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Chemical bond- Force that holds atoms

together in a molecule
In 1916,Kossel and Lewis suggested that
Noble gases are the most stable elements
This is because atoms of these elements
possess an octet structure
ie,all the noble gases except He
possesses 8 electrons in the outermost
orbit (ns2np6 )
Hence the octet structure is considered as
the most stable electronic structure
This is called OCTET RULE
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Chemical Bonding???
Why do atoms combine together???
Why molecules are more stable???

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While during the formation of molecules,

atoms loses energy thereby becomes more
stable
So it be the another reason why molecules
are formed
Lewis Symbols
Also known as electron dot structure
Simple notation to represent valence
electrons present in an atom
Electron dot structure of hydrogen atom is
H ( represents one electron in 1s orbital)
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Electron Dot Structures

1

13

14

15

16

17

He:

Li

Be

Na Mg

Al

Si

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: F :Ne :

:Cl :Ar :

Types of Chemical Bonds

What are the possible ways to attain octet

structure???
It can be due to electron sharing, electron
transferring etc which give rise to different
bonding types
Bonding-mainly 5 types
Ionic
Covalent
Coordinate(Dative)
Van der waals interaction
Hydrogen bond
6

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IONIC BOND
bond formed
between
two ions by the
transfer of electrons
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Features of Ionic compounds

They possess ions in solid state and in solution
They are generally solids with high m.p
They are soluble in polar solvents and insoluble
in non-polar solvents
They conduct electricity either in solid state or in
the solution

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Formation of Sodium Ion

Sodium atom

Na
2-8-1

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Sodium ion

Na +
2-8 ( = Ne)

Formation of Magnesium Ion

Magnesium atom

Magnesium ion

Mg
2-8-2

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2e

Mg2+
2-8 (=Ne)

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1). Ionic bond electron from Na is transferred to Cl, this causes a charge
imbalance in each atom. The Na becomes (Na+) and the Cl becomes (Cl-),
charged particles or ions.

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Ionic Bonds: One Big Greedy Thief

Dog!

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Factors favouring Ionic Bond

Lesser Ionisation Energy-lesser the ionisation
energy easy will be the formation of the cation
Greater Electron Affinity-Greater the electron
affinity ,easy will be the formation of the anion
Greater Lattice Energy-Greater the magnitude of
the lattice energy , more will be the stability of the
ionic compounds

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Lattice Energy
It is the energy released when 1 mole
of of a crystalline solid is formed by
the combination of oppositively
charged ions
Denoted by the letter U
A+(g) + B-(g)
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A+B-(s) + Lattice energy (U)

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Born-Haber Cycle
Experimental method for the determination of
lattice energy of an ionic solid
According to this, an ionic crystal may be
formed by direct combination of elements or by
indirect process involving the following steps
The reacting species are converted into
gaseous state
The gaseous atoms are converted into ions
The gaseous ions combine to form ionic
compound
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Ex:Formation of NaCl using BornHaber Cycle

Direct formation of NaCl
Na(s) + Cl2(g)

NaCl(s) ;H = -381.8 kJ mol-1

(Eqn: 1)
Indirect Formation
Indirect formation of NaCl involves the following
steps

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Indirect formation of NaCl

i. Conversion of solid Na into gaseous state
Na(s)
Na(g) ; H(Sub) = +108.4 kJ mol-1
ii. Change of Na(g) to Na+ (g) ion
Na(g)

Na+ (g) + e- ; H(IE) = +495.8 kJ mol-1

iii. Conversion of gaseous chlorine into atomic state

Cl2(g)
Cl(g) ; H(Diss Ener) =+121.0 kJ mol-1
iv. Change of Cl(g) to Cl- (g)
Cl(g) + e-

Cl- (g) ; H(EA) =-348.0 kJ mol-1

v. Combination of Na+ (g) and Cl- (g) to form NaCl(s)

Na+ (g) + Cl- (g)

NaCl(s) ; H = U or L (Lattice energy)

Thus the total energy in the indirect formation of NaCl (s) is

108.4 + 495.8 + 121 348 U(released)

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(Eqn: 2)

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 Comparing the energy changes in the direct and

indirect combination (Eqns: 1 & 2)
108.4 + 495.8 + 121 348 U(released) = -381.8
kJ mol-1
Or lattice Energy (U) = 759.0 kJ mol-1
Since energy has been released; U = - 759.0 kJ
mol-1

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Pictorial representation Of
Born-Haber Cycle

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Electrovalency
It is the number of electrons lost or gained by an
atom to acquire stable octet structure
Ex:Na loses one electron to attain an octet
structure to form Na + .Hence its electrovalency
is +1.
Similarly chlorine atom gains one electron to
form an octet structure of Cl- . Hence its
electrovalency is -1

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COVALENT BOND
bond formed by the
sharing of electrons

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Covalent bond
when two atoms share a pair of
electrons.

+1

P+1

Covalent bond
when two atoms share a pair of
electrons.
P+1

P+1

Covalent Bond
The sharing of a pair of electrons
between 2 atoms.
(or even 2 or 3 pairs of electrons).

H2

Covalent Bond
The sharing of a pair of electrons
between 2 atoms.

Li2

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2. Covalent bonds- Two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell

electrons.

Oxygen Atom

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Oxygen Atom

Oxygen Molecule (O2)

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Features of Covalent compounds

It exists in all three states of matter
They exists as molecules and not as ions
Insoluble in polar solvents and soluble in organic
solvents
They do not conduct electricity
They have definite geometrical shape and hence
exhibits isomerism

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Covalency
It is the number of electrons that an atom shares
with atoms of other elements in a covalent
compound
Ex: H-atom contributes one electron.Hence its
covalency = 1

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Valence bond theory (VBT)

Proposed by Heitler and London

Modified by Pauling and Slater
Features
A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of orbitals
having unpaired electrons with opposite spins
Greater the extent of overlapping, greater the strength of
the covalent bond
During the formation of a covalent bond,energy of the
molecule decreases and the molecule becomes stable
The extent of overlapping of orbitals is in the order
s-s overlapping > s-p overlapping > p-p overlapping
Overlapping along the axis is stronger than overlapping
on sidewise

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Orbital concept of covalency

According to this concept, a bond is formed
between 2 atoms by overlap of half-filled orbital
of one atom with half-filled orbital of the other
The electrons involved in bond formation should
have opposite spins
Orbital overlap is necessary for covalent bond
formation

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Types of overlapping of orbitals

Atomic orbitals can combine together in two
different ways
Head on or axial overlap (Sigma bond)
Lateral or side wise overlap (Pi bond)

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Sigma bond
Formed by axial overlap of orbitals
Ex: formation of hydrogen molecule by s-s
overlapping

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Sigma and pi bonds

Sigma bond

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Pi bond

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Formation of hydrogen fluoride

Electronic configuration of H is 1s1
Electronic configuration of F is 1s2 2s22Px22Py22Pz1
When HF is formed 1s atomic orbital of H overlaps with

2Pz orbital of F along the axis

This leads to s-p overlapping of orbitals resulting
in a s-p sigma bond

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p-p overlapping

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Formation of pi bonds

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Differences between sigma and pi bond

Sigma Bond

Pi bond

Formed by axial overlap

Formed by sidewise overlap

More stronger due to greater extent of

overlapping

Weaker due to lesser extent of

overlapping

It involves the overlap of s-s,s-p or p-p It involves the overlap of p orbitals only
orbitals
Bond may be present between 2
atoms either alone or along with pi
bond
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Bond is always present between 2

atoms along with a sigma bond

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Hybridisation
It is a process of mixing up of atomic orbitals of the
valence shell of an atom to form same number of
orbitals
The resultant orbitals is known as hybridised orbitals
Hybridised orbitals have same energy and similar
symmetry
Hybridisation may be of different typessp,sp2,sp3,dsp2,d2sp2,d3sp3
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sp hybridisation
One s orbital and one p orbital combine together
to form an sp hybrised orbital

sp2 hybridisation

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sp3 hybridisation

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Structure of methane (sp3 hybridisation)

One molecule of methane has one carbon atom
and 4 hydrogen atoms
Electronic configuration of C: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1

When C atom reacts with Hydrogen,C atom gets

excited & the 2 electrons in the 2s orbital gets
unpaired.Hence its electronic configuration will
become

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 Now one 2s and three p orbitals of carbon undergo

sp3 hybridisation to form 4 identical sp3 hybridised
orbitals of similar energy
These 4 hybrid orbitals are directed towards the
corners of a regular tetrahedron
These 4 hybrid orbitals overlap with four 1s orbitals
of hydrogen to form 4 sigma bonds

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Structure of ethene (sp2 hybridisation)

A molecule of ethene contains 2 carbons and 4
hydrogens

The 2s,2px and 2py orbitals of carbon undergo sp2

hybridisation to form 3 identical hybrid orbitals
These orbitals are directed towards the corners of
an equilateral triangle with an angle of 120 deg.
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 One sp2 hybrid orbital of each C atom overlap axially

with sp2 orbital of the other C to form a sigma bond
Two more hybrid orbitals of each carbon overlaps
with 1s orbital of hydrogen to form 2 more sigma
bonds
Now the unhybridised 2pz orbitals of both C atoms
overlaps sidewise to form a Pi bond

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Structure of BF3 (sp2 hybridisation)

BF3 contains 1 boron atom and 3 fluorine Atoms

Elec configuration of F:1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz1
Elec configuration of B (G.S): 1s2 2s2 2p1
Elec configuration of B(E.S);1s2 2s12px12py1
2s, 2px and 2py orbitals of boron undergo sp2
hybridisation to form three identical hybrid orbitals
Each of these hybrid orbitals overlaps with half filled
2pz orbitals of flourine atom to form 3 sigma bond
BF3 is triagonal in shape

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Structure of ethyne (C2H2)-sp hybridisation

One molecule of ethyne contains 2 carbon atoms and 2 hydrogen

atoms

2s and 2px orbitals of each C atom undergoes sp hybridisation to

form 2 identical hybrid orbitals
These orbitals are arranged linearly
One hybrid orbital of each C atom overlaps with the other to form
one C-C sigma bond
The other hybrid orbital of each C atom overlaps with 1s orbital of
Hydrogen to form 2 Carbon-Hydrogen sigma bond
The unhybridised 2py and 2pz orbitals orbitals then overlap sidewise
to form 2 pi bonds

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VSEPR Theory
Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory
Put forward by Sidgwick and Powell
Postulates of VSEPR theory
The geometry of a molecule depends on the number of
valence shell electron pairs around the central atom
In a covalent molecule, the central atom is sorrounded by
shared pairs (bond pair) and lone pairs of electrons
Since the electron clouds are negetively charged,they will
tend to repel each other. Inorder to attain maximum stability
these electron pairs try to stay as far apart as possible
Repulsion between various electron pairs follows the order
lone pair-lone pair >lone pair-bond pair>bond pair-bond pair
The presence of lone pairs will cause certain distortions in the
regular symmetry of the molecules
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VSEPR Theory (Contn)

With the increase in the bond angle, replusive forces
decreases sharply.Repulsive forces are weaker at 180 and
stronger at 90
The shape of a molecule is based upon the number of
electron pairs present in that compound

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No: of electron
pairs

Arrangements of
electron pairs

Examples

Linear

BeF2

Triangular
Planar

BF3

Tetrahedral

CH4

Triagonal
Bipyramidal

PCl5

Octahedral

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Applications of VSEPR theory

Ammonia Molecule ( NH3 )
Atomic number of nitrogen is seven and it contains 5
electrons in the valence shell
Out of these 5 electrons,three form shared pairs(bond pair)
with electrons of 3 nitrogen atom
The remaining 2 electrons constitute one lone pair
Thus nitrogen atom is sorrounded by 3 bond pairs and 1 lone
pair
Actually the shape which was expected is triangular planar (3
bond pairs),but the presence of a lone pair distorts the shape
of ammonia molecule to pyramidal
So the shape of ammonia molecule according to VSEPR
theory will be
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Water molecule
Atomic number of oxygen is 8 and have 6 electrons in the
valence shell
Out of these 6 electrons,2 form bond pairs with 2 hydrogen
atoms
The remaining 4 electrons combine together to form 2 lone
pairs of electrons
Thus an oxygen atom is sorrounded by 2 bond pairs and 2
lone pairs of electrons
Expected shape is tetrahedral,but the presence of 2 lone pairs
distorts the shape of water molecule to angular (V) shape
Thus the shape of water molecule is

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Polarity
In the case of ionic compounds,polarity is defined as those
substances that can dissociate to positive and negitive ions
when dissolved in water
What are polar and non polar compounds in the case of
covalent bonded compounds???
If a covalent bond is formed from 2 identical compounds
(ex:H2,N2 etc),the pair of electrons are shared equally
between the two atoms
This type of bond is called non-polar or homopolar covalent
bond
If the diatomic molecule consists of different elements,
electrons are displaced towards the most electronegetive
atom
This type of covalent bond is called heteropolar or polar
covalent bond
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Hydrogen chloride (HCl)

A molecule of hydrogen chloride is formed by a covalent
bond between H and Cl
Here the electron pairs are not shared equally due to the
differrence in electronegetivity
Sine Cl is more electronegative than H,the pair of
electrons is more shifted towards Cl
This creates an electrical imbalance
As a result,chlorine gets a slight negetive charge and
hydrogen gets a slight positive charge
This results in dipoles and the resultant bond is called
polar covalent bond

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Water
In the case of water,since oxygen is more
electronegetive than hydrogen,the electron
density is more shifted towards oxygen
This results in the formation of 2 polar bonds
Water is a bent molecule having a net dipole
moment
So water is a polar molecule
Similarly ammonia is also a polar molecule

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Dipole moment
It is defined as the product of electric charge and the
distance between positive and negative centeres of a
polar molecule
Dipole moment is measured in Debye (D)
= e x d
=dipole moment
e= charge
d=distance between the charges
Dipole moment is always denoted by an arrow pointed
towards the more electronegetive atom

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Polar & non-polar molecules in terms of

dipole moment

In terms of dipole moment, polar compounds are

those having a net dipole moment and non-polar
compounds are those which does not have a net
dipole moment

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Dipole moments of various compounds

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Coordinate bond

Put forward by GA Perkins

Special type of covalent bonding
Here both the electrons are contributed by 1 atom only
Atom which shares pair of electrons:-donor
Atom which accepts pair of electrons:-acceptor
Donation of electrons is represented by an arrow(
)

Ex:

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Features of coordinate bonds

Properties of coordinate bonds are
intermediate between ionic and covalent
compounds
They are generally non conductors
They are partially soluble in water and
readily soluble in organic solvents
They exhibit isomerism

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Hydrogen bonds
When H-atom is bonded to a highly electronegative
atom, the H atom can form a weak bond with the
electronegative atom
This bond is called H-bond
It is the attractive force that binds H-atom of one
molecule with an electronegative atom(F,O or N)
present in the same or different molecule

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Conditions for hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen atom should be bonded to a highly
electronegative atom like F,N,O etc
Size of the electronegative atom should be small
Types of H- bonding
Intermolecular H-Bonding
H-bond formed between two different molecules of the
same or different substance

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Intramolecular H-bonding
H-bond formed between hydrogen atom and an
electronegetive atom within the same molecule

Anomalous properties of water

Water molecules are held by H-bond which results in the
association of water molecles.So boiling point of water is
very high (100 c)
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Density of ice is less than density of water

The number of H-bonds in ice is larger than in water
As ice is a solid,molecules are more closely packed.
Each oxygen atom is tetrahedrally sorrounded by 4
hydrogens out of which 2 are H-bonds and the other 2
are covalent
This arrangement results in a cage like structure which
has a vacant space
So the density of ice is less than that of water
Polar nature of water
Water is highly polar due to the presence of an
electronegative atom. so all ionic and all polar
compounds are soluble in water

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Van der waals force

A weak interatomic or intermolecular force of attraction
which holds the different constituents together is called
van der waals interaction
Causes for van der waals force
Dipole-dipole interaction
Greater the dipole moment,greater is van der waals
force
Dipole-induced dipole interaction
Inducing polarity to a non-polar molecule using a
molecule with a permanent dipole moment

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 Induced dipole-induced dipole interaction

non-polar molecules can induce polarity to each other
These forces are also called as London forces
Van der waals forces increases with close packing
Therefore van der waals in solids,liquids and gases
follows the order
Solids>liquids>gases

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