foundation for legal assistance in Indonesia), Munarman, saying In Indonesia, the
implementation of capital punishment still receives a great deal of supports from most Indonesian society.
It is because they do not believe in our countrys prison system. They do not believe that imprisonment
will be able to make bad people into good ones (http://www.detk.com/peristiwa/2003/02/07/20030207090754_shtml). This lack of public confidence on the credibility of the prison system, it is claimed, is
based on the fact that some criminals, who still serve their punishment in jail are still capable of committing
crimes. This has also been argued by Munarwan, that It is almost impossible for the prison system in
Indonesia to gain publics confidence because even a convicted drug trafficker, for example, is still fully
capable of controlling their drug business from jail (ibid).
Arguments against
On the other hand, the opponents of capital punishment highlight three arguments. The first one relates to
the imperfect justice, due to the discrimination on the application of the death penalty. The opponents of
capital punishment claim that the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty causes it to be applied
mostly to the poor and defenseless. This, it is said, is mainly because money plays a very important role in
the defense of avoiding death penalty. That capital punishment is convicted mainly to the poor has been
said by David Hoekema (1987), a former philosophy professor in St. Olaf College in Minnesota, in his
article, Capital Punishment: the justification of death, as saying legal council depends in large measure
on how much money is available for the defense. Inevitably, the death penalty has been imposed most
frequently on the poor (in Axelrod,& Cooper, 9187, Reading critically, writing well). The same thing, it is
claimed by the Indonesian proponents of capital punishment, occur in Indonesia. It is argued that the legal
system in Indonesia is still partial. It can be seen from the case of Akbar Tanjung. He was accused of doing
corruption of 40 billion rupiahs, but he was only charged 3 years of imprisonment for his action. And
worse, the sentence is never executed up until now. Moreover, the imperfection of justice proposed by
opponents of capital punishment is also indicated by racism issue. Race, it is revealed, is an important
factor in determining who is sentenced to die. In 1990, a report from the General Accounting Office in the
US, concluded that in 82 % of the studies, those who murdered whites were more likely to be sentenced to
death than those who murdered blacks (http://www. motherjones.com/scoop/scoop5.html). With regard to
this issue, statistics in the US, also reveal that of 3,860 persons executed in the US from 1930 up to the
time of the writing of the article, 2,066 or 54 % were black (in Alexiod & Cooper, 1987, Reading
critically, writing well).
The second position claimed by those who oppose capital punishment is regarding the mistaken conviction,
which could lead to the execution of innocent people. They contend that innocent people can be wrongfully
sentenced to death and that there is no compensation for them for this error of justice. For this, David
Hoekema (1987) notes Numerous cases of erroneous convictions in capital cases have been documented;
several of those convicted were put to death before the error was discovered. A wrongful execution is a
grievous injustice that cannot be remedied after the fact (in Alexiod & Cooper, Reading critically, writing
well). In relation to this mistaken conviction issue, there has been several studies which discover that in the
twntieth century, at least 400 innocent people have been convicted of capital crimes they did not commit.
Of those 400, 23 were executed. (http://www.motherjones.com/scoop/scoop5.html).
The third strand of the opposition of capital punishment is viewed from the criminals human right. The

71

protesters of capital punishment point out that all lives, including the criminals, are valuable. Therefore,
capital punishment, it is argued, cheapens the value of human life. Regarding this, Margaret Mead (1987),
an anthropologist from the US, says, a life for a life need not mean destructive retribution, but
instead the development of new forms of community, in which, because all lives are valuable, what is
emphasized in the prevention of crime ( in Alexiod & Cooper, 1987, Reading critically, writing well).
In relation to the human right issue, Indonesian opponents of capital punishment say that capital
punishment is not relevant with the 1945 Constitution. This is stated by Irham Buana Nasution, a lawyer of
Ayodha Prasad Chaubey, an Indian drug trafficker, who has been sentenced to death by Indonesian court.
Recommendation
Thus, after looking at both sides of the arguments, I consider capital punishment effective in deterring
people to commit crimes and in incapacitating criminals to commit further crimes. Therefore, I strongly
argue that capital punishment needs to be implemented in Indonesia, remembering the situation in our
country itself, where crimes have been rising sharply. It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking
and corruption cases because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large scale. Even
though I realize there might be some negative excess coming from the imposement of capital punishment
related to imperfect justice, mistaken conviction, and violation of criminals human right, I do believe that
it is still needed to be imposed in our country, at least to be used as a shock therapy for those who have
intention to commit crimes. However, the decision of sentencing death penalty must be fair, just and
adequate. Therefore, we must be prepared to execute every criminal who commits a crime irrespective of
gender, status, race, and social class.

As indicated above, the text will be analysed only in terms of the grammatical features in
which the overall schematic structure is expressed.
The Preview of Issue Element
The opening Themes in all but the last clause in this element in Text 2.3 identify capital
punishment:
Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death
[[imposed by a competent court. ]]
It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in
many countries, including Indonesia.
However, capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people
whether capital punishment is suitable
and should be implemented
or whether it should be abolished.
The final clause starts with a marked Theme. signaling that the text is to proceed to a new
element:
Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalization of capital punishment

72

Experientially, as can be seen in Table 2.4 below, the element does not use a variety of
process types.

Table 2.4 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue Element of Texts 2.3
Process types
Material Mental
Verbal
Intensive
Circ, Cause, and Behav
Possessive
Text 2.3
4
3
-

Exist
1

The text uses only four material processes, one of which occurs in an embedded clause a
sentence of death [[imposed by a competent court]], while the others occur I whether capital
punishment should be implemented or it should be abolished. Three relational intensive
processes are also used. The first of these, which is identifying, appears in: Capital
punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death. The other two
are attributive, assigning a quality, classification and descriptive epithet (Eggins, 1994:
256) to capital punishment. These appear in: [[whether capital punishment is suitable and
capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people. All the processes used
in the text help to contextualise the issue of capital punishment, relevant to the function of
the stage.
As far as Participants are concerned, in line with the processes employed, the text assigns
mostly as Token and Carrier (see Chapter 1), assigned to the same entity: Examples of
participant as a Token can be seen in the following example: capital punishment is the
execution of
Capital punishment
Token

is
Pro: Relational Identifying

the execution of
Value

Moreover, some participants also function as a Goal, assigned to a referential item it in a

passive clause: It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now
in many countries).
It

has been used

for a variety
offences

Goal

Pro: material

Circ: Purpose

of

since ancient time up until now in many

countries).
Circ: Location: Time

The text does not employ considerable Circumstances at this stage as it builds information by
exploiting relational processes underlying a defining style (McCarthy and Carter, 1994) this is the way capital punishment is and what are the relevant properties.
Interpersonally, the element is without modality or personal opinion. It simply asserts facts
that are known about capital punishment as a basis for proceeding with the discussion.
However, towards the end of the element the writer indicates, using modality, that people
differ in opinion about the implementation of capital punishment in Indonesia. The element
73

uses two modal verbs, expressed in should in positive and negative polarity: and should
be implemented, or it should be abolished, to show the reader that there is a controversy
about the implementation of capital punishment. This is again relevant to the function of the
stage.
Conspicuous by its absence in the text is the use of first and second person pronouns, which
hence suggests that the writers had consistently developed strategies for a reader-based
approach which continually considers and accommodates an absent reader-audience (Chafe,
1982, cited in McCarthy and Carter, 1994: 37). This, again shows a CT ability, especially in
written argumentation as well as CL, particularly to with the writers awareness of to whom
the text has been written, as mentioned above.
The Arguments in favour Element
The stage opens with an unmarked topical Theme the proponents of capital punishment,
relevant to the function of the stage, to serve to present arguments for capital punishment. As
in the Joint Construction text, the significant feature of textual strategies in the stage can be
seen from the presence the introduction to the stage, expressed in The proponents of capital
punishment claim at least three positions. This introduction can predict the set of topic
sentences in each paragraph of the element. This helps the text effectively develop globally,
and efficiently manipulate a multiple-Theme development, which shows a feature of written
mode (see Chapter 1). The development in the element can be seen below:
The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions:
The first argument [[they claim]] is [[that capital punishment is able to deter people from [[committing
crimes]].
The second argument [[proposed by those [[who defend capital punishment]] ]] relates to the
incapacitation (it should be incapacity) of critminals.
The third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment, particularly in Indonesia]] is
connected with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself.

The repetitive use of argument occurs in nominal groups which are created using
grammatical metaphors. First is an ideational metaphor, which involves a transference of
meaning, as the process of arguing is treated as a thing argument (see Martin and Rose,
2003:104-105). Second is logical metaphor, in which internal conjunctions first, second, and
third are realised in things (noun phrases) (Martin, 1992: 408-409). They occur in three
positions, the first argument, the second argument, the third argument. The expression of
positions brings readers to another time, as the first argument, the second argument and
the third argument names and points forward to the next (Martin and Rose, 2003:. 195).
The nominalization argument, combined with internal cohesive devices first, third becomes a
staging and ordering device (Coffin, 199: 218). This may suggest the students consistent
capacity in promoting relevance, clarity and precision at stage level.

74

To maintain the connectedness between clauses, the writer also seems to confidently choose
Themes of the clauses, following the zigzag or the linear pattern and the reiteration pattern,
as can be described below:
The zig-zag pattern:
They believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment.
Life imprisonment , it is said, would expose prison staffs and fellow prisoners to dangerous murderer,

The reiteration pattern:

Its populaton knows precisely what will happen to them
If they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking

Apart from all striking features above, other interesting features of theme choices in the
stage, can be delineated as follows:
Frequent use of conjunctions realising structural Themes, seldom used at the
beginning of a sentence. This indicates that the text is highly written English
(Ravelli, 2000: 55). Instances are:
although: Athough some people may find it doubtful that capital
punishment can deter crime;
because: It is because they do not believe in our coutnrys prison system;
as: It is said that as Singapore always carried out death sentences ;
that: It is also claimed that unexecuted criminals will be able to commit
further crimes;
since: since such person may escape or be pardoned.
therefore: Therefore, I strongly agree that capital punishment needs to be
implemented.
Some of the conjunctions above are also consequential (i.e: because, although, if, since),
which indicates a movement away from the here and now situation a feature of critical
literacy. Consequential conjunctions also suggest that the writer presents reasons and
conclusions (Thompson, 1996), which are essential aspects of arguments, the basic eelement
of critical thinking and instances of reasoning skills.
More frequency of topical Themes that identify authoritative sources, e.g. David R.
Frances, The murder rate in USA, Statistics from the Home Office in Britain, shows
the writers sound background knowledge about the issue and help help build a sense
that the field has been well- researched.
The last significant feature of Themes is regarding the writers attempt to foreground
objectivity in their arguments through replacing first personal pronouns indicating the
writers positioning and collective interactional Themes, by third person pronouns,
75

like the proponents of capital punishment, and the use of impersonal it assigned as
Theme in impersonal projections, expressed in it is said, it is reported, it is asserted.
At times too, first and second person pronouns are replaced by nouns and nominal
groups, many of which are abstract, the first argument, the murder rate, this fact,
capital punishment, the risk, life imprisonment, this lack of public confidence. These
indicate the writers enhanced maturity in exploiting the forms of language in
written mode (Kress, 1985a: 47). In terms of critical thinking, this indicates an
attempt at objectivity, that a good critical thinker would have tried to make in
thinking about an issue.
Experientially, the stage commences with a verbal process: claim, with the proponents of
capital punishment as a Sayer. This seems appropriate as the stage deals with arguments
proposed by the proponents of capital punishment. The text uses various processes, as can be
seen in Table 2.5.
Process
types
Text 2.3

Table 2.5 Processes Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Text 2.3
Material
Mental
Verbal
Intensive
Circ, Cause, Behav
Exist
and Possessive
34
8
22
9
5
3

The most striking feature of process types is that the stage (as in the jointly-constructed one)
uses a considerable number of verbal and mental processes in addition to material and
relational ones. This does not only reflect an analytical feature of the text, a feature of critical
writing, but also suggests that the text is concerned with dialogue (DSP, 1994), with the
unfolding of some series of arguments, put forward by those who support capital punishment.
This seems to be consistent with the function of the stage and the nature of a Discussion
genre.
Instances of verbal processes, the significance of which has been mentioned above, occur in:
In this case, David. R Frances states, and also in passive voice: it is asserted, it is said. A
striking feature related to verbal processes, (which is also the case in the subsequent stage),
as the result of research conducted prior to the writing activity, is the frequent occurrences of
an unconscious Participant (Eggins, 1994: 251) which is responsible for the verbal process,
such as statistics from the Home Office in Britain. Moreover, mental processes are mostly
cognition to construe the experience of sensing to denote the mental change (Mathiessen,
1998: 332) as in: although some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can
deter crime , or to construe a belief, as in they believe that capital punishment is the most
effective way to reduce crime . These may indicate the writers attempt to enhance the
breadth and sufficiency of the texts.
Other frequently appearing process types, such as material processes can be found in
illustrations or examples given by the writer to support each argument, The murder rate in
USA dropped , what will happen to them. While relational processes involving attribution
can be seen in: Life imprisonment would not be equally effective with capital punishment;
The second argument [[]] relates to the incapacitation of criminals. The last process type
existential occurs only occasionally, and can be found in: there have been 71 murders .

76

The use of various processes above, especially verbal and mental ones, indicates the
students improvement in writing capacity which is the result of their learning to write and
research, which had enabled them to hear other voices and to incorporate them in their
writing and thinking (Adam and Artemewa, 2002: 195). The presence of illustrations and
examples, realised in other process types, such as material processes may suggest that the
writer did not only tell the readers but also showed them (Chaffee et al, 2002), a typicality
of a critical thinker in writing, as outlined earlier.
To turn to Participants in the stage, the most striking feature, apart from those mentioned in
Theme selection above, is the frequency of Participants realised in long nominal groups,
some of which use clause embeddings, involving nominalisations. Examples are: The first
argument they claim, the third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment,
particularly in Indonesia]]. Nominalisation, which is a characteristic of all adult discourse
(Halliday, 1994a: 342), as alluded to earlier, also realises a more academic register as well as
the writers confidence and maturity in writing the text, which in turn suggests their
significant writing development (Colombi, 2002: 69-70: see also Christie, 2010a). Moreover,
nominalisations, which are metaphorical expressions, play a very crucial role, especially in
persuasive texts, as is the case with these texts, to make arguments not accessible to debate
(Martin, 1985). At the same time, the presence of embedded clauses in nominalisations and
other nominal groups, such as: some countries [[which implement capital punishment]],
the most effective way [[to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment]] shows that the
writer had moved in the direction of a more literate or written language to more formal
registers that use main clauses with embedded clauses (Colombi, 2002: 84). The final
significant feature in terms of Participants is concerned with the writers effort to use many
ways of saying the same thing, such as how to refer to the proponents of capital punishment
by providing a range of options, like: the proponents of capital punishment; those [[who
defend capital punishment]]; the advocates of capital punishment.
Similarly, various Circumstances help to add significant experiential information. These
happen in:
Circumstances of Location in place: in USA ( In USA, for example, there has been a
26% reduction of murder rate);
Circumstance of Manner: precisely (Its population knows precisely that );
Circumstance of Cause: of murder or drug trafficking, (if they are convicted of
murder or drug trafficking);
Circumstance of Intensity: from 24,562 in 1993 to 18,209 in 1997 (The murder rate in
USA dropped from 24, 562 in 1993 to 18, 209 in 1997).
The use of these Circumstances, some of which exemplify the implementation of capital
punishment, gives more precision and clarity to the meaning of the propositions. In academic
writing, this is desirable, advisable and even necessary to clarify the writers meaning
(Hinkel, 2002: 147).
Interpersonally, the stage in the text effectively uses a range of instances of modality.
Hypothetical modalities are expressed in various modal verbs, such as can, to construe
potentiality of capital punishment in subjective implicit orientation (Halliday, 1994a: 359):

77

[[that capital punishment can deter crime]]. In some cases, modal verb can is used to
construe the potentiality, expressed in objective explicit orientation, as in: it is almost
impossible [[for the prison system in Indonesia to gain publics confidence]]. . Other modal
verbs also show probability, such as will (some instances discussed above), may and would,
realised respectively in: Although some people may find; since such person may escape and
Life imprisonmentwould expose prison staffs . At times too, the text uses various Mood
Adjuncts to express the writers judgment about the statement, such as: actually, precisely.
All these modalities, may suggest the writers confidence and honesty, modesty, proper
caution and diplomacy in presenting arguments (Swales 1990a: 174). This, as alluded to
earlier, may entail the progression in the skill of argument, an essential component of CT,
from knowing what is true to contemplating what may be true (Kuhn, 1991: 297).
Conspicuous by its absence is the use of the first and second person pronouns, which
indicates the writers desire to keep her tenor impersonal. This is evidenced by the use of
passive forms of mental or verbal processes when the writers presented facts, as in: it is said,
that its population knows precisely, and projecting clauses or metadiscourse (Fairclough,
1992b): they believe. The significance of these various features of distancing devices, apart
from those mentioned earlier, is that they allow the text to be understood not only by those
who possess a shared, unspoken, implicit understanding of certain relevant features of the
context, but also those distant readers. This is because meanings are made available not only
to those who share an implicit understanding of the context (Bersntein, 1971: 14, see also
DSP, 1994: 122) but also those distant readers.
The Arguments against Element
The element has similar linguistic features and it can be evaluated in the same way the
previous element, to judge students development in writing as well as their critical thinking
and critical literacy skills.
One thing that needs a mention in this element is the frequency of relational processes (i.e.
circumstantial, cause), which do not simply indicate that the two participants are linked with
each other, but there is a sense of causality in this connection (Halliday, 1994b: 141;
2002a:174). These are realised in circumstantial processes, as in: which could lead to the
execution of innocent people. The effect of these relational processes is that they reduce the
number of conjunctions and describe the field in a richer experience through the employment
of a logical metaphor. Logically, there is a relation of consequence between the two
participants: which (capital punishment) and the execution of innocent people) which is
usually expressed in if then (see Martin and Rose, 2003: 140-141). However, in this
case, they are reconstrued as a process (causes, lead to). Thus, as Martin and Rose further
argue, we can unpack such a sequence as that of two figures related by conjunctions:
If the death penalty is implemented, then innocent people will be executed.
Apart from logical metaphor, the use of relational processes above also involves experiential
metaphors, as the participants are expressed in nominalisations (the execution of innocent
people).
78

Other Transitivity elements which help to build important experiential meaning are
Participants and Circumstances. In these two aspects, both writers seemed to exploit the same
strategy as that in the preceding stage, to build significant experiential information. In the
interest of space, therefore, they will not be described in detail here, except for two features.
First relates to the presence of specific Circumstances of location in time and place, which
give special impact to the readers, as mentioned above, because they may give occasions for
narrative remembering, especially regular occurrences regarding capital punishment, like
tomorrow morning at 8.00 a.m., in his article 'Capital Punishment: the justification of death'.
These may function as moral instruction in how to behave (Linde, 2001, p. 526-527) to
avoid capital punishment. Second, regarding the Participants the writers related the
arguments presented with Indonesian law conditions by mentioning several cases, such as
that stated by Nasution (Text 5.5) and the case of the chief of Indonesian House of
Representative, Akbar Tanjung (Text 5.7). This implies the writers evaluation on the
relevance of the materials they read with the text they were constructing - a feature of CL,
discussed earlier.
Another significant feature of Transitivity resources in this stage is concerned with thelexis
and the frequency of technical words related to capital punishment, or crimes committed by
those on whom capital punishment was imposed. Instances are: execution, crimes, murder
rate, death penalty, convicted, murder, drug trafficking, life imprisonment, that unexecuted
criminals, murders, the prison system, the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty,
legal council, accused, sentence, innocent people, criminals, the 1945 Constitution. All
these lead to the creation of a text which tends to be restricted on a specialised topic
(Stubb, 2001: 314). This, again, indicates that the writer was well-informed, having
relatively strong background knowledge about capital punishment an important aspect of
metacognition (Marzano, et al, 1988: 13-14). This, according to Barnett (1997: 70-71),
constitutes a reflexive capacity, which is part of what might be termed metacritical
capacities, fundamental to higher education. All these may suggest that the stage Building
Knowledge of the Field in the teaching program, as described above, contributed to the
students confidence and competence in exploiting various technical words relevant to the
topic and genre.
The Recommendation Element
This stage in general has similar linguistic features and can be evaluated in the same way as
the previous stages of the text. However, there are some linguistic features that need a brief
mention which indicate the writers growing capacity in writing, critical thinking and critical
litercay.
Textually the stage commences with a closing structural Theme Thus, combined with a
marked topical Theme after looking at both sides of arguments. The marked topical Theme
in the first message, again, suggests that the writer foregrounded that the position taken or
recommendation given is not superficial, but based on deep and thoughtful thinking. The
writer shows the readers that she had carefully considered other perspectives, opinions or
options and that they had very good, if not decisive, reasons to think that they are inadequate,
79

reasons that they were willing to share (Reichenbach, 2001: 99). Through the employment of
this marked-topical Theme, the stage gathers up the meanings which have accumulated.
This has led the stage to successfully function as the conclusion of the text.
Conspicuous is the presence of first person pronoun I indicating the writer thematising
themselves, realised in interpersonal Themes, I srongly argue; I do believe; Even though I
realise. These expressions indicate that the writer emphasised the point (Eggins, 1994,
Ravelli, 2000), which is required in the Discussion genre, and took a position (Ennis,
1987:12) or a standpoint (van Eemeren, etal, 2002) or a critical point (Barnett, 1997) a
critical thinking disposition concerned with in this study.
Another interesting lingustic feature in this stage concerns interpersonal strategies employed
by the writer. That is the way she employed objective modulations and her capacity to exploit
interpersonal metaphors by turning obligations from commands to statements. Expressions
that the writer intends as commands are realised as statements. This effort, to foreground
objectivity of a command is apparent and indicated by the frequent use of passive voice, as
in: that capital punishment needs to be implemented; it is still needed to be imposed . This
may suggest the writers capacity in exploiting various linguistic resources to make the
communication with the reader work best, by attempting to sustain their objectivity in
presenting arguments.
Moreover, in terms of expressing modulation, the writer seemed to have a richer linguistic
resources, shown by the exploitation of varying vocabularies to express modulation, or
necessity, such as need (above) and must (twice). The first must in However, the decision of
[[sentencing death penalty]] must be fair, just and adequate, corresponds to the proposed
rule or law (McCarthy and Carter, 1994: 130) or the social obligations inherent in the
information (Peters, 1986: 175) and the second must in Therefore we must be prepared to
execute criminals is the concluding evaluation by the author and represents a strong
imperative. The use of modulated declaratives, rather than commands to express obligation,
indicates the writers capacity in interpersonal metaphors the advantage of which are:
First, the obligation can be graded (DSP, 1992), so the strength of the command can
be adjusted, such as in examples above, where the writer used must and need which
are high modulation and should median (Halliday, 1994a: 362; Eggins, 1994: 189).
Second, declarative commands can have more than just you as the subject. This
means that responsibility for carrying out the command can be shared around, thus
cooperative action (DSP. 1992: 206). Moreover, declarative commands make no
claims that the speaker is the source of the command. Because they are
depersonalised and given an impersonal authority which is not specified, they are
more difficult to challenge (Kress and Hodge, 1979:123-124).
Another interesting matter regarding interpersonal strategies is the writer used first person
pronoun I and we, which makes explicit the ownership or source of the modalisation.
The use of these first person pronouns is desirable in this element as it is at this stage that the
writer is required to state his/her point in the Discussion genre. As the strong personal

80

opinions appear in one and the last part of the text, after more impersonal and factual cases
had been established, as discussed above, the employment of the first person pronouns
makes the text more powerful.
Overall, the interpersonal strategies used in this stage show the writers endeavour to state
forceful opinions, but in an objective and careful way, which is typical of a critical thinker.
Interpersonal strategies also show the writers critical thinking disposition, especially in
presenting argumentation in written form (Ennis, 1987: 15). Finally, the fact that the writer
made recommendations for action, shows that she engaged in knowledge-transformation
and that she is evaluating rather than reporting (Dudley-Evans, 2002: 132), a feature of
critical reading.
2.5 Conclusion
This chapter has presented a language program implemented with students teachers at a
tertiary level in Indonesia. It has shown that a synthesis of practices suggested by the theories
of critical thinking, critical literacy, critical pedagogy and the SFL genre-based approach is
possible and desirable in an English as a foreign language context like Indonesia.
The teaching program, as shown above in this chapter can be considered to have been
successful in many ways. It can help students develop their writing skills as well as critical
thinking and critical literacy. This can be seen from, among others, the texts the students
produced in the program, which present various apects of a more mature text, with sound
arguments through exploiting different linguistc resources and showing strong background
knowledge of the topic.
A similar program can be applied in the lower levels of education, such as in secondary and
primary levels, as will be exemplified in the following chapters. Chapter 3 will present an
instance of the implementation of the SFL GBA in the Indonesian context in a secondary
class where students, as in the program described in this chapter, also learned English as a
foreign language.

81

Chapter 3: A language program at the secondary level

This chapter will demonstrate how two major traditions of scholarship can be used to inform
the development of critical language and literacy programs at the secondary school level.
They are:
Action research a tradition that involves researchers in partnership in researching
practical educational problems with a view to improving them.
Genre based pedagogy a tradition already explained in earlier chapters, and in this
case employed in the light of the most recent secondary school English curriculum for
Indonesia (need proper ref here).

82

3.1 Introduction
Where chapter 2 presented a language and literacy program at the tertiary level, this chapter
will present a language program conducted cooperatively with a teacher and a class of
secondary school students in Indonesia using action research (Kemmis & McTaggart,
1988a,b, 2005; Carr & Kemmis, 1993; Cohen & Manion, 1985; McTaggart (1990); Smith
(1990) and Reason & Bradbury, 2001; Macintyre, 2000; McNiff & Whitehead, 2005; Noffke,
2009; Wells, 2009; Noffke & Somekh, 2009; Stringer et al, 2010). Like other action
research, this research aimed to bring about useful practical knowledge and understanding for
all parties involved in the teaching of English. The interest was in exploring the SFL GBA,
including basic principles, aims and implementation of each step of the approach in the
classroom in order to promote an improved quality in the teaching of English. Enhancement
of teachers understanding of both the theoretical and practical aspects of the SFL GBA will
be of great value to help them promote their teaching quality, and this in turn will eventually
enhance students achievement in their learning of English. Moreover, like other action
research, this kind of program should also uphold the principle that everyone in the program
has a status, in that everyone has something to share and to contribute .
The SFL genre based approach is compatible with the 2006 or the 2007 curriculum of
English for International standard schools in Indonesia (Depdiknas, 2007). Here, we will
focus on the implementation of the genre-based approach in two teaching cycles, as
suggested in the 2006 English curriculum of Indonesia (Depdiknas, 2006). The two cycles
are:
A written cycle which aims to develop students reading and writing ability. In this
cycle, all stages of the genre-based approach can be implemented, such as: Building
Knowledge of the Field, Modelling, Joint Construction and Independent
Construction.
A spoken cycle which aims to help develop students spoken language ability. Like
in the written cycle, in this cycle all stages of the genre-based approach were
implemented in the study reported here, including: Building Knowledge of the Field,
Modelling, Joint Construction and Independent Construction.
Apart from the stages and basic principles of the SFL GBA, the program reported in this
chapter, implemented as it was in an English as a foreign language context, also emphasised
two aspects. These are:
The important characteristics of a successful teacher, as reported by Ladson-Billings
(1994, cited in Allington & Johnston, 2002: 22) which are also relevant to diaogic
education from critical pedagogy. There are at least two characteristics: the first is
that the teacher should be sure that all students can learn. The second is that the
teacher should try to help students to achieve excellence but attach a great importance
to individual uniqueness. This is based on the belief that At risk students can be
taught to perform successfully at demanding academic level (Richardson, Morgan &
Fleener, 2006:34).

83

 As in the previous program at the tertiary level, the program reported in this chapter
also emphasises the necessity of the use of the students native language, in this case
bahasa Indonesia. This has been guided by theoretical discussions and research
findings about the use of the students native language, whish suggest that the first
language may contribute to student target language comprehension, use and learning
and that a small amount of first language use may indeed lead to more
comprehensible input and target language production (Turnbull & Dailey-OCain,
2009: 5).
3.2 The Indonesian English curriculum
The teaching of English in Indonesia has had a long history, since independence in 1945.
The curriculum of English in Indonesia has gone through several changes, starting from The
Old Style Curriculum, The New Style Curriculum, The 1984, The 1994, 2001, 2004
curricula (Kasihani, 2000) and the last one is The 2006 curriculum, which is called the
KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan/ Curriculum of Educational Unit). Students
of secondary schools are expected to develop their English in all language skills, including
listening, speaking, reading and writing. It is said in the curriculum of English (Depdiknas,
2006, see also the standard competence of English in for international standard schools
released by Depdiknas, 2007) that the teaching of English should focus on the development
of four language skills, and each skill should cover the following:
Listening
Students can make meaning of simple transactional and interpersonal spoken discourse in
formal and informal situation, in different text types like: recount, narrative, procedure,
descriptive, report, in daily life contexts.
Speaking
Students are able to express meaning in simple transactional and interpersonal spoken
discourse, in formal and informal situations, in text types such as: recount, narrative,
procedure, descriptive, report, in daily life contexts.
Reading
Students are able to make meaning of simple transactional and interpersonal written texts, in
formal and informal situations, in different text types such as: recount, narrative, procedure,
descriptive, report, in daily life contexts.
Writing
Students are able to express meaning in simple transactional and interpersonal written texts
in the forms of recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, report, in daily life contexts.

84

Unlike the previous curriculum of English, the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia, does
not recommend explicitly any particular teaching method. Teachers are just given a guideline
on language skills that have to be developed when students learn English. Teachers can use
any method in order to teach their students. However, the aim of the teaching of English in
the junior high school, stated above, makes clear that the 2006 curriculum of English in
Indonesia emphasises the students mastery of different text types and development of
language skills, which is in line with the SFL GBA. Thus, although this method is not
mentioned explicitly, it is clear that the curriculum is based on the theory and concepts of the
SFL GBA, which was initially developed in Australia, and now has been used not only in
Australia but also in other countries from primary up to tertiary levels. Therefore, the SFL
GBA is still relevant to the 2006 curriculum and can be applied in the classroom to teach
English, especially in secondary schools.
3.3 Action research
The program described here is based on three cycles of action research (Emilia et al, 2008)
which involved the implementation of the SFL GBA, focusing on written and spoken
language as suggested in the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia. The study involved
two university researchers, one female teacher and one class of 44 eighth grade students for
one semester. All involved in this study together acted as learners, wanting to find out more
about what was happening in the English classroom and to contribute to our understanding of
the processes of English teaching and learning in Indonesian contemporary schools in
general, and in the class involved in particular. Apart from that, the study was also about
developing partnership between teachers and university researchers, in which distinctions
between theory and practice are challenged and expertise is distributed as we learn together
(Baumfield, et al 2008:1). Regarding this partnership, the researchers tried to be aware of a
possible internal challenge (Johnston, 2009: 245) in doing action research with classroom
teachers. That is, as Johnston argues, there is an inherent power imbalance in a great many
collaborative relationships, especially teacher-researcher partnership, and this has the
potential to create problems. Therefore in commenting on what happened in the classroom
and then acting upon the results of the analysis, we that is, the academic researchers, led by
Emilia - were very careful. Fortunately, the teacher involved was open-minded and was
willing to learn, even though she already had a strong background knowledge of the SFL
GBA and she was a very experienced teacher. It was thus kept in mind that to create a
partnership like this was not easy, for it can be difficult to find teachers who are willing to be
observed and to work cooperatively with researchers from outside the schools.
Like other action research, this research has three dimensions: professional, personal, and
political (see Noffke, 2009 and Carr & Kemmis, 2009). In the professional dimension, the
focus is on issues related to developing the practices of schooling and the enhancement of the
teaching profession. The personal dimension involves the individual process of examining
ones own practice, in this case the teachers and researchers practice. This concerns
questions around individual actions, how one might do things differently to improve ones
practice, or initiate research with a central emphasis on the value of the teachers own voice.
Finally, the political dimension focuses on the interest, in this case in developing students

85

who can write English well, who will thus develop useful skills, and build a sense of agency
in dealing with life issues in the future as well as a sense of civic participation in the building
of more democratic social and political relations, as pointed out by Noffke (2009: 8-18; see
also Carr & Kemmis, 2009).
One matter about action research should be noted here, that is, action research is practical,
and it is so practical that when people meet the idea they often say, thats what I do in any
case, whats different? (McNiff & Whitehead, 2005:2). What is different, as McNiff &
Whitehead further explain, is that action research insists on teachers justifying their claims to
knowledge by the production of authenticated and validated evidence, and then making their
claims public in order to subject them to critical evaluation. Hence, it is also believed in this
study that if we want to improve the opportunities for learning in school, we must find ways
to create the conditions for the dialogue of thinking together to become the dominant mode
of the interaction, (Wells, 2009:55). These conditions, Wells further suggests seem to
include, among others, the following:
The topic must be of interest to the participants;
Individual students must have relevant ideas, opinions or experiences that
they want to share;
Others must be willing to listen attentively and critically.
Overall, following the 2006 curriculum of English for junior high school in grade 8 in
Indonesia, it was decided to focus on the teaching of the personal Recount genre, using the
SFL GBA, and exploring its teaching using an action research cycle. Students would be
asked to talk and share information about their personal experience in the past, and they
would also be asked to write about them.. As to the topics, it was decided that these would be
health and vacations.
The teaching program outlined below has the following phases: a diagnostic phase, in which
students capacities are established, and any problems are identified, and a therapeutic phase,
in which steps are taken to address the problems. However, before providing an account of
these, it is important that the teacher and researchers understand the nature of a Recount
genre. Hence, the next section will provide an overview of the schematic structure and
grammatical features of a Recount.
3.4 An overview of characteristics of a Recount text
A Recount text, especially a personal Recount is a text which retells activities in the past.
A Recount text has the following characteristics:
Purpose: To retell what happened and this can involve the writers personal
interpretation.
Focus: A sequence of activities written chronologically.
Types: Recount can be classified into:

86

 Personal Recount: Retelling personal experiences of the writer;

Factual Recount: Retelling an event or an incident, like news or accident
reports sometimes found in newspapers;
Imaginative Recount: Creating an imaginative character and imaginative
events, like a day in a puppy life.
A Recount can be based on the writers personal experience or imaginative, outside the
writers experience (Western Australian Education Department, 1997:45).
A Recount has a schematic structure that is displayed in Table 3.1 below, adapted from
Derewianka (1990); DSP (1994); Christie & Derewianka (2008); Martin & Rose, (2008).
Schematic
Structure
Orientation

Table 3. 1 The Schematic Structure of a Recount Text

Function
Orients the readers to the events that follow which introduces
character(s) in a setting of time or place (or sometimes both)
(Some Recounts, introduced to Indonesian students, like those written
by the students in this study, has an Opening Salutation (Hi, My name
is Karina ).

Record of Events

Give a sequence of events .

Reorientation
(and sometimes
Comments)

Returns the reader to the point of departure (and sometomes the writer
also gives comments on the whole sequence of events described).
Rounds off the text, normally returning to the protagonists to the point
whence thy came .

Examples of Recounts can be found in a biography, an autobiography, news items, history, a

letter, a journal, or a testimony of a witness of an event or insident, accident report made to
claim for an insurance (Anderson & Anderson, 1997; Durkin, Ferguson & Sperring, 2006).
Some Recounts have an evaluative comment or a conclusion which may constitute the
writers comment on events described previously, but this is just optional. Evaluative
comments are often comments reflecting the writers feeling about the events mentioned in
the previous part of the Recount (Western Australian Education Department, 1997). The
conclusion is written in the last paragraph and because this part is optional, some Recounts
may not have this conclusion paragraph.
Some linguistic features of Recounts
A Recount also has several linguistic features, among others:
Use of specific participants: a younger brother, sister, mother, father, or the writer
him/herself: I, my brother, my mother (I have an older sister. Her name is Anin );
Use of the past tense: (Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation);
87

 Use of temporal and additive conjunctions to connect the messages of clauses

(Martin, 2009: 156) and help make the text cohesive: After, when, then, before,
during, or conjunctions such as first, next, then;
Personal comments (except for factual Recount) (see Derewianka, 1990:15-16) (The
holiday was cool : I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy).
After describing the features of a Recount text which is the focal text in this study, it is now
time to describe each activity conducted in each cycle of the action research.
3.5 The teaching program: Action research cycles
At one level, the idea of participatory action research is straightforward enough (McTaggart,
1997: 27). Social psychologist, Kurt Lewin (1946, 1952, cited in McTaggart, 1997: 27),
inventor of the term action research in English usage, described action research as
proceeding in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of planning, acting, observing, and
evaluating the results of the action. In practice, the process begins with the idea that some
kind of improvement or change is desirable (see also Macintyre, 2000: 1). In deciding just
where to begin in making improvements, as Kemmis & McTaggart (1988; 1997:27) argue, a
group identifies an area where members perceive a cluster of problems of mutual concern
and consequencs. The group decides to work together on a thematic concern (Kemmis &
McTaggart, 1988, cited in McTaggart, 1997:27).
In each stage, to follow Stringer et al (2010) and to some extent Macyntire (2000), activities
in each cycle of each stage can be described in three different phases, including: Look,
Think, and Act. To follow Mcyntire (2000) all activities conducted were also informed by the
literature.
Look is the stage when classroom observations were conducted by the researcher, to
see to what extent the SFL genre based approach had developed, whether it was
successful, what aspects could be improved, whether students learning could be
enhanced, and what strategies could be used to enhance students learning.
Think is when the researcher and teacher discussed the above matters in the post
observation conference and before the teaching learning process began, and they
analysed the evidence obtained from observation. This phase also involved tentative
action plan, consideration of different strategies.
Act is when the teacher and researchers took action to improve the teaching practice
and students learning. This stage also involved monitoring the effects or evaluation
of strategies used.
Thus, to follow Stringer et al (2010), the cycle of the action research can be described in
three phases as described in Figure 3.1 below:

88

(Gather
Information
Observe
Classroom)

(Gather
Information
Observe
Classroom)

Look

Think

(Gather
Information
Observe
Classroom)

Look

(Reflect
Analyse
Classrom
Activity)

Think

Act

(Reflect
Analyse
Classrom
Activity)

Act

(Plan, Teach,
or Evaluate)

Look

(Plan, Teach,
or Evaluate)

Think

(Reflect
Analyse
Classrom
Activity)

Act

(Plan, Teach,
or Evaluate)

Figure 3.1 Action research cycles

(From Stringer et al, 2010: 8)

Activities to collect data in all stages involved classroom observations, interviews and
discussion with the teacher in post-observation conference and discussions with the students
inside and outside the classroom. Document analysis was also conducted, especially to do
with students work and the curriculum of English for Junior High School in Indonesia and
some text books used in the class.
Below is the discussion of each step to provide detailed information on how every step of the
SFL GBA can be implemented at a secondary level of education in an Indonesian context,
especially in teaching a Recount text.
3.5.1

Diagnostic Phase: Cycle 1

Activities in each stage can be described below.

3.5.1.1 Phase 1: Look
In this stage the researchers asked these questions:

89

 Does the research project address a concrete issue or practical problem?

Is the research sufficiently small scale to be combined with a routine workload?
Regarding the GBA, the questions were:

To what extent is the SFL GBA developed in the teaching of English?

In what way should the teaching be improved?
How will the pupils learning be enhanced?
What strategies can be tried to bring about the enhancement of students learning?

As in the program described in Chapter 2, this program took account of students

perspectives. Flutter and Ruddock (2004, cited in Baumfield et al, 2008:36-37) give a
number of reasons why student consultation is a key to improving teaching and learning.
These will be described below.
For pupils: Involving pupils in the discussion about teaching and learning

Develops an understanding and awareness of learning processes;

Helps pupils to see learning as a serious matter;
Promotes the development of higher order thinking skills (metacognition);
Raises pupil self confidence and self- esteem;
Allows pupils to acquire technical language for talking about learning.

For teachers: Involving students in the discussion about teaching and learning:

Offers teachers feedback to help improve aspects of their practice;

Can offer help to improve the quality of teacher-pupil relationships;
Enables teachers to identify problems impeding pupils progress;
Helps to create a more collaborative classroom environment;
Can be used to develop new ideas to improve teaching and learning.

For schools involving pupils in the discussion about teaching and learning:

May suggest new directions for school improvement;

Can contribute to monitoring and evaluating processes for school self-review;
Helps to establish a more positive learning culture within the school;
Provides a practical expression of ideas taught in ciitizenship education;
Encourages pupils and teachers to feel that they are valued and respected members of
an inclusive, collaborative learning community.

When all data needed had been obtained, the next phase was to analyse it, when the
researcher and teacher thought about the meaning of the data which would become the basis
of action for improvement.
3.5.1 2 Phase 2: Think

90

The observations made in the diagnostic step provide a broad description of the class, in a
manner which is common in Indonesian contexts. These are, among others:
The class was big. Different from the other programs proposed in this book, the class
involved in the program reported here consisted of 44 students, and this is common in
Indonesian schools. This big class made the teacher think that feedback to individual
students about their writing was impossible to do in the classroom. Certainly,
feedback needs a special technique to handle students work, to manage a conference
in ways that pay attention to each students development and needs.
The class did not have sufficient sources for learning. Visual aids that can help
students learn English, like those available in Australian schools, as will be described
in Chapter 4, were not available. This has resulted in the students being not immersed
in the English language learning. A print-rich environment is really needed by the
students who learn English literacy (Allington & Johnston, 2002:23), even in upper
levels of secondary school and tertiary level. The physical classroom environment can
be seen in the picture below.

Picture 3.1 Seating arrangement in an Indonesian classroom

91

Moreover, regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA, which is the focus of the study,
the evidence in the diagnostic stage revealed the following:
Classroom activities were to some extent relevant to the stages of the SFL GBA, as
proposed by the theorists, and as discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. The teacher, like
many other Indonesian teachers, seemed to have a good understanding of the SFL
GBA, including the stages of the SFL GBA. Many teachers, including the one
involved in this study, have attended a lot of trainings about the English curriculum,
which is in large part to do with the SFL GBA. However, it is also possible that the
teacher might not clearly understand the purpose and theoretical basis of each stage of
the SFL GBA and what activities should be conducted in each stage. For example,
teachers are sometimes uncertain about whether the stages of the SFL GBA should
run in a linear way, or in a lock step, or whether all stages should be conducted in one
meeting only.
Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA, it was found that the students and the
teacher, who at that time dealt with the topic on health, went through each stage of the
SFL GBA in only one meeting. As this is not recommended in the SFL GBA, this
needed to be discussed.
First of all was to do with the stage Building Knowledge of the Field. This stage was
used to introduce the focal text to the students, including the linguistic features of the
text. Students in this stage were also asked to list as many vocabulary items as
possible from different sources, including the resource book and newspapers. This is
not quite appropriate as the aim of the stage, as alluded to in Chapters 1 and 2, is to
build students background knowledge about the topic, not about the text in focus.
Moreover, that the students only listed vocabulary items did not seem to help them to
create a good Recount text. While vocabulary is very important, students also must
understand the nature of the text they are to create in writing, and this involves work
on the overall schematic structure. This suggests the need to promote the teachers
understanding of the aim and theoretical basis of the GBA pedagogy. It also suggests
that the teacher needs to understand the stages in the target genre and their purpose.
The second matter was to do with the Modelling. The Modelling stage was conducted
in a quite an appropriate way in that the teacher showed the model text in a
transparency. This is relevant to the suggestion from SFL genre-theorists to allow the
teacher and the students to share comments and to talk about the text as a class more
easily. The students, based on informal conversation with them, also liked to have the
model text presented in a transparency. However, the Modelling was seemingly too
short and the explanation was not detailed enough. Therefore, the students, as shown
in the texts they wrote, did not yet have a clear understanding of the text in focus in
terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features, including expressions that
they could use in the text that they would write in the joint construction and
independent construction.

92

The third matter was to do with the joint construction text. In this stage the students in
group of threes reconstructed a jumbled text into a coherent text.The teacher
apparently regarded this activity as an acceptable alternaive to Joint Construction as
the SFL GBA normally considers it.
The text was made by the teacher. This activity took quite a long time as the jumbled
text that the students had to rearrange was put outside the class and displayed on a
wall only. So, each student had to go out of the class to see the text. Some students
were just staying in the class and did not seem to be actively involved in the session.
Regarding this, there were two matters that needed to be discussed with the teacher.
First of all, the fact that the Joint Construction was to do with rearranging the text was
not appropriate as the main aim of this phase was to enable students to create their
own text in groups to ensure that they had a clear understanding of the focal text in
terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text and also the
background knowledge about the topic they wrote. Moreover, the fact that the
students were not given a text led to a waste of time which actually could have been
used by the students to enhance their understanding of the text and their writing skills.
The fact that the students rearranged a jumbled text also did not give the students a
sense that writing is recursive process, that they have to write in a long process,
needing to revise, to edit and to proofread (Gibbons, 2002). The result was that the
text written by all groups of students was the same, and an example of a text that one
group of students wrote in the Joint Construction can be seen below.
Text 3.1 An example of a jumbled personal Recount
(Rrearranged by the students in the Joint Construction stage)
2. My name is Andre
I am fourteen years old
I have a little brother
7. His name is Andy
He is four years younger than me
Two days ago Andi had a fever
6. My mother tried to lower the fever.
By giving him some medicine
However until the next day his fever had not gone out
3. So, she took Andi to the hospital
In the hospital, the doctor examined Andy
Then he said, that Andi had dengue fever.
5. My mother was very worried.
My father tried to calm her down.
Because Andys illness was not very bad.
4. There is still a hope, said the doctor to my mother.
Everyday the doctor checked Andy
And gave him the proper treatment and medicine
1. Finally, a week after Andys fever had gone.

93

he doctor told us that his critical moment had passed.

And Andy could go home as soon as possible.

The text above has the following elements or schematic structure relevant to a Recount text.
These are:
Salutation: Hi, my name is Andre.
Orientation: I have a little brother. He is four years younger than me. His name is
Andi.
Record of Events: starting from Two days ago Andi had a fever through to
..Finally a week after, Andys fever had gone.
Reorientation: The doctor told us that Andys critical moment had gone. And Andi
could go home as soon as possible.
The text above also indicates that the students, when asked to rearrange a jumbled text, had a
good control of the schematic structure of a Recount text. However, when they were asked to
write individually, as will be shown later, the students in general, even those categorised into
high achievers seemed to still need assistance in writing a successful Recount text, both in
terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features.
The last matter to do with the SFL GBA concerned the independent construction of the text
which was conducted in one sitting and was conducted in a formative test. This again, does
not seem to be appropriate, as writing was not taught as a process, which is actually an issue
in the SFL GBA in that it focuses on the product (see the discussion in Christie, 2010b) and
the writing condition like this did not give the students a real writing experience that a
professional writer usually goes through, that is that they have to have time to revise, to edit
and to proofread.
Examples of texts the students wrote in this stage can be seen in Tables 3.2 below, written by
a student categorised as a low achiever. The text, as can be seen below, was written in one
paragraph, which suggests that the students at this stage did not yet have a good control of
the schematic structure of a Recount text which should have an Orientation, Record of events
and Reorientation, all of which should be written in different paragraphs.
Text 3.2 An example of a Recount text written in the diagnostic stage
Orientation

A week ago I was sick.

Record of Events

I to attack disease a influenza or cold. I went to the hospital. I a check up

in my disease. After me check up a doctor talk to me that me to attack
disease influenza in serious condition. And a doctor gave me treatment and
medicine. My medicine shape tablet . I hoppen my sick quick recover. My
doctor gave me suggestion for not eat ice and sweet foods. May my sick
quick recover. I must obedient at suggestion. But when me sick my parents
very panic ever me sick my parents bring me to the hospital. I promise to
not eat ice and sweets foods because thats can make me sick again. When
I was sick I cant playing with my friends, I cant go to school. If me not
sick my parent can bring me stroll and me can playing with my friends and
me can go to school. While I sick I always check up to can treatment

94

intensive and to cure my sick. My docter gave me prescription to me

health.
Reorientaion

My mother called so that to me must listen suggestion a doctor.

Moreover, from the linguistic features, at a glace it can be seen that the writer still struggled
to write a successful Recount as she still made a lot of grammatical mistakes. She did not
seem to have a sense of grammar, and made mistakes in several apsects below:
Subject-verb agreement (I to attack disease, a influensa or cold ). This expression
is actually a word-for word translation of an expression in bahasa Indonesia. The
expression suggests the students struggle in subject-verb agreement ( I to attack) in
the use of an article in English (a influensa).
Inappropriate lexical choices (I hoppen my sick quick recover).
The writer indeed shows some understanding of the use of past tense, as in: A week ago I
was sick; I went to the hospital; The doctor gave me suggestion . However, in general this
student does not seem to have explicit knowledge (Ellis, 2009: 11) of English grammar.
Knowledge of grammar (of whatever kind), as suggested by Elder & Ellis (2009: 167) is an
important component of an L2 proficiency.
All these suggest that scaffolding provided by the teacher is really needed by the student in
terms of grammar and control of the schematic structure of a Recount text and therefore
writing should be taught as a process (Gibbons, 2002; Gracia, 2009) when students should be
given time to revise, to edit and to proofread their writing.
Text 3.2 also suggests the need for direct telling (Callaghan & Rothery, 1989) of linguistic
features of a Recount text more than once for this student, given that there are so many
grammatical mistakes she made in the text and there are so many aspects that need
improvement. All these also suggest the necessity of explicit teaching about linguistic
features and grammar relevant to the focal text.
Another text, Text 3.3, written by a mid achiever at this stage can also be seen in Table 3.3
below, written by a girl categorised as a mid achiever.
The text, as can be seen below was written in two paragraphs. The first is a Salutation: My
name is Karina. Iam fourteen years old. The second paragraph describes what happened to
her and she mentioned all events in one paragraph.
A more mature Recount lists events in paragraphs and each event is written in a different
paragraph, as can be seen in the Recount plan offered by the Western Australia Education
Department (1997) below. This may suggest that explicit teaching on the schematic structure
is still needed by the students categorised as mid achiever. The Modelling stage should be
conducted in a more comprehensive way, providing students with a variety of texts which
can lead them to have a good control of the schematic structure of the focal text.

95

In terms of linguistic features, the text shows some grammatical mistakes, such as: Thee
weeks ago when I am at the school Which suggests the students capacity to use past tense
and the use of article the which is not appropriate. However, compared with Text 3.2, this
text is in some ways much better and shows the writers emerging control of some linguistic
features of a Recount text and explicit knowledge of English grammar. These are among
others:
Use of specific participants: I am fourteen years old.
Use of a past tense (despite the mistake mentioned above): When I arrived at home;
My mother gave me some medicine.
Use of some linguistic resources for connecting messages via temporality: next in The
next morning ; Finally after three days ; addition: And he said ; causality:
because my illness was not very bad; So, I was recovered from my illness.
Salutation

Text 3.3. Another example of a Recount text written at the diagnostic stage
My name is Arina. I am fourteen years old.

Orientation:

Three weeks ago when I am at the school, in the middle of English lesson, I am
dizzy and felt faint.

Record of Events:

When I arrived at home I still felt faint. So, my mother gave somemedicine and
vitaminC to me. After three days I have a stomachache . So my mother gave
me stomachace medicine. But after two days my stomachache have not gone.
So, my mother took me to the hospital. In the hospital the doctor examined me.
And he said I have a diarhea. My mother was very worried. My father told him
to calm down because my ilness was not very ad. The doctor gave me the
proper treatment and medicine. He told me I must get some rest and drank lots
of liquids. The next morning I still stomachache and still often went to the
bathroom. Finally, after three days, my stomachache have gone.

Reorientation

So, I was recovered from my illness. I dont want illness again.

In terms of thematic progression, the writer could employ reiteration and zig-zag
Theme progressions. The reiteration Theme progression can be seen below:
When I arrived at home
I still felt faint.

Moreover, the zigzag pattern, when the parts of the Rheme in the previous clause
becomes the theme in the following clause, can be seen below:
In the hospital the doctor examined me
And he said .

96

 Different process types, including relational processes to describe the desease: My

illness was not very bad; My mother was very worried; material processes: My
mother took me to the hospital; verbal processes to involve dialogue in the text: My
mother said: the doctor told me . The presence of verbal processes or dialogues in a
text suggests an important writing skill development (Kress, 1982).
The use of modality, such as must in I must get some rest. The use of this modality,
although it does not occur frequently can be indicative of acknolwedgement of
interpersonal relationship and the social structures governing appropriacy of
language (Amstrong, 2009: 148).
The writer still indeed needed some help in creating a successful Recount text. However, if
only she had been given an opportunity to revise the text, there was a possibility that the text
would be better and achieved its purpose more successfully. This again, suggests the need for
time for revision and the need for writing to be taught as a process.
The last example of texts written by a boy, categorised as a high achiever in joint discussion
between the teacher and the researchers can be seen in Texts 3.4. below. In terms of the
schematic structure, Text 3.4 is similar to Texts 3.2 and 3.3, showing he did not fully
understand the genre. He wrote the text in two paragraphs. The writer did not seem to be
aware that a text, a Recount in particular, should have an Orientation, Record of Events, and
reorientation, all of which should be written in a different prargraph. Record of Events in
such a long text as Text 3.4, should definitely be written in more than one paragraph. This
confirmed to the researchers and the teacher that the modelling stage, including explicit
teaching about the text structure, was essential if students were to achieve a good control of
the genre.
However, in terms of linguistic features, the text shows a lot of aspects that indicate the
writers maturity and grasp of English grammar and linguistic features of a Recount text.
These can be seen from several aspects below.
Successful use of tense. The writer uses present and past tenses in appropriate places.
Thus he uses the simple present tense tointroduce himself and his brother: Hi, my
name is Irfan Argya, My brothers name is . The writer can also successfully
present tense in dialogues involved in the text written in directive speech (e.g. There
is still hope said Dr. Khodijah; Finally Dr. Khodijah said: You can go home this
day). These dialogues, as indicated above, suggest the writers significant
development in writing ability and make the text more lively. These dialogue in
present tense did not appear in other texts.
Salutation
Orientation

Text 3.4 An example of a Recount text written in the diagnostic stage

Hi, my name is Muhammad Irsa. Please call me Irsa. I am thirteen years
old.
Now I want to tell you about the story of my brother. My brothers name is
Marwan. He is seven years old.

97

Record of events

Last year, my brother (had sick). My father and my mother was very
worried. So, they gave him some medicine to lower the fever. My father
called the doctor to my house. The doctors name was Khodijah. She was
very kind. Dr. Khodijah examined my brothers body. Then she told to my
father and my mother that my brother suffered from typhus. So, Dr.
Khodijah took my brother to the hospital. In the hospital Dr. Khodijah
examined my brothers body again. She took the stetoscope and
thermometer to checked my brothers body. there is still hope said Dr.
Khodijah to my father and my mother. My mother was very worrid. But
my father tried to calm her down because my brothers illness was nt very
dangerous. So, my brother stayed in the hospital for a while. My brother
didnt go to the school because he was in the hospital. Every day I went to
the hospital after school to meet my brother. Sometimes my brothers
friends and teachers went to the hospital after school to check marwan. My
brother was very happy because he could meet his friends in the hospital.
In the hospital my brother made a new friend. His name was faizal. He
suffered the same illness. Everyday my brother and his friend played
together in the hospital. He was very happy because he could play again
with his new friend. He wasnt alone again. In the hospital my mother and
my father accompanied my brother because my brother didnt want alone
in the hospital.
After a month, my brother s fever had gone down. Dr. Khodijah said to
my brother that he could go home this month. My brother was very happy
because he could meet his friends again in his school. Every day Dr.
Khodijah gave him proper treatment and medicine. Finally Dr. Khodijah
said: You can go home this day. to my brother. Before he went home he
said goodbye to his friend faizal., his friend in the gospital. Faizal was
very happy because my brother could go home this day. My brother didnt
want to sick again. He didnt want in hospital again. After returned home
he felt nice. He undestand that health was very important We must keep
our body healthy said my brother to me. In his school he told to his
teachers and friends about his story. My brothers friends listened
carefully to my brother said because they didnt want to be sick. Next
month my brother met again with his friend in the hospital, faizal. Faizal
didnt sick again. My brother was very happy because he could meet again
with his friend and played together again. Faizal was a new student in my
brothers school.

Reorientation.

My brother was very happy because they could study together in the same
class and every day they went to school together with bus.

Thematic progression. The writer uses Theme choices successfully to identify family
members (e.g. my brothers name, my father), some marked Theme to signal
temporality which shows a strong progression. For examples:
Last year my brother had a fever ;
Every day I went to the hospital;
Sometimes my brothers friend and teachers went to the hospital),
After a month my brothers fever had gone.
Before he went home, he said goodbye to Faizal.

98

The writer also uses structural Themes (e.g. So, they gave him some medicine; Then she
told my father; because he could meet his friend in the hospital).
Successful use of past tense: All sentences indicating events in the past were written
in the past tense, as can be seen in examples above.
Diversity in lexical choices: suffered, illness, alone, accompanied, proper treatment,
keep the body healthy.
Lexical cohesion through the use of Reference. This can be seen in some xpressions
below:
My brothers name is Marwan. He is seven years old.
My father and my mother were very worried. So, they gave him some medicine.
The doctors name was Khodijah. She was very kind.
Dr. Khodijah examined my brothers body. She took the stetoscope
Frequent use of verbal processes in dialogues invlolved in the text, such as: This will
be all right, said Dr. Hadijah, the significance of which has been mentioned above.
In general the writer of Text 3.4 already had much more linguistic resources to write a
Recount text. He confidently employed different linguistic resources. The text still does have
some grammatical mistakes, such as the first sentence in the Record of Events stage (Last
year my brother had sick) but these mistakes, if only he had been given more time to write
the text and had been given a chance to revise, to edit and to proofread the text, could
probably have been corrected. This student, as the Action will reveal, was asked to provide
help to his classmates and to be one of the small teachers in the classroom, so that the
teacher could focus on those who really struggled in the class.
Another text, Text 3.5, written by a high achiever can be seen below.
Salutation

My name is Mirza and I am 13 years old.

Orientation

Last year I suffered from appendicities.

Record of
events

At first I thought it was just an ordinary stomach ache. My stomach started to ache after I ate
chili on the way from Jakarta to Bandung. I couldnt sleep at night because my stomach was
aching. My parents thought it was just an ordinary stomach ache. At midnight my mother
took me to the hospital to check if there was any disease in my body. The doctor said that it
was just an ordinary stomach ache. Then we went back home and my stomach was still
aching. My stomach ached so much that I couldnt even go to school for a week.
After staying at home for one week my parents took me to another doctor because they had
a feeling that my stomach ache wasnt just a stomach ache. After the docotr examined my
body, the doctor said that I suffered from apppendicitis.
The next morning at seven oclock I had an appendectomy at Bungsu Hospital. The
surgery took two hours. The doctor said that my appendix was really bad and if I didnt have
the appendectomy straight away, I could have been dead by a couple of days. I had 12
stitches on my stomach. I had to stay in hospital until I was able to walk. I stayed in hospital

99

for six days.

After six days in hospital I was finally dismissed from the hospital, but I still couldnt go to
school until I got all my stitches off my stomach. I stayed at home for another week. All I
did were sleep, watch TV, and eat. It was boring. On Friday afternoon that week after my
father came home from work, my parents took me to the doctor to get my stitches off my
stomach. Getting off those stitches hurts a little but my father made it easy by encouraging
me. After the doctor took the stitches off my stomach we had dinner at a Sundanese
restaurant.
Reorientation

The next Monday I was able to go to school. I learnt a lesson from my sickness that I had to
be careful in choosing food. It was a good experience and the surgery was amazing. I am
happy to be alive and healthy.

Text 3.5 has an appropriate schematic structure of a Recount, including:

Salutation: My name is Mirza
Orientation: Last year I suffered from appendicities.
Record of Events: At first I thought it was an ordinary stomach ache...
Reorientation: The next Monday I was able to go to school. I learnt a lesson that I
had to be careful in choosing food.. It was a good experience and the
surgery was amazing. I am happy to be alive and healthy.
Text 3.5 also shows successful use of linguistic features relevant to a Recount text, as shown
in the previously analysed texts. However, this student, having an experience to live in
Australia, was able to use idiomatic English and does not make grammatical mistakes. The
most salient features of the text are:
Successful use of simple present and past tenses: A shift from the present tense to
past tense at the beginning of the text: My name is Mirza. Last year I suffered from
appendicities. On the reverse, a shift from the past tense to present tense in the
Reorientation also occurs: The next Monday I was able to go to school. I learnt a
lesson from my sickness that I had to be careful in choosing food. It was a good
experience and the surgery was amazing. I am happy to be alive and healthy.
Successful use of marked-Topical Themes to signal temporality which shows a strong
progression, from the beginning of the text in the Orientation: Last year, followed
by the signals of temporality in the Record of Events, from the beginning: At first,
through to the end: at midnight, after staying at home for one week, the next morning
at seven oclock, after six days in hospital, the next Monday.
More diversity in vocabulary: ordinary stomach ache, my stomach was aching, a
lesson, sickness, to be alive, the surgery, appendicitis, appendectomy, stay in
hoispital, stitches, I was finally dismissed from the hospital, getting my stitches off
my stomach, amazing, boring, a feeling, another week, a good experience.
Successful use of expressions which show his control of English: I stayed in
hospital. A lot of Indonesian students cannot differentiate between staying in
hospital and staying in the hospital. Some other expressions are: I was finally
dismissed from the hospital, It was boring; If I didnt have the appendectomy
100

straight away, I could have been dead; The surgery took two hours; They had a
feeling that m,y stomach ache wasnt just a stomach ache, I stayed at home.
Successful use of some nonfinite dependent clauses: After staying at home for one
week, my parents took me toanother doctor; Getting off those stitches hurts a little, I
have to be careful in choosing food.
Some long nominal groups at the beginning of a sentence: After six days in hospital,
on the way from Jakarta to Bandung; The next morning at seven oclock; a lesson
from my sickness, On Friday afternoon that week.
The use of verbal processes twice, in the expression: The doctor said.
This student, with the writer of Text 3.4 and other students categorised as high achievers
were then asked to help other students in writing, through peer conference. There is a
possibility that some schools, especially in big cities in Indonesia to have children or students
who have an experience kiving in an English speaking country like the writer of Text 3.5.
The teacher and school should make the best use of the presence of this kind of student to
help other children in learning English and to share their expreineces in learning English in
the mainstream class. Other texts written by the writer of Text 3.5 in the theurapeutic stage
will not be presented as they show similar characteristics to those of Text 3.5.
From the description of all texts written by the students in this disgnostic stage, apart from
some limitations above, there are two aspects regarding the mechanics that show the
students success in learning English, particulalrly learning to write.
The first one is to do with spelling. The students could spell most of the English
words in their text. This is amazing as spelling, even for English native speaker is
difficult. This is because English is not a phonetic language. The way the word is
written is different from the way it is pronounced.
The second one is to do with the neatness of the students hand writing. All students
hand writing is eligible, neat and clear (see some samples of students handwriting in
the Appendices). This is a skill that needs to be mainteined at school as hand writing
is also important for the development of students writing ability in the future.
Apart from all aspects above, there are two other matters that need to be discussed and then
acted upon.
The first one was the assessment of the students writing. The teacher evaluated students
writing on the basis of the number lines of the text. The text with 12 lines would get 6, 18
lines 6,5, 24 lines 7 and so forth. This was to some extent good to motivate the students to
write more, as the length of the text can be one of the indicators of students proficinecy in
writing (Gibbons, 2002; Emilia, 2005; Emilia et al, 2008; Christie & Derewianka, 2008),
(although it is not a very reliable measure). However, students writing, as genre theorists

101

suggest, should be evaluated in terms of the schematic structure and the linguistic features
relevant to the genre (Feez, 2002; Gibbons, 2002; Macken-Horarik, 2002; Schleppegrell,
2002; Christie, 2002, 2005; Christie & Derwianka, 2008). These can include the texture of
the text (Fries, 2004) and the cohesion and coherence of the text (Martin, 1992; Eggin, 1994;
Christie, 2005).
The second aspect was to do with the fact that the teacher used English all the time in the
classroom even when she explained about a difficult concept regarding grammar or the
model text. This has led to the fact that not all students in the class paid attention to her
explanation because they probably did not understand what she said. This is an issue that has
been well researched in the teaching of English (see the discussion of the use of students L1
in ESL contexts, edited by Murray & Wigglesworth, 2005 devoting to the role of L1 in ESL
context for adult learners and a book edited by Turnbull & Dailey-OCain, 2009 also
regarding the use of students L1 in different contexts of second and foreign language
teaching).
Finally, a lot of students still made basic grammatical mistakes in their text which suggests
their need for more scaffolding in terms of grammar. These mistakes, are among others can
be seen in Text 3.1 above, and a handful students could not even write a sentence. These
students seemed to be motivated to learn but they did not seem to have a chance to get
theteachers attention as the class was big.
Based on all the matters above, we discussed, thought and decided to act upon all the matters
above and therefore below the actions that we would take in the second cycle of the research
will be explained.
3.5.1.3 Phase 3: Act
The actions planned were carried out, relevant to the data obtained and research questions,
cfocussed on the following aspects:
Learning environment: Physical environment, including the class size and availabilty
of printed materials;
The implementation of the SFL GBA;
The teaching of other language skills and assessment;
Strategies to enhance the students learning: The use of bahasa Indonesia in the
teaching learning process and provision of feedback to students writing.
Plans for actions and actions regarding each aspect above will be described below.
Physical environment and availability of printed materials
Regarding the big class, there was nothing that could be done about it as this is one of salient
characteristics of Indonesian schools. One strategy to handle a big class, as will be described
later, concerning strategies to enhance students learning,was to make the best use of

102

excellent students to help the teacher to provide scaffolding to those who struggled in
learning to achieve a better result.
Another matter was to do with the availability of resources for students enrichment. This
was done among others by encouraging students and teachers to make the best of the text
books the students and the teacher had and to design a poster that could be put around the
class as visual aids or reminders. Moreover, we also decided to provide students with
materials that could be used to help them write a better text. The teacher and researchers also
provided students with expressions that students might need in writing a Recount text in
different topics. The expressions were written in both bahasa Indonesia and English. This, as
will be alluded to later, aimed to provide students with help in their learning though the use
of their L1 in their foreign language learning (This matter will be further elaborated later in
terms of the use of bahasa Indonesia in EFL classroom in Indonesia). Moreover, students
should also be encouraged to use dictionaries in the classroom maximally not only to find out
the meanings of certain vocabulary items, but also to understand how to use them in their
sentences. Other expressions about health that they could use in writing a personal Recount
were also given, which turned to be very helful for the students as they used these
expressions in their writing and data from the interview with them. These can be seen in
Table 3.2 below.
Table 3.2 Examples of expressions that can be used in a personal Recount about health

Saya sakit minggu lalu: I was sick/ill last week.

Sakit kepala: I had a headache. Perutku/gigiku sakit: My stomach/tooth was aching.
Tifus: Typhoid: My sister suffered from typhoid: I had typhoid.
Tifus penyakit yang berbahaya: Typhoid is a very dangerous disease.
Sakit panas: I had a temperature/ a fever.
Panasnya 40 derajat Celcius: Her temperature was 40 degrees Celcius.
Adik saya 7 tahun: My younger brother is/was 7 years old.
Dokter memeriksa: A doctor / The doctor (Kalau kata dokter sudah disebutkan
sebelumnya) examined my mother.
Kakak saya diobati: My brother had a medical treatment/wasmedically treated.
Dirawat di rumah sakit : I was in hospital for five days/ I was hospitalized/ I stayed in
hospital (Kata hospital jangan pakai the, kalau pakai the, seperti dalam I was in the
hospital for five days berarti di rumah sakit bukan karena sakit, tapi mungkin karena
alasan lain.
Ungkapan lain yang ada perbedaan antara pakai the dan tidak adalah:
I went to school = ke sekolah untuk belajar; to the school: ke sekolah untuk
main; I went to mosque= ke mesjid untuk sholat; to the mosque: Ke mesjid
untuk hal lain.
Kakak saya harus dirawat: My brother must be hospitalized. Must stay in hospital/Had to
stay/had to be hospitalized.
Dokter berkata kepada ibu saya bahwa kakak saya harus dirawat: The doctor
suggested/said to my mother (told my mother, told tidak pakai to) that my brother/sister
had to stay in hospital/had to be hospitalized.
Orang tua saya khawatir dengan : My parents were really worried about his illness;
Orang tua saya panik: My parents panicked.
Adik saya tidak mau minum obat: My little/ younger brother/sister did not want to take
the medicine (Ingat, to +infinitive).
Saya terluka/mengalami luka-luka: I was injured/ I was wounded.
Saya Luka berat: I was badly injured/seriously injured.
Luka saya diobati: My injury/wound was treated/cured.

103

Perlahan-lahan adik saya sembuh: Gradually/ step by step my sister recovered from
his/her illness.
Masa penyembuhannya tidak lama: the recovery stage was not long/ did not take a long
time.
Kakak saya boleh pulang dari rumah sakit: My brother was dismissed from the hospital/
could go home.
Saya berobat jalan: I became an outpatient/ I had an outpatient treatment.
Adik saya dibawa ke rumah sakit dengan ambulans: My brother was brought hospital by
an ambulance.
Saya berharap dia cepat sembuh: I hope he will recover from his illness/ will feel better
soon.
Saya berdoa mudah-mudahan dia cepat sembuh: I prayed for him/her that he/she would
recover/would feel better/would get better soon.
Adik saya sehat sekarang: My little brother/sister is well now/ feels better now.

These kinds of expressions were also provided in writing other Recount texts about other
topics, as will be alluded to later. Regarding the provision of these expressions, there may be
a concern among teachers that they spoonfeed the students. However, Emilia (2005), Emilia
et al (2008) found out that these expressions, even for university students are necessary
because students must be assisted to learn new vocabulary in a foreign language and how to
use it in appropriate contexts. Efforts should be made to create materials that can help
students learn more easily and effectively. The materials can be made by the teacher together
with the students or by the students working in groups. Students own work can also be part
of visual aids that can be used in the class to help them learn. Some posters of different text
types can be put in the classroom and these posters can be made by the students in their
leisure time or in the extracurricular program, like the English club or in the classroom when
students are encouraged to publish the text they construct.
The implementation of the SFL GBA
Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA, it was agreed by the teacher and researchers
that activities especially those relevant to the Building Knowledge of the Field and
Modelling were repeated. For reasons of time and the fact that there were many topics that
should be covered in grade Eight, the Joint Construction and Independent Construction on
the topic health were skipped (Feez, 2002). So, the second teaching cycle, as will be
described later, focused on the enhancement of students understanding of the content and
various expressions used in health and the schematic structure and linguistic features of a
Recount text. Some modifications were made in the two stages of the SFL GBA.
First of all, regarding the Building Knowledge of the field, the students were encouraged to
read different texts about health and instead of writing vocabulary items, the students were
asked to write expressions that they found in the texts just in case those expressions would be
used in their texts. This aimed to give students an opportunity to enhance their reading and
research skills, which is very important for their success in learning in the future. Moreover,
research skills, from the perspective of action research, as alluded to earlier, constitutes one
of the political dimensions that action research can offer for the development of civic life and
the development of the students to be agents of change in their future life (Noffke, 2009). All
104

the expressions given above were explained and the teacher and researchers showed the
students that when we want to say something in English we cannot just translate word for
word, but we need to think about how an English speaking person would say it. Apart from
enriching students mastery of various expressions that can be used in writing a Recount text,
this is also a strategy to allow students to learn grammar in context.
The teaching of grammar was then agreed to be done in any stage, that is at any point when
the students needed it. So, the students would learn grammar in context, in different stages of
the SFL GBA. Grammar can be taught when students read texts in Building Knowledge of
the Field, or Modelling, or Joint Construction or Independent Construction. It was agreed that
grammar should be explicitly explained as from the perspective of the teaching of English in
a second or foreign language teaching, which is also relevant to the principles of the SFL
GBA, grammar is not a body of established knowledge but a skill that has to be trained
(Larsen-Freeman, 2001, cited in Takshima & Sugiura, 2006: 61). Some grammatical
mistakes found in students texts were picked up and given to the students. This aimed to
allow them to learn not to make the same mistakes in the future.
It was also agreed that the students should be made aware that reading is very important to
help them understand English and English expressions. Reading English materials in
particular, can help expand the writers knowledge, not only in terms of the content but also
in terms of the English (Johnson, 2003). Moreover, because writing goes hand in hand with
reading at all stages of development in these contexts, writing development must be viewed
from an understanding of the total picture of literacy acquisition (Carson, 1992).
After the students clearly understood the expressions they read and the meaning of them,
then it was planned that we move on to the next phase, that is Modelling
Similarly, in the Modelling stage, some modifications were also to be made. These were,
among others in terms of the provision of the schematic structure of the Recount text, as
displayed in Section 3.2 above.
Students were also given a Recount plan that could be used a guide for them to write. This
plan can lead the students to understand that a Recount has to fulfil a certain caharacteristics
and one of these is the schematic structure. Children in Australia, as will be shown in Chapter
4 learn about this from the time they are in the early grades of school. The Recount plan,
adapted from the Western Australia Department of Education (1997:61) can be seen below.

Table 3.3. A sample of a Recount plan

RECOUNT PLAN
TOPIC:
1. SETTING: WHO? WHERE? WHEN? WHEN? WHAT? WHY?

105

2. EVENTS IN TIME ORDER

Event 1
Event 2
Event 3
Event 4
Event 5
(Source: Education Department of Western Australia, 1997:61).

Then, when the students understood clearly the schematic structure, a model text of a
Recount can be given to the students. Some models below can be used. The text was written
by a year 7 student in Australia.
Text 3.5 An example of a Personal Reount
(From: Disdvantaged School Program, 1994: 104).
My First Trip To Greece
Orientation
(orients the reader to
the events that follow)

Record (Gives a
sequence of events)

I didnt know what to expect from a country like Greece. I had heard good and
bad things about it.
The trip was long 22 hours and I can remember hoping that it was worth the
trouble to get there.
When the plane landed in Athens airport we had to wait an additional 10 hours
for another domestic flight to Kos, which is the island my dad comes from. When
we got to Kos all my relatives were waiting for us. We picked our luggage and it
took us another half hour to get to the village that my father comes from. It was
the most exhasuting day I ever had. When we got to my fathers place, I was very
tired. The only thing I wanted to do was to sleep.
It was a bit unfair because I had never seen them before. Before I knew it I was
fast asleep.
At the crack of dawn I was awake, not because I wanted to, but because the
roosters were so loud that they wouldnt let anyone sleet. That was one time that
I would liked to be in a place that had no roosters to wake me up.

106

After breakfast we caught the bus to the city. I saw some shops which reminded
me of Sydney. I didnt think that Greece was that modern.
The city had a pizza bar and many caf bars. One thing I forgot to mention is that
it was summer in Australia while it was winter in Greece. In Greece not too many
shops open during winter because not too many tourists go there, thats why most
of the places were quiet.

Reorientation
(Returns the reader to
the point of departure)

I also went to Neapolis, which is a port city, situated on the coast road of Greece.
This is where my brother was born. I must admit that Greece is a very beautiful
country.
The whole trip lasted seven weeks (almost two months). These seven weeks went
by quickly which proves time does fly when youre having fun.

Another model of a personal taken from Rothery (1990) can also be used to show students
about the schematic structure and linguistic features.
Text 3.6 An example of a Personal Recount
(From Rothery, 1990:273)
Title
The Rock
Last year I went on an excursion to Ayers Rock with my fathers school.
Orientation
We flew to Alice Springs and saw all the places of interest. On the third day we
Record of Events
had to travel 400 km to Ayers Rock. We left our camp at 6.00 am and arrived
about 2.pm. That night we pitched camp. Unfortunately in our tent the canvas
was ripped where the pole went. Because of this we had to scavenge around for a
can lid to place on the top of the pole. The next morning we climed the rock. We
started at 07.00 am. It was a hard climb. The face about 45 degrees at the start.
Then it went up to about fifty degrees. When we were about. When we were
about at the end of the yellow line we could see what looked like a garbage tin. It
turned out to be a plaque. On the way down it began to get hot. It began hotter
and hotter and it was only about 8.00. the next morning we woke up to take
photoes of the sunrise. It was 4.50 am. We began to curse the weather bureau
for getting us up an hour early.
But, after all these incidents, Im gllad I went.
Reorientation/Coda
Note: Ayers Rock is a famous site in Central Australia.

It was made clear that the SGL GBA can take several weeks, or even months (Gibbons,
2002) and every stage of the teaching cycle can take more than one meeting. This is the case,
especially for the Building Knowledge of the Field, when the students should read different
texts and understand the concepts, technical words or expressions. This Building Knowledge
of The Field is really important for the students to enable them to write a text in the later
stages of the SFL GBA. Moreover, the stages of the Joint Construction and Independent
Construction should be conducted in more than one meeting as the students should go
through a recursive process before they come to a final draft which is neat. The jJoint
Construction and Independent Construction cannot thus be used as a test for the students.

107

 The teaching of other language skills and assessment

The teaching of other language skills was agreed to be done in every stage of the SFL GBA.
The Building Knowledge of the Field can be used to enhance students reading, listening as
well as speaking and writing ability. Moreover Modelling can be used to promote students
reading, listening and speaking ability as discussion on the text can be involed in the text in
which each student should be encouraged to participate. The Joint Construction and
Independent Construction are the stages when students can maximally develop their reading
and writing ability. Finally, when they have finished their writing, they can share their
writing with peers or in front of the classroom. This is when students can develop their
writing as well as speaking skills.
Moreover, regarding assessment of the students work, it was agreed that the students work,
to follow the suggestion of the theorists of the SFL GBA, should be asseseed from two main
aspects: the schematic structure and linguistic features. Assessment should not be based on
the length of the text only, as a longer text may not necessarily be better than a shorter one
(Eggins, 1994). It was agreed that although the length of a text can be an indicator of
students development, students should be informed that the quality of their writing is
ditermined by how well it helps them to understand, not by its length only (Killen,
2007:297).
The use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process and provision of
feedback to students writing
Regarding the use of bahasa Indonesia, the teacher was informed about the benefits of using
bahasa Indonesia in EFL classrooms, particulalry in her contexts. Some of benefits of the use
of L1, as observed by the theorists, as described in Chapter 1 were discussed. This made the
teacher aware that despite a prevalent belief among English teachers in English only
classroom, the use of bahasa Indonesia could be very helpful for her students especially for
those who struggled, as suggested by Murray &Wigglesworth (2005) and Macaro (2009). It
was then agreed that when explaining concepts or difficult aspects of grammar, the teacher
could use bahasa Indonesia to help students understand what was being explained about.
Regarding the provision of feedback to the students writing. It was agreed that some
excellent students who had a good mastery of English were asked to help the teacher to
proofread their classmates texts. Regarding this, Muijs & Reynolds (2005: 64) suggest that
scaffolding does not have to come from the teacher. Students, Muijs & Reynolds further
argue, can effectively scaffold each others learning in a small group task, like the Joint
Construction of the text. However, regarding this, attention should be paid to some aspects,
especially the one that only excelling students should be given tasks to help scaffold their
peers. This is because group work can sometimes be problematic (Killen, 2007). Moreover,
in a room with fixed seating arrangement like that common in Indonesian classes, group
work can still be used (Killen, 2007:177). Killen suggests that the students can be asked to
discuss issues or questions with a partner or to ask alternate rows to turn around and face the
learners behind them and so they can work in groups of four. There is a possibility that a
group is not functioning cooperatively and in this case, the teacher may need to help them

108

understand the dynamics of the group and focus their attention on the assigned task (Killen,
2007; see also Muijs & Reynold, 2005: 53). Effective small group work does require a
significant amount of preparation, and a number of preconditions have to be met beforehand
in order for it to be effective. For example, students must be able to cooperate with one
another and to provide each other with help in a constructive way (Muijs & Reynold,
2005:53).
This strategy could help the teacher manage her time to give feedback to students who really
needed it. This also changed the teachers previous belief that consultation with the
students in a big class like the one in this study is impossible. The teacher became aware of
possible helps and assistance that she could get from her students in providing feedback or
help to their peers. This strategy, as will be shown later, has led the students, even those who
used to be considered at risk students, to gain a lot of improvement in terms of English and
writing as well as speaking skills.
When the first cycle was finished, then the program moved on to the second cycle, in which
all phases gone through in the first cycle were also applied. Therefore, the subsequent
discussion will delineate activities in the second cycle of the program.
3.6.Theurapeutic Stage: Teaching cycle 2
In this stage, all stages of the first cycle were repeated, including Look, Think and Act. Each
phase will be discussed below.
3.6.1 Look
In this phase, the researchers just looked at what happened in the classroom (e.g. whether
some modifications and the teaching learning processes had improved, and what still needed
some improvement or more work) . This phase involved observation of two stages of the SFL
GBA, that is Building Knowledge of the Field and Modelling of Recount text, especially to
do with the topic of health. All evidence obtained in this phase was then analysed in the next
phase of the teaching cycle, that is Think, that will be presented subsequently.
3.6.2 Phase 2: Think
From data obtained in the Look stage, there were several matters that needed to be discussed
and analysed. These are among others to do with:
The teaching cycle. This stage still focused on the written cycle of the curriculum.
The implementation of the SFL GBA. As the students had had a relatively good
control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the Recount text, the
teaching cycle of the GBA covered only two stages: Building Knowledge of the
Field and Independent Construction. The topic that was discussed in this stage, to
follow the curriculum and the suggestion from the teacher was to do with vacation.

109

Again in the Independent Construction, excellent students were asked to proofread

and to give assistance to their classmates.
The provision of expressions appropriate for dealing with the topic. Results of
observation in the class indicate that the expressions given to the students were really
useful and this can be seen that the students consulted the expressions when they
wanted to say something in the class related to the topic. Some students even tried to
memorise the expressions as they wanted to say them in speaking. Andellia
(Psudonym), for example, said as follows:
Yang membantu sekali ekspresi-ekspresi itu. Jadi sekarang agak-agak ngerti. Dulu saya tidak
mengerti mengapa jawabannya kaya gitu, sekarang ngerti. Selain itu, karena ada bahasa
Indonesianya, lebih mudah dimengertinya. Kalau tidak ada bahasa Indonesianya juga mungkin
tidak akan mengerti juga mengenai ekspresi-ekspresi itu (Andellia).
What helped me a lot was those expressions. Now I understand a bit. In the past, I did not
understand why the answer was like that, for example, but now I understand. Moreover, because
those expressions were also given in bahasa Indonesia, we find it easier to understand them. If
there were not bahasa Indonesia expressions, we probably woud not understand them (Andellia)

Another student, like Sinta (Psedonym) stated:

Ekspresi-ekspresi itu sangat bermanfaat, soalnya bisa kita pake kalau menceritakan pengalam. Di
ekspresi itu juga ada keterangan lampau, terus bagaimana menggunakannya (Sinta).
Those expressions were really useful, because if they could be used when we tell about our
experience. In those expressions there is also a note that it is past tense and how to use them
(Sinta)

All students comments above were supported by Candra who explained:

Ekspresi-ekspresi itu sangat penting. Bisa dipelajari dan ditulis dalam teks yang ditulis. Kalau
ngga dikasih ekspresi susah sekali. Nanti pemberian ekspresinya lebih banyak lagi ya bu
(Candra).
Those expressions are really useful. They can be learned and written in the text that we write. If
we were not given those expressions, we would find it really difficult to write. Later, please give
us much kore expressions, mam (Candra)

Moreover, one student also considered that the provision of those expressions in both bahasa
Indonesia and English gave him an idea. This was stated by Argya, a high achiever, as
saying that those expressions had made him aware that in writing in English We cannot just
translate words from bahasa Indonesia. If we do so, it will be difficult for people to
understand the sentences that we make. Argya further commented:

110

Saya mau belajar banyak lagi tentang ekspresi-ekspresi. My grammar is better than last semester
dengan adanya ekspresi-ekspresi itu (Argy).
I want to learn more about expressions. My grammar is better than last semester because of those
expressions (Argya).

Information from interviews with students shows that those expressions helped them develop
their English ability, not only in writing, but also in speaking, as will be shown in the
discussion of the third teaching cycle below. So, the provision of expressions was really
useful. Moreover, data collected also made the teacher aware of the necessity of the provision
of the expressions as the students tried to use them and to memorise them to help them learn
English better.
Regarding the use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process, the students
found that the teachers explanation in both bahasa Indonesia and English was more
understandable to them. Moreover, the fact that the expressions given in two
languages, as revealed in the students verbalisations above, made the students
understand those expressions and this made them feel confident in using them in both
writing and speaking.
Finally, the provision of feedback to the students, with the help of some excelling
students had helped the teacher manage to give more assistance and to pay more
attention to those who really struggled to gain an understanding of English, as well as
a relatively a good control of writing a Recount text.
3.6.3 Phase 3: Act
This phase, as planned, based on the analysis in this stage, actions taken were among others
as follows:
First of all the SFL GBA was implemented, and as agreed before, only two stages were
implemented, that is Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction. The
topic was about vacation. Each stage will be discussed below.
3.6.3.1 Building knowledge of the field
In this stage, relevant to the aim of the stage, students were encouraged to read different texts
on vacation or recreation. It should be noted that text types students read in this stage can
vary, not restricted to the focal text students are going to write. The texts can be from the
internet, the newspaper, or any authentic materials regarding vacation. In this study, one text
from a text book was read and discussed in the classroom, from the book written by
Kusmana and Harris (2005). The text is a Description, written in the mode of a letter. This
kind of text can be appropriate for students to write a Recount about holiday, because it has
expressions and vocabulary items that can be used by the students in writing a Recount text
about vacation. This also follows the suggestion from genre theorists that in Building
111

Knowledge of the Field the texts used can vary and are not necessarily in the focal text. The
text, as written by Kusmana and Harris, can be seen below.
An example of text about vacation that can be used in Building Knowledge of the Field.
(From Kusmana and Harris, 2005: 143)
Dear Senny,
We are having a aholiday at Panajung Bay. We are staying in a small house only a few yards
from the beach.
The scene through the window of the lounge is very beautiful and peaceful. In front of the house
there is a yard with some chairs, a atbel, and a few small trees. Just beyond the yard are miles of
golden sand.
Fortunately there are only a few people on the beach, and so there isnt much noise. I can see a
couple sunbathing nearby while their children are playing quietly behind them.
On my right there is a hill, which I hope to climb tomorrow. I can see a footpath leading up to it,
and so it should be quite safe.
A few people are swimming in the sea, and a woman is watching a man diving from a small raft
in the middle of the bay.
The sea is very calm today and a few yachts are visible a long distance from the shore. It is so
relaxing to sit here and gaze at the view.
I went swimming earlier this morning, and this afternoon we are going to hire a yacht for a few
hours. I wish you were here.
Love,
Linda

It should be noted here that some texts about other topics as suggested by the curriculum,
such as seasons, travelling, going to other places as presented in the book by Kusmana and
Harris and other texbooks, can also be relevant to the topic about vacation, as the writer may
talk about the season of the visited place, especially when they visit a tourist site in other
countries which have four seasons, about the place, and about the travelling itself.
Then the students were asked to answer questions related to the letter, as formulated by
Kusmana & Harris (2005:143-144). The questions are as follows:

Where are Linda and her family staying?

How is the scene?
What is there in front of the house?
Are there many people on the beach?
What is a couple doing?
What does Linda hope tomorrow?

112

 What is a woman watching a man doing?

What are Linda and her family going to do in this afternoon?
Regarding the questions above, one matter to do with critical literacy needs a brief mention.
That is, that the answer to all the questions above are available in the text. If students are
asked only such questions, they are not encouraged to think critically about the information
given in the text, in that the students are not encouraged to relate the text to other texts that
the students might have read, to their life or experience and to the world, as suggested by
critical literacy, taken up in Chapters 1 and 2.
When reading this text, like the program developed for tertiary students, students can also be
asked some questions that can lead to the development of critical thinking and critical
literacy. Students should be made aware that text is a social construct, is not timeless and
relative. A text represents a certain groups of people and values. Some questions used at the
tertiary level, as described in Chapter 2 can be relevant to this level. However, in this
program, students reading capacity was not well elaborated and as well developed as that at
the tertiary level and this should become one of the foci in future research.
Students were again given expressions about vacation that they could use in writing a
Recount text about a vacation or recreation. The expressions were as listed below:

My family and I went to a shopping centre.

We took the bus there. We liked the shops.

We went to Ayer Island in Jakarta.

We went by ferry. Then we walked a long the beach.

My family went camping at the beach.

We drove there in our car. It was fun.

We flew to Padang. We had a great time.

I did on my last holiday.

I saw the birds at the park.

I rode my bicycle in the garden.
I went to the beach, I went swimming, I went shopping, I went camping, I went on a picnic
I visited , I had never been to before.
In the zoo, I petted a monkey, a rabbit, a .

They took a ferry past the island

We went to the airport by train, We went to the station by
We gave our ticket to a ticketing officer.
We saw the pilot of our plane.
When the plane flew up in the sky, I was excited
We took a plane to Jakarta.
Dad drove a car into the country (ayah menyetir mobil di daerah pedesaan)
We walked over some hills (kami berjalan menyusuri bukit)
It was windy on the hilltops (Di puncak bukit angina bertiup).
I carried my clothes in my suitcase.
I need a passport to travel to another country.

113

I used a camera to take photographs.

Other vocabulary items were also given, such as Pilot, tickets, passport, camera, suitcase,
trolley.
Apart from this, students were also provided with a variety of personal Recount texts in
different modes, such as a postcard and a diary to enhance students understanding of a
Recount text and to enrich expressions that they could use in their writing. These texts will
be presented below:
A POST CARD
(Adapted from Ling & Smith, 2006b:69)
31st May 2006
Dear Tom,
I flew to Yogyakarta in an aeroplane to visit my
grandmother.
We went shopping yesterday. It was great fun!
From,
Joey

Joey Brown
15 De Carle Street
Bunswick, Victioria, Australia
3014

A POST CARD
(Written by Ajmi, a third grader of a bilingual school in Bandung, Indonesia)
16th June, 2007
Dear Astri,
Today I went shopping to Hypermart. We bought food and
toys. We bought food for our lunch at school. It was fun,
really.

Komplek Setiabudhi Reegency

Jalan Lapis Lazuli C157B
Bandung, Indonesia

See you soon

From,
Najmi, S.M.

A DIARY
(Adapted from Ling & Smith, 2006a:9)
Friday 15th January 2007

It is the school holidays this week. So far, I have done lots of things.
On Monday morning, I met Rina at he park. We went skating. In the afternoon we went for a Stories and
Craft session at the library.
On Tuesday afternoon, I went to the movie with my cousins. We saw Harry Potter. My favourit character is
Harry. I think he is great.
On Wednesday, Grandma and I went to the zoo. We had a lot of fun. We ate a picnic lunch.
On Thursday morning, Mum and I went shopping for my new school shoes. In the evening, I went to a

114

Brownies meeting from 5.30 p.m-7 p.m.

Oh no! I have not done my Maths and English homework. I will need to do that tomorrow. After that I can
play with my new computer game, Into Space.

A DIARY
(Adapted from Ling & Smith, 2006b:)
Friday, 22 January 2007
Yesterday we went to Pangandaran. It was very hot there. So, we drove to the beach.
It was very hot on the sand too. We drank lots of water and we swam in the sea to keep cool.
Then, we played on the wet sand. Mum brought a picnic lunch for us. We sat under a beach umbrella to eat it.
After lunch dad lied down and he went to sleep.
After several hours in the beach we went to the hotel to stay overnight there.
On the following day, Sunday we went back to Bandung by car.

All the texts above are very simple for native language contexts. These texts may be more
relevant to students in lower grade in primary schools discussed in Chapter 4. However, just
for enrichment, these texts can be very useful to give the students a model of a personal
Recount and some expressions to enrich their linguistic capacity.
When the students had had a relatively strong background knowledge about vacation or
recreation, and the students were ready to write, and based on the agreement between the
teacher and students, we then moved on the next stage of the written cycle of the curriculum
and the SFL GBA, that is Independent Construction when students wrote independently. This
phase will be discussed below.
3.6.3.2 Independent construction
Different from the independent construction in the diagnostic stage, which was conducted in
one sitting, in this stage the students wrote their texts in three meetings, in which they were
given time to draft, to revise, to consult with the teacher and peer and to proofread their text.
The texts produced in this phase, written by the same writers as those in the diagnostic stage
are Text 3.8 (by the writer of Text 3.2), 3.9 (by the writer of Text 3.3.) and 3.10 (by the
writer of Text 3.4). Text 3.11 was written by a student who did not seem to be able to write
even one single sentence and to be willing to write at all in the diagnostic stage. These texts
will be displayed below.
Text 3.8 was written by the writer of Text 3.2 above. Compared with Text 3.2, Text 3.8
shows a lot of improvement in both schematic structure and linguistic features. From the
schematic structure
Text 3.8. An example of Recount text written in theurapeutic stage

Salutation

Helllo, my name is Arina Ayu. My nick name is Arin. I live in Bandung in

Antapani Street number 22. I was born of January 30th 1994.

115

Orientation
Record of events

Last school holiday I decided to spend my holiday in Pangandaran

I went to Pangandaran with my family. We would go to Pangandaran by
car. We would go there on Saturday. We left from Bandung at six oclock.
At twelve oclock we were in Pangandaran then we were lunch together in
restaurant at Pangandaran.
We stayed in Mustika Ratu hotel near the beach. Early in the morning we
had been ready to see sunshine together with people near the beach. The
scenary was very beautiful. The weather in pangandaran not so cold. I
was very exited to look there are so many fishermen in the sea. After the
sun shine I play in the sea side to take a little fish.

Reorientation (and
Comments)

At twelve oclock all my family back to hotel in Pangandaran. I bought

some souvenir and accessories not so expensive. We decided went back to
Bandung because on Monday morning I must go to school.
I very enjoyed with my vacation in Pangandaran

Note: The underlined are inappropriate grammar or expressions.

Text 3.8 has the obligatory elemens of a Recount text as suggested by genre theorists above.
However, Text 3.8, like other texts that will be discussed below, has one element, which is
not common in Australian Recount texts, but is common in Indonesian ones, as mentioned
above. This element is Salutation: Hello, my name is Alinda Ayu.
Other obligatory elements of a Recount are listed below:
Orientation: Last holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Pangandaran.
Record of events, written in three paragraphs: Starting from I went to Pangandaran
with my family through to We decided to go back to Bandung because on Monday
morning I must go to school.
Reorientation and Comments: I very enjoyed with my vacation in Pangandaran.
In terms of linguistic features, Text 3.8 still has grammatical mistakes, which suggests that
the writer still needed more explicit teaching about grammar and more consultation to make
her text better and successful. Some mistakes were seemingly due to her lack of
understanding of Engliah grammar or her being careless of what she wrote. These mistakes,
with the correction in brackets, are among others:
We go went ( We went ...);
The weather in Pangandaran not so cold (The weather in Pangandaran was not so
cold);
I very enjoyed with my vacation (I enjoyed my vacation very much);
After the sun shine.. (After the sun shone...);
We decided went back to hotel ...(We decided to go back to the hotel). The verb
decided should be followed by a to infinitive and the English article the should
be used to refer to the hotel mentioned before in the text);
We were lunch togethre in restaurant... (We had lunch together in a restaurant...);
I play... (I played... );
I was excited to look there are... (I was excited to see there were ... ).

116

All these mistakes were to some extent due to the influence of the writers first language,
although it is clear that the student can be helped to overcome this problem in time. This
needs a more comprehesive discussion than this study provided.
Although in general the spelling was quite good, the writer still made some spelling mistakes,
such as: then, which should have be written than. The text also shows some inappropriate
uses of some prepositions: I was born of january the 30th, 1994. Moreover, the writer still
needed more explicit teaching about the use of English articles, such as The sun. These are
not surprising because these aspects are difficult to grasp, even for native speakers, based on
the writers observation in Australian classes, one of which will be described in Chapter 4.
However, in general, Text 3.8 shows improvement of linguistic features in several aspects,
including:
A better understanding of English sentence structure, including subject verb
agreement, as in: We decided to spend my holiday ; We stayed in Mustika ratu; At
twelve oclock we were in Pangandaran.
A better understanding and more successful use of tenses. The writer uses the present
tense in the Salutation to introduce herself: Hello, my name is Alinda Ayu; My
nickname is Alin, I live in Bandung and then shifts to the past tense when she
describes about herself but related to the past event: I was born . A better control of
past tense can also be seen in the Record of Events stage, as in: I bought some
souvenirs and accessories not so expensive, and others as exempliefied above.
Successful use of some adjectives to describe some aspects that the writer saw, such
as: The scenery was very beautiful.
The choice of Theme relevant to the topic and character, such as I, we. Some of the
Themes are unmarked, indicating time:
At twelve oclock we wre
in Pangandaran
Last school holiday .
Some Theme progressions, such as Theme reiteration and zig-zag patterns were also
used, as in the following examples:
A zig-zag pattern:
Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Pangandaran.
I went to Pangandaran with my family.

Moreover, A reiteration pattern can be seen in the following example:

117

We would go to Pangandaran by car.

We went there on Saturday.

Although the text still does not employ conjunctions to connect one activity with anoher,
Text 3.8 is in general easier to understand than Text 3.2, written by the same writer. This
suggests that the time for writing that she had, consultattion with the teacher, feedback that
she gained from both her classmates and the teacher as well as expressions given by the
teacher regarding vacation, had helped her to write a better text.
Another text (Text 3.9 below), written by a student that the researcher and the teacher
considered as a mid achiever, also shows a lot of improvement in terms of control of the
schematic structure and linguistic features of a Recount text. From the length of the text,
Text 3.9 is much longer than Text 3.3., which suggests that the writer had become more
procicient in writing a personal Recount and had more linguistic resources to do so.
In terms of the schematic structure, Text 3.9, has obligatory elements of a personal Recount
as mentioned above, written in different paragraphs. The obligatory elements that the text has
are:
Salutation: My name is Karina, Iam fourteen years old;
Orientation: Last school holiday I decided to spend my holiday in Yogyakarta at my
grandmothers house.
Record of Events: Chronologically sequenced, starting from I went o Yogyakarta
with my family through to the last sentence of the penultimate paragraph, that is:
I bought many souvenisrs for friends and family in Bandung.
Reorientation (and Comments): After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta, we went
back to Bandung. The return trip took nine hours. (Comments: I was very happy
and enjoyed this vacation).
Text 3.9. An example of Recount text written in the theurapeutic stage
Salutation
Orientation
Record of Evenets

My name is Arina Widyawati. I am fourteen years old. I am a student of a Junior

High School in Bandung. I was born in Bandung.
Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Yogyakarta at my
grandmothers house.
I went o Yogyakarta with my family. I bought a new camera to take pictures during
the vacation. Early in the morning we had been ready to go. We left home at
about 4 a.m. We left home early in the morning to avoid traffic jam. We went to
Yogyakarta by car. My father drove the car there. We arrived at Yogyakarta at
about 2 p.m. I was very happy because I could meet my grandmother.
The next day in the morning my sister and I went to ricefield. The air was very
cold, it is different with the air in the city. The wind was blew very strong. We
walked around there. After that I rode a bycicle around the country. I saw many
beautiful flowers there.
In the evening my family and I visited Borobudur Temple. Borobudur temple is
very huge temple. The view from the peak of Borobudur temple was very
beautiful. We could see Sumbing Mountain from the peak. Sumbing mountain is

118

near Borobdur temple. I could take many pictures there.

The next day we visited Yogyakarta Palace. Yogyakarta Palace is in the centre of
the city. 200 years ago this place was marsh. We looked culture art of java. After
that we visited parangtritis beach. The view was very beautiful. I went swimming
there. We walked along the beach. My sister and I tried to make sand castle. After
that we visited families at Yogyakarta. We were very happy because long time we
didnt meet with families in Yogyakarta.

Reorientation

The next day we visited Cerme Cave in Bantul. The view was unique and
interested with the river water was cold and purity to reach I meter. We walked
along the cave. After that we visited Kota wisata Kaliurang. The air was very
cold. We camped overnight there. The next day we visited Malioboro. I bought
some souvenir there. The price was very expensive, so, I tried to bargain with him.
I bought many souvenirs for friends and family in Bandung.
After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta, we went back to Bandung. The return
trip took nine hours. I was very happy and enjoyed this vacation.

In terms of the linguistic features, Text 3.9 shows more diversity of linguistic resources that
help the text to be successful. These are listed below.
Theme choices. Theme choices are relevant to the topic and characters described in
the text. Given the nature of the topic and the text genre, it is not surprising to find
personal pronouns such as:
I: (I bought a new camera to take pictures).
We: (We left home early in the morning).
One aspect of interest regarding Text 3.8, which according to Christie & Derewianka
(2008:95) suggests the writers enhanced ability in writing a Recount genre is the use
of a much stronger progression through time with Circumstances as marked Theme.
Examples can be seen below:
Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Yogyakarta.
The next day in the morning my sister and I went to rcefield.
In the evening my family and I visited Borobudur.
The next day we visited Yogyakarta palace.
One marked Theme is realised in a temporal clause:
After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta we went back to Bandung.
Good use of Reference.
The air was very cold. It is differenmt from the air in the city.
My sister and I went to rice field We walked around there
Diversity in lexical choices:
The view was unique.

119

The purity of water

We camp overnight there.
We tried to bargain with him.
We looked (at) cultural arts
We left home early in the morning to avoid traffic jam.
Frequent use of evaluative statements to comment on activities conducted, as in:
I was very happy because I could meet my grandmother;
We were very happy because long time we didnt meet with families in Yogyakarta.
Good control of tense in that the writer could syccessfully use the presesnt tense in
the Salutation when she introduced herself. Then she shifted to the past tense when
describing all activities done during her vacation.
Some capacity to expand nominal groups to express information: The view from the
peak of the Borobudur Temple.
The text still has some lapses in English sentence structure and vocabulary, as in:
The view was unique and interested with the river water was cold and purity to reah one
meter.
This sentence is confusing. It is possible the students meant
The view was unique and interesting, and from only 1 meter away the river appeared cold
and pure.
This is a difficult idea to express. The use of adjectives such as interesting and interested is
not easy for EFL learners. Moreover, the sentence has a non-finite dependent clause (being
cold and pure) and this type of dependent clause, even for university students, is not easy to
grasp. Moreover, the writer still also nneded some help in using English articles, such as in
Borobudur temple is huge temple. It should be: Borobudr temple is a huge temple.
All these also suggest that the mastery of English structure is developing. In such a short
time there must be many aspects that cannot be resolved in this study. Therefore, further
study can be done to address strategies to make the students learn English sentence structure
faster and more effectively.
Another text, Text 3.10, written in the second cycle of the research was written by a student,
categoriesd as a high achiever, and the writer of Text 3.4 previously discussed.
Text 3.10, compared with Text 3.4 shows improvement in the writers ability in writing a
Recount texts. This can be seen especially in terms of the schematic structure of the text.
Text 3.10 was written in several paragraps with each paragraph helping the text to fullfil its
purpose. The schematic structure can be described below:

120

 Salutation: Hi, my name is Muhammad Irfan Argya

Orientation: Now I want to tell you about the story of may vacation.
Record of Events: Starting from Last year my family and I went to Italythrough to
I said goodbgye to my brother and his girl friend.
Reorientation: I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy.
Text 3.10 is displayed below.
Text 3.10 An example of personal Recount texts written in the theurapeutic stage
Hello, my name is Muhhamad Argya. My nickname is Irfan. I was born in
Bandung, 1 September 1993. I am thirteen years old. I study at an SMP in
Bandung.
Now I want to tell you about the story of my vacation.
Orientation
Last year my family and I went to Italy. My family and I would visit my
Record of Events
brother. My brothers name is Fabco Cannavaro. He lived in Italy with his
girl friend. His girlfriends name is Maria Sharapova. She is rich. I was
happy to see my brother again.
Salutation

In Italy, I was hapy because I could visit many historical buildings in

Italy. My family and I visisted Coloseum. Colosseum is a very old
building. Afyter that my family and I visited Pizza tower.
My family and I visited a restaurant in Italy. I ate pizza and and spaghetty.
They were delicious. I was happy because I could eat many delicious
foods in Italy. In Italy I saw many people wearing jackets. They wore
jacket because the weather was cold.
In Italy I bought a new jacket. I wanted to wear jacket too. In Italy I saw
many people riding vespa. After that my family and I went to my brothers
house.
In my brothers house my brother and I played football together. My
brother is a footbal player in Real madrid. I liked him. In Italy, I saw
many people playing football together. In Italy football match is very
popular. People in Italy loved football. I loved football too. In Italy I saw
my friend, Mardul. He came here for holiday too.
My brother and I visited my brothers friend house. His name is Totti.
Totti was sick. My brother called a doctor. The doctor examined Tottys
body. The doctor took Totty to the hospital in Italy. My brother was very
worried. After that the doctor said Totty is fine. After that my brother
and I said goodbye to Totty because I wanted to see a football match in
Roma.
In Roma, I saw a footbal l match: Roma versus InterMilan. I liked Roma
because my favourite football player played in Roma. Roma won 3-0. I
was very happy.

Reorientation

After that my brother and I went to my brothers house. My family and I

would go home this day. I said goodbye to my brother and his grirlfriend.
I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy.

121

 Successful use of complex sentences with dependent clauses being non-finite, as in

In Italy I saw many people wearing jackets;
I saw many people riding vespa;
In Italy I saw many people playing football.
This type of nonfinite relative clause is difficult for EFL learners, even for university
students.
Frequent use of causal conjunctions, such as : because: I was happy because I could
eat many delicious foods; They wore jacket because the weather was cold.
Successful use of the past tense, involving irregular verbs expressing processes, as in:
They wore jacket, I ate pizza, I saw many people; Roma won 3-0.
Use of some modalities, such as modality of ability: I could eat many delicious foods;
Frequently successful use of articles, as in : In Italy, I bought a new jacket; Colossum
is a very old building, I wanted to see a footbal match, My brother called a doctor.
The doctor examined Tottys body. I had a great vacation in Italy. This linguistic
feature is not apparent in other texts, as shown above the students generally still
struggle in using English articles because English articles are hard.
Diversity in lexical choices: In Italy football match is very popular; I saw a footbal
match: Roma versus Intermilan; My favourite footbal player is ; People in Italy
loved football.
One linguistic feature that does not appear in other texts examined in this study is the
use of dialogue and direct speaach in the texts written by the writer. In Text 3.8, this
apperas once in: The doctor said: Totti is fine. In each dialogue the writer
successfully employed the present tense. The use of dialogue heps to make the text
more lively and interesting.
A clear connection between events recorded in the previous paragraph to the next, by
using one of the elements in the Rheme in the last clause of the previous paragraph as
a marked Theme in the first clause of the following paragraph. This can be seen in the
use of Circumstances of place in the following examples.
My family and I went to my brothers house.
In my brothers house
I wanted to see a football match in Roma
In Roma I saw

122

 Evaluative comments on events described, as in : I liked Roma because ; My

favourite player is ; Football is popular in Italy .
Some topical Themes realising temporality are also used to connect one activity
with another, such as: Last year ., after that,
The last text observed in this chapter, Text 3.11 was written by a student categorised as a low
achiever. This text is presented as the writer made great efforts to write the text. He did not
seem to have ever written a coherent text before. The text, like other texts written in the
theurapeutic stage, has obligatory elements of a personal Reount. These are:
Salutation: Hello, my name is Andika. My nickname is Andi. I am thirteen years old.
I live at Karang Asem Street No 15.
Orientation: I will tell you about my vacation to Jakarta.
Record of Events: Starting from Last school holiday my family and I went to Jakarta
through to At the train I read a comics.
Reorientation: After three hours we arrived in Bandung, then we went home.
Text 3.11 will be displayed below.
Salutation

Text 3.11. An example of a personal Recount written in the theurapeutic stage

Hello, my name is Andika. My nickname is Andi. I am thirteen years old. I live at
Karang Asem Street No 15.

Orientation

I will tell you about my vacation to Jakarta.

Record of events

Last school holiday my family and I went to jakarta. We decided to spend our
vacation to Jakarta because my unclu live at Jakarta. We go to jakarta by train. We
queued up to bought tickets.
We arrived at twelve oclock then we go to my uncles home at Cendrawasih Street .
In Jakarta we are three days in there.
The first day we went to Ancol beach. We played volley ball. Thats very fun.
After played volley ball we went to sea and we swum. After swum we maked a
castle from sand. We was very happy.
The second day we went to Senayan Plaza. I bought an icecream, but because the
taste is very bad, I gave it to my brother. Then he like it.
The third day I and my brother went to DUFAN. My father, my mother and my
sister went to zoo. I was very happy. I quueud up to play jet coaster.

Reorientation

Next day I must went to Bandung. We went to Bandung by train. We went to

Gambir. We queued up to bought tickets. I bought a comics. At the train I read a
comics.
After three hours we arrived in Bandung, then we went home.

123

Apart from the schematic structure above, the text also shows some positive aspects in terms
of the linguistic features of a Recunt genre, despite some other aspects that need to be
improved. The positive aspects are among others as follows:
A relatively good undestanding of English sentence structure. Most of the sentences
could be understood. The writer seemed to understand the subject-verb agreement in
English, as in My brother and I went to DUFAN, I bought an icecream. etc.
An emerging control of the past tense: We went to Jakarta; We played volleyball, I
bought a comics; I gave it to my brother.
Some mistakes were still made, such as in I must went to Bandung; We queued up to
bought tickets. These mistakes were actually made because the writer was to some
extent aware of the use of the past tense in describing past events. However, because
his mastery of English grammar was not sufficient, he did not seem to be aware that
the modal verb must and to which does not function as a preposition should be
followed by an infinitive. This needs more comprehensive examination than this stuy
could.
Theme choices, which are relevant to the nature of the text and the characters
involved in the text (We, I). Some Theme choices, realised in Circumstances of
Location time as marked Theme help create a strong Thematic progression. These are
realised in:
Last school holiday we went to Jakarta
In Jakarta, we are three days.
Of particular interest is the presence of a multiple Theme development which
indicates the writers capacity to create a more coherent and more writerly text. This
can be seen below.
In Jakarta we are three days.
The first day we went to Ancol beach.
The second day we went to Senayan
The third day I and my brother went to DUFAN

The multiple-Theme pattern (Eggins, 1994), or Derived Theme (Fries, 1995: 321)
above indicates that the method of development of this text is clearly planned and
thus shows the writers investigation strategy conducted prior to the writing activity.
This is one characteristic of a critical thinker. (McPeck, 1981). Planning and research
also constitute important processes which can enhance sttudents metacognition
(Marzano et al, 1988).

124

Text 3.10 had also started to employ enumerations (three, first, second and third), one
of textual strategies which work at the global level. This helps the text move forward
and globally coherent.
The use of causal conjunctions, such as: because: We decided to spend our vacation
to Jakarta because my uncle live in Jakarta; I bought an icecream, but because the
taste is very bad, I gave it to my brother.
From the discussion on the students development above, it can be seen that all students,
from low up to high achievers gained improvement in this study in different aspects of
writing a Recount text. The group that seems to gain most improvement was that categorised
as involving low and mid achievers. This has led to the fact that at the end of the teaching
program students had a relatively similar understanding and control of a Recount text. This
suggests that explicit teaching, provision of printed materials, and feedback to students
writing and the teaching of writing as a process all could help students write a bettr text.
This is to some extent relevant to the aim of the SFL GBA, as mentioned by Kress (1993:
28-29) below:
From the beginning, therefore, genre work has been both a pedagogical and a political project, a
pedagogical project motivated by the political project of allowing greater, fairer, possibly equal access to
the cultural and social resources and benefits of this kind of society. If one assumes that access to social,
economic and cultural benefits has much to do with command of the highest level of literacy skills, then
a quite revolutionary program might be built on the attempt to give everyone access to literacy skills and
knowledge in the fullest sense. The fundamental political aim has, therefore, always been that of access on the assumption that full access to, and control of, literacy is essential to full participation in all aspects
of social life (Kress, 1993: 28-29).

Based on the aims above, the genre pedagogy has also been called pedagogy for inclusion
and access (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993b; Pennycook, 2001) and empowerment (MackenHorarik, 2002). The SFL genre pedagogy, as shown in the development of students writing
ability above, can empower students as their writing ability can help them succeed in
schooling, in employment, in the community (Derewianka, 2003, p. 142; Macken-Horarik,
2002: 44-45). These goals, again are consistent with the contemporary demand of the
application of CP in Indonesia, which is expected to empower students to become agents in
the current Indonesian society.
3.7 Theurapeutic Stage: Teaching cycle 3
As in the second cycle, the activities in this stage will be described in three stages: Look,
Think and Act.
3.7.1 Look
The second cycle of the action research focused on the development of students witten
language skills, especially reading and writing. There are two other language skills which
have not been considered and paid much attention in this study. These are listening and

125

speaking. Theferore in the third cycle of the research we focused on the spoken cycle of the
curriculum of English in Indonesia. The third cycle will be discussed below, although it will
provide only a very brief account of what was involved.
3.7.2 Think
In this stage, the researchers and the teacher considered several activities below:
Inviting a native speaker from the Australian Defence Force who was studying bahasa
Indonesia at the Indonesia University of Education to come to the class to talk to
them about vacation that he had done in Indonesia and in other places. This aimed to
encourage students to speak and to listen to the English of a native speaker, which to
some extent may be difficult for many EFL students because they are not used to.
Inviting the native speaker to do a monologue about his vacation and this was
videotaped to enable students to listen to the monologue in the language labiratory.
Practising listening in the language laboratory, as can be seen in Picture 3.2 below.

Picture 3.2. The teaching of listening in a language laboratory

Interviewing students individually to allow the speak about their holiday and to assess
their speaking ability.
126

3.7.3 Act
The activities conducted in this phase were as planned and there are several matters that can
be revealed:
Firstly, regarding the presence of the native speaker from the Australian Defence Force who
was learning bahasa Indonesia, the students responded it very positively. Students in general
seemed to be highly motivated to listen to the native speaker and to talk, asking questions to
him about his vacation.
When practising listening in the laboratory, some students could catch what they listened to,
but the others seemed to find it difficult to understand what was listed to. This was probably
because they were not used to listening to a native speaker and working in the lab. In the
future the teaching of listening should be one of the foci of development at school. For
reasons of time, this study unfortunately could not elaborate further on how to help students
develop their listening ability using the media like the laboratory available at the school. This
should be elaborated in future research.
Assessment of listening and speaking was conducted in an individual interview, held at the
end of the program. Most students seemed to have improvement in terms of these skills, and
one matter needs a mention as this surprised the teacher. This was to do with the ability of a
student who was initially considered to have very little English capacity. This student was the
writer of Text 3.11 described above. In the interview, he could answer all questions very well
and he could answer all the questions directly. He also seemed to enjoy the interview as he
was so confident in what he was saying. And when asked about the program he said that he
liked the program, as he could speak and write now. The students ability in speaking can be
seen from an extract of the dialogue below.
T: Tell me about yourself.
S: My name is Chandra (pseudonym) , I was born in Bandung ...
T: What did you do in your last school holiday?
S: I went to Gresik.
T: What did you say? Did you go to Gresik?
S: Yes, I always go to Gresik if I have a holiday, I some times go there wth my father, mother
and brother and with my big family in Jakarta.
T: Have you got a relative in Jakarta?
S: Yes, in jalan Cendrawasih.
T: How long did it take you to go to Jakarta?
S: It takes me 3 hours to go to Jakarta

The fact that he could answer all the questions directly makes clear his understanding of what
was being asked by the interviewer. All these coincide with the belief upheld in this study
that At risk students can be taught to perform successfully at demanding academic level
(Richardson, Morgan & Fleener, 2006:34). Moreover, the fact that he answers the last

127

question about the time spent to Jakarta in present tense indicates that he seems to be aware
that this is his routine, and therefore he answers the question in the present tense.
3.8 Conclusion
This chapter has presented a collaborative language program between unversity researchers
and a school teacher in a junior high school in Indonesia. The chapter has shown that the SFL
GBA can be one of alternatives that can be implemented in the classroom to achieve the goal
of the teaching of English, as stipulated in the English curriculum in Indonesia. The program,
despite some aspects that could not be resolved completely, for reasons of time, was in many
ways successful in helping students develop and improve their learnig English, not only
written but also spoken. Students development in writing ability can be seen from the
improvement in their texts in many aspects, including the schematic structure and linguistic
features as well as the length of the texts. In speaking and listening, students development
can be seen from their capacity to speak and to answer questions asked to them in the
interview conducted at the end of the program. Finally, students development can also be
seen from their verbalisations indicating their awareness of the fact that they gained
improvement in the program, in terms of writing as well as grammar.
The chapter has also proposed two things that have to be kept in mind regarding the process
of the teaching of English in an Indonesian foreign language context. First of all is that all
learners can be taught and can make improvement if the teacher also respects their learning
and efforts and pays attention to their needs. At risk students can be taught if the teacher
believes they can learn. This coincides with one of the key concepts of dialogic education, as
elaborated in Chapter 1. Moreover, the teaching and learning process can be enhanced
through the use of students first language, in this case bahasa Indonesia. The belief that
English classroom should use English only needs to be investigated further to help students
enhance their learning. The fact that students find it easier to understand the expressions
given to them in both bahasa Indonesian and English suggests that this study confirm other
studies previously conducted, as alluded to above, regarding the benefits of the use of the
students L1 in ESL or EFL contexts. Finally, regarding the devlopment of critical thinking,
which is urgent in Indonesia today, the teaching of English should also lead to the promotion
of students critical thinking and critical literacy skills that will be needed in the future.
Regarding critical thinking, further research should be conducted on what aspects should be
emphasised in teaching critical thinking to junior high schools.

128

Chapter 4: The teaching of writing at the primary level of an Australian

classroom
Chapters 2 and 3 have presented teaching programs at tertiary and secondary levels in
Indonesian contexts, where both programs made use of genre based pedagogy to teach
students writing. This chapter will consider the teaching of writing in a grade 5 Australian
primary classroom. The reason for the selection of an Australian setting is that in the writers
observation there is much to be learned in Indonesia from Australian school practices.
Moreover, the Australian classroom has been chosen because it offers an account of a
teaching program which used two major approaches to teaching writing which have been
influential in Australia. They are:
The process approach as developed by Graves (1983; 1996); Walshe (1981); Hill
(2006) and Hornsby & Sukarna (2007).
The SFL genre-based approach which has been extensively discussed in the earlier
chapters.

129

4.1 Introduction
Writing is central to education. That is why it is not surprising that the government in many
countries, both in advanced countries (like Australia, the US) and developing ones (like
Indonesia) have put a strong emphasis on the teaching of writing. In Indonesia, as mentioned
in Chapter 3, this can be seen from the release of the last two English curricula in secondary
school which stipulate that students should be taught to write different text types, some
details of which were discussed in Chapters 2 and 3.
The primary program outlined here was developed based on the result of classroom
observation by Emilia (2007) in a six week study in a primary school in Australia. The data
collected consisted of three sources: classroom observations, an interview with the teacher,
and a sample of childrens texts collected over the time. The class was observed in three
weekly sessions each of 90 minutes over the six weeks. The teacher had been teaching for
about 28 years, 23 of them in the USA and 5 in Australia. She was very familiar with both
SFL genre based pedagogy and the process approach and she chose to use an eclectic mix of
both traditions in her own teaching program.
At least two observations need to be borne in mind before considering the teaching program,
touching on the considerable differences between an Australian classroom and one in
Indonesia. The most important difference lies in the fact that in Australia, even in classrooms
where many children are learning English as a second language, they are nonetheless
learning the national language. This means that they are surrounded by English in their daily
lives, having constant exposure to it in most areas of their lives. The same is of course not
true of Indonesian children for whom bahasa Indonesia is the national language: they are
never exposed to English as are Australian children. The effect of this is that we must
acknowledge that there are probably very different expectations we can have of what the
children can achieve in the two settings.
The other considerable difference between classroom settings in Australia and Indonesia
concerns class size. As noted in Chapter 3, Indonesian classes are large typically between
40 and 50 students. Rarely today would one find a class as large as that in either a primary or
secondary school in Australia. The effect is that Australian teachers enjoy many advantages
in working with their students that are not available to Indonesian teachers.
However, despite the potential difficulties experienced by some Indonesian teachers, it is
important to stress firstly, that as the discussion in Chapter 2 has demonstrated, it is possible
to achieve a great deal in teaching writing in Indonesian classrooms, where teachers have a
clear sense of a sound pedagogy of a kind that the GBA can give them. Moreover, it is
always important for teachers to be enquiring about different practices from different parts of
the world, and there is much from the Australian example developed here that will be of
interest and of value to teachers in seeking effective ways to teach writing while encouraging
their children to be independent writers.

130

As the SFL GBA-related have been discussed in detail in the previous chapters, the
discussion in the following section will concern only the process approach to writing, which
is an aspect of whole language pedagogy. The discussion on the SFL GBA will be only to
do with the issues in the SFL GBA, as these issues are relevant to the teaching practice and
the teachers belief in the values of the two approaches in the teaching of English literacy, of
writing in particular.
4.2 The process approach to teaching writing
The process approach is an approach under the whole language philosophy and was a new
buzzword in the teaching of writing, widely taken up in Australian schools in the 1980s
(Collerson, 1989: 4) and has now been used in both first and second language contexts
(Peregoy & Boyle, 1993; Hyland, 2003). The process approach has four basic principles or
central elements, which are also relevant to the SFL GBA. These include: the process itself,
the conference, ownership, time for writing (Walshe, 1981, Collerson, 1989:2-3; Graves,
1983; 1996; Emilia, 1996), each of which will be discussed below.
4.2.1 The process
Under this principle, writing is treated as a process. Gone are the days when teachers
maintained that one draft was all that students needed to produce (Richardson, Morgan &
Fleener, 2006: 337). It is said that students should learn that professional writers do not do
just a one-shot draft to make their message clear and thus, like professional writers, students
need time and opportunity to think about what is to be written, to draft and to revise
effectively, to edit and to proofread their writing (Goldstein and Carr, 1996:1, cited in
Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006: 277; see also Barchers, 1998: 318-320).
The phases of writing include: Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing, and Publishing
(Richardson, Morgan & Fleener, 2006), or Seed: Think about it, shape you ideas into
possible writing topics, which parallels the prewriting stage; Draft: Think about how you
will write this piece then start writing; Revise; Edit; Proofread and Publish (Hornsby &
Sukarna, 2007).These phases, as will be shown later, were used by the teacher reported in
this chapter.
4.2.2 The conference
This principle simply means that there are opportunities for a student writer to talk about the
writing with other students or with the teacher or another adult. This interaction may occur at
any stage in the process even before the writing has begun (Graves, 1983). Regarding
conferences, Hornsby & Sukarna (2007) suggest several stages, which were also used by the
teacher reported in this paper. These include:
Authorial conference when the teacher encourages the students to think about some aspects
of their writing, such as
Whether the writing makes sense;

131

 Whether the message is clear;

Whether the writing sounds right; or
Whether the ideas are in order.
Secretarial Conference when the teacher encourages the students to pay attention to aspects
regarding:
Lexical choice, and sentence arrangements,
Whether the sentences can be rewritten to make them more interesting and varied.
Editorial conference when the teacher suggests the student proofread his/her work and
check for spelling, punctuation, grammar.
4.2.3 Free choice of topics
Free choice of topics is considered very important in this approach as it enables students to
write what they know (Rosen, 1989). It is said that the easiest place for any writer to begin
writing ... is in writing about something s/he knows (Graves, 1983:13) and it is the heart of
success in writing (Graves, 1983: 72). With this principle students should be encouraged to
take responsibility for their own writing so that they have some sense of ownership or
control.
4.2.4 Time for writing
In this approach, writing is not just an occasional once-a week affair but an activity which
children are able to practise every day and this has certainly had a positive effect on the
teaching and on the attitude to writing of both teachers and students (Collerson, 1989: 2-3,
see also a more recent study reported by Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006: 275-285).
4.2.5 Issues with the process approach
There were some concerns about the process approach, particularly from theorists of the SFL
GBA (see see the discussion in Barton, 1994; Emilia, 1996; Nunan, 1999; Hyland, 2003;
Christie, in Press on a useful critique of the process approach). These concerns are, among
others, as follows:
Children who do not have much variety in their out-of school experience will tend to
write about the same topic again and again.
Process writing tends to be mainly story writing.
Boys tend to write about violence and girls about a story in which they become the
object.
The process is only used for language studies and not in other area of the curriculum.
curriculum.
The role of the teacher as a facilitator. SFL GBA theorists believe that learning to
write requires a greater emphasis on explicit teaching. They say that students meta
language and mastery of a certain types of texts and written language are not given

132

but should be taught (Martin, Christie & Rothery, 1987; Rothery, 1996; Christie &
Dreyfus, 2007).
However, over the past 30 years, the elements and definition of the writing process have been
reinterpreted and the definition of the process model has evolved in the theoretical literature,
so that, it is now regarded quite differently from that in its early years, when, for example,
explicit instruction, reflection, guided revision, and self-assessment were not commonly
associated with the process model (Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006: 279; Hill, 2006).
Furthermore, more recent works on the process approach also emphasise the necessity of
teaching different genres to students (see the discussion on current perspectives on literacies
and learners, edited by Campbell & Green, 2006; see also Owocki, 2001 and Hill, 2006).
4.3. The SFL GBA: Some issues
The SFL GBA has not been without its critics (see the discussion in Christie, in Press). The
first issue from those working under the genre pedagogy in North America centres on explicit
teaching of the identification and description of the conventions of particular genres. In this
context, Freedman (1994:196) argues that explicit teaching is unnecessary, for the most part
and not useful, although she writes only of native speakers of English.
Another issue has been articulated by the process approach advocates, who see the teaching
of genre rules as limiting students creativity and free expression (see the discussion in
Sawyer and Watson, 1987; Dixon, 1987; Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995). The progressivists
also argue that the SFL GBA emphasises only the product, rather than process (as discussed
in Nunan, 1999) and see genre literacy as a revival of transmission pedagogy (as discussed in
Cope and Kalantzis, 1993a: 2).
However, based on the findings of the writers study (Emilia, 2005) and a more recent study
on the implementation of the SFL GBA in an Indonesian secondary school (Emilia et al,
2008), and also this study, the above concerns are not justified. Regarding the first issue,
Emilias (2005), Emilia et als (2008) studies and this this study found out that explicit
teaching is important to help students gain a shared understanding of the different genres to
be taught. The teacher reported in this paper, as will be described later, also valued this
principle. The second issue on the teaching of genre rules, cannot be justified either.
Making rules and expectations explicit to students does not limit their freedom and
autonomy. On the contrary, it gives them the tools to be creative and autonomous. Once
students are aware of the conventions of any of the text types, they will be able to manipulate
them for their own purposes (Gibbons, 2002: 68; see also Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995:
160-161). Finally, with respect to the emphasis on the product, the basic principles of the
SFL GBA does put emphasis on the process of writing, as can be seen from the stages of the
SFL GBA, which can lead to students awareness that writing is a recursive process.
4.4 A synthesis of the process approach and the SFL GBA
The teaching program that will be presented below, to some degree supports recent research
on the teaching of writing in both native and ESL or EFL contexts (see Hyland, 2003: 23,

133

Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006; Kaur & Chun, 2006). Research indicates, as the program will
also show, that in todays writing classrooms, including ESL ones, there is typically a
mixture of more than one approach and that teachers frequently combine these orientations in
imaginative and effective ways. Hyland writes:
Today, writing classrooms are typically a mixture of more than one approach and that teachers
frequently combine these orientations in imaginative and effective ways. ... By laying out the main
attributes of these two orientations side-by side, however, it can be seen how the strength of one might
complement the weaknesses of the other (Hyland, 2003: 23).

Hyland goes on to say that an effective methodology for teaching writing, especially second
language writing, should therefore incorporate and extend the insights of the main
orientations in the following ways:
Broaden formal and functional orientations to include the social purposes behind
forms;
Locate the process concepts of strategy, schema and metacognition in social contexts;
Respect students needs for relevant content through stimulating reading and source
materials;
Support genre pedagogies with strategies for planning, drafting, and revising texts;
Situate writing in a context of audience and link it to broader social structure (Hyland,
2003: 24).
These suggestions indicate that a synthesis between the process approach and the genrebased approach is desirable and possible (see Badger & White, 2000, cited in Paltridge,
2004, who drew together genre and process approaches). Badger & White, like this study,
found that the main principles of the process and genre-based approaches are complementary
rather than contradictory.
4.5 The teaching program
At this point it is important to stress that the children in the grade 5 studied had been learning
to write and read different genres from their earliest years of schooling. Even in the pre
school they had begun to learn simple genres such as procedures and recounts, while they
had also learned narrative and descriptions. Of course, not all children wrote equally well,
because individuals differ and some were more proficient than others. Most had some
understanding of the schematic structures that were required in writing genres, even if they
did not always write them with equal confidence. However, one consequence of the
background classroom work that had been done was that the teacher encouraged them to
write several different genres in the period of six weeks. This should not ideally happen
where children still need to learn particular genres. That is, they should not be asked to learn
to recognize and write several new genres in the space of only six weeks.
As will be shown later, grade five students in the classroom observed wrote several texts,
including Recount, Narrative, and literary response. It is thus important to provide a brief
description on some genres that the students wrote and that have not been introduced in the

134

previous chapters. These are among others: Narrative and Personal Responses to literarature
and a Description.
4.5.1. An overview of a Narrative text
A Narrative is a text type which tells a story in which people encounter a problem or crisis
that they need to overcome it shows how people or groups of people overcome a problem
or crisis in their lives (Joyce & Feez, 2004:23). Narratives are used to teach lessons, to
entertain, and to explore social values (Joyce & Feez, 2004: 23; Christie & Derewianka,
2008) or a moral value (Gibbons, 2009: 109).
Narratives in English speaking cultures commonly have a particular structure, as can be seen
in the following Table 4.1, based on the work of Joyce & Feez (2004); Christie &
Derewianka (2008); Gibbons (2009).
Table 4.1 The schematic structure of a Narrative
(Adapted from Joyce & Feez, 2004; Christie & Derewianka,2008; Gibbons, 2009)
Elements of structure
Function
Introduces the characters and tells the reader something about them. It also
Orientation
tells the physical context of the story, including who is the characters,
what they do, when and where they do it. It gives a hint about the problem
which the characters will encounter.
Is the centre of the Narrative. It is the reason why the story is told. This is
Complication
where the reader discovers the problem and something happens which the
caharacters do not expect.
Is where the story teller suspends or slows down the action to comment on
Evaluation
the events. This creates suspense and makes the reader want to find out
what will happen. The story teller can solve weave evaluation into the
complication stage. The story tellers evaluation makes the reader care
about what happens to the characters.
Is where the problem is solved.
Resolution
Rounds off the story with a short comment on what happened or with a
Coda
comment about the future lives of the characters. For example, many fairy
tales have a coda such as And they lives happily ever after.

A Narrative may have an abstract, though it is optional (Christie & Derewianka, 2008: 32).
However, as Joyce & Feez (2004:24) argue, all Narratives must have an orientation and
complication with an evaluation and a resolution. Story tellers, argue Joyce & Feez, only
sometimes give their Narratives a coda and at other times they leave the reader to work out
the coda for themselves. Other writers, like Gibbons (2009) also offers a different names of
elements of the structure of a Narrative. These include Orientation, Events, Complication
and Resolution, as can be seen in an example of a Narrative offered by Gibbons (2009: 110),
presented in Figure 4.1. The text is about the North Wind and The Sun.
Orientation:

Once upon a time The North Wind and the Sun were arguing about
which of them was more powerful.
I am more powerful said the Wind, because my breath is very
strong.
But strength is not the only power there is, replied the sun.
They argues for a long time, each of them claiming to be stronger than
the other. To settle the argument they decided they should have a

135

contest to see who was the more powerful.

After a while they noticed below them a man walking along the road.
It was a bitterly cold day and the man was wearing a long, thick warm
coat. They decided to settle the argument by seeing who could most
easily make the man take off his warm coat.
Do you see that man? asked the Sun. Lets see who can make him
take off his coat.
Thats easy, laughed the North Wind. I can easily blow his coat off
his back!
First the cold North Wind blew hard, trying to blow the mans coat
off his back.
But the man just wrapped the coat more closely around himself. Then
Complication
the North Wind puffed and puffed, and blew harder and harder, but
the man wrapped the coat even more tightly around his body. Finally
the North Wind gave up his attempt, exhausted. Now its your turn,
he gasped to the Sun.
The genle Sun shone out warmly. Soon the man grew warm
Resolution
andbuttened his coat. The Sun shone and shone and after just a few
minutes the man took off his coat. And so in the end the North Win
had to admit that the Sun was the stronger of the two.
Figure 4.1. Organisational structure of the Narrative the North Wind and the Sun
(From Gibbons, 2009:110)
Events

Like other genres that have been taken up previously in this book, Narratives also have
linguistic features, and to follow Gibbons (2009: 111) and Joyce & Feez (2004), these
linguistic features can be listed below:
It is sequenced in time, and this is signaled by a range of time connectives: once upon
a time, after a while, first, then.
It uses the past tense;
It uses many action verbs which express material processes that describe what
happens: blew, wrapped, shone, exhausted.
It containes dialogues and uses a number of saying verbs (Verbal processes), such
as: said, asked, replied. Sometimes these saying verbs also indicate how something is
said. For example, instead of writing He said What is that? one might say: He
whispered What is that?.
Many Narratives also use thinking verbs that give us information about what
participants are thinking or feeling, such as wondered, remembered, thought, felt,
disliked.
Narratives use descriptive langauge to describe people and things: bitterly cold day,
long, thick, warm coat, cold North Wind, gentle Sun and to describe how actions
occur: easily, harder, tightly, warmly.
Another text type which is also written by the students and has not been discussed in
previous parts of the book is responses to a literature and art, and this will be taken up
below.

136

4.5.2 An overview of Personal Responses to literature

Personal Responses to literature shows how someone, as an individual, responds to literature.
Personal Responses are subjective reactions of the writer to a work of literature (Joyce &
Feez, 2004:36).
Personal responses to literature have several stages, which can be seen in table 4. 2 below,
based on the work of Joyce & Feez (2004:36).
Table 4. 2. The schematic structure of Personal Responses to literature
Element of the structure
Function
Tells the reader what the writer is responding to and prepares the reader for
Orientation
what the writer is going to say.
Tells the reader about the text the writer is responding to. This can be about
Text description
the events in the story or the way the text is constructed.
Gives the writers personal reaction to the text.
Comment

An example of personal responses to literature can be seen below in Table 4.3. The text has
been taken from Joyce & Feez (2004:37). It is a personal response to the Prelude of The
Gathering by Isobelle carmody. A Prelude reviews what happened before the story begins.

Orientation
Text Description

Table 4.3. An example of a personal response to literary work

(From Joyce and Feez, 2004:37).
The Prelude to the gathering by Isobelle carmody sets an evil atmosphere
for the novel.
The Prelude tells us about the main character Nathaniel coming into the
new town that he and his mother are moving to. As Nathaniel and his
mother drive into the town we see the town through Nathaniels eyes and
we get some idea of his background. For example, we learn that he is
moving here with his mother and that he is not particularly happy.
As soo as I read the first line I felt scared as the author developed a sense
of foreboding. I kew that this would be a story about good versus evil as
soon as I read the first line. Some times you get a feeling about something
that you cant explain, a premonition of wrongness. I knew immediately
that the main character would be involved in strange and unusual events.
The description of the twon and the school made me feel creepy which is
the way Nathaniel feels. I could clearly see the treeless and cold playgroun
d of the school and when Nathaniel said: Fear crept through skin and bone
and folded itself in my chest, I shivered. I think the author is very clever in
the way she throws the reader instantly into an atmosphere of eeriness. This
makes the reader afraid and then it is easy to predict something very
unusual will happen to Nathaniel.

Comment

I think that the Prelude is very effective. It cleverly drew me into the
atmosphere of the novel so that I wanted to continue reading to find out
what would happen to Nathaniel.

137

Moreover, personal responses have the following linguistic features:

Use first person pronouns (I, my and me).
Contains words which refer to the whole or parts of the text; the novel, The prelude,
the first line, main character.
Contains verbs (processes) to show how the writer feels and thinks about bthe text.,
e.g. I think, I feel.
Contains opinion words which clearly show the writers reaction and which aim to
make the reader agree with this reaction; ... she throws the reader instantly into an
atmosphere of eeriness. This makes the reader afraid ... . The description of the town
and the school made me feel creepy.
The writer discusses and evaluates texts and use words to evaluate. e.g. I think that
the prelude is very effective. It cleverly drew me into the atmosphere of the novel.
The following two sections will turn to give a description of the classroom, and this can be
seen from two aspects: the physical environment and the teaching learning activities, which
will be taken up respectively in Sections 4.5.3 and 4.5.4.
4.5.3 An overview of Description
4.5.3 The classroom physical environment
In terms of classroom physical environment, there are several matters that can be described
about the Australian classroom. These will be concerned with:
The number of students
Seating arrangement
The availability of prints that allows students to be immersed in the language
learning.
Regarding the number of students, this class, as other classes in this school and other schools
in Australia in gneral, only had 25 students. This number is much smaller than that of
Indonesan class as described in Chapter 3. However, in an international standard class in
Indonesia, the number of students is also about 20 to twenty five. So, to some extent we can
learn a lot from what could be seen in the classroom, especially for those classrooms with a
similar number of students in Indonesia.
Another matter that can be described is concerned with the seating arrangement, which
according to Gebhard (2006:85) implies classroom activities that students do in class. In
Indonesian classroom, seating arrangement tends to be traditional (Gebhard, 2006:85), in
that the furniture is fixed and arranged like a theatre with all students looking towards the
teacher (see Chapter 3). Seating arrangements in Australia are not fixed and furniture can be
arranged, so students sit in circles 2006:86) where they can see each other to work
together. Moreover, in front of the classroom there is a space where students can sit together

138

when listening to the teachers explanation. The seating arrangement can be seen in Picture
4.1 below.

Picture 4.1 Seating arrangment in an Australian classroom

This seating arrangement allows children to work in groups and to communicate with each
other. The seating arrangement like this, or the U shape, as Beyer (1997) suggests, is really
useful. From a critical thinking perspective, it is this seating arrangement which is suggested
as it allows students to work in groups, to discuss the topic they learn, which constitutes an
activity that can enhance their critical thinking (Chaffee et al, 2002). From the perspective of
language teaching, this seating arrangement allows children to move, to do a variety of
activities, to interact with other students and to apply group work as learning strategy (Killen,
2007). This teaching/learning strategy, despite some limitations, has several advantages, like
these, based on Killen (2007:160).
Group work shifts the focus from students being passive recipients of information to
being active learners. This can enhance students achievement and retention
(Peterson, 1981; Swing & Peterson, 1982, cited in Killen, 2007: 160);

139

 Group work is a useful way of activating students prior knowledge and helping them
to reconstruct their understnding of the subject matter;
Group work can be a useful way of giving students an opportunity to work on a
realistic task that is too complex or too large to be undertaken by individuals;
Group work can encourage co-operation among students. It helps them to learn
respect for one anothers strengths and limitation.
When students listen as the teacher explains some new material and she wants to make sure
that everyone paid attention to her explanation, the teacher asks all students to sit on the
carpet in from of the classroom. This activity is possible as the the room has space to do that.
This makes the class dynamic and allows the teacher to closely monitor each students
understanding of what is going on in the classroom or what is being explained.
The classroom described had a good set of facilities and ample printed materials that can
enhance the results of students learning. It can be said that students in this class were
surrounded by an environment that is rich in spoken and written language, which is
supportive environment that provides resources and opportunities for interaction with
knowledgeable others (Campbell, 2006: 86). These printed materials can be seen from what
was around the classroom, such as those related to other subjects, like science, social studies
or students work that are published in the classroom. Examples of printed materials around
the classroom can be seen in Picture 4.2.

Picture 4.2 An example of printed material in the classroom:

The social purpose, the schematic structure and linguistic features of an Exposition

140

Moreover, books that students can read in reading time were also available in the room.
Students could pick up one book when they read or read the same book together when they
are doing a project like literature circle, in which a group of students read the same novel for
a period of several weeks, and the discussed the novel, and each student had a different role
each wekk, whethet they were as a discussion director, as a travel tracer, etc, in line with the
suggestion from Harveys (2003).
Conspicuous was the availability of sources and materials or visual aids drawn from both the
process and the genre-based approaches around the classroom. The influence of the process
approach could be identified from the poster on the principles of conferences suggested by
Hornsby & Sukarna (2007), covering authorial conference, secretarial conference and
editorial conference. The implementation of this conference was also obvious from the trays
avaliable, containing students texts. The top level was labelled Read me indicating that
the texts should be read by the teacher, the lower levels were respectively labelled Revise
me meaning that the texts should be revised by the students, Edit me that the texts
should be edited and Proofread me that the texts should be proofread. Apart from
showing the emphasis on the conference, this also suggests that writing is taught as a
process, consistent with the point argued by the theorists of the process approach (Graves,
1983; 1996; Hill, 2006) (and actually the SFL GBA, as suggested by Feez, 2002; Christie,
2005) where the students go through the process of writing, starting from drafting, revising,
editing, proofreading.
However, a strong emphasis on the implementation of the SFL GBA was also clear,
evidenced by visual aids on the schematic structure and model of various genres (such as
Narrative, Recount, Exposition, Procedural, Explanation, Discussion) that could be used as a
reference and a model, as suggested by SFL GBA (Macken-Horarik, 2002). It was also stated
by the teacher that the aim the teaching of writing in this class was to lead children to learn
how to produce different text types, including Narrative, Recount, Exposition (see Pictures
4.2 and 4.3 above), Procedural and Explanation. This coincides with the suggestion from the
SFL GBA (Macken-Horarik, 2002; Martin & Rose, 2008; Christie & Derewianka, 2008).
Interesting evidence that this class and this school has been impacted a lot by the
development of the SFL GBA is that these text types were available not only in the
classroom, but also in the assembly hall and even outside the classroom on the windows of
the school yard. These posters allowed students, even who were playing basket ball, for
example, to be reminded of all the text types they were learning. The text types were also
available in the school coordinators room. This school seemed to be aware of the advantage
of models for the students and the importance of the development of students writing skills
in different genres. As the students texts will reveal, this had allowed students to write
different text types quite successfully at this stage.
Of the available printed materials in the classroom, one aspect should be mentioned, that is to
do with the teaching of critical literacy. In this class, as in other classes in this school,
students were encouraged to connect the text they read or wtite with other texts, with their
life or experiences and the world. This is relevant to one of the concept in critical literacy
and critical pedagogy proposed by Freire (Freire & Macedo, 1987), that is reading the word

141

and the wold as described in Chapter 1. That this class attached a great importance to
critical literacy was confirmed by the teacher. When asked whether her teaching program or
classroom activities enabled the students to develop critical literacy, she explained:
Yes, hopefully it does. I think thats what its all about, really, that they become critical about their
reading and their writing and they can make judgment, form opinion, and be aware of not accepting
everything thats sid to them or everything they read in the internet, and being able to question and ask
why

The teachers comments above shows her understanding of the importance of aspects of
critical thinking and critical literacy, as discussed in Chapter 1.
Apart from those printed materials, the classroom had also a handwriting rubric, which was
put in a folder on every table of the students to allow students to check their hand writing
everytime they write. The writing rubrics also contained the revising and editing sheets to
allow the students to check revise and to edit their wriring and also the plan of different text
types that they write. All these will be displayed below in Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6
respectively.
Table 4.4 Handwriting rubric

Formation

4 Excellent

3 Good

All letters are

easy to read

Most letters are Many letters are

easy to read
easy to read

Start letters in the right place.

Make basic strokes correctly
All letters slope
SLOPE
forward evenly
All letters show
SIZE
good size and
Check the tall and long letters proportion
Size of letters is even
SPACING
Keep letters close.
Spaces between words
FLUENCY

2 satisfactory 1. Needs
improvement
Some letters are easy
to read

Most letters slope Many letters slope Some letters slope

forward evenly forward evenly
forward evenly
Most letters show Many letters show Many letters show
good size and
good size and
good size and
proportion
proportion
proportion

All letters and Most letters and Many letters and Some letters and words
words are spaced words are spaced words are spaced are spaced evenly
evenly
evenly
evenly

All letters formedMost letters

Many letters
Some letters formed
smoothly
formed smoothly formed smoothly smoothly

Paper position
Posture
Relaxed pencil grip
Easy Flow
LINE POSITION
Placement of letters on the

Text placement isText placement is Text placement is Text placement is

correct for all
correct for most correct for many correct for some
letters
letters
letters
letters.

142

lines

The writing rubrics above were very useful to enhance students awareness that weh writing,
we should not focus on only the content, but also the mechanics of writing. This mechanics
playes a very important role in the readability of the text as a whole. Unneat texts and
unreadable hand writing will make the text unfriendly to the readers and not interesting.
Another printed material available to enhance students writing ability is the Revising
Sheet which, again, is really helful to promote studentsawaraeness of the process of writing
and the signifcance of having a coherent and well-organised text, containing elements
appropriate the to genre and the topic. This Revising Sheet can be seen below in Table 4.5.
The statement at the bottom of the sheet, saying You are now ready to edit yor writing can
enhance students awareness that editing is one step that every writier should go through to
produce an interesting and well-writtn text.
Table 4.5 Revising sheet
(From Western Australia Department of Education, 1997)
Revising My Writing
Name: -------------------------------------

Date Revised: -------------------------------

Do I have a well written beginning or

Introduction?

Do I have a well-written ending or

conclusion?

Did I stay on the topic

Have I used topic sentences?

Is my writing interesting? (read it to

someone in a peer conference to check)

Have I repeated myself too much? Is there

any unnecessary information?

Are important details included? Have I done

enough research? Have I used enough
descriptive language?

Have I made good word choices? (strong,

descriptive, precise, lively, interesting,
persuasive, technical language?)

Is my writing well organized considering

the genre? Paragraphs? Logical order?,

Does the writing make sense?

Are any of my sentences too long?

Have I used correct language for this genre?

HAVE I TRIED MY BEST?

You are now ready to edit your writing. Signed ________________________

The last printed material that can be displayed here to enhance students achievemnt in
writing and to promote students awareness of the process of writing is the Editing Sheet,
as shown in Table 4.6 below.

143

Table 4.6 Editing sheet

(From Western Australia Department of Education, 1997)
Editing My Writing
Name: --------------------------------------------

Date Edited:-------------------------------------

Have I read my work aloud in a ppeer

conference to check for correct punctuation?

Have I started a new line each time someone

new speaks and included quotation marks?

Do I have the appropriate headings,

subheadings/title?

Have I used an exclamation mark where

expression is needed?

Have I checked my spelling using a have a

go sheet or dictionary?

Have I used a question mark at the end of

each question?

Have I used capitals when needed (names,

start of sentence, proper nouns, etc)?

Have I used a comma each time I need to

take a breath when reading my work (eg.
Between adjectives, making a list, etc)?

Have I put a full stop at the end of each

sentence?

HAVE I TRIED MY BEST?

You are now reay to do your final draft in your good copy book. Signed ________________

This Editing Sheet is very important and students seemed to use this to check their writing
befote theu handed it in to the teacher. Like the writing rublics above, this sheet makes the
students aware of the importance of the lay out of the text, which can make the reader
interested in the text and other mechanics of writing, such as capitalisation, punctuation,
spelling and so on. These printed materials are really relevant to the Indonesian context and
can be used in the classroom to help students understand the writing process and to produce
a better and more interesting text.
Students were also provided with the plan of writing different text types that could guide
them to write the focal texts. Below are examples of plans the students used, which are
Narrative and Biography plans. The plans of these text types have been chosen to be
presented in this chapter as these text types have not been described in the previous chapters.
Table 4.8 and 4.9 will provide the plan for a Narrative and a Biography.

144

Table 4.7 A plan for a Narrative

Framework Heading

Make Notes or Drawings to help plan your story

Title
Orientation

Events

Complication

Resolution

Coda/Moral/Concluding
Statement

145

Table 4.8. A plan for a Biography

Biography of a Hero

Introduction

1. Subheading - Personal Details/Field of Contribution

2. Subheading - Achievements/awards

3. Subheading Why I admire this person

Conclusion Finishing off comment that wraps report up.

These plans above are of significant importance to lead tostudents understanding of the
sctructure of the text that they write to make the text successful and fulfil its social purposes.
Moreover, the fact that the plas provide space for each stage can make students realise that
each stage or element of structure in the text should be written in different paragraphs. This
will prevent students from writing the focal text in one paragraph, as described in Chapter 3.
All the printed materials above suggest that literacy learning in the classroom, the learning of
writing in particular, had been impacted by both the process and the SFL GBA. This is not
surprising as previous research, as mentioned above, suggests that todays writing classroom
in both native language and ESL/EFL tends to be eclectic, influenced, particulalrly by both
the process approach and the SFL GBA.
Regarging the availability of the printed materials and visual aids, the teacher commented:
I think I use the chart and the examples of work and I keep them around the room because I think
children may need them, they need a visual reminder... I ve got here what we should be aiming
for. I use visual aids to help the children stay focus.

146

This supports Christies (1989) position on the importance of the provision of a model text
for students to learn. This also goes with the argument from Barnes (1999) and Migdalek
(2002) in EFL context, that With the available model, students can have a clear concept
of the desired goal, be able to compare their work with the model and to decide how to close
the gap between the two, (Barnes, 1999: 263, see also Migdalek, 2002 ). Moreover, the
importance of the availability of the prints in the childrens environment has also been
emphasised by whole language advocates (Campbell, 2006).
Moreover, with the availability of the poster that encouraged or reminded the students to
relate the text that read or write to other texts, to their life and to the world, the teaching
learning program in this class also put an emphasis on the students critical literacy
development. This is also supported by the teachers comment when asked whethet the
program she conducted could enhance students critical literacy
Yrs, hopefully it does develop critical literacy. I think thats what its all about really, that they
become critical about their reading and their writing and they can make judgment, form opinion, and
be aware of not just accepting everything that is said to them or everything they read in the internet,
and being able to question and ask why . (italis added).

The teachers comment above is relevant to the principles of critical literacy and critical
pedagogy emphasised in this book, as described in Chapters 1 and 2.
Apart from the physical environment that has been described above, another matter that
shows the synthesis of the process approach and the SFL GBA can be seen from the teaching
learning activities that will be described in the subsequent section.
4.5.4 Teaching learning process
Regarding the teaching/learning process, unlike other chapters in this book, this chapter
cannot provide a complete picture of the teaching/learning process from the beginning up to
the end, as the observation was conducted in the regular class and the writer observed what
was ging on when she was present. Of course other activities continued over the six weeks,
which were not observed. In terms of research, this is more reliable as the observation was
conducted in the class, not created for a research purpose (van Lier, 1988, 1996). The
teaching/ learning activities in writing can be described below.
In the first lesson observed, the teacher was doing a conference with students. She applied
the principles of conference with students, three days a week. Over the conference, the
teacher confidently did what is suggested by Hornsby & Sukarna (2007), depending on the
stage of the students writing. An example of a conference sheet can be seen below.

147

Table 4.9. An example of an authorial Conference Sheet

Name:
Date

Notes

Action required

13/8/08

Recount

Compare lives. Make it more interesting for the

Reader.

20/8/07

Fr Terrys talked Recount. Added Look for more interesting words: talked, went, said.
more info and did a comparison with
her life. Still brief and lacking
important information.

In an authorial conference, the teachers comments were, among others:

Write more about the comparison between your family and Steve; Organise writing into Beginning,
Middle and End; Think about more interesting words; Where will you put your B (beginning) + M
(Middle) +E (end) paragraphs?; Focus on organising information into B,M,and E; Add how we
raised $2000 for Sacraed Heart Mission (Observation Notes, August 9th, 2007).

In editorial stage, the teachers comments concerns grammar, spelling and other mechanics
of writing. These included:
Check Know, No, Tense ed past tense (Observation Notes August 20, 2007)
Self corrected puctuation and spelling but no work on content. She used words beyond her spelling
ability, which is good (Observation Notes, August 28, 2007

An example of conferencing at this stage can be seen below.

Table 4.10. An Example of Editorial Conference Sheet
Name:
Date

Notes

Action required

13/8/08

Recount

Paragraphs clear

20/8/07

Sacred Heart Mission report added in paragraphs

without changing any text added fundraising effort.

B + M +E (Beginning, Middle and End)

Check Know, No, Tense ed past tense.

Add how we raised $2000 for sacred Heart Mission.

What the teacher did can be seen in Picture 4.4 below, when the teacher showed the students
some grammatical mistakes, like incorrect use of prepositions, spelling and other mechanics
of writing.

148

Picture 4.3. Activities in a writing conference (editorial conference)

In the proofreading stage, the teacher asked the writer to do a peer conference. The teachers
comment in students book read:

Peer conference with John (pseudonym) ... to help John (August 27, 2009).

The comments above, given at different stages of writing, were appropriate and beneficial.
These comments, as reported by Peregoy & Boyle (1993:71-73) enable students to
understand that they can concentrate on different aspects of writing at different times in the
process which makes the writing task unthreatening (see also the discussion in Callaghan &
Rothery, 1988 about what the teacher should do in conferencing with the students). Thus,
through the process of writing, the teacher could assist students with strategies for generating
ideas (Peregoy & Boyle, 1993). These activities also indicate the teachers sound
understanding of the theory and her capacity to translate this theory into practice. Moreover,
the teachers comments above also show her attempt to do conference at any stage in the
149

process of writing, in line with the point from the process theorists (Graves, 1983; Calkins,
1986; Hill, 2006). This was done both in groups and roups (of eight) and individually. This
conference, according to Calkins (1986), could allow the teacher to observe what works and
what does not work for each child as a writer. Finally, the teachers suggestion to a student
writer to peer conference to help others also reflects a classroom practice relevant to both the
process and the SFL GBA, which recognises the value of peer conference. In Indonesian
EFL contexts, with a big number of students (generally more than 40), a peer conference, as
already shown in Chapter 3, constitutes a significant help for students and allows the teacher
to pay his/her attention to those who really struggle.
In terms of the provision of feedback, the teacher seemed to have a strong belief in the
benefits of feedback that she gave to her students. She explained:
I used visual aids to help students stay focused, then the feedback, I think they need the feedback,
otherwise why do it... I want the feedback to be positive and let them know that I hear what they
are saying and I like what they are saying. But I also want to say you could do better or why
didnt you mention this, or you could go further. So, I think thats a part of being a teacher.

The statement above seems to reveal the teachers awareness of the value of feedback as a
key component of teaching writing, which has been shared by the theorists of the teaching of
writing (see Hyland, 2003; Coffin et al, 2003; Hyland & Hyland, 2006; Macaro, 2003).
Macaro (2003: 238) says that Feedback is to a teacher as swimming is to a fish. Feedback
will determine whether the students revise, as Beach & Friedrich (2006) mention: It also
became clear that the nature and quality of the teachers feedback during the composing
process is critical to whether students revise. The last point about the role of the teacher to
assist students to go further is also consistent with the learning theory from Vygotsky, on the
zone of proximal development, that Learning awakens a variety of internal development
processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his
environment and in cooperation with peers(Vygotsky, 1978: 90).
Apart from obvious influence of the process approach on classroom activities as described
above, there were also activities drawn from the SFL GBA. First of all was the conference
when the teacher paid attention to the structure of the text (asking the students to think about
Beginning, Middle and End) and grammar. This coincides with the suggestion from the SFL
GBA that the teacher should lead the students to have a good control of the schematic
structure and linguistic features of a text (Anderson & Anderson, 1997a,b; Christie, 2005;
Emilia, 2005; Christie & Derewianka, 2008).
With respect to the conference, based on what happened in the classroom, the teacher did not
seem to have any challenge in her teaching although from her verbalisation she mentioned
there was indeed a problem encountered by the teacher, especially to do with conferencing
with students in terms of the time allocated and the number of students in the conference.
The teacher mentioned:

...Oh yes, its very challenging - the time, the number of children in the grade. At the moment Ive

150

got 8 children in a group and they are too many. It takes me too long to get through their eyes. ... So, I
am thinking if I make changes and I might only have 4 children in a group. ... .

This warrants further investigation, especially on how many students should be involved in a
group conference and how long the conference should last with individual student and what
aspects should be emphasised in each conference.
Other activities relevant to stages in the teaching cycle of the genre-based approach, as
proposed by Feez & Joyce (1998a) and Gibbons (2002) were:
Building Knowledge of the Field, where the teacher explained about the topic that the
students were going to write and asked the students to do research. Students
sometimes worked in the library to find out relevant information needed for their
writing. Some times the teacher read a book or a short text book regarding a certain
information, or the teacher explained in front of the classroom where students were
sitting on the carpet. The teacher seemed to be aware of the importance of the
Building Knowledge of the Field, and this was confirmed by her comments below:

I think if I dont spend time developing their ideas, then what they write is shallow....

This is relevant to the purpose of the stage, that is, as the name suggests, to build the
students knowledge about the topic they are writing, as Gibbons (2002) argues. The
students strong background knowledge of a topic, as revealed in Emilia (2005) can lead to
the creation of an analytical text, showing the writers critical thinking and critical literacy.
One matter needs a brief mention here, that is students wrote in line with what happened in
their school or in their society. For example, when on the Mothers Day, the students wrote a
letter to their mother. In commemmorating a certain day in the Christian religion, they wrote
about something relevant to Christian society, as can be seen below in the Descriptive text
about the Sacred Heart Mission. After the students had a holliday, the students wrote a
Recount about their holliday. So, as writing had become part of their dailiy activities and the
students were familiar with what to do, they would just do it (Gibbons (2009). This is
relevant to the teaching of critical literacy emphasised throughout the school that when
students read or write a text, they should be able to connect the text to other text, to their life
or experience and to the world. This, as will be shown below, can be seen from the
avalilability of a poster showing Text to Text, Text to Life and Text to the World.
Modelling when the teacher did some explicit teaching about the schematic structure
and linguistic features of the text that students were assigned to write.
Regarding explicit teaching, the teacher explained that explicit teaching reminded her and the
students of why we re doing it and what is the purpose of it. This comment is in line with

151

the suggestion from the SFL GBA that the teacher should explicitly explain about pathways
(Feez and Joyce, 1998a: 73) which the students should follow in the course of the lessons.
Joint Construction: writing together with the students a model text in focus.
Unfortunately, the model of the text written in this joint construction was not
collected.
Sometimes the teacher seemed to skip the joint construction and this can beseen that most of
students writing were written independently. The students did a joint project in other
subjects. This shows her understanding of the point that the teaching cycle does not work as
a lockstep sequence for the whole class (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 48) and there is no
right way to sequence teaching learning activities (Macken-Horarik, 2002: 26). The texts
that students wrote in the classroom can be seen in the subsequent section about texts
students wrote in the classroom.
Independent construction. This is when the students wrote their drafts several times,
having to revise and to edit their texts. The students also did consultation in a
conference with the teacher, as suggested before. After each draft students were
encouraged to consult the revising sheet above (Table 4), and then they had to sign
if they thought they had done all the aspects suggested in the sheet. Then when their
writing had gone through several drafts, the students could edit, and they could check
their writing using the editing sheet above (Table 4.6).
Some of the texts that were collected in this class will be presented in Section 4.5.5.
All classroom activities above were in fact supported by a strong belief in and undertstanding
of the appoaches to the teaching of writing that are essential in Australia. This can be seen
from the teachers statement below:

I like whole language (which is the umbrella of the process approach), I like to integrate reading and
writing into enquiry learning, in the senior and the middle section of the school, the grade five, I think
we should concentrate on the content. ... We do use the SFL GBA in our instruction and the children
are expected to learn how to do Narrative and Recount and Exposition and Procedural and
Explanation.

The teachers teaching methods show overal that she could exploit the best features of both
process approaches and the SFL GBA. Her teaching demonstrates that the two are
compatible and the possible problems of the two approaches can be avoided. On the issue of
creativity and prescriptivity in particular, the teacher was alert that she did not dictate the
students to write in a certain genre, as the grade five students already learned about many
genres before and in this grade the students are given feedom to choose the genre they like to
write. She stated:

152

... I dont dictate. Some times I might, I might dictate it has to be a Recount or a Procedural text,
but usually they select because for grade four and five they have been taught different genres and
the idea is they use them and they apply what theyve been learning in the younger grades ... .

One thing that needs a brief mention regarding this teacher is her belief in the necessity of
continuous learning for a teacher. She argued:

I think that you keep learning as a teacher, I dont think you ever stop. I dont think you ever get
to a point where you said OK, I can do it now.

This comment goes with the argument that good teachers are continuously learning
(Jacobson, 1998:29) and the point from critical pedagogy theorists, that not only the
students, but also the teacher should become the subject of knowing and the teacher, like
his/her students is an apprentice, someone who is also seeking (see Freire, 1985; Freire and
Shor, 1987; Gadotti, 1997). Regarding this, the teacher believed that professional
development is central to lead to teachers comprehesive understanding of current concepts
and development and best practices to scaffold the students in learning to write.This
statement is, again relevant to the point from language education theorists, such as Leung
(2009) who points out that professionalism is important for teachers.
4.5.5. Students texts
Along the course of the observation and the school year, students in this class produced
several texts as will be described below. The text types they wrote included: Recount,
Narrative, and Personal Response to Literature. Examples of each text type can be seen
below.
Text 4.1. A Recount
Elements of
the structure

THE BEST THING I DID ON THE HOLIDAYS

Orientation

The best thing I did on the holidays was going to my neighbours, Bill and Wendys
house at Mount Martha with my mother and sisters Tasha and Chloe.

Record of
Events

The first day dad drove us up there at 8.00 am. And we got there at 9.00 am. We went
to the door and Wendy came out and we gace her lots of hugs. She said Bill wasnt there
because he was working, so we gave her two chocolate cadbury easter eggs, one for her
and one for Bill. When we went inside and put our stuff in the rooms we were
sleeping, Wendy gave us a chocolate bunny and 10 dollers (dollars) each.
We said thank you to her and we were talking to her about what we did since last time we
went there. Then dad went to work and we were watching Bobby, Wendys dog, lick the

153

glass sliding door. Then we went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof
off because in February someone cut the plastic window at night.
At the village we went to the video store and hired some videos and then went to the
supermarket and got some suplies (supplies) for the next two days.
Then we went in the bakery and bought some lunch. It was nice.
After lunch we put our bathers on and went to the beach for one hour. When we left
the beach we went to Wendys house.

Text 4.1 above does not seem to be finished yet. It does not have a Reorientation, and has
only two elements of a Recount, including:
Orientation: The best thing I did on the holidays was going to my neighbours, Bill
and Wendys house at Mount Martha with my mother and sisters tash
and Chloe.
Record of Events: Starting from the First day dad drove us up there at 8.00 am.
through to the last sentence of the text: When we left the beach, we went
to Wendys house.
In terms of the linguistic features, the text shows the writers capacity to use English, and this
can be seen, first of all, from the fact that the text does not have any grammatical mistakes.
This is not surprising for a native speaker like him. Other linguistic features relevant to a
Recount text are:
Successful use of marked topical Theme, realising temporality, and again
strengthening the thematic progression of the text; The first day dad drove us up
there at 8.00 am; When we went inside and put our stuff in the rooms we were
sleeping, Wendy gave us a chocolate bunny and 10 dollers (dollars) each; Then we
went in the bakery and bought some lunch. After lunch we put our bathers on and
went to the beach for one hour. When we left the beach we went to Wendys house.
Successful use of textual Theme which help create the cohesion of the text: Then dad
went to work and we were watching Bobby, Wendys dog, lick the glass sliding door.
Then we went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof off because in
February someone cutt the plastic window at night; then went to the supermarket and got
some suplies (supplies) for the next two days.
Successful use of longer unit Themes, some of which are realised in a dependent clause
as in: When we left the beach we went to Wendys house. One longer unit Theme has a
dependent clause
Appropriate use of simple past tense, as can be seen in examples presented above.
Appropriate use of causal conjunctions to show logical connections between one
statement with another: We went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the
roof off because in February someone cut the plastic window at night.
Text 4. 2 A Recount

154

Structure
Orientation

A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice cafe in Eltham. It was called Volumes.

Record of
Events

When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and pasta. It smelt delicious.
I got spring rolls with salad. The spring rolls felt oily, but tasted nice. The salad tasted
sour and disgusting. My brother got chips and fish. The fish looked gross but the chips
were nice. In the cafe they have a mini book shop. I got a horse stencil book. My
brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end.

Reorientation

I really liked the cafe, then I had to leave the smell.

Text 4.2, written by a student categorised as high by the teacher, is another text classified
into a Recount. The text shows the writers good control of the schematic structure of a
Recount. The text has three elements of structure, as suggested by the theorists of the SFL
GBA as mentioned earlier, including:
Orientation: A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice restaurant in Eltham. It was
called Volumes.
Record of Events: When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and
pasta... through to the last sentence: My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on
the end.
Reorientation: I really liked the cafe, then I had to leave the smell. The writer
successfuly gave a comment on the cafe and what he smelt there. This reorients the
reader to what has been said in the first part of the text, that the cafe is nice.
In terms of linguistic features, the text reflects the writers capacity in several aspects,
relevant to a Recount, including:
Successful use of paste tense: A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice cafe in Eltham.
It was called Volumes. When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and
pasta. It smelt delicious. ...
I got spring rolls with salad. The spring rolls felt oily, but tasted nice. The salad
tasted sour and disgusting. My brother got chips and fish. The fish looked gross but
the chips were nice. In the cafe they have a mini book shop. I got a horse stencil
book. My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end.
Text 4. 3 A Narrative
Title

My Dancing Competition

Date: 27/4/07

Orientation

Once upon a time there was a girl named Alice. She loved dancing and was great
at it. On the 27th of April, she had to do five dances.
Alice was brilliant at tap dancing. It was also her favorite.
At the competitions all her five dances were tap, she had a friend doing a duo
with her. They were dressing up as circus performers.

Complication

They did lots of flexible things but when she was doing her kartwheel her skirt
fell off!

155

Evaluation

She was soooo embarrassed so she ran off stage and started to cry while the
audience were crying of laughters. Alices partner was more than happy to do the
dance by herself. When the dance finished Alices partner ran straight to her. Her
eyeliner was dripping down like a clown because of her tears. She decided to quit
the other 4 dances and became one of the audience. When she walked into the
theatre people were stll laughing but she was strong and walked in. All the
dances she saw werent very good.

Resolution

She changed her mind.

SHE WOULD DO THE DANCE !

Coda

The night ended up being better than it would of (have) been.

The End

Text 4.3, written by a student categorised as high by the teacher, is a text classified into a
Narrative. The text shows the writers good control of the schematic structure of a Narrative.
The text has five elements of structure, as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as
mentioned earlier, including:
Orientation: Once upon a time there was a girl named Alice. ... .
Complication: They did lots of flexible things but when she was doing her kartwheel
her skirt fell off!
Evaluation: She was soo embarrassed... .
Resolution: She changed her mind.
Coda: The night ended up being better than it would have been. The writer
successfuly ended the story
In terms of linguistic features,
It is sequenced in time, and this is signaled by a range of time connectives: once upon
a time, after a while, first, then.
It uses the past tense;
It uses many action verbs which express material processes that describe what
happens: blew, wrapped, shone, exhausted.
It containes dialogues and uses a number of saying verbs (Verbal processes), such
as: said, asked, replied. Sometimes these saying verbs also indicate how something is
said. For example, instead of writing He said What is that? one might say: He
whispered What is that?.
Many Narratives also use thinking verbs that give us information about what
participants are thinking or feeling, such as wondered, remembered, thought, felt,
disliked.
Narratives use descriptive langauge to describe people and things: bitterly cold day,
long, thick, warm coat, cold North Wind, gentle Sun and to describe how actions
occur: easily, harder, tightly, warmly.

156

Elements of
Structure

Text 4.4. A Personal Response to literary work

Personal Response to A literary work Specky Magee, a story book written
by Felice and Garry)

Orientation

Hi, my name is Jemy. Ive been reading your Specky Magee

Text Description

Ive been reading your Specky Magee books and they are fantastic. Its one of
the best book Ive ever in my whole life. I think the worst part of the books are
that Speckys dad and mum and his sister does not like footy. And I want to ask a
question. What team does Specky play for?

Comment

To finish off you are a great writer.

Text 4.4, written by a student categorised as high by the teacher, is a text classified into a
Personal response to Specky Magee books. Like other texts presented earlier, the text shows
the writers good control of the schematic structure of a Personal response. The text has the
elements of structure, as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as mentioned earlier,
including:
Orientation which tells the reader what the writer is responding to: Ive been reading
your Specky Magee.
Text Description which tells the reader about the text the writer is responding to. In
this case the writer describes the book as one of the best books he has ever in his life
(Its one of the best book Ive ever in my whole life). The writer also describes the
construction of the text, saying I think the worst part of books are that Speckys dad
and mum and his siter does (it should be do) not like footy.
Comment in which the writer gives a judgment and his personal reaction to the text
indirectly, saying that the writer is a great writer: To finish off you are a great writer.
In terms of the linguistic features, the text has the following aspects appropriate for a
personal response to literary works:
Use first person pronouns I have been reading your Specky Magee; I think the worst
part of the books are that Speckys dad and mum and his sister does not like footy.
Contains words which refer to the whole or parts of the text: Specky Magee books.
Contains verbs (processes) to show how the writer feels and thinks about bthe text: I
think the worst part of the books are that Speckys dad and mum and his sister does
not like footy.
The writer usee words to evaluate. e.g. The best book Ive ever in my whole life, You
are a great writer.
Text 4. 5. A Description
Title

Sacred Heart Mission

Definition

Sacred Heart Mission is an organisastion that helps the poor people that have no

157

food, water or a place to sleep in.

Each day 400 people came to eat a meal and on Christmas day over 400 poor
people come to have Christmas lunch with the parish.
Description of Activities

Request

Sacred Heart Mission also provied (provides) money for poor people to buy clothes
and any other tings they need. They help ppeople who have a mental illness or a
disease. At school we raised $2000 for sacred Heart Mission by getting donations
from our family by doing our jump rope for heart.
So, can you please help Sacred Heart Mission?

Text 4.5, written by a girl in the classroom, categorised as a mid achiever by the teacher,
belongs to a Description.
In terms of the schematic structure, the text shows the writers good control of the schematic
structure of a Description. The text has the followinge elements appropriate for a
Description, including:

4. 6. Conclusion
This chapter has focused on describing a teaching learning program in Australia, drawing
on the SFL GBA and the process approch. The chapter has shown that the teacher observed
in this classroom used a synthesis of the process and the genre-based approaches to teaching
writing. This could be seen from two aspects. The first aspect is concerned with the
classroom physical environenment, such as the presence of visual aids around the classroom
(posters on stages of conference, trays of students texts at different stages, visual aids on the
schematic structure and model texts of different genres, such as Narrative, Recount,
Exposition, Procedural, Explanation). The second aspect deals with the classroom activities,
what was done and said by both the teacher and the students, drawn from the theory of both
the process and the genre-based approaches. These activities were among others: the
conference, writing was taught as a process, explicit teaching on different aspects of a genre,
building knowledge of the field, modelling, independent construction. In going through all
the process of writing, with the topics related to their daily life, students can also be trained
to connect their text to other texts, to their life, and to the world, a feature of critical literacy.
The chapter also describes that writing in this classroom had become part of the students
daily activities at school and the topics they wrote about are relevant to what they
experienced. This allowed the students to relate what they learnt to their life, which can lead
to their awareness of the social conditions around them, an aspect of critical literacy
development.

158

Like other chapters in this book, this chapter also demonstrates that teachers should have
sound understanding of the most recent theories, concepts and best practices in the teaching
of English, particulalrly of writing to help students gain a better result of their learning.

159

Chapter 5: Conclusion, policy context and future research

5.1 Conclusion
This book has provided a description of three different cases where current theories and
practices of teaching English have been used in different contexts to help students to learn
English, especially writing in English. These theories are to do with critical thinking, critical
literacy, critical pedagogy, systemic functional linguistics, whole language philosophy,
especially the process aproach, and second or foreign language teaching. This book has
shown that classroom practices described in the previous chapters are in many ways
effective to help students achieve better results in their learning, especially learning to write
in both native and foreign language contexts of English. This can be seen from the way
students achieved greater success in learning to write and in becoming independent writers
and learners.
This book obviously has been able to present only a summary and small part of the range of
research findings in the various areas discussed and interested readers will be pointed to the
references given if they want to find out more. Also there are a lot of areas that have not been
touched upon, particulalry the teaching of other language skills, such as listening and reading
and teaching students from different social backgrounds and ethnic groups.
It has been shown thoughout the book that the contemporary teaching of English from
primary up to tertiary levels, in both native language contexts, such as Australia and foreign
language contexts, like Indonesia, has been informed by a number of different theories
related to teaching and learning English in the modern world. The teaching of English has
been impacted by the development of both the teaching profession and lingusic studies,
including those in applied and educational linguistics.
In the light of the research results and theories that have informed classroom practices
described in this book, it is proposed to conclude with some recommendations regarding
policy contexts, and future research for the Indonesian context.
5.2 Policy contexts
There are several matters that deserve attention in the development of programs for the
teaching of English in Indonesia in the future. Globalisation and the increasing imperative
for Indonesia to have effective speakers of English for trade and international communication
require that our schools and universities provide excellent English programs of a kind
produced using genre based pedagogy. Moreover, in the Reform Era, it is essential that
critical skills of the kind that are developed using critical thinking and critical pedagogy
should become part of the curriculum. In view of these matters, it is suggested here that a
number of important issues and recommendations should be borne in mind by policy makers.
All the issues regarding policy can be considered in terms of three contexts: Preservice
teacher education; In service teacher education; and policy in schools.

160

5.2.1 Policy in Preservice Teacher Education

Preservice English Teacher Education programs should:
Provide student teachers with a strong theoretical framework and practical skills for
teaching English. This will include developing programs for good qualification and
for strong competencies in English and the teaching of English.
Include an important component devoted to critical thinking, critical theory, critical
pedagogy and critical literacy.
Provide programs in functional grammar using systemic functional linguistic theory
and genre-based pedagogy.
Apply good and well articulated assessment principles that can lead to certification,
requiring students: to create and maintain major portfolios of work devoted to English
teaching, where they write reflective essays about teaching English, expressed in
good English; achieve satisfactory completion of the teaching practicum,
demonstrating practical ways to apply the theories they have been taught; and reveal a
thorough knowledge of theories and skills in conducting research through the writing
of a thesis.
Retrain lecturers, many of whom are not familiar with modern theories and research
methods.
5.2.2 Policy in Inservice Techer Education
Policy in Inservice teacher education should:
Encourage teachers to upgrade their skills and knowledge, by providing better access
to courses, exams, and oportunities for further development.
Provide enhanced funding and scholarships for teachers to pursue further studies
Develop more partnerships between national bodies and teacher-training institutes to
promote shared expertise and research.
Apply fairer and more accountable portfolio assessments for teachers.
5.2.3 Policy in schools
Schools should make efforts to:
Reduce the class sizes;
Provide good resources including a range of print materials and other resources for
English learning and immersing students in a print-rich learning environment;
Establish a library where students can find information or materials they need for
their writing and reading;
Adopt innovative teaching practices through the use of multimedia, film and videos,
CDROMs and computers;
Improve the physical arrangementS in schools e.g. seating arrangements should be
adjusted to enable students to work in groups, and to communicate easily with each
other in the classroom.

161

5.3. Future research

With respect to future research, several foci of research can be identified.
First of all, further research in different areas that have been described throughout the book
should be conducted to confirm the findings revealed in our studies. Regarding the
implementation of the SFL GBA, further research should be focused on the following
matters:
The implementation of the SFL GBA in teaching other genres that are considered to
be more difficult, such as argumentative or explanation genre, both at secondary and
tertiary levels. This is to test such matters as whether students are able to write
persuasive and convincing argumentative texts, what research they have to do, how
much time they need to produce a neat and successful argumentative text, and
whether the students critical thinking development can more clearly be seen in
writing different genres.
The implementation of the SFL GBA at the university level in different contexts,
including in different departements to check the values and challenges of
implementing the approach in EFL tertiary contexts.
An investigation of the extent to which SFL GBA can help students develop other
language skills, especially listening and speaking, and at what stage of the approach
these two language skills might be most successfully developed.
Moreover, regarding critical thinking and critical literacy, future research should address the
following:
What aspects of critical thinking should be developed at different levels of education?
What questions, as suggested by the theory of critical literacy, should be used in
reading and writing to foster their critical thinking and reading at the different ages
and stages of schooling?
In conducting action reserach, further research might involve:
Exploration of teachers own and their colleagues professional knowledge, and their
views about engaging with the views of parents and other adults.
Investigation of the teaching of other language skills, especially listening and reading.
Examination of what materials are most appropriate to promote students ability in
reading and listening.
Consideration of what questions for different levels of education should be asked to
promote students critical thinking and critical literacy.

162

 Conducting observations to investigate whether students should use the laboratory or

just practise listening in the classroom using a tape recorder to enhance their listening
skillS.
Investigation of the authenticity of materials for teaching listening and reading
(Hadley, 2001), because, as Hadley suggests, it is not easy to determine whether
materials used are really authentic, and if they are authentic, it is sometimes hard to
determine whether they suit the students need.
Research into the teaching of English in the content areas, such as Science and
Mathematics, especially in some parts of Indonesia, where the establishment of
international standard classes has occurred, requiring that all subjects be taught in
English.
Consideration of the benefits of adopting a synthesis of the process approach and the
SFL GBA in classrooms, where this would include such matters as what basic
concepts and thoughts of each approach can be made complementary in order to
create a complete and comprehensive strategy for teaching English as a foreign
language in Indonesia.
Finally, with the development of technology and the avalilability of computers in some
schools, further research should be conducted to find out how the technology can be used in
implmenting the theories that inform the classroom practices presented in this book, to help
create a better teaching learning process and better results in students learning. A lot of
research has reported the benefits of the use of computers (Swaffar, 1998; Slatin, 1998;
Chambers, Conacher., & Littlemore, 2004). Further research should attempt to find out
whether the use of computers can confirm the findings of research as reported by Swaffar
(1998:3), who suggested that computers can:
foster students cognitive development and promote increasingly sophisticated
expressions in students writing;
reduce teacher talk, resulting in greater participation among students;
provide immediate feedback in the teaching of writing, without the delays inherent in
written feedback in the traditional classrooms.
5.3 Summary
This, then is what the book ultimately expects to accomplish. It is hoped that by reading the
different classroom contexts and of the theories and practices adopted in each of them,
readers will become better informed teachers themselves, and willing to undertake further
research in their own classroom. The teaching learning process is a complex task and
activity, and therefore teachers should be flexible and responsive to the conditions of the
classroom, and their students.

163

Bibliography
Adam, C., and Artemewa, N. (2002). Writing instruction in English for academic purposes
(EAP) classes: Introducing second language learners to the academic community.
In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed. Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Allwright, D., & Bailey, K. (1991). Focus on the language classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Alwasilah, C. A. (1998). English language teaching must be reformed. The Jakarta Post 8th
December, 1998; and Alwasilah, C. A (2001). Language, culture and education.
Bandung: Andira.
Amstrong, E. (2009). Clinical applicaton. In M.A.K. Halliday., & J.J. Webster. (2009).
Continuum Companion to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Continuum
Anderson, Dale, O. (1998). Critical writing.
http://www2.latech.edu/~dalea/instruction/criticalwrite.html. Accessed on
2nd September, 2004.
Anderson, M., & Anderson, K. (1997a). Text Types in English 1. Melbourne: Macmillan
Education Australia.
Anderson, M., & Anderson, K. (1997b). Text Types in English 2. Melbourne: Macmillan
Education Australia.
Asher, C. (1992). On teaching non-fiction. In Andrews, R. (1992). (Ed). Rebirth of rhetoric.
Essays in language, culture and education. London: Routledge.
Ashley, D. (1991). Playing with the pieces: The fragmentation of social theory. In Wexler,
P. (1991). (Ed). Critical theory now. London: the Falmer Press.
Askeland. Critical thinking. http://www3.wittenberg.edu/laskeland/critical_thinking.htm.
Accessed on 4th May, 2004.
Atkinson, D. (1997). A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly,
Vol. 31, No. 1, 1997.
Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly.
Vol. 27, No. 1. Spring 1993.
Auerbach, E. (1996). Adult ESL/literacy. From the community to the community. A
guidebook for participatory literacy learning. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Auerbach, E. (1999). Teacher, tell me what to do. In Shor, I., and Pari, C. (1999). Critical
literacy in action. Writing words, changing worlds. Portsmouth, N. H.:
Boynton/Cook.
Bailin, S. (1992). The generalisability of critical thinking skills. In Norris, S. P. (1992).
(Ed). The generalisability of critical thinking. Multiple perspectives on an
educational ideal. New York: Teachers College Press.
Bailin, S. (1994). Critical thinking: Philosophical issues. In International encyclopedia of
education. (2nd Edition, p. 1204-1208). Oxford, UK: Pergamon.
Bailin, S. (2002). Skills, generalisability and critical thinking. Simon Fraser University.
bailin@sfu.ca Paideia.
Barchers, S. I. (1998). Teaching Reading. From Process to Practice. Belmont, CA:

164

Barduhn, S., & Johnson, J. (2009). Certification and Professional qualification.In A. Burns.,
& J. Richards. (2009). (Eds). The Cambridge guide to second language teacher
education. New York: Cambridge University Press
Barnes, A. (1999). Assessment. In Pachler, N. (1999). (Ed). Teaching modern foreign
languages at advanced level. London: Routledge.
Barnett, R. (1997). Higher education: A critical business. Buckingham: The Society for
Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.
Baron, B. J. (1987). Evaluating thinking skills in the classroom. In Baron, J. B., and
Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New
York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of written language. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Barton, D., and Hamilton, M. (2000). Literacy practices. In Barton, D., Hamilton, M., and
Ivanic, R. (2000). Situated literacies. Reading and writing in context. New York:
Routledge.
Baumfield, V., Hall, E., Wall, K. (2008). Action research in the classroom. Los Angeles:
SAGE.
Beach, R., and Friedrich, T. (2006). Response to Writing. In C.A. MacArthur., S. Graham,
S., & J. Fitzgerald. (2006). (Eds). Handbook of writing research. New York: The
Guilford Press.
Benesch, S. (2001). Critical English for academic purposes. Theory, politics and practices.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Berkenkotter, C., and Huckin, T. N. (1995). Genre knowledge in disciplinary
communication: Cognition/culture/power. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
Berkenkotter, C., and Huckin, T. N. (1995). Genre knowledge in disciplinary
communication: Cognition/culture/power. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
Bernstein, B. (1971). Class, codes and control. Volume 1. Theoretical studies towards a
sociology of language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Best, J.W., & Kahn, J.V. (1986). Research in education.5th Edn. Engle Wood - New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational
Foundation.
Beyer, B. K. (1997). Improving Student thinking. A comprehensive approach. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
Bizzell, P. (1992). Academic discourse and critical consciousness. Pittsburgh: University of
Pittsburgh Press.
Bloor, M. (1998). Lexical and grammatical choices in innovative language use in computer
science In Sanchez-Macarro, A., and Carter, R. (1998). Linguistic choices across
genres. Variation in spoken and written English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing Company.
Bloor, T and Bloor, M (1995). The functional analysis of English. A Hallidayan approach.
London: Arnold.
Bloor, T. (1998). Conditional expressions. Meanings and realisations in two genres In
Sanchez-Macarro, A., and Carter, R. (1998). Linguistic choices across genres.

165

Variation in spoken and written English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing

Company.
Bowell, T., and Kemp, G. (2002). Critical thinking. A concise guide. London: Routledge.
Boyce, M. E. (1996). Teaching critically as an act of praxis and resistance.
Britton, J., Burgess, T., Martin, N., McLeod, A., Rosen, H. (1975). The development of
writing abilities. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.
Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco: The
Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Brookfield, S.D. (2003). Critical thinking in adulthood. In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed).
Critical thinking and reasoning. Current research, theory, and practice. Cresskill,
New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.
Brooks, K. (2002). Reading, writing, and teaching creative Hypertext: A genre-based
pedagogy. North Dakota State
University.http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/ndsu/kbrooks/research/autohyper.html
Brooks, K. (2002). Reading, writing, and teaching creative Hypertext: A genre-based
pedagogy. North Dakota State
University.http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/ndsu/kbrooks/research/autohyper.html
Brown, C. (1999). Developing critical literacy. Sydney: National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research (Macquarie University).
Browne, M. N., and Keeley, S.M. (1986). Asking the right questions. A guide to critical
thinking. Second edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Browne, M., Haas, P., & Keeley, S. (1978, January). Measuring critical thinking skills in
college. The Educational Forum, Vol. 43, 219-226.
Burbules, N. C., and Berk, R. (1999). The changing terrains of pedagogy. Critical thinking
and critical pedagogy: Relations, differences, and limits. In Popkewitz, T.S., and
Fender, L. (1999). Critical theories in education. New York: Routledge.
Burns, A. (1990). Genre-based approaches to writing and beginning adult ESL learners.
Prospect, Vol. V, No.3, May, 1990.
Burns, A. (1992). Teacher beliefs and their influence on classroom practice. Prospect, Vol.
VII, No. 3, May, 1992.
Burns, A. (2009). Action research in second language teacher education. In A. Burns., & J.
Richards. (2009). (Eds). The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Burns, A. (2010). Doing action research in English language teaching. A guide for
practitioners. New York: Routledge.
Burns, A., & Richards, J. (2009). Introduction. Second language teacher education. In A.
Burns., & J. Richards. (2009). (Eds). The Cambridge guide to second language
teacher education. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Burns, A., and Hood, S. (1998). Teachers voices 3. Teaching critical literacy. Sydney:
National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie
University.
Burton, L. J. (2002). An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in
psychology. Milton, Queensland: John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd.
Butt, D. (1996). Theories, Maps and Descriptions: An introduction. In Hasan, R., Cloran,
C., Butt, D. (1996). Functional descriptions. Theory in practice. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publising Company.

166

Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks, S., Yallop, C. (2000). 2nd Edition. Using functional
grammar. An explorers guide. Sydney: National Centre for English Teaching and
Research. Macquarie University.
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks, S., Yallop, C. (2000). 2nd Edition. Using functional
grammar. An explorerers guide. Sydney: National Centre for English Teaching
and Research. Macquarie University.
Calkins, L. M. (1986). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Callaghan, M., and Rothery. J (1988). Teaching factual writing. Sydney: Metropolitan East
Disadvantaged Schools Program.
Callaghan, M., and Rothery. J (1988). Teaching factual writing. Sydney: Metropolitan East
Disadvantaged Schools Program.
Callaghan, M., Knapp, P., & Nobel, G. (1993). Genre in practice. In B. Cope, & M.
Kalantzis. (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A genre approach to teaching
writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Callaghan, M., Knapp, P., and Noble, G. (1993). Genre in practice. In Cope, B., and
Kalantzis, B. (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A genre approach to teaching
writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Campbell, R., & Green, D. (2006). (Eds). Literacies and learners. Current perspectives. (3rd
Edn). Frenschs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education.
Canagarajah, S. (2002). Critical academic writing and multilingual students. Michigan: The
Michigan University Press.
Carr. W., & Kemmis, S. (2009). Educational action research: A critical approach. In S.E.
Noffke, & B. Somekh (2009). The sage handbook of educational action research. Los
Angeles: SAGE.
Carson, J. G. (1992). Becoming biliterate: First language influence. In T. Silva., & P.K.
Matsuda. (2001). (Eds). Landmark Essays on ESL writing. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Caudery, T. (1998). Increasing students awareness of genre through text transformation
exercises: An old classroom activity revisited. http://wwwwriting.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej11/a2.html. Accessed on 27th July, 2002.
Cazden, C. B. (1995). Visible and invisible pedagogies in literacy. In Atkinson, P., Davies,
B., and Delamont, S. (1997). (Eds). Discourse and reproduction. Essays in honor of
Basil Bernstein. Cresskill, USA: Hampton Press. Inc.
Celce-Murcia, M. (2002). On the Use of Selected Grammatical Features in Academic
Writing. In Scleppegrell, M. J., and Colombi, M.C. (2002). (Eds). Developing
advanced literacy in first and second languages. Meaning with power. Mahwah,
N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Celce-Murcia, M., and Olshtain, E. (2000). Discourse and context in language teaching. A
guide for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chaffee, J. (2000). Thinking critically. Sixth edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Chaffee, J., McMahon, C., Stout, B.(2002). Critical thinking, Thoughtful writing. Second
edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Chamber, A., Conacher, J. E., Littlemore, J. (2004). Introduction. In A. Chamber., J.E.
Conacher., J. Littlemore. (2004). ICT and language learning. Integrating pedagogy
and practice. Birmingham: The University of Birmingham Press.

167

Cheah, M. Y. (2001). From prescription to participation: Moving from functional to critical

literacy in Singapore. In Comber, B., and Simpson, A. (Eds) 2001). Negotiating
critical literacies in classrooms. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.
Chesterfield, R.A. (1986). Qualitative methodology in the evaluation of early childhood
bilingual curriculum models. In Fetterman, D.M., & Pitman, M.A. (1986). (Eds).
Educational evaluation. Ethnography in theory, practice and politics. London: SAGE
Publications.
Christie, F. (1986). Writing in schools: generic structures as ways of meaning. In Couture,
B. (1986). (Ed). Functional approaches to writing. Research perspectives. New
Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Christie, F. (1987). Genres as choice. In Reid, I. (1987). The place of genre in learning.
Current debates. Melbourne: Deakin University Press.
Christie, F. (1989). Language development in education. In Hasan, R., and Martin, J. R.
(1989). (Eds). Language development: learning language, learning culture.
Meaning and choice in language: Studies for Michael Halliday. Volume XXVII.
New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Company.
Christie, F. (1990). The changing face of literacy. In Chrstie, F. (1990). (Ed). Literacy for a
changing world. Melbourne: ACER.
Christie, F. (1991). First and second-order registers in education. In Ventola, E. (1991).
(Ed). Functional and systemic linguistics. Approaches and uses. New York:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Christie, F. (1993). Curriculum Genres: Planning for effective teaching. In Cope, B. and
Kalantzis, M. (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A genre approach to teaching
writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Christie, F. (1997). Curriculum macrogenres as forms of initiation into a culture. In
Christie, F., and Martin, J. R. (1997). Genre and institutions. London: Continuum.
Christie, F. (1998a). Learning the literacies of primary and secondary schooling. In
Christie, F., and Misson, R. (1998). Literacy and schooling. London: Routledge.
Christie, F. (1998b). Science and apprenticeship. In Martin, J. R., and Veel, R (1998).
Reading science. Critical and functional perspectives on discourse on science.
London: Routledge.
Christie, F. (2002a). The development of abstraction in adolescence in subject English. In
Scleppegrell, M. J., and Colombi, M.C. (2002). (Eds). Developing advanced
literacy in first and second languages. Meaning with power. Mahwah, N.J:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Christie, F. (2002b). Classroom discourse analysis. London: Continuum.
Christie, F. (2005). Language education in the primary years. London: Continuum.
Christie, F. (2010a). The ontogenesis of writing in childhood and adolesence. In D. Wise.,
R. Andrew., & J. Hoffman. (2010). (Eds). The International Handbook of English,
Language and Literacy Teaching. Routledge-Taylor and Francis.
Christie, F. (2010b). The Grammar Wars in Australia. To appear in T Locke. (2010). (Ed).
Knowledge about language in the English/Literacy Classroom. Routledge.
Christie, F., & Derewianka, B. (2008). School discourse. London: Continuum.

168

Christie, F., & Dreyfus, S. (2007). Letting the secret out: Successful writing in secondary
English. In Australian Journal of Language and Literacy. Vol.30.No.3, 2007. p. 235247.
Christie, F., and Misson, R. (1998). Framing the issues in literacy education. In Christie,
F., and Misson, R. (2000). (Eds). Literacy and schooling. London: Routledge.
Christie, F., and Rothery, J. (1990). Literacy in the curriculum: planning and assessment. In
Christie, F. (1990). (Ed). Literacy for a changing world. Melbourne: ACER.
Christie, F., and Soosai, A. (2001). Language and meaning. Vol. 2. Melbourne: Macmillan
Education Australia.
Christie, F., and Unsworth, L. (2000). Developing socially responsible language research.
In Unsworth, L. (Ed). (2000). Researching Language in School and Community.
London: Cassell.
Christie, F., Devlin, B., Freebody, P., Luke, A., Martin, J. R., Threadgold, T., Walton, C.
(1991). Teaching English literacy. A project of national significance on the
preservice preparation of teachers for teaching English literacy. Volume 1.
Canberra: Centre for Studies of Language in Education.
Christie, F., Martin, J., and Rothery, J. (1994). Social processes in education: A reply to
Sawyer and Watson (and others). In Stierer, B., and Maybin, J. (1994). Language,
literacy and learning in educational practice. Adelaide: Multilingual Matters LTD
in association with The Open University.
Clark, R., and Ivanic, R. (1997). The politics of writing. London; New York: Routledge.
Cloran, C. (1995). Defining and relating text segments: Subject and Theme in discourse. In
Hasan, R., and Fries, P.H. (1995). (Eds). On Subject and Theme. A discourse
functional perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. B. V.
Cloran, C. (2000). Socio-semantic variation: different wordings, different meanings. In
Unsworth, L. (2000). (Ed). Researching language in schools and communities.
Functional linguistic perspectives. London: Cassell.
Coe, R. (2002). The New Rhetoric of Genre: Writing Political Briefs. In Johns, A. M.
(2002). Ed. Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
Coffin, C. (1997). Constructing and giving value to the past: An investigation into secondary
school history. In Christie, F., and Martin. J.R. (1997). Genre and institutions.
Social processes in the workplace and school. London: Continuum.
Coffin, C. (2002). The voices of history: Theorising the interpersonal semantics of historical
discourses. In Text , Volume 22, No. 4, 2002, p. 503-528.
Coffin, C., Curry, M.J., Goodman, S., Swann, L. (2003). Teaching Academic Writing.
London: Routledge.
Cohen, L., and Manion, L. (1985). Research methods in education. (2nd Ed). London: Croom
Helm.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education. 5th edition.
London: Routledge.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education. 5th edition.
London: Routledge.
Collerson, J. (1989). Building on the process. In J. Collerson. (Ed). Writing for life.Rozelle,
NSW: PETA.

169

Colombi, C.M. (2002). Academic Language Development in Latino Students Writing in

Spanish. In Scleppegrell, M. J., and Colombi, M.C. (2002). (Eds). Developing
advanced literacy in first and second languages. Meaning with power. Mahwah,
N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Colombi, C.M., and Schleppegrell, M. (2002). Theory and Practice in the Development of
Advanced Literacy. In Scleppegrell, M. J., and Colombi, M.C. (2002). (Eds).
Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages. Meaning with power.
Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Comber, B. (1994). Critical Literacy: An Introduction to Australian Debates and
Perspectives. Journal of Curriculum Studies Vol. 26, no. 6, 1994, p. 655-668.
Comber, B. (2001). Critical literacies and local action: Teacher knowledge and a new
research agenda. In Comber, B., and Simpson, A. (Eds) 2001). Negotiating critical
literacies in classrooms. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Comber, B. (2002). Critical literacy: Maximising childrens investments in school learning.
Draft discussion paper presented at the Resource Teachers: Literacy Training
Program, July 12-13, 2002.
http://www.unisa.edu.au/cslplc/publications/Critical%20Comber.html). Accessed
on 12th August, 2003.
Comber, B., & Kamler, B. (2009). Sustaining the next generation o teacher-researchers to
work for social justice. In .E. Noffke, & B. Somekh (2009). The sage handbook of
educational action research. Los Angeles: SAGE.
Connole, H. (1993). The research enterprise. In H. Connole., J. Smith., R. Wiseman.
(1993). (Eds). Research methodology 1: Issues and methods in research. Study
guide. Melbourne: Deakin University.
Connor, U. (1988). Research frontiers in writing analysis. In In T. Silva., & P.K. Matsuda.
(2001). (Eds). Landmark Essays on ESL writing. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Cooley, L., & Lewkowicz, J (2003). Dissertation writing in practice. Turning ideas into text.
Hongkong: Hongkong University Press.
Cope, B., and Kalantzis, M. (1993). The power of literacy and the literacy of power. In B.
Cope, B., and M. Kalantzis. (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A genre approach
to teaching writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Cope, B., and Kalantzis, M. (1993a). Introduction: How a genre approach to literacy can
transform the way writing is taught. In Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (1993). (Eds).
The powers of literacy. A genre approach to teaching writing. London: The Falmer
Press.
Cope, B., and Kalantzis, M. (1993b). The power of literacy and the literacy of power. In
Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A genre approach
to teaching writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Cope, N. (2002). Linking critical literacy and media literacy in an academic preparation
program. Prospect, Vol. XVII, No. 2, April, 2002.
Costa, A. L. (2003). Communities for developing minds. In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed).
Critical thinking and reasoning. Current research, theory, and practice. Cresskill,
New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.

170

Creighton, D.C. (1997). Critical literacy in the elementary classroom. In Language Arts,
Vol. 74, No. 6, October, 1997.
Croll, P. (1986). Systematic Classroom Observation. London: the Falmer Press.
Cromwell, L. S. (1992). Assessing critical thinking. In Barnes, A. Cynthia. (1992). (Ed).
Critical thinking: Educational imperative. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Crossley, D. J., and Wilson, P. A. (1979). How to argue: An introduction to logical thinking.
New York: Ransom House.
Cruddas, L., and Watson, P.(2001). Ta(l)king Back: Dialogizing Authorship. In Comber,
B., and Simpson, A. (Eds) 2001). Negotiating critical literacies in classrooms.
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Culler, J. (1975). Structural poetics. Structuralism, linguistics and the study of literature.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Culler, J. (1976). Saussure. Glasgow: Fontana/Collins.
Cumming, A. (2001). Curricula for ESL writing instruction: Options in the AMEP and
internationally. Prospect, Vol. XVI, No. 2, August, 2001.
Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society.
Ontario: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Cummins, J. (1999). Biliteracy, empowerment, and
transformative pedagogy.
http://www.iteachilearn.com/cummins/biliteratempowerment.html.
Dailey-OCain, J., & Liebscher, G. (2009). Teacher and student use of the first language in
foreign language classroom interaction: Functions and Applications. In M. Turnbull,
& J. Dailey-Ocain. (2009). (Eds). First language use in second and foreign language
learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Davidson, B.W (1995). Critical thinking education faces the challenge of
Japan.http://www.chss.montclair.edu/inquiry/spr95/Davidson.html. Accessed on
11th Jun, 2004.
Davison, C. (2001). Current policies, programs and practices in school ESL. In Mohan, B.,
Leung, C., Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the mainstream.
Edinburg: Pearson Education Limited.
Davison, C., and Williams, A. (2001). Integrating language and content: unresolved issues.
In Mohan, B., Leung, C., Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the
mainstream. Teaching, learning and identity. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
De Bono, E. (1976). Teaching thinking. Toronto: Penguin.
De Bono, E. (1991). The direct teaching of thinking in education and the CoRT method. In
Maclure, S., and Davies, P. (1991). (Eds). Learning to think. Thinking to learn. The
proceedings of the 1989 OECD conference organized by the Centre for Educational
Research and Innovation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Deakin University. (2002). Models of literacy pedagogy. Topic 1: Historical perspectives on
literacy teaching.
http:www2.deakin.edu.au/faculty/education/models_of_literacy/pedagogy_topic_1.
htm.
Degener, S. C. (1999). Making sense of critical pedagogy in adult literacy education. In
The Annual Review of Adult learning and Literacy- Volume 2.
http://ncsall.gse.harvard.edu/ann_rev/vol2_2.html

171

Delamont, S., Atkinson, P., Parry, O. (2005). Supervising the Doctorate. A Guide to Success.
Berkshire, England: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open
University Press.
Depdiknas (2001a). Kebijakan pembangunan pendidikan, pemuda dan olahraga tahun 2001.
WWW. DEPDIKNAS.GO.ID
Depdiknas (2001b). Program pembangunan nasional (Propenas) Tahun 2000-2004.
Pembangunan Pendidikan. WWW.DEPDIKNAS.GO.ID
Depdiknas (2003). Kurilulum 2004. Standar Kompetensi. Mata pelajaran bahasa Inggris.
Sekolah Menengah Atas dan Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Depdiknas.
Derewianka, B. (1990). Exploring how texts work. Newtown: PETA.
Derewianka, B. (1998). A Grammar companion. For Primary Teacher. Newtown: PETA.
Derewianka, B. (2003). Trends and issues in Genre-Based Approaches. RELC Journal 34
(2). August 2003. 4 (p. 693-722).
Diestler, S. (2001). Becoming a critical thinker. (3rd Ed). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Inc.
Dillon, D. (1985). Reading the world and reading the word: An interview with Paulo
Freire. Language Arts, Vol. 62 (1), 1985, p. 15-21.
Dixon, J. (1987). The question of genres. In I. Reid. (1987). (Ed). The place of genre in
learning: current debates. Melbourne: Deakin University Press.
DSP (Disadvantaged School Program), New South Wales Department of School Education
(1989). The Discussion Genre. Sydney: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools
Program.
DSP (Disadvantaged School Program), New South Wales Department of School Education.
(1992). Write-it-right. Literacy in industry. Research project. Stage 1: Scientific
literacy. Sydney: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program.
DSP (Disadvantaged School Program), New South Wales Department of School Education
(1994). Write-it-right. Literacy in industry. Research project. Stage 3: Literacy of
administration. Sydney: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program.
Dudley-Evans, T. (1994). Genre-analysis: An approach to text analysis for ESP. In
Coulthard, M. (1994). (Ed). Advances in written text analysis. London: Routledge.
Dudley-Evans, T. (2002). The teaching of the Academic Essay: is a Genre Approach
Possible? In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed. Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Durkin, P., Ferguson, V., and Sperring, G. (2006). Text Types for Primary Schools. Book6.
(2nd Edn). Melbourne; Oxford University Press.
Eastman, L. (1998). Oral discussions in teaching critical literacy to beginners. In Burns, A.
and Hood, S. (1998). (Eds). Teachers Voices 3. Sydney: National Centre for
English Language Teaching and Research. Macquarie University.
Edge, J. (2003). Imperial troopers and servants of the lord: A vision of TESOL for the 21 st
century. TESOL Quarterly xxxvii (4). Winter, 2003.
Edwars, N. (1999). Functional grammar in the language classroom: An interview with James
Robert Martin. http://www.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/99/jan/martin.html.
Eggins, S. (1994). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Printer
Publishers, Ltd.
Eggins, S., and Slade, D. (1997). Analysing casual conversation. London: Cassell

172

Eggins, S., Wignell, P., and Martin, J. R. (1993). The role of metaphor: Grammatical and
lexical. In Ghadesssy, M. (1993). (Ed). Register Analysis: Theory and Practice.
New York: Pinter Publishers.
Eichhorn, R. Developing thinking skills: Critical thinking at the ARMY Management Staff
College. http://www.amsc.belvoir.army.mil/roy.html. Accessed on May 3 rd, 2004.
Ellis, R. (2009). Implicit and explicit learning. In R. Ellis., S. Loewen., C. Elder., R.
Erlam., J. Philp., and H. Reinders. (2009). Implicit and explicit knowledge in second
language testing and teaching. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Elsasser, N., and John-Steiner, V. (1987). An interactionist approach to advancing literacy.
In Shor, I., and Freire, P. (1987). (Eds). Freire for the classroom. A Sourcebook for
liberatory teaching. Heinemann: Boynton/Cook Publishers.
Emilia, E (2005). A Critical genre-nased approach to teaching academic writing in a tertiary
EFL context in Indonesia. A Ph.D thesis submitted to the University of Melbourne.
Emilia, E. (1996). Principles and practices of the process-conference approach to writing.
M. Ed. Research Paper. Melbourne : Deakin University.
Emilia, E. (2008). Menulis tesis dan disertasi. Bandung: AlphaBeta.
Emilia, E. Hermawan, B., & Tati, D. (2008). The genre-based approach in the 2006
curriculum of English. Participatory action research in one junior high school in
Bandung Indonesia. A research report submitted to the English education department,
Faculty of Language and Arts Education, Indonesia University of Education,
Bandung-Indonesia.
Emmott, C. (1992). Splitting the referent: an introduction to narrative enactors. In Davies,
M.,and Ravelli, L. (1992). Advances in systemic linguistics. Recent theory and
practice. London: Pinter Publishers.
English Learning Area (2003). Critical literacy.
http://www.discover.tased.edu.au/english/critlit.htm
English, J. (2002). Critical thinking. A CITLA-Sponsored Workshop. Defining Critical
Thinking Era: 1980-Present.
http://citle.kysu.edu/Resources/Critical%20Thinking/History%20Detail%204.htm
Ennis, H. R. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In Baron, J.
B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and
practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Ennis, H. R. (1992). The degree to which critical thinking is subject specific: Clarification
and needed research. In Norris, S. P (1992). (Ed). The generalisability of critical
thinking. Multiple perspectives on an educational ideal. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Ennis, R. H. (2003). Critical thinking assessment In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed). Critical
thinking and reasoning. Current research, theory, and practice. Cresskill, New
Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.
Erdina, M. S. (2001). Putusan kongres bahasa Indonesia VII. Dikutip dari putusan kongres
bahasa Indonesia VIII 1998. Departemen pendidikan Nasional. WWW.
DEPDIKNAS.GO.ID.
http://www.pdk.go.id/publikasi/Buletin/Pppg_Tertulis/08_2001/Kongres_Bhs_Indo
nesia_...

173

Evans, M., (2009). Code-switching in computer-mediated communication: Linguistic and

interpersonal dimensions of cross-national discourse between school learners of
French and English. In M. Turnbull, & J. Dailey-Ocain. (2009). (Eds). First language
use in second and foreign language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Exley, B. (2002). Final paper for AARE 2002 student work-in-progress exl02213. Offshore
teachers work: Preparing international students for Australian based studies.
(http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/exl02213.htm).
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London: Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1992a). Discouse and social change. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Fairclough, N. (1992b). Introduction. In Fairclough, N. (1992). (Ed). Critical language
awareness. London: Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1992c). Language awareness: Critical and noncritical approaches. In
Fairclough, N. (1992). (Ed). Critical language awareness. London: Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1992d). The appropriacy of appropriateness. In Fairclough, N. (1992). (Ed).
Critical language awareness. London: Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. New York:
Longman.
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse. Textual analysis for social research. London:
Routledge.
Fairclough, N., and Chouliaraki, L. (1999). Discourse in late modernity. Edinburg: Edinburg
University Press.
Fairclough, N., and Wodak, R. (1997). Critical discourse analysis. In van Dijk, T. A.
(1997). Discourse as social interaction. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Fanani, A. F. (2002). Pendidikan pluralis multicultural dan liberatif. The Kompas July 3rd,
2002.
Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). Critical thinking: Origins, historical development, future directions. In
Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed). Critical thinking and reasoning. Current research,
theory, and practice. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.
Feez, S. (2002). Heritage and innovation in second language education. In A.M. Johns.
(2002). (Ed). Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
Feez, S. (2002). Heritage and innovation in second language education. In Johns, A. M.
(2002). Ed. Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
Feez, S., and Joyce, H (1998a). Text-based syllabus design. Sydney: National Centre For
English Language Teaching and Research.
Feez, S., and Joyce, H. (1998b). Writing Skills. Narrative and nonfiction text types.
Melbourne: Phoenix Education Pty. Ltd.
Feez, S., and Joyce, H. (2000). Creative Writing Skills. Literary and Media Text Types.
Melbourne: Phoenix Education Pty. Ltd.
Feez, S., Iedema, R., & White, P. (2008). Media literacy. Sydney: New South Wales
Department of Education and Training.
Fetterman, D.M. (1988). Ethnographic Educational Evaluation. In Fetterman, D.M (1988).
(Ed). Qualitative approaches to evaluation in education. The silent scentific
revolution. New York: PRAEGER.

174

Field, K. (1999). Developing productive language skills: Speaking and writing. In Pachler,
N. (1999). (Ed). Teaching modern foreign languages at advanced level. London:
Routledge.
Field, P., and Morse, J. (1985). Interview techniques. In R. Wiseman. (1993). (Ed).
Field, P., and Morse, J. (1985). Interview techniques. In Wiseman, R. (1993). (Ed).
Research methodology1:Issues and methods in research. Reader part 2. Melbourne:
Deakin University.
Firdaus, N. A. (1998). Bahasa di internet. Special Interest Group-Information System.
RistekFasilkom,1998.
http://wwwsunsite.ui.ac.id/student/ristek/sig/infosys/artikel/artikel1/bahasa.htm
Fisher, E. (1994). Distinctive features of pupil-pupil classroom talk and their relationship to
learning: How discursive exploration might be encouraged. In Stierer, B., and
Maybin, J. (1994). Language, literacy and learning in educational practice.
Adelaide: Multilingual Matters LTD in association with The Open University.
Fisher, R. (1990). Teaching Children to think. London: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Fraenkel, J. R., and Wallen, N. E. (2000). How to design and evaluate research in education.
4th edition. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Francis, G., Kramer, A., and Dahl (1991). From clinical report to clinical story: Two ways
of writing about medical case. In Ventola, E. (1991). (Ed). Functional and
systemic linguistics. Approaches and uses. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Fraser, N. (1991). The uses and abuses of French discourse theories for feminist politics. In
Wexler, P. (1991). (Ed). Critical theory now. London: the Falmer Press.
Freadman, A. (1994). Anyone for tennis? In Freedman, A., and Medway, P. (1994). (Eds).
Genre and the new Rhetoric. London: Taylor and Francis.
Freebody, P. (2003). Qualitative research in education. Interaction and practice. London:
SAGE Publications.
Freedman, A. (1994). Do as I say: The relationship between teaching and learning new
genres. In A. Freedman., and P. Medway. (1994). (Eds). Genre and the new
Rhetoric. London: Taylor and Francis.
Freedman, A. (1997). Situating genre and situated genres: Understanding students
writing from a genre perspective. In Bishop, W., and Ostrom, H. (1997). (Eds).
Genre and writing. Issues, arguments, alternatives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Boynton/Cook Publishers.
Freedman, A., and Medway, P. (1994). Locating genre studies: Antecedents and prospects.
Freedman, A., and Medway, P. (1994). (Eds). Genre and the new Rhetoric. London:
Taylor and Francis.
Freire, P. (1971). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Freire, P. (1985). The politics of education. Culture, power and liberation. Translated by
Donaldo Macedo. Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, Inc.
Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New Revised Edition. London: Penguin Books.
Freire, P. (1994). Pedagogy of hope. Translated by Robert R. Barr. New York: Continuum.
Freire, P. (1997). Pedagogy of the heart. New York: Continuum.
Freire, P. (1998). The Paulo Freire Reader. Edited by Maria Araujo Freire, A., and Macedo,
D. (1998). New York: The Continuum Publishing Company.

175

Freire, P. and Faundes, A. (1989). Learning to question: A pedagogy of liberation

[Translation from the Portuguese by Tony Coates]. New York: Continuum; and
(1998) In Maria, A. A.F., and Macedo, D. (1998). The Paulo Freire reader. New
York: The Continuum Publishing Company.
Freire, P., and Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy. Reading the word and the world. Massachusetts:
Bergin and Garvey Publishers, Inc.
Freire, P., and Macedo, D. (1996). A dialogue: Culture, language and race. In Leistyna, P.,
Woodrum, A., and Sherblom, A.S. (1996). (Eds). Breaking free. The transformative
power of critical pedagogy. Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review.
Freire, P., and Shor. I. (1987). A pedagogy for liberation. Dialogue and Transforming
education. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.
Frey , J. H., and Fontana, A. (1993). The group interview in social research. In Morgan, D.
L. (1993). Successful focus groups. Advancing the state of the art. Newbury Park:
Sage Publications.
Fries, P. H. (1994). On Theme, Rheme and discourse goals. In Coulthard, M. (1994). (Ed).
Advances in written text analysis. London: Routledge.
Fries, P. H. (1995). Themes, Methods of Development, and Texts. In Hasan, R., and Fries,
P.H. (1995). (Eds). On Subject and Theme. A Discourse functional perspective.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins. B. V.
Fries, P. H. (2004). What makes a text coherent? In D. Banks. (Ed). Text and texture.
Systemic functional viewpoints on the nature and structure of text. Paris:
LHarmattan.
Frowe, I. (1992). Persuasive forces: Language, ideology and education. In Andrews, R.
(1992). (Ed). Rebirth of rhetoric. Essays in language, culture and education.
London: Routledge.
Frye, P. (1997). Critical literacy: using Frontline. English in Australia 119-20. The Journal
of the Australian Association for the teaching of English Inc.
http://www.aate.org.au/E_in_A/Oct%2097/972frye.html.
Fuchs, V. (1987). Why married mothers work. In Axelrod, R. B., and Cooper, C. R. (1987).
Reading critically, writing well. A reader and guide. New York: St. Martins Press.
Fulkerson, R. (1996). Teaching the argument in writing. Urbana: National Council of
Teachers of English.
Gadotti, M. (1994). Reading Paulo Freire. His life and work. Translated by Milton, J. New
York: State University of New York Press.
Gadotti, M. (1997). The political-pedagogical praxis of Paulo Freire (1921-97): Dreaming
of a world of equality and justice. (http://www.wacc.org.uk/publications/md/md19973/freire.html).
Gallagher, C. (2000). Writing across genres.
(http://www.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/00/jul/gallagher.html)
Garces-Conejos, P., and Sanchez-Macarro, A. (1998). Scientific discourse as interaction. In
Sanchez-Macarro, A., and Carter, R. (1998). Linguistic choices across genres.
Variation in spoken and written English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing
Company.
Gardner, R. (1992). What now in English language curriculum in Australia. Prospect. VII
(3). May, 1992.

176

Gee, J. P. (1990). Social linguistics and literacies. Ideology in discourses. London: The
Falmer Press.
Gee, J. P. (1993). Postmodernism and literacies. In Lankshear, C., and McLaren, P. (1993).
(Eds). Critical literacy. Poltics, praxis, and the postmodernism. New York: State of
University of New York Press.
Gee, J. P. (1999). An introduction to discourse analysis. Theory and method. London:
Routledge.
Gee, J. P., Hull, G., and Lankshear, C. (1996). The new work order. Behind the language of
the new capitalism. St Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin Pty Ltd.
Gerot, L. (2000). Exploring reading process. In Christie, F., and Unsworth, L. (2000). (Ed).
Researching language in schools and communities. Functional linguistic
perspectives. London: Cassell.
Giancarlo, C.A., and Facione, P. A. (2001). A look across four years at the disposition
toward critical thinking among undergraduate students. The Journal of general
Education Vol. 50 (1), 2001. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, P.A.
Gibbons, P. (1998). Classroom talk and the learning of new registers in a second language.
Language and Education. XII (2). P. 99-118.
Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding language and scaffolding learning. Teaching
secondlanguage learners in the mainstream classroom. Pourthsmouth, NH:
Heineman.
Gibbons, P. (2009). English learners, academic literacy and thinking. Portsmouth:
Heinemann.
Gilbert, P. (1990). Authorising disadvantage: authorship and creativity in the language
classroom. In Christie, F. (1990). Literacy for a changing world. Melbourne:
ACER.
Gilbert, P. (1992). Voice/text/pedagogy: re-reading the writing classroom. In Weiler K.,
and Mitchell, C. (1992). (Eds). What schools can do. Critical pedagogy and
practice.
Gillham, B. (2000). Case study research methods. London: Continuum.
Giroux, H. A. (1981). Ideology, Culture and the process of schooling. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press.
Giroux, H. A. (1988a). Critical Theory and the Politics of Culture and Voice: Rethinking the
Discourse of Educational Research. In Sherman, R., and Webb, R. B. (1988).
Qualitative Research in Education: Focus and Methods. London: The Falmer Press.
Giroux, H. A. (1988b). Teachers as intellectuals. Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey
Publishers.
Giroux, H. A. (1992a). The hope of radical education. In Weiler , K., and Mitchell, C.
(1992). (Eds). What schools can do. Critical pedagogy and pactice. Standford
University Press.
Giroux, H. A. (1992b). Border crossing. Cultural workers and the politics of education.
New York: Routledge.
Giroux, H. A. (1993). Literacy and the politics of difference. In Lankshear, C., and
McLaren, P. (1993). (Eds). Critical literacy. Poltics, praxis, and the
postmodernism. New York: State of University of New York Press.
Giroux, H. A. (1997). Pedagogy and the politics of hope. Colorado: Westview Press.

177

Giroux, H. A., and McLaren, P. (1996). Teacher education and the politics of engagement:
the case for democratic schooling. In Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A., and Sherblom,
A.S. (1996). (Eds). Breaking free. The transformative power of critical pedagogy.
Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review.
Giroux, H. A., and Simon, R. (1989). Popular culture and critical pedagogy: Everyday life
as a basis for curriculum knowledge. In Giroux, H. A., and McLaren, P. (1989).
(Eds). Critical pedagogy, the state, and cultural struggle. New York: State
University of New York Press.
Glatthorn, A.A., & Joyner, R. L. (2005). Writing the Winning Thesis or Dissertation.
Thousand Oaks: California: Corwin Press.
Glossary of CT: A-B (2001). An educators guide to critical thinking terms and concepts.
http://www. Critical thinking. Org/University/gloss/ab.html.
Glossary of CT: C (2001). An educators guide to critical thinking terms and concepts.
http://www. Criticalthinking. Org/University/gloss/ab.html.
Glossary of CT: F-H (2001). An educators guide to critical thinking terms and concepts.
http://www.Criticalthinking. org/University/gloss/f-h.html.
Gocsik, K. (1997). Teaching critical thinking.
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~compose/faculty/pedagogies/thinking.html. Accessed
on September 2nd, 2004.
Goodman, K. S., Smith, B. E., Meredith, R., and Goodman, Y. M. (1987). Language and
thinking in school. (3rd Edition). New York: Richard. C. Owen Publishers.
Grabe, W. (2002). Narrative and Expository Macro-Genres. In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed.
Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.
Grabe, W., and Kaplan, R. (1996). Theory and Practice of writing. New York: Longman.
Gracia, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st Century. A Global Perspective. West
Sussex: Blackwell Publishing.
Grant, C.A., & Sleeter, C. E. (1989). Turning on Learning. Five approaches for multicultural
teaching plans for race, class, gender and disability. Columbus: Merill.
Grant, G. E. (1988). Teaching critical thinking. New York: PRAEGER.
Graves, D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. London: Heinemann.
Graves, D. H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. London: Heinemann.
Graves, D. H. (1984c). Patterns of child control of the writing process. In Walshe, R. D.
(1984). Donald Graves in Australia. Children want to write. Rozelle, NSW:
PETA.
Graves, D. H. (1996). A Fresh Look at Writing. Portsmouth, N. J: Heinemann.
Graves, D.H. (1984a). A researcher learns to write. Selected articles and monographs.
Exeter, NH: Heinemann.
Graves, D.H. (1984b). What children show us about revision. In Walshe, R. D. (1984).
Donald Graves in Australia. Children want to write. Rozelle, NSW: PETA.
Greene, M. (1996). In search of a critical pedagogy. In Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A., and
Sherblom, A.S. (1996). (Eds). Breaking free. The transformative power of critical
pedagogy. Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review.
Gumpers, J. J., Kaltman, H., OConnor, M. C. (1984). Cohesion in spoken and written
discourse: Ethnic style and the transition to literacy. In Tannen, D. (1984). (Ed).

178

Coherence in spoken and written discourse. New Jersey: ABLEX Publishing

Corporation.
Hadley, A.O. (2001). Teaching language in context. Melbourne: Heine & Heine.
Hakim, C. (1987). Case studies. In Connole, H. (1993). (Ed). Research methodology1:
Issues and methods in research. Reader: Part 1. Melbourne: Deakin University.
Halliday, M. A K, (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London, Edward
Arnold.
Halliday, M. A K, (1985b). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London, Edward
Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K (1994b). The construction of knowledge and value in the grammar of
scientific discourse, with reference to Charles Darwins The origin of Species. In
Coulthard, M. (1994). Advances in written text analysis. New York: Routledge.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1975). Learning how to mean: Explorations in the development of
language (Exploration in language study). London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1975). Learning how to mean: Explorations in the development of
language (Exploration in language study). London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1976). System and function in language. (Edited by Kress, G). London:
Oxford University Press.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985). Part A of Language, Context and Text: Aspects of language in a
social semiotic perspective. In M.A.K. Halliday., and R. Hasan. (1985). Burwood,
Melbourne: Deakin University.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985a). Spoken and written language. Geelong, Victoria: Deakin
University Press.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985c). Part A of Language, Context and Text: Aspects of language in a
social semiotic perspective. Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. (1985). Burwood,
Melbourne: Deakin University.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. (2nd Edn). London,
Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. (2nd Ed). London,
Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994a). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. (2nd Ed). London,
Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994c). Language as social semiotic. In Maybin, J. (1994). (Ed)
Language and literacy in social practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1995). How do you mean? In Davies, M.,and Ravelli, L. (1992).
Advances in systemic linguistics. Recent theory and practice. London: Pinter
Publishers.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1996). Literacy and linguistics: A functional perspective. In Hasan, R.,
and Williams, G. (1996). Literacy in society. London: Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K., and Martin, J. R. (1993). Writing science: Literacy and discursive power.
(Critical perspectives on literacy and education. London: Falmer Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. (2002a). Linguistic studies of text and discourse. London: Continuum.
Halliday, M.A.K. (2002b). On Grammar. London: Continuum.
Halliday, M.A.K., Mathiessen, C.M.I.M. (2004). An Introduction to Functional Grammar.
(3rd Ed). Revised by Mathiessen, C.M.I.M. London, Edward Arnold

179

Halliday, M.A.k. (2009). Methods techniques problems. In M.A.K. Halliday., & J.J.
Webster. (2009). Continuum Companion to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London:
Continuum
Halpern, D. (2003). The How and Why of critical thinking assessment. In Fasco, Jr. D.
(2003). (Ed). Critical thinking and reasoning. Current research, theory, and
practice. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.
Hamilton, M. (1994). Introduction: Signposts. In Hamilton, M., Baron, D., and Ivanic, R.
(1994). (Eds). Worlds of literacy. Toronto: Ontario Institute For Studies in
Education.
Hamilton, M. (2000). Expanding the new literacy studies: Using photographs to explore
literacy as a social practice. In Barton, D., Hamilton,, M., and Ivanic, R. (2000).
(Eds). Situated literacies. Reading and writing in context. New York: Routledge.
Hammond, J. (1990). Teacher expertise and learner responsibility in literacy development.
Prospect V (3), May, 1990.
Hammond, J., & Gibbons, P. (2005). Putting scaffolding to work: The contribution of
scaffolding in articulating ESL education. In Prospect Vol.20 No. 1, April, 2005.
Haneda, M., and Wells, G. (2002). Writing in knowledge building communities.
http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/~gwells/Write.html
Harjanto. I. (2000). The SMU English teachers competence in developing the teaching
materials and strategies according to the English Syllabus. Jurnal Ilmu
Pendidikan. VII (Edisi Khusus). Desember 2000.
Hasan, H. (2001). Pendekatan multicultural untuk penyempurnaan kurikulum
nasional.http://www.pdk.go.id/balitbang/publikasi/Jurnal/No_026/pendekatan_ham
id_hasan.htm, accessed in May, 2004.
Hasan, R. (1985a). Linguistics, Language, and verbal Art. Melbourne: Deakin University.
Hasan, R. (1985b). Part B of Language, Context and Text: Aspects of language in a social
semiotic perspective. Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. (1985). Burwood,
Melbourne: Deakin University.
Hasan, R. (1996). Ways of saying: Ways of meaning. London: Cassel.
Hasan, R., and Fries, H. P ( 1995). Reflections on subject and theme: An introduction. In
Hasan, R., and Fries, P.H. (1995). (Eds). On Subject and Theme. A Discourse
functional perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. B. V.
Hasan, R., and William, G. (1996). Introduction. In Hasan, R., and William, G. (1996).
(Eds). Literacy in society. London: Longman.
Hawkins, M., & Norton, B. (2009). Critical language teacher education In A. Burns., & J.
Richards. (2009). (Eds). The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, Life and work in communities and
classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hermawan, J. (2003) Pendidikan dan demokrasi.
http://www.geocities.com/hermanjul/DikDemo.htm. Accessed on June 6th, 2003.
Herzberg, B. (1999). Community service and critical thinking. In Shor, I., and Pari, C.
(1999). Critical literacy in action. Writing words, changing worlds. Portsmouth, N.
H.: Boynton/Cook.
Hill, S. (2006). Developing early literacy. Assessment and teaching. Melbourne: Eleanor
Curtain Publishing.

180

Hinchey, P.H. (1998). Finding freedom in the classroom. A practical introduction to critical
theory. New York: Peter Lang.
Hinkel, E. (2002). Second language writers text. Linguistic and rhetorical features. London:
Lawrence, Erlbaum Associates.
Hoekema, D. (1987). Capital punishment: The question of justification. In Axelrod, R. B.,
and Cooper, C. R. (1987). Reading critically, writing well. A reader and guide.
New York: St. Martins Press.
Hongladarom, S (2002). Critical thinking and the realism and anti-realism
debate.http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~hsoraj/web/CT.html
Hood, S. (1998). Critical literacy: What does it mean in theory and practice? In Burns, A.
and Hood, S. (1998). (Eds). Teachers Voices 3. Sydney: National Centre for
English Language Teaching and Research. Macquarie University.
Hopkins, D. (1993). A teacher;s guide to classroom research. Second Edn.Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Horn, R. A, Jr. (2000). Becoming a critical teacher. In Weil, D., and Anderson, K. (2000).
Perspectives in critical thinking. Essays by teachers in theory and practice. New
York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Horning, A. S. (1987). Teaching writing as a second language. Carbondale: Southern Illinois
University Press.
Hornsby & Sukarana . (2007). Focus on writing. Hand out for a practical professional
development day with David Hornsby & Debbie Sukarna. At Darebin Arts &
Entertainment Centre. Saturday, 21 July, 2007.
Howes, D. (1994). A study into the effectiveness of a genre-based approach to teaching
writing. An M. Ed Thesis. The University of Melbourne.
http://newtown. Uor.edu/Faculty Folder/ MBoyce/1CRIPTED.HTM
http://www.iteachilearn.com/cummins/biliteratempowerment.html.
Hughes, W. (2000). Critical thinking: An introduction to the basic skills. 3rd Edition. Ontario:
Broadview Press.
Hunston, S. (1994). Evaluation and organisation in a sample of written academic discourse.
In Coulthard, M. (1994). Advances in written text analysis. New York: Routledge.
Hunter, L (2002). A genre approach to foundation critical thinking. http://www.info.kochitech.ac.jp/lawrie/criticalthinking/paper.html
Huot, B., Stroble, B., Bazerman, C. (2004). (Eds). Multiple literacies for the 21st century.
Cresskill, N.J. Hampton Press.
Husein, M. F., and Wikaningtyas, S. C. (2001). Sinkronisasi praktik dan pendidikan tinggi
bisnis: Mungkinkah? Majalah Media Akuntansi-Publikasi. http://www.akuntaniai.or.id/media/ma-19/ana1901.html
Hyland, K. (2005). Patterns of engagement: dialogic features and L2 undergraduate writing.
Dalam L. Ravelli., & R.A.Ellis. (2005). Analysisng Academic Writing. London:
Continuum.
Hyland, K. (1999). Disciplinary discourses: writer stance in research articles. In Candlin,
C., and Hyland, K. (1999). (Eds). Writing: Texts, processes and practices. London:
Longman.
Hyland, K. (2000). Disciplinary discourses. Social interactions in academic writing.
Singapore: Pearson Education Limited.
Hyland, K. (2002). Teaching and researching writing. London: Pearson Education Limited.

181

Hyland, K. (2003). Second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). Contexts and issues in feedback on L2 writing: An
introduction. In Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). (Eds). Feedback in second
language writing. Contexts and issues. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hymes, D. (1996). Enthnography, linguistics, narrative inequality. Toward an understanding
of voice. London: Taylor and Francis Ltd.
Hyon, S. (1996). Genre in three traditions: Implications for ESL. In Tesol Quarterly. (30). 4
(p. 693-722.
Hyon, S. (2002). Genre and ESL reading: A classroom study. In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed.
Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.
IALF (Indonesia-Australia Language Foundation). (2003). Cultural differences in teaching
and learning. http://www.ialf.edu/pdf/may03page4.html.
Ibrahim. R. (2000). Kontribusi pengetahuan Semantik dan Gramatika terhadap penalaran
kalimat mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan bahasa dan sastra Indonesia. Jurnal Ilmu
Pendidikan. VII (1). Februari 2000.
Iedema, R. (1997). The language of administration. In Christie, F., and Martin, J. R.
(1997). (Eds). Genre and institutions. London: Continuum.
Ihsan. D. (1999). Speaking and writing errors made by students of English education.
In Davies, M., and Ravelli, L. (1992). Advances in systemic linguistics. Recent
theory and practice. London: Pinter Publishers.
IRA/NCTE (International Reading Association/National Council of Teachers of English)
(2002-2004). Read-write-think. Literacy engagement.
http://www.readwritethink.org/literacy/.
ITB (Institut Teknologi Bandung), Post graduate program (2001). Persyaratan penerimaan
mahasiswa pasca sarjana. http://www.pps.itb.ac.id/id/program-doktor/syarat.html.
ITB (Institut Teknologi Bandung, Berkala ITB). (1997). Kewajiban ilmuwan: Menulis
dengan baik. http://www. geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/2985/t-ilmuwan.htm.
Ivanic, R., and Janks. H. (1992). CLA (Critical language awareness) and emancipatory
discourse. In Fairclough, N. (1992). (Ed). Critical language awareness. New York:
Longman.
Ivanic, R., and Weldon, S. (1999). Researching the writer-reader relationship. In Candlin,
C., and Hyland, K. (1999). (Eds). Writing: Texts, processes and practices. London:
Longman.
Jacobs, G. M., Zhou, Q. Y., Jocson, P. C., Ong, C. W., and Austria, M. E. D. (1996). Asian
educationists views on gender-inclusive English. Teflin Journal, 8, 86-103.
Jacobson, J. M. (1998). Content area reading: Integration with the language arts. Albany:
Delmar Publishers.
Janesick, J. V. (2000). Using a journal to develop critical thinking skills in classroom
settings. In Weill, D., and Anderson, H.K. (2000). Perspectives in critical thinking.
New York: Peter Lang.
Janks, H. (2001). Identity and conflict in the critical literacy classroom. In Comber, B., and
Simpson, A. (Eds) 2001). Negotiating critical literacies in classrooms. Mahwah:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Japan Istecs (2000). Workshop Istecs Japan 2000. Strategy and partnership Indonesia-Japan
on science and technology. The University of Electro-Communications. 19th

182

November, 2000. (http://japan.istecs.org/Workshop00). Accessed on May 15th

2002.
Johns, A. M. (1997). Text, role and context. Developing academic literacies. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Johns, A. M. (2002a). Introduction: Genre in the classroom. In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed.
Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.
Johns, A.M. (2002b). Destabilising and enriching novice students genre theories. In Johns,
A. M. (2002). Ed. Genre in the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Johnson, A.P. (2003). A short guide to academic writing. Lanham, Maryland: University
Press of America.
Jones, B. F., and Idol, L. (1990). Introduction. In Jones, B. F., and Idol, L. (1990). (Eds).
Dimensions of Thinking and Cognitive Instruction. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc., Publishers.
Jones, J., Gollin, S., Drury, H., and Economou, D. (1989). Systemical-Functional linguistics
and its application to the TESOL curriculum. In Hasan, R., and Martin, J. R.
(1989). (Eds). Language development: learning language, learning culture.
Meaning and choice in language: Studies for Michael Halliday. Volume XXVII.
New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Company.
Jongsma, K. S. (1991). Questions and answers: Critical literacy. Reading Teacher 44 (7). p.
518-519.
Joyce, H., & Feez, S. (2004). Developing writing skills for junior secondary students.
Melbourne: Phoenix Education.
Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (1999). Course
description. Bandung: UPI.
Kabilan Bin Abdullah, M. K. (2000). Developing the Critical ESL learner: The Freires way.
The Weekly Column, Article 19, June 2000.
http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/June2000/art192000.shtml. Accessed on 14th
April, 2004.
Kadiman, K. (2002). Rektor ITB Dr. Ir. Kusmayanto Kadiman: Belum saatnya Indonesia
memiliki universitas riset. The Kompas, January 26th, 2002.
Kamler, B. (1997). Toward a critical pedagogy in English. Response to Terry Threadgold.
In Muspratt, S., Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing critical
literacies. Teaching and learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Kamler, B. (2001). Relocating the personal. A critical writing pedagogy. Norwood, Sount
Australia: The Australian Association for the Teaching of English.
Kamler, B., & Thomson, P. (2006). Helping doctoral students write. Pedagogies for
supervision. Oxon: Routledge.
Kanaoka, M. (1999). A technical writing course aimed at nurturing critical thinking skills.
http://www.camlang.com/tsp003print.htm, August, 24, 1999, accessed on 11th Jun,
2004.
Kanpol, B. (1999). Critical pedagogy. An introduction. 2nd Edition. Westport: Bergin and
Garvey.
Kasihani, K. E. S. (2000). Pengembangan kurikulum bahasa di Indonesia. Paper presented in
The National Convention of Indonesian Education, Jakarta 19-22 September 2000.

183

Kaur, S., & Sook Chun, P. (2006). Towards a process-genre-based approach in the teaching
of writing for business English. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) World WebBased
Journal.
Vol
5.
Issue
1(12).
2006.
http://www.espworld.info/articles_11/Sarjit-poon2.htm.
Keesing-Styles, L. (2003). The relationship between critical pedagogy and assessment in
teacher education. http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue5_1/03_keesingstyles.html
Kelly, G., and Bazerman, C. (2003). How students argue scientific claims: A rhetoricalSemantic analysis. Applied Linguistics 24/1. p. 28-55. Oxford University Press.
Khan, A. (1993). Poetry in motion. Forum. 1993. 31(4). Oct-Dec.
Kidsvatter, R., Wilen, W., Ishler, M. (1996). Dynamics of Effective Teaching. New York:
Longman.
Kies. D. (1992). the uses of passivity: suppressing agency in Nineteen eighty-four.
Killen, R. (2007). Effective Teaching Strategies. Lessons from research and practice.Fourth
Edition. Melbourne: Thomson.
Kincheloe, J. L. (2000). Making critical thinking critical. In Weil, D., and Anderson, K.
(2000). Perspectives in critical thinking. Essays by teachers in theory and practice.
New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Kincheloe, J. L., and Steinberg, S. R. (1996). A tentative description of Post-Formal
Thinking: The critical confrontation with cognitive theory. In Leistyna, P.,
Woodrum, A., and Sherblom, A.S. (1996). (Eds). Breaking free. The transformative
power of critical pedagogy. Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review.
Kincheloe, J. L., and Steinberg, S. R. (1998). Lesson plans from the outer limits:
Unauthorised methods. In Kincheloe, J. L., and Steinberg, S. R. (1998). (Eds).
Unauthorised methods. Strategies for critical teaching. New York: Routledge.
Knobel, J. (1993). The design and analysis of focus group studies. A practical approach. In
Morgan, D. L. (1993). Successful focus groups. Advancing the state of the art.
Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Knobel, M. (1998). Critical literacy in teacher education. In Knobel, M. and Healey, A.
(1998). Critical literacies in the Primary Classroom. Newtown, NSW: PETA.
Knott, D. (2004). Critical reading towards critical writing.
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/critrdg.html. Accessed on 2nd September, 2004.
Koch, E. (1987). Death and Justice. In Axelrod, R. B., and Cooper, C. R. (1987). Reading
critically, writing well. A reader and guide. New York: St. Martins Press.
Komite Reformasi Pendidikan (2001). Naskah akademik rancangan undang-undang
pendidikan nasional. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. Badan Penelitian
dan Pengembangan
Kraft, N. P. (2000). The role of service learning in critical thinking. In Weil, D., and
Anderson, K. (2000). Perspectives in critical thinking. Essays by teachers in theory
and practice. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Krapels, A. R. (1990). An overview of second language process research. In Kroll, B.
(1990). (Ed). Second language writing. Research insights for the classroom.
Kress, G, Jewitt, C., Ogborn, J., Tsatsarelis, C. (2001). Multimodal teaching and learning.
The rhetorics of the science classroom. New York: Continuum.
Kress, G. (1982). Learning to write. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

184

Kress, G. (1985a). Linguistic Processes in Sociocultural Practice. Melbourne: Deakin

University.
Kress, G. (1985b). Socio-linguistic development and the mature language user: Different
voices for different occasions. In Wells, G., and Nicholls, J. (1985). Language and
learning: An interactional perspective. London: The Falmer Press.
Kress, G. (1987). Genre in a social theory of language. In Reid, I. (1987). (Ed).The place of
genre in learning. Current debates. Melbourne: Deakin University Press.
Kress, G. (1993). Genre as a social process. In Cope, B., and Kalantzis, M. (1993). (Eds).
The powers of literacy. A genre-based approach to teaching writing. London: the
Falmer Press.
Kress, G. (1994). Learning to write. Second edition. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
Kress, G. (1997). Before writing. Rethinking the paths to literacy. London: Routledge.
Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge.
Kress, G. and Hodge, R.(1993). Language as ideology. (2nd Edition).London: Routledge.
Kress, G., and Hodge, R. (1979). Language as ideology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Kress, G., and van Leuwen, T. (1990). Reading Images. Melbourne: Deakin University.
Kridalaksana, H. (2002). Soal tidak ada universitas riset. Kemampuan menulis para dosen
masih minim. The Kompas, January 16th, 2002.
Krisna, A. N. (2000). Impian menteri pendidikan nasional RI Yahya Muhaimin:
Mengajarkan bahasa Inggris lebih dini. Radio Nederland, 27 November 2000.
http://www.rnw.nl/ranesi/htm/bahasa_inggris.html
Kristeva, J. (1989). Language. The unknown. An initiation into linguistics. Translated by
Menke. A. M. New York: Columbia University Press.
Krueger, R. A., and Morgan, D. L. (1993). When to use focus groups and why? In Morgan,
D. L. (1993). Successful focus groups. Advancing the state of the art. Newbury
Park: Sage Publications.
Kuhn, D. (1990). Education for thinking: What can psychology contribute? In Schwebel,
M., Maher, C. A., Fagley, N. (1990). (Eds). Promoting cognitive Growth over the
life span. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, D., and Udell, W. (2003). The development of argument skills. In Child
development, 74 (5), p. 1245-1260.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Problematising cultural stereotypes in TESOL. TESOL
Quarterly xxxvii (4). Winter, 2003.
Kurfiss, J. G. (1988). Critical Thinking: Theory, Research, and Possibilities. Washington D.
C.: ASHE (Association for the Study of Higher Education).
Kurlan, D. J. (2000). How the language really works: The fundamentals of critical reading
and effective writing. http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm.
Kusmana., and Harris, E. K. (2005). Reach English Competency 2. Kelas VIII SMP.
Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews. An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. London:
SAGE Publications Ltd.
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews. An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. London:
SAGE Publications Ltd.

185

Lamb, M. (2002). Explaining successful language learning in difficult circumstances.

Prospect XVII (2), August, 2002.
Lancaster, L., and Taylor, R. (1992). Critical approaches to language, learning and
pedagogy: A case study. In Fairclough, N. 91992). (Ed). Critical language
awareness. New York: Longman.
Langer. J. A., and Applebee, A. (1987). How writing shapes thinking. A study of teaching
and learning. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English.
Langrehr, J. (1994). Become a better thinker. Melbourne: Wrightbooks Pty Ltd.
Lankshear, C. (1994). Critical literacy. Belconnen: the Australian Curriculum Studies
Association.
Lankshear, C. (1998). Literacy and critical reflection. In Knobel, M. and Healey, A. (1998).
Critical literacies in the Primary Classroom. Newtown, NSW: PETA.
Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2006). New Literacies. Berkshire: Open University Press.
Lankshear, C., and Knobel, M. (1997). Critical literacy and active citizenship. In Muspratt,
S., Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing critical literacies.
Teaching and learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Lankshear, C., Gee, J. P., Knobel, M., Searle, C. (1997). Changing literacies. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniqu and principles in language teach ing.
Lautamatti, L. (1990). Coherence in spoken and written language. In Connor, U., and John,
A. M. (1990) (Eds). Coherence in writing. Alexandria, Virginia: Teachers of
English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
Lazere, D. (1987). Critical thinking in college English studies. ERIC Digest.
http://ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed284275.html. Accessed on 19th May, 2004.
learners. Prospect, Vol. V, No.3, May, 1990.
Lee, A. (1997). Questioning the critical: Linguistics, literacy and curriculum. In Muspratt,
S., Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing critical literacies.
Teaching and learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Leki, I. (1992). Understanding ESL writers. A guide for teachers. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook
Publishers.
Leki, I. (2001). A Narrow Thinking System: Nonnative-English-Speaking students in group
projects across the curriculum. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 1, Spring, 2001.
Leki, I. (2004). Meaning and development of academic literacy in a second language. In
Huot, B., Stroble, B., Bazerman, C. (2004). (Eds). Multiple literacies for the 21st
century. Cresskill, N.J. Hampton Press.
Lemke, J. (1995). Textual politics. Discourse and social dynamics. London: Taylor and
Frances, Ltd.
Lemke, J. (1991). Text production and dynamic text semantics. In Ventola, E. (1991). (Ed).
Functional and systemic linguistics. Approaches and uses. New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Lemke, J. (1992). Interpersonal meanings in discourse. In Davies, M., and Ravelli, L.
(1992). Advances in systemic linguistics. Recent theory and practice. London:
Pinter Publishers.
Lemke, J. (1998). Resources for attitudinal meaning: Evaluative orientations in texts
semantics.
Functions
of
language
5
(1):
33-56.
(see
also)
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/education/jlemke/editorl.htm.

186

Lemke, J. (2002). Multimedia semiotics: Genre for science education and scientific
literacy. In Scleppegrell, M. J., and Colombi, M.C. (2002). (Eds). Developing
advanced literacy in first and second languages. Meaning with power. Mahwah,
N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Lemke, J.
Analysing
verbal
data:
Principles, methods
and problems.
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/education/jlemke/papers/handbook.htm.
LEO (Literacy Education Online). Cohesion: using repetition and reference words to
emphasise key ideas in your writing. http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/style/cohesion.html.
Lesnak, R. J. (1989). Writing to learn: An experiment in remedial algebra. In Connolly, P.,
and Vilardi, T. (1989). Writing to learn Mathematics and Science. New York:
Teachers College Press.
Leung, C. (2001). Evaluation of content-language learning in the mainstream classroom. In
Mohan, B., Leung, C., Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the
mainstream. Teaching, learning and identity. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Leung, C. (2009). Second language teacher professional. In A. Burns., & J. Richards.
(2009). (Eds). The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Leung, C., and Franson, C. (2001). Curriculum identity and professional development:
system-wide questions. In Mohan, B., Leung, C., Davison, C. (2001). English as a
second language in the mainstream. Teaching, learning and identity. Essex:
Pearson Education Limited.
Leung, C., and Franson, C. (2001). England: ESL in the early days. In Mohan, B., Leung,
C., Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the mainstream. Teaching,
learning and identity. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Leung, C., and Franson, C. (2001). Mainstreaming: ESL as a diffused curriculum concern.
In Mohan, B., Leung, C., Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the
mainstream. Teaching, learning and identity. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Lim, J, M. (2005). Reiterating and Explaining Findings: Analysing Communicative
Functions in Research Reports. A paper presented in The First International
Conference in Literacy Education: Semarang, 29-30 September 2005.
Linde, C. (2001). Narrative in Institutions. In Schiffrin, D., and Tannen, D., and E.
Hamilton, H. (2001). (Eds). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Linde, C. (2001). Narrative in Institutions. In Schiffrin, D., and Tannen, D., and E.
Hamilton, H. (2001). (Eds). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Ling, J., & Smith, A. (2006a). My Pals are here. English 2A. Workbook. Singapore: Marshall
Cavendish Education.
Ling, J., & Smith, A. (2006b). My Pals are here. English 2B. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish
Education.
Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

187

Lopez, J. A., and Powell. A. B. (1989). Writing as a vehicle to learn mathematics: a case
study. In Connolly, P., and Vilardi, T. (1989). (Eds). Writing to learn mathematics
and science. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
Love, K. (1999). The whole class text response discussion genre in secondary English: A
case study. Volume 1. Ph. D. thesis, The University of Melbourne.
Love, K., Pigdon, K., Baker, G., Hampston, J. (2002). BUILT. Building understanding in
literacy and teaching. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne.
Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1990). Literacies programs: Debates and demands in cultural
context. Prospect V (3). May, 1990.
Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997a). Critical literacy and the question of normativity: An
introduction. In Muspratt, S., Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds).
Constructing critical literacies. Teaching and learning textual practice. Sydney:
Allen and Unwin.
Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997b). Shaping the social practices of reading. In Muspratt,
S., Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing critical literacies.
Teaching and learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Luke, A., and Walton, C. (1994). Critical reading: Teaching and assessing. In International
encyclopedia of education. (2nd Edition, p. 1194-1198). Oxford, UK: Pergamon.
Luke, A., OBrien, J., and Comber, B. (1994). Making community texts objects of study.
Australian Journal of language and literacy. 17(2), May, 1994 (139-150).
Luke, T. W. (1990). Social theory and modernity. Critique, Dissent, and Revolution. London:
SAGE Publications Ltd.
Lunt, H. (2001). Working in a group or alone: The classroom strategies of adult immigrant
learners of English. Prospect XVI (2). August, 2001.
Macaro, E. (2003). Teaching and learning a second language. A review of recent research.
London: Continuum.
Macaro, E. (2009). Teacher use codeswitching in the second language classroom: Exploring
optimal use. In M. Turnbull, & J. Dailey-Ocain. (2009). (Eds). First language use in
second and foreign language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Macedo, P. D. (1996). Literacy for stupidification: the pedagogy of big lies. In Leistyna,
P., Woodrum, A., and Sherblom, A.S. (1996). (Eds). Breaking free. The
transformative power of critical pedagogy. Cambridge: Harvard Editorial Review.
MacIntyre, C. (2000). The art of action research. London: David Fulton.
MacIntyre, C. (2000). The art of action research. London: David Fulton.
Macken, M., and Slade, D. (1993). Assessment: A foundation for effective learning in the
school context. In Cope, B., Kalantzis, M (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A
genre approach to teaching writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Macken-Horarik, M. (1997). Relativism in the politics of Discourse. Response to James Paul
Gee. In Muspratt, S., Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing
critical literacies. Teaching and learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and
Unwin.
Macken-Horarik, M. (1997). Relativism in the politics of Discourse. Response to James Paul
Gee. In Muspratt, S., Luke, A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing
critical literacies. Teaching and learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and
Unwin.

188

Macken-Horarik, M. (1998). Exploring the requirements of critical school literacy. In

Christie, F., and Misson, R. (1998). Literacy and schooling. London: Routledge.
Macken-Horarik, M. (2002). Something to shoot for. In A.M. Johns. (2002). (Ed). Genre in
the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Macken-Horarik, M. (2002). Something to shoot for. In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed. Genre in
the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. (2006). Designing qualitative research. (2nd Edn)). Thousand
Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Martin, J. R, &Rose, D. (2007). Interacting with text:The role of dialogue in learning to read
and write. Foreign studies journal. Beijing.
Martin, J. R, and Rose, D. (2003). Working with discourse. Meaning beyond the clause.
London: Continuum.
Martin, J. R. (1985). Factual writing: Exploring and challenging social reality. Melbourne:
Deakin University Press.
Martin, J. R. (1992). English text. System and structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing Company.
Martin, J. R. (1992). English text. System and structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing Company.
Martin, J. R. (1993). A contextual theory of language. In Cope, B., and Kalantzis, M.
(1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A genre approach to teaching writing.
London: The Falmer Press.
Martin, J. R. (1996). Evaluating disruption: Symbolising theme in junior secondary
narrative. In Hasan, R., and William, G. (1996). (Eds). Literacy in Society. New
York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Martin, J. R. (1997). Analysisng genre: Functional parameters. In Christie, F., and Martin,
J. R. (1997). (Eds). Genre and institutions. London: Continum.
Martin, J. R. (2000). Beyond exchange: Appraisal systems in English. In Hunstan, S., and
Thompson, G. (2000). (Eds). Evaluation in English. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Martin, J. R. (2000). Close reading: functional linguistics as a tool for critical discourse
analysis. In L. Unsworth. (2000). (Ed). Researching language in schools and
communities. London: Cassell.
Martin, J. R. (2000). Grammar meets genre. Reflections on the Sydney School Inaugural
Lecture. Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney.
Martin, J. R. (2001). Cohesion and Texture. In Schiffrin, D., and Tannen, D., and E.
Hamilton, H. (2001). (Eds). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Martin, J. R. (2009). Discourse studies. In M.A.K. Halliday., & J.J. Webster. (2009).
Continuum Companion to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Continuum.
Martin, J. R. (2010). Language, register, and genre. In C. Coffin, T. Lilis., K. O. Halloran
(2010). (Eds). Applied linguistics methods. A reader. Milton Park, Abington, Oxon:
Routledge.
Martin, J. R. (in Press) Bridging troubled waters: interdisciplinarity and what makes it
stick. In D. Wise., R. Andrew., & J. Hoffman. (Eds). The International Handbook
of English, Language and Literacy Teaching. Routledge-Taylor and Francis.

189

Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2003). Working with discourse. Meaning beyond the clause.
London: Continuum.
Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2007). Working with discourse. Meaning beyond the clause. (2nd
Edn) London: Continuum.
Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2008). Genre Relations. Mapping Culture. London: Equinox
Martin, J. R., and Rothery, J. (1993) Grammar: Making meaning in writing. In Cope, B.
and Kalantzis, M. (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy. A genre approach to
teaching writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Martin, J. R., and Rothery. J (1986). What functional approach to the writing task can show
teachers about good writing. In Couture, B. (1986). (Ed). Functional approaches
to writing. Research perspectives. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Martin, J. R., Christie, F., and Rothery, J. (1994). Social processes in education: A reply to
Sawyer and Watson. In B. Stierer., and J. Maybin. (1994). (Eds) Language, literacy
and learning in educational practice. Adelaide: Multilingual Matters LTD in
association with The Open University.
Martin, J. R., Christie, F., and Rothery, J. (1994). Social processes in education: A reply to
Sawyer and Watson. In Stierer, B., and Maybin, J. (1994). Language, literacy and
learning in educational practice. Adelaide: Multilingual Matters LTD in
association with The Open University.
Martin, J.R. (2002). Writing history: Construing time and value in discourse of the past. In
Scleppegrell, M. J., and Colombi, M.C. (2002). (Eds). Developing advanced
literacy in first and second languages. Meaning with power. Mahwah, N.J:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Martin, J.R. and Mathiessen, C.M.I.M and Painter C. (1997). Working With Functional
Grammar. London: Arnold.
Martin, J.R. and Mathiessen, C.M.I.M and Painter C. (1997). Working With Functional
Grammar. London: Arnold.
Marzano, R. J., Brandt, R.S., Jones, B. F., Presseisen, B. Z., Rankin, S.C., Suhor, C. (1988).
Dimensions of thinking. A framework for curriculum and instruction. Alexandria,
Virginia: Association for supervision and curriculum development (ASCD).
Masyarakat Mizan (1999). Buku sebagai makanan ruhani. Bandung: Mizan Online. 27 Mei,
1999.
Mathiessen, C., and Nesbitt, C. (1996). On the idea of theory-neutral descriptions. In Hasan,
R., Cloran, C., and Butt, D. G. (1996). Current issues in linguistic theory Volume
121. Functional descriptions. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Matthiessen, C. (1992). Interpreting the textual metafunction. In Davies, M.,and Ravelli, L.
(1992). Advances in systemic linguistics. Recent theory and practice. London:
Pinter Publishers.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1998). Construing processes of consciousness. From the
commonsense model to the uncommonsense model of cognitive science. In
Martin, J. R., and Veel, R (1998). Reading science. Critical and functional
perspectives on discourse on science. London: Routledge.
Matthiessen, C.M.I.M., & Bateman, J. (1991).Text generation and systemic functional
linguistics. Experiences from English and Japanese. London: Pinter Publishers.

190

Matthiessen, M.I.M. (2009). Ideas and new directions. In M.A.K. Halliday., & J.J. Webster.
(2009). Continuum Companion to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London:
Continuum
Maxwell, J, A., Bashook, P. G., & Sandlow, L. J. (1986). Combining ethnographic and
experimental methods in educational evaluation. In Fetterman, D.M., & Pitman,
M.A. (1986). (Eds). Educational evaluation. Ethnography in theory, practice and
politics. London: SAGE Publications.
Mazurek, R. (1999). Freirian pedagogy, cultural study and the Initiation of Students to
academic discourse. In Shor, I., and Pari, C. (1999). Critical literacy in action.
Writing words, changing worlds. Portsmouth, N. H.: Boynton/Cook.
McCarthy, M., and Carter, R. (1994). Language as discourse. Perspectives for language
teaching. London: Longman.
McGregor, R. (2002). Analysing and Writing Arguments 2. Activities, Projects and Tasks.
Melbourne: English Club.
McGregor, W. (1992). The place of circumstantials in systemic-functional grammar. In
Davies, M.,and Ravelli, L. (1992). Advances in systemic linguistics. Recent theory
and practice. London: Pinter Publishers.
McLaren, P. L., and Lankshear, C. (1993). Critical literacy and the postmodern turn. In
Lankshear, C., and McLaren, P. (1993). (Eds). Critical literacy. Poltics, praxis, and
the postmodernism. New York: State of University of New York Press.
McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2005). Action research for teachers. London: David Fulton
Publishers.
McPeck, J. E. (1981). Critical thinking and education. New York: St martins Press.
McPeck, J. E. (1981). Critical thinking and education. New York: St martins Press.
McPeck, J. E. (1990). Teaching critical thinking. London: Routledge.
McPeck, J. E. (1990). Teaching critical thinking. London: Routledge.
McPeck, J. E. (1992). Thoughts on subject specificity. In Norris, S. P. (1992). (Ed). The
generalisability of critical thinking. Multiple perspectives on an educational ideal.
New York: Teachers College Press.
McPeck, J. E. (1992). Thoughts on subject specificity. In Norris, S. P. (1992). (Ed). The
generalisability of critical thinking. Multiple perspectives on an educational ideal.
New York: Teachers College Press.
McTaggart, R. (1997a). Reading the collection In R. McTaggart. (1997). (Ed).
Participatory action research. International contexts and consequences.
New
York: New York University Press.
McTaggart, R. (1997b). Guiding principles for participatory action research. In R.
McTaggart. (1997). (Ed). Participatory action research. International contexts and
consequences. New York: New York University Press.
Mead, M. (1987). A life for a life: What that means today. In Axelrod, R. B., and Cooper,
C. R. (1987). Reading critically, writing well. A reader and guide. New York: St.
Martins Press.
Media Informasi Online STIKOM Surabaya (2001). Bahasa Jepang akan dijadikan bahasa
asing kedua di SMK. http://www.smu-net.com
Mellor, B., and Patterson, A. (2001). Teaching reading. In Comber, B., and Simpson, A.
(Eds) 2001). Negotiating critical literacies in classrooms. Mahwah: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

191

Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. Revised
and expanded from: Case study research in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. Revised
and expanded from: Case study research in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mertens, D.M. (1998). Research methods in education and psychology. Integrating diversity
with quantitative and qualitative approaches. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications,
Inc.
Met, M. (1998). Curriculum decision-making in content-based language teaching. In Cenoz
J., & Genesee, F. (1998). (Ed). Beyond bilingualism. Multilingualism and
Multilingual education. Clevendon: Multilinguals Limited.
Meyers, C. (1986). Teaching students to think critically. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Migdalek, J. (2002). Performing English in the classroom as rehearsal space. Prospect XVII
(2). August, 2002.
Migdalek, J. (2002). Performing English in the classroom as rehearsal space. Prospect XVII
(2). August, 2002.
Misson, R. (1998a). Telling tales out of school. In Christie, F., and Misson, R. (1998).
Literacy and schooling. London: Routledge.
Misson, R. (1998b). Theory and spice, and things not nice. In Knobel, M. and Healey, A.
(1998). Critical literacies in the Primary Classroom. Newtown, NSW: PETA.
Mohan, B. (1986). Language and content. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.
Mohan, B. (2001). The second language as a medium of learning. In Mohan, B., Leung, C.,
Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the mainstream. Teaching,
learning and identity. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Moon, R. (1994). The analysis of fixed expressions in text. In Coulthard, M. (1994).
Advances in written text analysis. New York: Routledge.
Moore, A. (1999). Teaching Multicultured Students. Culturism and Anti-culturism in School
Classrooms.
Moore, N. B., and Parker, R. (1995). Critical thinking. Fourth Edition. Montain View,
California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Moore, N. B., and Parker, R. (1995). Critical thinking. Fourth Edition. Montain View,
California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Morgan, W. (1997). Critical literacy in the classroom. London: Routledge.
Moriarti, M.F. (1997). Writing science through critical thinking. London: Jones and Bartlett
Publishers International.
Morrow, R. A. (1991). Critical theory, Gramsci and cultural studies: From Structuralism to
Poststructuralism. In Wexler, P. (1991). (Ed). Critical theory now. London: the
Falmer Press.
Muijs, D., & Reynolds, D. (2005). Effective teaching. Evidence and practice. London: SAGE
Publication.
Mulholland, J. (1994). Handbook of persuasive tactics: A practical language guide.
London, New York: Routledge.
Munsell, P., and Clough, M. (1984). A practical guide for advanced writers in English as a
second language. New York: Macmillan, Publishing Company.

192

Murphy, L. (1993). Bibliographical essay: Developing the theory and practice of genrebased literacy. In Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (1993). (Eds). The powers of literacy.
A genre approach to teaching writing. London: The Falmer Press.
Murray, D. E. (2005). L1 as a resource in adult learning setting. In D. E. Murray., G.
Wigglesworth (2005). First language support in adult ESL in Australia. Sydney:
National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
Murray, D. E., & Wigglesworth, G. (2005). Implications for L1 use-Where to now? In D. E.
Murray., G. Wigglesworth (2005). First language support in adult ESL in Australia.
Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
Murray, D. M. (1982). Learning by Teaching (Selected articles on writing and teaching).
Montclair/Boynton: Cook Publishing Company.
Murray, D. M. (1989). Expecting the unexpected. Teaching myself and others to read and
write. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers.
Murray, D.E. (1990). Literacies as sociocultural phenomena. Prospect. VI (1). September,
1990.
Murray, D.M. (1985). A writer teaches writing. Second edition. New Jersey: Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Murray, D.M. (1985). A writer teaches writing. Second edition. New Jersey: Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Murray, R. (2002). How to write a thesis. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press.
Murtiningsih, S. (1999). Filsafat pendidikan Hadap-Masalah Paulo Freire dan implikasinya
terhadap pendidikan nasional. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan (2), the year of 26th, 1999.
Musthafa, K. Strategi pendidikan nasional (Bunga rampai pemikiran A.A. Navis dalam buku
Filsafat dan strategi pendidikan M Syafei.
(http://www.bpgupg.go.id/strategi1.htm).
Musthafa, K. (2003) Strategi pendidikan nasional. (http://www.bpgupg.go.id/strategi3.htm).
Accessed on June 6th, 2003.
Musthafa, K. Pendidikan seusai perang kemerdekaan.
(http://www.bpgupg.go.id/strategi2.htm). Accessed on June 6th, 2003.
New South Wales Department of Education, Literacy and Education Network and
Directorate of Studies. (1990a). A genre-based approach to teaching writing in
years 3-6. An approach to writing K-12. Book 1. Introduction. Annandale, NSW:
Common Ground.
New South Wales Department of Education, Literacy and Education Network and
Directorate of Studies. (1990b). A genre-based approach to teaching writing in
years 3-6. An approach to writing K-12. Book 2. Factual writing. Annandale, NSW:
Common Ground.
New South Wales Department of Education, Literacy and Education Network and
Directorate of Studies. (1990c). A genre-based approach to teaching writing in
years 3-6. An approach to writing K-12. Book 3. Writing stories. Annandale, NSW:
Common Ground.
New South Wales Department of Education, Literacy and Education Network and
Directorate of Studies. (1990d). A genre-based approach to teaching writing in
years 3-6. An approach to writing K-12. Book 4. theory and practice. Annandale,
NSW: Common Ground.

193

New York: Cambridge University Press.

Nickerson, R. S. (1987). Why teach thinking. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987).
(Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.
Nickerson, R. S., Perkins, D. N., and Smith, E. E. (1985). The teaching of thinking. London:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Nickerson, R. S., Perkins, D. N., and Smith, E. E. (1985). The teaching of thinking. London:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Nicolazzo, M. (2000). Teaching genres in the primary school: What teachers know and do.
M.Ed. Thesis. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne.
Noffke, S. E. (2009). Revisiting the professional, personal and political dimension of action
research. S.E. Noffke, & B. Somekh (2009). The sage handbook of educational
action research. Los Angeles: SAGE.
Noone, L. (1996). Abrasions: Dilemmas of doing a critical literacy pedagogy within/against
the academy. http://www.hersda.org.au/confs/1996/noone.html. accessed
10th
March, 2004.
Noor, HM. I. (2001). Model pelatihan guru dalam menerapkan kurikulum bahasa Inggris.
Depdiknas. www. DEPDIKNAS. GO. ID.
Norris, S. P. (1992). Introduction: The generalisability question. In Norris, S. P. (1992). (Ed).
The generalisability of critical thinking. Multiple perspectives on an educational
ideal. New York: Teachers College Press.
Norris, S. P. (2003). The meaning of critical thinking test performance: The effects of
abilities and dispositions on scores. In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed). Critical thinking
and reasoning. Current research, theory, and practice. Cresskill, New Jersey:
Hampton Press, Inc.
Norris, S. P. Thinking about critical thinking: Philosophers cant go it alone. In McPeck
(1990). Teaching critical thinking. New York: Routledge.
Norris, S. P. and Ennis, R. H. (1990). The Practitioners Guide To Teaching Thinking Series.
Evaluating Critical Thinking. Melbourne: Hawker Bronlow Education
Norris, S. P. and Ennis, R. H. (1990). The Practitioners Guide To Teaching Thinking Series.
Evaluating Critical Thinking. Melbourne: Hawker Bronlow Education
Nosich, R. M. (1995). Using intellectual standards to assess students reasoning. In Paul, R.
(1995). Critical Thinking. How to prepare students for a rapidly changing world.
Santa Rosa: Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Nosich, R. M. (2001). Learning to think things through. A guide to critical thinking in the
curriculum. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nosich, R. M. (2001). Learning to think things through. A guide to critical thinking in the
curriculum. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Noyce, R.M., Christie, J. F. (1989). Integrating Reading and Writing Instruction in Grades K8. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Nunan, D (1988). The learner-centred curriculum. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (1990). The role of teaching experience in professional development. Prospect.
VI (1). September, 1990.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

194

Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle
Publishers.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle
Publishers.
Nunan, D., and Lamb, C. (1996). The self-directed teacher. Managing the learning process.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Nwogu, N.K. (1995). Structuring scientific discourse. Using the Given-New Perspective.
In Forum 33 (4) 22. October-December, 1995
OBrien, J. (2001). Children reading critically: A local history. In Comber, B., and
Simpson, A. (Eds) 2001). Negotiating critical literacies in classrooms. Mahwah:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Odell, L. (1977). Measuring changes in intellectual processes as one dimension of growth in
writing. In Cooper. R. C., and Odell, L. (1977). Evaluating writing: Describing,
measuring, judging. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English.
Ohliger, J. (1995). Critical views of Paulo Freires work.
http://venus.soci.niu.edu/~socioclass/bmartin/discent/documents/facundo/Ohliger1.h
tml
Olshtain, E., and Celce-Murcia, M. (2001). Discourse Analysis and Language Teaching. In
Schiffrin, D., and Tannen, D., and E. Hamilton, H. (2001). (Eds). The Handbook of
Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Owocki, G. (2001). Make way for literacy. Teaching the way young children
learn.Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Pachler. N., and Reimann, T. (1999). Reaching beyond the classroom. In Pachler, N.
(1999). (Ed). Teaching modern foreign languages at advanced level. New York:
Routledge.
Pagano. A. (1994). Negatives in written text. In Coulthard, M. (1994). (Ed). Advances in
written text analysis. London: Routledge.
Painter, C. (1989). Learning language: A functional view of language development. In
Hasan, R., and Martin, J. R. (1989). (Eds). Language development: learning
language, learning culture. Meaning and choice in language: Studies for Michael
Halliday. Volume XXVII. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Company.
Paltridge, B. (1994). Genre analyses and textual boundaries. Applied Linguistics XV (3).
September, 1994. Oxford University Press.
Paltridge, B. (1997). Genre, frames and writing in research settings. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
Paltridge, B. (2004). Approaches to Teaching Second language Writing. A paper
Paltridge, B., & Satrfield, S. (2007). Thesis and dissertation writing in a second language. A
hanbook for supervisors. London: Routledge.
Paltridge, B., & Satrfield, S. (2007). Thesis and dissertation writing in a second language. A
hanbook for supervisors. London: Routledge.
Pang, T.T.T. (2002). Textual Analysis and Contextual Awareness Building: A Comparison
of Two Approaches to Teaching Genre. In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed. Genre in the
classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Pari, C. (1999). Resisting assimilation: Academic discourse in the writing classroom. In
Shor, I., and Pari, C. (1999). Critical literacy in action. Writing words, changing
worlds. Portsmouth, N. H.: Boynton/Cook.

195

Paul, R. (1987). Dialogical thinking: Critical thought essential to the acquisition of rational
knowledge and passions. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds).
Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.
Paul, R. (1990). McPecks mistakes. In McPeck. (1990). Teaching critical thinking. New
York: Routledge.
Paul, R. (1992). Critical thinking: What, why, and how. In Barnes, A. C. (1992). (Ed).
Critical thinking: Educational imperative. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Paul, R. (2002). A draft statement of principles. The National Council for Excellence in
critical thinking <http://www.critical thinking.org/ncect.html>
Paul, R. (2002). A draft statement of principles. The National Council for Excellence in
critical thinking <http://www.critical thinking.org/ncect.html>
Paul, R. and Striven, M. (2001). Defining critical thinking (A draft statement for the
National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/defining.html
Paul, R., Elder, L., and Bartell, T. Study of 38 public universities and 28 private universities
to determine faculty emphasis on critical thinking in instruction.
Paul, R., Elder, L., and Bartell, T. Study of 38 public universities and 28 private universities
to determine faculty emphasis on critical thinking in instruction.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/schoolstudy.htm.
Paul. R. (1993). Critical Thinking. What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing
world. Melbourne: Hawker Bronlow Education.
Paul. R. (1993). Critical Thinking. What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing
world. Melbourne: Hawker Bronlow Education.
Pearce, L. (2005). How to examine a thesis. Berkshire, England: Society for Research into
Higher Education and Open University Press.
Pearson, D. P., and Raphael, T. E. (1990). Reading comprehension as dimension of
thinking. In Jones, B. F., and Idol, L. (1990). Dimensions of thinking and cognitive
instruction. Elmhurst, Illinois: NCREL.
Pelsmaeker, K., Braecke, C., and Geluykens, R. (1998). Rhetorical relations and
subordination in L2 Writing. In Sanchez-Macarro, A., and Carter, R. (1998).
Linguistic choices across genres. Variation in spoken and written English.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Peregoy, S, F., & Boyle, O. F. (1993). Reading, Writing, and Learning in ESL. New York:
Longman.
Perkins, D. N. (1987). Knowledge as design. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987).
(Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.
Perkins, D. N. (1987a). Thinking frames: An integrative perspective on teaching cognitive
skills. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills:
Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Perkins, D. N. (1987b). Knowledge as design. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987).
(Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.

196

Perkins, J. (1998). Developing critical literacy with post-beginner learners. In Burns, A. and
Hood, S. (1998). (Eds). Teachers Voices 3. Sydney: National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research. Macquarie University.
Peters, P. (1986). Getting the theme across: A study of dominant function in the academic
writing of university students. In Couture, B. (1986). (Ed). Functional approaches
to writing. Research perspectives. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Phillips, S. (1993). Young learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Picciotto, M. (2000). Critical thinking. A casebook. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Picciotto, M. (2000). Critical thinking. A casebook. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Piercy, T. D., and Piercy. W. (2003). Chaos in the classroom: The new science applied to
instructional practice. In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed). Critical thinking and
reasoning. Current research, theory, and practice. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton
Press, Inc.
Pnnycook, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics. A critical introduction. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates, Publishers.
Polanyi, L (2001). The Linguistic Structure of Discourse. In Schiffrin, D., and Tannen, D.,
and E. Hamilton, H. (2001). (Eds). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
presented in the 17th Educational Conference, Adelaide, 2004.
Pritchard, R.J., & Honeycutt, R. L. (2006). The process approach to writing instruction:
Examining its effectiveness. In C.A. MacArthur., S. Graham., and J. Fitzgerald.
(2006). (Eds). Handbook of writing research. New York: The Guilford Press.
Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa. Ditjenbud RI (1999). Kerjasama luar negeri .
http://www.pdk.go.id/kebudayaan/bahasa/kerjasama_1n.htm
Pushkin, D. B. (2000). Critical thinking in science-How do we recognise it? Do we foster it?
In Weil, D. and Anderson K. (2000). (Eds). Perspective in critical thinking. Essays
by teachers in theory and practice. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Q-Anees, B. (2002). Menemukan Paulo Freire dalam Jurnal Sastra Ketika. The Pikiran
Rakyat, September 19th, 2002.
Raharjo, B. (2000). Penyiapan informasi era teknologi informasi. Bandung: Pusat Penelitian
Antar Universitas Bidang Mikroelektronika (PPAUME). ITB.
Raharjo. B. (2001). Internet untuk pendidikan. Bandung: PPAU Mikroelektronika ITB.
Raimes. A. (1985). What unskilled ESL writers do as they write?: A classroom study of
composing In In T. Silva., & P.K. Matsuda. (2001). (Eds). Landmark Essays on
ESL writing. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rashidi, L. S. (1992). Towards an understanding of the notion of Theme: an example from
Dari. In Davies, M.,and Ravelli, L. (1992). Advances in systemic linguistics. Recent
theory and practice. London: Pinter Publishers.
Ravelli, L. (1998). The consequence of choice. Discursive positioning in an art institution.
In Sanchez-Maccarro, A. and Carter, R. (1998). Linguistic choices across genres.
Variation in spoken and written English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing
Company.

197

Ravelli, L. (2000). Getting started with functional analysis of texts. In Unsworth, L. (2000).
(Ed). Researching language in schools and communities. London: Cassell.
Reichenbach, B. R. (2001). Introduction to critical thinking. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
Companies.
Reid, I. (1987). The place of genre in learning: Current debates. Melboure: Centre for
Studies in Literary Education, Deakin University.
Reid,
S.
(2002).
Teaching
critical
thinking.
http://www.asiau.ac.jp/english/cele/articles/Reid_Critical_Thinking.htm
Reid, S. (2002). Teaching critical thinking. http://www.asiau.ac.jp/english/cele/articles/Reid_Critical_Thinking.htm).
Renaud, R.D., & Murray, H. G. (2008). A comparison of a subject-specific and general
measure of critical thinking. Thinking skills and creativity. (Volume 3) p. 85-93.
Research methodology1:Issues and methods in research. Reader part 2.
Richards, J.C. (1990). Content knowledge and instructional practice in second language
teacher education. Prospect. VI (1). September, 1990.
Richardson, J.S., Morgan, R.F., and Fleener, C. (2006). Reading to learn in the content
areas. (6th Edn). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Richardson, P. W. (1994). Language as personal resource and as social construct:
Competing views of literacy pedagogy in Australia. In Freedman, A., and Medway,
P. (1994). (Eds). Learning and teaching genre. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook
Publishers.
Roberts, C. M. (2004). The dissertation journey. A practical and comprehensive guide to
planning, writing and defending your dissertation. Thousand Oaks, California:
Corwin Press.
Roberts, P. (2000). Education, literacy and humanisation. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin and
Garvey.
Rosdiana, A. (2001). Seputar pendidikan luar sekolah. Model pembelajaran bahasa Inggris
bagi para pengemudi angkutan tradisional becak di daerah Yogyakarta.
Rosen, M. (1989). Did I hear you write? Ontarion: Scholastic.
Rothery, J. (1985). Two varieties of writing: Report and exposition. In Martin, J. R.
(1985). Factual writing. Melbourne: Deakin University Press.
Rothery, J. (1986). Writing to learn and learning to write. In J. Martin., and J. Rothery
(1986). Working papers in linguistics. No. 4. Sydney: Linguistics Department of
University of Sydney.
Rothery, J. (1986). Writing to learn and learning to write. In Martin, J., and Rothery.
Working papers in linguistics. No. 4. Sydney: Linguistics Department of University
of Sydney.
Rothery, J. (1989). Learning about language. In Hasan, R., and Martin, J. R. (1989). (Eds).
Language development: learning language, learning culture. Meaning and choice in
language: Studies for Michael Halliday. Volume XXVII. New Jersey: Ablex
Publishing Company.
Rothery, J. (1990). Story writing in primary school: Assessing narrative type genres.
Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Sydney.
Rothery, J. (1996). Making changes: Developing educational linguistics. In R. Hasan., & G.
William. (1996). (Eds). Literacy in society. New York: Addison Wesley Longman
Limited.

198

Rothery, J. (1996). Making changes: Developing educational linguistics. In Hasan, R., and
William, G. (1996). (Eds). Literacy in Society. New York: Addison Wesley
Longman Limited.
Rothery, J. (1996). Making changes: Developing educational linguistics. In Hasan, R., and
William, G. (1996). (Eds). Literacy in Society. New York: Addison Wesley
Longman Limited.
Rothery, J., and Stenglin, M. (1997). Entertaining and instructing: Exploring experience
through story. In Christie, F., and Martin. J.R. (1997). Genre and institutions.
Social processes in the workplace and school. London: Continuum.
Rothery, J., and Stenglin, M. (2000). Interpreting literature: the role of appraisal. In
Unsworth, L. (2000). (Ed). Researching language in schools and communities.
London: Cassell.
Rudestam, K. E., and Newton, R. R. (1992). Surviving your dissertation. Newbury Park:
London: SAGE Publications.
Sahanaya, Lindeck and Stewart (1998). IELTS preparation and practice: Reading and
writing: Academic module. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Salmon, M. H. (1989). Introduction to logic and critical thinking. Second Edition. San
Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Sandiford, C. M. (1997). Teaching explanations to primary school children: The how and the
why. M. Ed. Thesis. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne.
Saukah, A. (2000). The English proficiency of the academics of the Teacher Training and
Education Institutions. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan. VII (1). February, 2000.
Saussure, F. de. (1960). Course in general linguistics. Edited by Charles Balley and Albert
Sechehaya, in collaboration with Albert Reidlinger: Traslated from the French by
Wade Baskin. London: Owen.
Sawyer, W., and Watson, K. (1987). Questions of genre. In I. Reid. (1987). (Ed). The place
of genre in learning: current debates. Melbourne: Deakin University Press.
Sawyer, W., and Watson, K. (1987). Questions of genre. In Reid, I. (1987). (Ed). The place
of genre in learning: current debates. Melbourne: Deakin University Press.
Saxby, M. (1993). Childrens literature: What to look for in a primary reading program. In
Unsworth, L. (1993). (Ed). Literacy learning and teaching. Language as social
practice in the primary school. Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia PTY
Ltd.
Schirato, T., and Yell, S. (1996). Communication and cultural literacy. An Introduction. St
Leonard, New South Wales: Allen and Unwin.
Schriven, M. (2003). The philosophy of critical thinking and informal logic. In Fasco, Jr. D.
(2003). (Ed). Critical thinking and reasoning. Current research, theory, and
practice. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.
Shaw Finlay, L., and Faith, V. (1987). Illiteracy and alienation in American colleges: Is
Paulo Freires pedagogy relevant? In Shor, I., and Freire, P. (1987). (Eds). Freire for
the classroom. A Sourcebook for liberatory teaching. Heinemann: Boynton/Cook
Publishers.
Sheridan, J. J. (1992). Skipping on the brink of the abyss: Teaching thinking through
writing. In Barnes, A. Cynthia. (1992). (Ed). Critical thinking: Educational
imperative. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

199

Shimahara, N. (1988). Anthroethnography: A methodological consideration. In Sherman,

R., and Webb, R. B. (1988). Qualitative Research in Education: Focus and
Methods. London: The Falmer Press.
Sholle, D., and Denski, S. (1993). Reading and writing the media: Critical media literacy
and postmodernism. In Lankshear, C., and McLaren, P. (1993). (Eds). Critical
literacy. Poltics, praxis, and the postmodernism. New York: State of University of
New York Press.
Shor, I. (1999). What is critical literacy In Shor, I., and Pari, C. (1999). Critical literacy in
action. Writing words, changing worlds. Portsmouth, N. H.: Boynton/Cook; see also
Journal for pedagogy, pluralism and practice.
http://www.lesley.edu/journals/jppp/4/shor.html
Siddiqui, M. R. Paulo Freires model of educational change.
http://www.imt.edu.pk/articles/paulofreire.htm.
Siegel, H. (1988). Educating reason. Rationality, critical thinking, and education. New York:
Routledge.
Siegel, H. (1990). McPeck, informal logic, and the nature of critical thinking. In McPeck
(1990). Teaching critical thinking. New York: Routledge.
Siegel, H. (1992). The generalisability of critical thinking skills, dispositions, and
epistemology. In Norris, S. P. (1992). (Ed). The generalisability of critical thinking.
Multiple perspectives on an educational ideal. New York: Teachers College Press.
Siegel, H. (1997). Rationality redeemed? Further dialogues on an educational ideal. New
York: Routledge.
Siegel, H. (1997). Rationality redeemed? Further dialogues on an educational ideal. New
York: Routledge.
Silva, T. (1990). Second language composition instruction: developments, issues, and
directions in ESL. In Kroll, B. (1990). (Ed). Second language writing. Research
insights for the classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sim, A. (2006). Literacy across the curriculum. Australian Journal of language and
Literacy. Volume 29. Number 3, 2006. Norwood, South Australia: Australian
Literacy Educators Association Ltd.
Simpson, M., and Tuson, J. (1995). Using observations in small-scale research. A beginners
guide. Edinburgh: SCRE (The Scottish Council for Research in Education).
Slatin, J. (1998). The Computer writing and research lab: A brief institutional history. In J.
Swaffar., S. Romano., P. Markley., K. Arens. (1998). (Eds). Language learning
online. Austin, Texas: Labyrinth Publication.
Smalley, R. L., and Hank, M. R. (1982). Refining composition skills. Rhetoric and grammar
for ESL students. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Smith, F. (1989). Overselling literacy. In Deakin University (1996). Language, literacy and
learning A. Reader. Melbourne: Deakin University.
Smith, S., Kane, V., Wesseles, J., and Wignell, P. (1995). Writing a discussion. Child ESL
and Literacy Network. Melbourne: National Languages and Literacy Institute of
Australia.
SMUnet. (2002). Bahasa Jepang akan dijadikan bahasa asing kedua di SMK.
http://www.smu-net.com/main.php?act=hlandxkd=711
Smyth, John, W. (1988). A critical pedagogy of teacher evaluation. Melbourne: Deakin
University.

200

Spenser D. (1996). Transitional bilingual education. In Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A., and
Sherblom, A.S. (1996). (Eds). Breaking free. The transformative power of critical
pedagogy. Cambridge: Harvard Editorial Review.
Sriana, T.C. (2003). Lack of awareness.
(http://www.petra.ac.id/english/petra/studentsrea/project/karya4.htm).
Stake, E. (1985). Case study. In J.Nisbet., J. Mergary., and S.Nisbet. (1985). (Eds). World
yearbook of education 1985. Research, policy and politics. London: Nicholas
Publishing Company.
Stake, E. (1985). Case study. In Nisbet, J., Mergary, J., and Nisbet, S. (1985). (Eds). World
yearbook of education 1985. Research, policy and politics. London: Nicholas
Publishing Company.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
STAN (Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara), 2001. Permasalahan Kelas Khusus Bahasa
Inggris. Jurangmangu Online.
http://www16.brinkster.com/jurangmangu/artikel/kelas0.htm
Stapleton, P. (2002). Critical thinking in Japanese L2 writing: Rethinking tired constructs.
ELT Journal 56 (3). July, 2002. Oxford University Press.
Stein, P. (2001). Classrooms as Sites of textual, cultural, and linguistic reappropriation. In
Comber, B., and Simpson, A. (Eds) 2001). Negotiating critical literacies in
classrooms. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Questions and answers about the nature and teaching of thinking
skills. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills:
Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Questions and answers about the nature and teaching of thinking
skills. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills:
Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Sternberg, R. J. (1988). The psychologists companion. A guide to scientific writing for
students and researchers. Leichester: Cambridge University Press.
Storch, N., and Wigglesworth, G. (2003). Is there a role for the use of the L1 in an L2
setting? TESOL Quarterly, xxxvii (4), Winter, 2003.
Stringer, E. T., Christensen, L.M., Baldwin, S.C. (2010). Integrating teaching, learning and
action research. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
Stubb, M. (2001). Computer-Assisted Text and Corpus Analysis: Lexical Cohesion and
Communicative Competence. In Schiffrin, D., and Tannen, D., and E. Hamilton, H.
(2001). (Eds). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Stubbs, M. (1994). Grammar, text, and ideology. Applied linguistics. XV (2). Oxford
University Press.
Stubbs, M. (2001). Texts, corpora, and problems of interpretation: A response to
Widdowson. Applied Linguistics 22/2, p. 149-172. Oxford University Press.
Sudjana, L. T. (2000). Mengembangkan kurikulum bahasa berdasarkan sasaran.
Meningkatkan akuntabilitas guru bahasa Inggris. Paper presented in the national
convention on Indonesian education, Jakarta 19-22 September, 2000.
Sukamto (2000). Evaluasi kurikulum 1994 menurut persepsi guru dan siswa SMU. Jurnal
Ilmu Pendidikan. VII (1). Februari 2000.

201

Sulistyo. G. H. (2000). Promoting College students academic speaking skills through the
cross-cultural multistructural approach.. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan. VII (1). Februari
2000.
Suprastowo. P. (2001). Implementasi kurikulum bahasa Indonesia. Pemanfaatan waktu
belajar
dan
kemampuan
guru
melaksanakan
KBM.
Depdiknas.
WWW.DEPDIKNAS.GO.ID.
http://www.pdk.go.id/jurnal/30/implementasi_kurikulum_bahasa_in.htm
Swaffer, J. (1998). Networking language learning: Introduction In J. Swaffar., S. Romano.,
P. Markley., K. Arens. (1998). Language learning online. Austin, Texas: Labyrinth
Publication.
Swales, J (1990a). Genre analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. (1990b). Nonnative speaker graduate Engineering students and their introductions:
Global coherence and local management. In Connor, U., and John, A. M. (1990)
(Eds). Coherence in writing. Alexandria, Virginia: Teachers of English to Speakers
of Other Languages, Inc.
Swales, J., & Feak, C. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students. A course for
nonnative speakers of English. (Edisi Kedua). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press.
Swales, J., and Feak, C. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students. A course for
nonnative speakers of English. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Swarts, R. J. (1987). Teaching for thinking: A developmental model for the infusion of
thinking skills into mainstream instruction. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J.
(1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H.
Freeman and Company.
Swartz, R. (2003). Infusing critical and creative thinking into instruction in high school
classrooms. In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed). Critical thinking and reasoning. Current
research, theory, and practice. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.
Taft, R. (1989). Ethnographic research method In Wiseman, R. (1993). Research
methodology 1: issues and methods in research. Reader part 2. Melbourne: Deakin
University.
Takashima, H., & Sgiura, R. (2006). Integration of theory and practice in grammar
teaching. In A. Yoshitomi., T. Umino., & M. Negishi. (2006). (Eds). Readings in
second language pedagogy and second language acquisition. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
Talbot, M. (1992). The construction of gender in a teenage magazine. In Fairclough, N.
(1992). (Ed). Critical language awareness. London: Longman.
Tang, G. (2001). Knowledge framework and classroom action. In Mohan, B., Leung, C.,
Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the mainstream. Teaching,
learning and identity. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Tannen, D. (1984). Spoken and written narrative in English and Greek. In Tannen, D.
(1984). (Ed). Coherence in spoken and written discourse. Volume XII in the series
Advances in Discourse Processes. New Jersey: Alex Publishing Corporation.
Tempo interactif. Edunet. Penerima beasiswa dari India dipulangkan karena kemampuan
bahasa Inggrisnya rendah. http://www.
tempointeractif.com/edunet/artikel/2002/index-isi.asp?file=15012002-1

202

Thayer-Bacon, J. B. (2000). Transforming critical thinking. Thinking constructively. New

York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
The Journal of general education, Vol. 50 (1), 2001. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA.
The Kompas (2001). Paradigma baru pengajaran bahasa Inggris di SMK. Jakarta: 12th
Januari 2001. http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0101/12/dikbud/para09.htm
The Kompas (2002). Soal tidak ada universitas riset. Kemampuan menulis para dosen masih
minim.
Jakarta:
Kompas.
Dikbud. Rabu, 16th
Januari, 2002.
http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0201/16/DIKBUD/kema09.htm
The Kompas. (2002). Komunitas Peneliti Belum Berkembang di Universitas. January, 18th
2002.
The Kompas. (2002). Jangan paksakan anak harus kuasai semua materi pelajaran.
December, 8th, 1998
The Kompas. (2002). Rektor ITB Dr. Ir. Kusmayanto Kadiman: Belum saatnya Indonesia
memiliki universitas riset. January 26th, 2002.
The Kompas-Dikbud (2002). Pengajaran bahasa asing di sekolah harus fungsional.
Kompas, 26th April 2002. http://www.kompas.com/kompascetak/0204/26/DIKBUD/peng09.htm
The Media Indonesia (1998). Jangan pakai pola dewasa. Boks: Kapankah anak belajar bsh.
Inggris? http://www.indomedia.com/intisari/1998/september/b_bing.htm
The Media Indonesia. (2003). Pendidikan kehilangan daya kritis. Monday, April 7th, 2003.
http://mail2.factssoft.de/pipermail/national/2003-April/015393.html.
The Media Indonesia-Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (2000). Kurikulum bahasa Inggris terlalu
padat, hasil tidak optimal. The Media Indonesia, December the 6th, 2000.
http://www.mediaindo.co.id/cetak/news.asp?id=200012060011443
The New London Group (2000). A pedagogy of multiliteracies. In B.Cope., and M.
Kalantzis. (2000). Multiliteracies. Literacy learning and the design of social futures.
Melbourne: Macmillan Publishers.
The New London Group (2000). A pedagogy of multiliteracies. In Cope, B., and Kalantzis,
M. (2000). Multiliteracies. Literacy learning and the design of social futures.
Melbourne: Macmillan Publishers.
The Suara Hidayatullah/Jendela Keluarga, Tarbiyah.
(http://www.hidayatullah.com/sahid/9811/tarbiyah.HTM). Accessed on June, 28th,
2004.
The Swara Rahima (2003). Menggagas system pendidikan beperspektif genre dan
membebaskan! Mungkinkah? http://www.rahima.or.id/SR/07-03/Kiprah1.htm.
Accessed on October 5th, 2003.
Thibault, P. J. (1996). Re-reading Saussure: The dynamics of signs in social life. London:
Routledge.
Thibault. P. J. (1995). Mood and ecosocial dynamics of semiotic exchange. In Hasan, R.,
and Fries, P.H. (1995). (Eds). On Subject and Theme. A Discourse functional
perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. B. V.
Thody, A. (2006). Writing and presenting research. London: sage Publications.
Thomas, Matt (1999). Teaching writing. An On-line manual for classroom teachers and
volunteers for higher-order literacy (VHOLs) in conjunction with the REAP

203

Telecomputing
Project.
http://members.aol.com/mattT10574/Teaching
Writing.html.
Thomas, S. (1986). Practical reasoning in natural language. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Thompson, C. How to live forever. In http://www.teaching ideas.co.uk.
Thompson, G. (1996). Introducing functional grammar. London: Arnold.
Thompson, G. (1996). Introducing functional grammar. London: Arnold.
Thompson, G. (1998). Resonance in English In Sanchez-Macarro, A., and Carter, R.
(1998). Linguistic choices across genres. Variation in spoken and written English.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Thompson, G. (2001). Interaction in academic writing: Learning to argue with the reader.
Applied Linguistics 22/1. p. 58-78. Oxford University Press.
Thomson, A. (1996). Critical reasoning. A practical introduction. London: Routledge.
Thomson, J. (1978). Language in the classroom. In Barnes, D., Thomson, J., Watson, K.
(1978). Language in the classroom. Melbourne: ALAA.
Threadgold, T. (1994). Grammar, genre, and the ownership of literacy. Idiom xxix (2), pp.
20-28; Deakin University (1995). Literacies and Education: Writing. Reader.
Melbourne: Deakin University
Threadgold, T. (1997). Critical literacies and the teaching of English. In Muspratt, S., Luke,
A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing critical literacies. Teaching and
learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Thurow, L. (1987). Why women are paid less than men. In Axelrod, R. B., and Cooper, C.
R. (1987). Reading critically, writing well. A reader and guide. New York: St.
Martins Press.
Tim Penyempurna Kurikulum 1994. (1999). Departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. Pada
acara peresmian implementasi hasil penyesuaian kurikulum 1994 SD, SLTP, SMU
dan SMK. Press Release. Depdiknas. File:///untitled/Artikel1.htm
Tiro. M. A. (1999). Meningkatkan kemampuan logika siswa melalui penyelesaian soal-soal
kalimat verbal. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan. VI (4). November 1999.
Todorov, T. (1984). Mikhail Bakhtin. The dialogical principle. Translated by Wlad Godzich.
Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press.
Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The uses of argument. (First Edition). London: Cambridge University
Press.
Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of argument. (Updated Edition). London: Cambridge
University Press.
Toulmin, S., Rieke, R., and Janik, A. (1984). An introduction to reasoning. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
Toulmin, S., Rieke, R., and Janik, A. (1984). An introduction to reasoning. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
Travers, M. (2001). Qualitative Research Through Case Studies. London: SAGE
Publications.
Tsui, L. (2001). Faculty attitudes and the development of students critical thinking.
Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering critical thinking through effective pedagogy: Evidence from four
institutional case studies. Journal of higher education .73(6), November/December,
2002. Ohio: Ohio State University; see also http://www.questia.com.
Turbill, J. (1982). No better way to teach writing! Rozelle, NSW: PETA.
Turbill, J. (1983). Now we want to write! Rozelle, NSW: PETA.

204

Turbill, J. (1991). The teaching f writing process: Process writing explained. In Nicoll, V.,
and Wilkie, L. (1991). (Eds). Literacy at home and school. A guide for parents.
Rozelle, NSW: PETA.
Turnbull, M., & Dailey-Ocain, J. (2009). Introduction. In M. Turnbull, & J. Dailey-Ocain.
(2009). (Eds). First language use in second and foreign language learning. Bristol:
Multilingual Matters.
Tynjala, P., Mason, L., and Lonka, C. (2001). Writing as a learning tool: An
introduction.. In Tynjala, P., Mason, L., Lonka, C. (2001). Writing as a learning
tool. Integrating theory and practice. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Unika Atma Jaya (1999). Indonesian Varsity English Debate 1999 (IVED99). Indonesian
version.
Universitas Indonesia (2002). Mengenai Mahasiswa Jurusan Matematika WebSite.
http://www.math.ui.ac.id/indo/siswa/sekilas.htm.
Universitas Indonesia, Program Pasca Sarjana (2002). Penerimaan mahasiswa baru.
http://www.pps.ui.ac.id.
Universitas Negeri Jakarta. (2002). Kurikulum Sekolah Menengah Umum. (SK Mendikbud
Nomor 061/U/1993). http://www. unj.ac.id/info/Kur1.htm
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (2000). http://www.pagesyourfavorite.com.ppsupi/pembelajaran.html.
Universitas Trisakti (2000). Kurikulum Operasional No. /KO/VI/2000.
http://www.tif.trisakti.ac.id/images/KURIKULUM%200OPERATIONAL.doc
Unsworth, L. (2000). Investigating subject-specific literacies in school learning. In
Unsworth, L. (2000). (Ed). Researching language in schools and communities.
London: Cassell.
van Dijk, T. A. (1977). Text and context. Explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of
discourse. London: Longman.
van Dijk, T. A. (1997). Discourse as interaction in society. In van Dijk, T. A. (1997). (Ed).
Discourse as social interaction. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
van Duzer, C., and Flores, C. M. (1999). Critical literacy for adult English language
learners. National Center for ESL Literacy Education.
ERIC Digest.
http://www.cal.org/ncle/digests/critlit.htm.
van Eemeren, F., Grootendorst, R., and Henkermans, F.S. (2002). Argumentation. Analysis,
valuation, presentation. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language learner. Essex: Longman Group
Limited.
van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum. Awareness, autonomy and
authenticity. Essex: Longman Group Limited.
Varaprasad, C. (1997). Some classroom strategies. Developing critical literacy awareness.
Forum,
Vol.
35
(3).
July-September,
1997;
also
http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no3/p24htm. Accssed on 12th August,
2003.
Veel, R. ( 1997). Learning how to mean-scientifically speaking: apprenticeship into
scientific discourse in the secondary school. In Christie, F., and Martin, J. R.
(1997). Genre and institutions. London: Continuum.

205

Veel, R. (1998). The greening of school science. In Martin, J. R., and Veel, R (1998).
Reading science. Critical and functional perspectives on discourse on science.
London: Routledge.
Veel, R., and Coffin, C. (1996). Learning to think like an historian: the language of
secondary school history. In Hasan, R., and William, G. (1996). (Eds). Literacy in
society. London: Longman.
Ventola, E. (1998). Interpersonal choices in academic work. In Sanchez-Macarro, A., and
Carter, R. (1998). Linguistic choices across genres. Variation in spoken and written
English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Ventola, E., and Mauranen, A. (1991). Non-native writing and native revising of scientific
articles. In Ventola, E. (1991). (Ed). Functional and systemic linguistics.
Approaches and uses. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Vipond, D. (1993). Writing and psychology. Understanding writing and its teaching from
the perspective of composition studies. London: Praeger.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. (Hanfman, E., and Vakar, G. Trans).
Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1994). Extracts from Thought and Language and Mind in Society. In
Stierer, B., and Maybin, J. (1994). (Eds). Language, Literacy and Learning in
Educational Practice. A Reader. Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Wade (1995). In Teaching of Psychology. (1995) XX11(1). http://www.utc.edu/TeachingResource-Center/critical.html (2001).
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Walker TRC-Critical thinking (2001). Why teach critical thinking. In
http://www.utc.edu/Teaching-Resource-Center/critical.html on 8 June, 2001.
Wallace, C. (1992a). Reading. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wallace, C. (1992b). Critical literacy awareness in the EFL classroom. In Fairclough, N.
(1992). (Ed). Critical language awareness. London: Longman.
Wallace, C. (2001). Critical literacy in the second language classroom: Power and control.
Dalam B. Comber., & A. Simpson. (2001). (Editor). Negotiating critical literacies
in classrooms. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Wallace, C. (2001a). Critical literacy in the second language classroom: Power and control.
In Comber, B., and Simpson, A. (Eds) 2001). Negotiating critical literacies in
classrooms. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Wallace, C. (2001b). Reading. In Carter, R., and Nunan, D. (2001). The Cambridge guide
to teaching English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wallace, J. Curriculum: Policies, principles, and practices.
(http://projects.edte.utwente.nl/smarternet/version2/planning/Domains/cur/wallacecur-ppp.h), accessed in April, 2004.
Waller, B. N. (1988). Critical thinking. Consider the verdict. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Walshe, R. D. (1981). Every child can write. Rozelle, NSW: PETA.
Walshe, R. D. (1986). Writing to learn. In Walshe, R. D. , March, P., and Jensen, D. (1986).
(Eds). Writing and learning in Australia. Melbourne: Dellasta, Pty. Ltd.
Walshe, R.D. (1981). Every child can write. Rozelle, NSW: PETA.

206

Webster, J. (2009). An introduction to Continuum Companion to Systemic Functional

Linguistics. In M.A.K. Halliday., & J.J. Webster. (2009). Continuum Companion to
Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Continuum.
Wells, G. (1999). Dialogic inquiry. Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of
education. Second Edition. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Wells, G. (2009). Dialogic inquiry as collaborative action research. In S.E. Noffke, & B.
Somekh (2009). The sage handbook of educational action research. Los Angeles:
SAGE.
Wigglesworth, G. (2005). Research in use of L1 in adult learning settings. In D. E. Murray.,
G. Wigglesworth (2005). First language support in adult ESL in Australia. Sydney:
National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
Wilks, S. (2004a). Editors introduction. In Wilks, S. (2004). (Ed) Designing a thinking
curriculum. Melbourne: Australian Academy of the Arts.
Wilks, S. (2004b). Background to thinking curricula: Theories concerning thought and
language. In Wilks, S. (2004). (Ed) Designing a thinking curriculum. Melbourne:
Australian Academy of the Arts.
Williams, G. (1993). Using systemic grammar in teaching young learners. In Unsworth, L.
(1993). (Ed). Literacy learning and teaching. Language as social practice in the
primary school. Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia PTY Ltd.
Windsor, B. (1990). Developing literacy in adults: The role of awareness in learning and
explicitness in teaching. Prospect. VI (1). September, 1990.
Wink, J. (2000). Critical pedagogy: Notes from the real world. New York: Longman.
Wodak, R. (2001). What CDA is about- a summary of its history, important concepts and its
developments. In Wodak, R., and Meyer, M. (2001). (Eds). Methods of critical
discourse analysis. London: SAGE Publications.
Wodak, R., and Reisigl, M. (2001). Discourse and Racism In Schiffrin, D., and Tannen, D.,
and E. Hamilton, H. (2001). (Eds). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Wood, D., Bruner, J., Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry.xvii, p. 89-100.
Yeatman, A. (1997). Repoliticising critique. Response to Alison Lee. In Muspratt, S., Luke,
A., and Freebody, P. (1997). (Eds). Constructing critical literacies. Teaching and
learning textual practice. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Young, C. S., and Young, Jr., G. A. (2001). Predictors of Mainstream Teachers Attitudes
Toward ESL Students. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 35, No.1, Spring 2001.
Zechmeister, E. B., and Johnson, J. E. (1992). Critical thinking. A functional approach.
Belmont: Wadsworth, Inc.

207