Running Head: A LOT LIKE CRISES

Its Beginning to Look a Lot Like Crises: P.R. Methods in Primetime Television
Sophia H. Stanley
Oklahoma Baptist University
sophia.stanley@okbu.edu
918-978-1268
Undergraduate

Stanley 2

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Abstract

Entertainment media reflects real life, and more and more often, audiences are forming
opinions based on fictional television shows. Audiences and crisis managers alike can benefit
from understanding to what extent popular primetime television shows accurately portray widely
accepted crisis management techniques. Moreover, this research aims to answer the question of
why primetime televisions portrayal of crisis management matter. Further, what do primetimes
reflections of crisis communication reveal about what society deems most entertaining?
According to Heaths (2006) best P.R. practices and Hale et als (2005) common challenges,
primetime television dramas fairly accurately emulate real life practices. This work supports
Borchers (2013) and other authors who argue the effects of entertainment media on audiences
greatly influences the social fabric.

Stanley 3

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Its Beginning to Look a Lot Like Crises

Entertainment media is more powerful than the typical audience member may know.
Through shows viewed on a regular basis, audience members begin to process information
accordingly, and even change how they see the world. According to Borchers (2013), the
narrative form of television governs the way audiences think, communicate, and even perceive
others. The dramatization of a subject on a show can create interest in areas focused on pivotal
events within the life of an organization.
Television shows such as Criminal Minds, Scandal, and House of Cards are filled
with dramatic plotlines and emergency after emergency that warrant public relations responses.
From political scandals to kidnappings, characters on the aforementioned television shows are
consistently trying to manage crises. The entertainment value assigned to crisis management in
such shows inspired the following research questions: 1) To what extent do popular primetime
television shows accurately portray widely accepted crisis management techniques?; 2) Why
does primetime televisions portrayal of crisis management matter in terms of the social fabric?;
and 3)What do primetimes reflections of these features reveal about what society deems most
meaningful or entertaining?
In order to assess crisis management techniques as they are portrayed in fictional
television shows, leading crisis management techniques will be analyzed; specifically, Heaths
(2006) work will be compared with those portrayed in scenes from Criminal Minds, House of
Cards, and Scandal. Furthermore, Hale et als (2005) work regarding common challenges
facing crisis communications will be applied to the aforementioned scenes. Each of these
methods will be used in order to discover if the portrayal of crisis management techniques in
popular television shows is an accurate representation of techniques used by actual public

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 4

relations specialists. Testing Hollywood writers depiction of crisis management against widely
accepted practices in communication theory will shed light on the ways that crises are
dramatized and what that reveals about how society views the field of crisis communications. To
establish the background for this project, the following definition section provides a description
of key words and character names.
Definitions
Aaron Hotchner Criminal Minds character; Supervisory Special Agent in charge of the
Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) of the FBI;
crisis a risk manifested (Heath, 2006);
Doug Stamper House of Cards character; Underwoods Chief of Staff;
Frank Underwood House of Cards character; Democratic Majority Whip;
Jacob Shaw Scandal character; Rhode Island Congressman who seeks help from Olivia Pope
and Associates;
Jessica Masters House of Cards character; crashed her car while texting and died;
Olivia Pope Scandal character; crisis manager;
Olivia Pope & Associates (OPA) crisis management firm founded by Olivia Pope;
Penelope Garcia Criminal Minds character; Technical analyst for the BAU, leads press
conference in season 6, episode 8 Reflection of Desire;
risk an occurrence that can have positive or negative consequences of varying magnitudes, the
occurrence of which and the effects of which can be variously predicted, controlled, and harmful
or beneficial (Heath, 2006); and
unsub unknown subject; how the team on Criminal Minds refers to suspects

Stanley 5

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Literature Review

The research discussed in this literature review focuses specifically on four topics: 1) the
best standards for crisis management practices; 2) common challenges faced in crisis
management practices; 3) socially generated crises, such as murders or cases of sexual abuse;
and 4) political crises.
Best Standards for Crisis Management Practices
Heath (2006) provided operational definitions and discussed the best practices in crisis
communication. Heath defined risk as an occurrence that can have positive or negative
consequences of varying magnitudes, the occurrence of which and the effects of which can be
variously predicted, controlled, and harmful or beneficial and defined a crisis as a risk
manifested (p. 245).
Further, Heath (2006) listed twelve of the best practices. The first two, policy
development and pre-event planning, are more proactive. Although Heath agreed that warnings
may seem cynical, they can go a long way in averting major catastrophes. Heath also stressed the
importance of partnerships with the public, collaborating with credible sources, and always
communicating with compassion, concern, and empathy (p. 247). According to Heath,
compassion and empathy are especially important. He explained that audiences and reporters are
aware of storytelling tactics: members of juries want to punish bad companies, ones that lack
compassion Reporters do too; theyre trained to be sure that no bad deed goes unpunished (p.
247). While some authors, such as Heath (2006), used research to decide which practices work
best to contain a crisis, Coombs (2007) developed a formula to refresh the field of crisis
communications research.

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 6

Coombs (2007) explained that the field of crisis communication is overrun with case
studies. He argued that this leaves public relations professionals with little knowledge on how
stakeholders respond to crises or to the strategies being used to manage crises. Coombs
expounded evidence-based guidance for decision making in a crisis must be supported by
scientific evidence from empirical research rather than personal preference and unscientific
experience (p. 163). Thus, Coombs introduced the need for the Situational Crisis
Communication Theory (SCCT) standard.
The SCCT, according to Coombs (2007), provides an evidence-based framework for
understanding how to maximize the reputational protection afforded by post-crisis
communication (p. 163). Coombs stated the SCCT utilizes the Attribution Theory. He cited
Weiners 1984 work that explained that people look for the causes of events, especially negative
and unexpected events. The SCCT acknowledges the factors which threaten a companys
reputation. The factors include initial crisis responsibility, crisis history, and prior relational
reputation (p. 166). Coombs stated the SCCT identifies crises types in clusters, including the
victim, accidental, and preventable clusters (p. 168). The SCCT also offers steps to evaluate the
reputational threat of a crisis. No matter the complete methodology of handling a crisis,
researchers seem to agree that spreading information is a vital component.
Munteanu (2012), for example, discussed the importance of mass communication during
a crisis by splitting responsibilities two ways the information process is the medias job and the
communication process is the organizations job. In other words, the organization involved in the
crisis must generate the information that goes to the media. Munteanu insisted that the safety of
others depends on how the two parties (media and organization) work together to get information
to the public in a clear and timely manner; Traditionally, the government has a predominant role

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 7

in protecting and promoting peace. However, after the current technological advances the
media plays a key role in shaping perceptions of people and in setting the political agenda (p.
250). This emphasized how the media can act as a facilitator without spreading violence or
propaganda.
Further, Munteanu (2012) explained the importance of specialized public relations
departments, arguing that such departments should be prepared to prevent and manage a crisis or
conflict by pointing to the Institute for Crisis Management statistics indicating 86% of the crises
were more or less predictable.
Common Challenges in Crisis Management
Hale, Dulek, and Hale (2005) conducted a qualitative study to examine communication
challenges decision makers experience during the response stage of crisis management (p. 112).
Hale et al gathered data through interviews with crisis decision makers as well as detailed
records of secondhand reviews. The authors cited March and Simons 1958 work which stated
that stress and time pressure hinder crisis decision makers search for more information.
Additionally, by citing Pearson and Clairs 1992 theoretical model, the authors explained that
organizations have greater success in managing crises if they build alliances and coordinate
activities with shareholders.
Hale et al (2005) discovered that observation, interpretation, choice, and dissemination
were the most prevalent challenges crisis managers faced. Observation challenges include
insufficient data sensors at the physical point of loss. Interpretation challenges involve
incomplete or conflicting understandings of the crisis. Challenges involving choice include lack
of time to evaluate the situation as well as inadequate communication and dissemination

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 8

challenges include, a conflict between the resource demands of the dissemination and decision
making and messages poorly designed for the audience (p. 128). Because of the advancement of
technology, crises today spread more rapidly than in the past.
t Hart et al (2001) discussed the development from heroic to besieged crisis response.
This besieged crises trend includes the trans-boundary organization of crisis response wherein
crisis managers may exert power. The authors said, Modern crises they spread widely and
rapidly, and thus challenge the crisis response system, which is still very much focused on the
local, the regional and the national level (p.183). Crisis managers have also gone from heroes to
villains in the public eye. No matter how widespread a disaster, some crises are easier for
audiences to forgive than others.
Kim, Kim, and Cameron (2009) conducted a study to examine the impact of crisis types
(accident vs. transgression) and crisis responses (corporate ability vs. corporate social
responsibility) on public perceptions of organizational responsibility for the crisis (p. 86). They
explained that corporate ability (CA) messages are placed on product-relevant dimensions, such
as quality and service orientation whereas corporate social responsibility (CSR) messages are
positioned on less-product-relevant dimensions, such as social responsibility and ethical
orientation (p. 86).
Kim et als (2009) study included 162 students from three undergraduate journalism
courses at a large Midwestern university, who were randomly assigned one of four message
conditions: either accidental or transgression; response type, CA or CSR; and crisis issue, food
poisoning or laptop battery explosion. Kim et al revealed that one of their most interesting results
was that the CA-focused responses reduced consumers perceptions of organizational
responsibility more than CSR-focused responses.

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 9

Socially Generated Crises

Enander and Tedfeldt (2010) conducted a study in order to gain knowledge regarding
demands and experiences relating to managing socially generated crises. Enander and Tedfeldt
conducted interviews in four cities that dealt with widely publicized murders, suicides, or cases
of sexual abuse. Themes of the study focused on the actual event and its consequences,
management of the crisis, and reactions among those involved.
Enander and Tedfeldt (2010) ultimately found that communities are affected differently
by crisis events today and there is a need for a higher level of preparedness by community
leaders. In particular, they argued that communities should be better prepared for tragic
accidents, sexual abuse, and murders.
Political Crises
t Hart, Heyse, and Boin (2001) identified three main trends in crisis management
practices. One trend, the move from industrial towards the risk society, plays an important role in
corporate and political crises. Globalization combined with the development of technology
means that mishaps are more likely to occur on a grander scale. This trend indicates that people
believe they have increased control over forces of nature and technology; therefore, the safer a
society has proven to be, the more vulnerable its people and institutions are when something bad
does happen (p. 182). The politicization of risk management also plays a role in this trend. The
authors said, Since the political stakes are raised, elites in both business and government are
forced to devote more time to crisis prevention and mitigation (p. 182).
Further, t Hart et al (2001) discussed the concept of image fallout. Because of the
importance of maintaining image after a crisis, elites can no longer read from a fact sheet.

Stanley 10

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Essentially, the authors argued that reporters have become more knowledgeable of risk and
safety measures, therefore better able to tell if a political figure is lying in the face of a crisis.
Methods
This research assessed to what extent prime time television shows accurately portray the
way public relations specialists in the real world conduct their jobs. It is noted that Olivia Pope &
Associates, the crisis management firm in Scandal, is based on Smith & Co., a crisis
management firm in Washington, D.C. In order to evaluate the accuracy of crisis management in
the primetime dramas, the following methods were employed: 1) analysis of scenes to standards
for P.R. practices; and 2) analysis of scenes to standards for common P.R. challenges.
Analysis of Scenes via Heaths (2006) Best Practices
Scenes from popular prime time television dramas - season six, episode eight of
Criminal Minds from 2010, season one, episode three of House of Cards from 2013, and
season two, episode one of Scandal from 2012 - were analyzed in light of Heaths (2006)
twelve best practices of crisis communication. Each show is popular among adult audiences;
Criminal Minds airs on CBS, Scandal on ABC, and House of Cards is a Netflix original
series.
The last season of Criminal Minds, which aired September 25, 2013 to May 14, 2014,
drew in an average of 10.88 million viewers per episode (TV Series Finale, 2014). Though
Netflix never release exact viewership numbers, it is estimated that 668,000 people watched the
entire thirteen episode second season of House of Cards in only three days (Kastrenakes,
2014). During the season three premiere of Scandal, 10.88 million viewers tuned in
(Obsenson, 2013).

Stanley 11

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Heaths best practices are as follows: developing a policy in regards to crises; planning
before a crisis occurs; partnering with the public; listening to the concerns of others; exhibiting
honesty; collaborating with credible sources; meeting the needs of the media; communicating
with compassion; accepting uncertainty; expressing messages of self-efficacy; realizing the crisis
response is a narrative; and being committed and able to deliver on the promise to be the first and
best source of information.
Analysis of Scenes via Hale et als (2005) Common Challenges.
The aforementioned episodes were compared to Hale et als (2005) common P.R.
challenges. According to the authors, observation, interpretation, choice, and dissemination were
the most ubiquitous challenges faced by crisis managers. Elements of inadequate data sensors,
conflicting interpretations of events, inadequate time constraints, and dissemination conflicts
were used to analyze problems that emerged in the midst of a public relations crisis.
Results
In order to better understand to what extent the following standards were incorporated
into each drama, the following categories are included in results: 1) plot line summaries; 2)
analysis of scenes via Heaths (2006) best practices; and 3) analysis of scenes via Hale et als
(2005) common challenges.
Plot Line Summaries
In season eight, episode six of Criminal Minds, titled Reflection of Desire, the
Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) of the FBI investigates the case of The Hill Ripper, a man
who abducted a woman and released her photo to local media outlets in order to perpetuate his
crime. This episode was chosen for the BAUs use of the media to help solve the crime.

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 12

Season one, episode three of House of Cards, titled Chapter Three, presented
Democratic Majority Whip, Frank Underwood, visiting his home district of Gaffney, South
Carolina after 17-year-old Jessica Masters ran off the road texting her boyfriend, Doesnt the
Peachoid look like a giant She lost control of her car and was killed. The Peachoid is a peach
shaped water tower built in 1981. Oren Chase, County Administrator of Gaffney, was blaming
Underwood in the girls death, stating that Underwood fought to keep the Peachoid standing time
and time again when the community wanted to remove it. This episode was chosen because
initially, Underwood did not want to deal with the crisis in person. His chief of staff convinced
him that he could not contain the story if he did not travel to Gaffney.
In Season two, episode one of Scandal, titled White Hats Off, Rhode Island
Congressman, Jacob Shaw, found a hidden camera in his office, where he had engaged in
relations with a date a few nights prior. Shaw hires Olivia Pope & Associates to help gain control
of the narrative. This episode was chosen due to the medias rapid forgiveness of Shaws
discrepancy.
Analysis of Scenes via Heaths (2006) Best Practices
Each drama exhibited the following crisis management techniques: developing a policy,
displaying self-efficacy, and, to a certain extent, speaking with honesty and speaking with
compassion. Pre-planning was not exhibited in any of the episodes. In House of Cards,
honesty and compassion appeared to be exhibited, but through a series of asides, the audience
understands that the elements are not. None of the episodes displayed interpretation or
dissemination challenges, and House of Cards did not show any common challenges.
The following table displays standards one through four of Heaths (2006) practices. The
first, developing a policy in regards to a crisis, refers to being prepared for different situations

Stanley 13

A LOT LIKE CRISES

and assigning certain people to certain tasks. The second practice, pre-event planning, is closely
related to developing a policy. Both practices deal with being prepared for anything. Pre-event
planning includes creating teams, protocols for finding facts, and more. Partnerships with the
public are essential for image management. Listening to the concerns of others is especially vital
for organizations trying to maintain a good public standing throughout a crisis.
Table 1: Standards 1-4
Developing a policy

Criminal
Minds
House of
Cards
Scandal

Yes
Yes
Yes

Pre-planning

Partnerships

Listening to concerns

No

Yes

No

No
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Table 2 displays standards five through eight of Heaths (2006), which deal heavily with
image maintenance. Standard five, speaking with honesty, refers to communication with candor
and openness to the public and media. Through collaborating with credible sources (i.e. doctors,
scientists, federal agencies), organizations can further protect their image throughout a crisis. By
meeting the needs of the media and remaining accessible, an organization can prevent bad
information from being presented to the public. Communicating with compassion, much like
honesty, is essential in generating good will with the public.

Stanley 14

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Table 2: Standards 5-8
Collaborations

Meeting
media needs

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes/No
Yes

Yes
No

No
Yes

Yes/No
Yes

Honesty
Criminal
Minds
House of
Cards
Scandal

Compassion

Table 3 displays standards nine through twelve of Heaths (2006) practices. Through
accepting uncertainty and ambiguity, crisis managers are able to remain flexible throughout a
crisis and can better maintain credibility. Messages of self-efficacy aide in making audiences feel
safe in the midst of a crisis. Realizing the narrative is an essential practice for crisis
management. Audiences and media enjoy narratives, and a narrative allows crisis managers to
guide the story. Finally, committing to being the best source of information through a crisis gives
further control to crisis managers.
Table 3: Standards 9-12
Accepting
uncertainty

Criminal
Minds
House of
Cards
Scandal

Self-efficacy

Realizing the
narrative

Best source of
information

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No
Yes

Yes/No
Yes

Yes
Yes

No
Yes

Analysis of Scenes via Hale et als (2005) Common Challenges

The following table displays Hale et als (2005) common challenges that crisis managers
face. The first challenge, observation, refers to inadequate or missing data sensors as well as
communication problems during the observation stage of a crisis. Interpretation challenges
include incomplete or conflicting interpretations of events. Choice challenges refer to lack of

Stanley 15

A LOT LIKE CRISES

time to evaluate alternative responses. Dissemination challenges include a conflict between

resource demands of distribution and poorly designed messages.
Table 4: Challenges
Observation

Criminal
Minds
House of
Cards
Scandal

Interpretation

Choice

Dissemination

No

No

Yes

No

No
Yes

No
No

No
Yes

No
No

Discussion
In order to more clearly organize how each practice and challenge was utilized in each
drama, and how that serves to answer the questions posited in this paper, the following section is
organized into Heaths (2006) best practices and Hale et als (2005) common challenges.
Policy Development
In each episode, the leader of the teams (Hotchner in Criminal Minds, Stamper in
House of Cards, and Pope in Scandal) develop a policy on how to deal with each situation.
Hotchner decides what will be said at the press conference, Stamper tells Underwood he must
visit Gaffney in person, and Pope gives each member of her team a research job. Not much time
is spent on the policy development aspect during the dramas. This is presumably the case
because writers may have a more difficult time making policy development entertaining.
Pre-event Planning
It is suggested that the teams in all three dramas have crisis management plans in place,
but none of the episodes specifically outline pre-event planning. In Scandal, each member of
Popes team knows what to do in the face of Shaws discrepancy. Much is the case with

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 16

Criminal Minds. This lack of pre-event planning is probably for the sake of time during the 4045 minute dramas.
Partnerships with the Public
The BAU reaches out to the public during the press conference, asking them to stay in
their homes and minimize traffic. Although they were doing this in order to help catch the unsub,
asking for the publics help can give audiences a sense of importance. In House of Cards,
Underwood partnered with a local university in order to create a scholarship in the name of the
girl who passed away. He also worked with city officials to put up billboards urging people not
to text and drive. Scandal did not display partnership of any kind with the public.
Because organizations or individuals who are in the midst of a crisis may partner with the
public in order to repair their image, this is an interesting aspect to depict in television dramas.
Audiences are able to understand how and why partnerships with the public are important and
see how crisis communicators work to make these partnerships worthwhile.
Listening to the Concerns of Others
The team on Criminal Minds did not take input from the media or victims families.
Underwood appears to take the concerns of others very seriously. He asked the family of the girl
who passed away several times what he can do to help them through this hard time. Underwood
also acknowledged Stamper when he said Underwood could not just ignore this crisis. Scandal
did not listen to input from outside the firm, rather the team handled the situation as they felt
best.
Audiences seem to find that listening to the concerns of others important in real life crisis
situations. When organizations or individuals do not listen to their audiences, it makes them

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 17

seem unapologetic and unresponsive. Television viewers may be entertained by identifying with
the audience members portrayed in the drama.
Speaking with Honesty
In Criminal Minds, honesty is not the most important aspect for the BAU when the
team is crafting a message to the public. Their first priority is apprehending the unsub.
Sometimes, in cases such as the one shown in Reflection of Desire, lying to the public is the
best way to find the unsub. During the press conference, Garcia ends the conference by telling
the press the team has an address of the suspect. Although the team does not know exactly where
the suspect lives, they hope that this statement will cause him to leave his house and be on the
streets, and therefore easier to arrest.
Throughout the entirety of the series House of Cards, the writers of the drama seem to
be questioning honesty and sincerity. Underwood often makes asides to the camera, comments
that only the audience of the drama hears. When it comes to crisis management, audiences may
find it more interesting to question the sincerity of the speaker. During his time in Gaffney,
Underwood attends a candlelight vigil for the girl who died. He also attended a church service
where the parents were present, puts up billboards reminding people not to text and drive, and
created a scholarship fund in the girls name. Throughout the crisis, Underwood appears sincere
and sympathetic. However, through his many asides, the audience understands otherwise. To the
audience of the drama, Underwood states that nothing in his speech at the church was sincere.
In Scandal, Pope always tells her clients that displaying honesty is one of the most
important steps in overcoming a scandal. Throughout Shaws situation, he repeatedly expresses
that he should not have had relations in his office. Shaw is even able to make a joke out of the
situation on Jimmy Kimmel.

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 18

Collaborating with Credible Sources

The FBI works closely with local police during their investigations on Criminal Minds,
and this episode was no exception. Depending on the citys opinion of their police department,
this collaboration may or may not help the FBIs image during an investigation. House of
Cards and Scandal did not portray collaborations with credible sources. Again, writers may
have chosen to leave this practice out due to time constraints.
Meeting the Needs of the Media
Enander and Tedfelt (2010) discussed how media coverage generates more interest in
human tragedies. The members of the BAU on Criminal Minds recognized this and blacked
out the media for much of the case in the hopes of keeping the story from becoming
sensationalized. Right before the press conference, Hotchner told Garcia to stay calm and in
control of the room, keeping answers short and on topic.
Underwood never spoke with the media during his time in Gaffney. He did not want to
let this situation overshadow the education bill he was working on, and therefore did not want to
give the tragedy any extra attention.
Pope typically keeps an open line of communication with the media on Scandal.
During Shaws situation, Pope released the sex tape herself and Shaw spoke freely with the
media, participating in several important interviews. By meeting the needs of the media, Pope
and Shaw are able to gain control of the narrative. Shaw used the extra media coverage to not
only apologize, but to also turn the nations attention to issues that he feels are important.
Keeping an open line of communication throughout a crisis is so vital for an organization
or individual. Although there may be some cases, such as Underwoods, where utilizing the

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 19

media could be more harmful than helpful; as a general rule, it is important in order for crisis
managers to control the narrative. Audiences do not like to be left in the dark.
Communication with Compassion
Communicating with honesty and compassion often go hand in hand, however, not in this
episode of Criminal Minds. Although Garcia did not communicate with complete honesty
during the press conference, she did communicate with compassion. Throughout the press
conference, Garcia and the team wanted to keep the focus on bringing the latest victim home
safely, reminding the public that the victim is the most important aspect of the tragedy. Much
like with honesty, Underwood feigned compassion throughout his time in Gaffney. During an
interview, Shaw stated, While its my own fault that Ive become a national joke, were talking
about my sex life instead of the 46 million Americans who are currently without health
insurance. The congressman expressed honesty while also reinterring his platform and telling
the public what he thinks is important.
Accepting Uncertainty and Ambiguity
As with any investigation, uncertainty played a role in this episode of Criminal Minds.
Hotchner was aware that his press conference plan to draw the unsub out of his house may not
work, but the team felt as though they must try. Underwood did not seem to take no for an
answer throughout the episode, but he also did not seem to ever be out of control of the situation.
Although he may not have immediately gotten the results he desired, Underwood eventually got
his way. Although inconvenient, anyone working with a crisis management firm knows that
uncertainty and ambiguity are part of the job; Pope handled uncertainty as the confusion and
ambiguity came, never letting confusion hinder her management skills.

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 20

Self-efficacy
Messages of self-efficacy are vital, for it is important that audiences trust whoever is
leading a crisis management team. Although Garcia never explicitly said that the FBI would
bring the victim home safely, she spoke with a calm yet serious eloquence that would have made
the audience trust her. Underwood never displayed messages of self-efficacy to the public, but he
did display self-efficacy to his wife and staff. The situation in Gaffney did not call for
Underwood to tell the public that he could fix anything; that response would have made him look
insensitive. Instead, he was very apologetic and seemingly compassionate throughout the ordeal.
Throughout Shaws situation, he repeated that this scandal should not and would not affect his
ability to help the voters.
Realizing the Narrative
Whether or not the BAU realized that crisis management is a narrative, they did not treat
the investigation as such. Underwood took advantage of the narrative by making the trip from
Washington D.C. to Gaffney. The Congressman had several discussions with city officials as
well as the Masters family, keeping lines of communication open at all times. In Scandal, Pope
specifically referred to the crisis as a narrative, and stated that she and her team had to be in
control.
Committing to being the Best Source of Information
This practice goes hand in hand with realizing that crisis communication is a narrative.
The BAU did not want the media to sensationalize the story, and therefore did not give them any
information for most of the investigation. Because Underwood did not contact the media, nor
was this a highly publicized tragedy, Underwood did not have to be the best source for

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 21

information. Pope & Associates make it a point throughout the episode to try and get their
information to the media first.
Observation Challenge
House of Cards did not reveal observation challenges during the episode. In Scandal,
Pope & Associates dealt with observation challenges because Shaw was not completely up front
with the firm. He did not disclose that he had been on several dates with different women in the
past week. This information was important to Pope because the media could use it to paint Shaw
as a playboy.
Interpretation Challenge
None of the dramas demonstrated interpretation challenges.
Choice Challenge
As with any crisis, time plays a big role in decision-making, and the episodes of
Criminal Minds and Scandal were no exception. The team in Criminal Minds had a limited
time to decide how to best utilize the media in order to apprehend the unsub. The team had
limited to time to come up with a plan before media outlets began releasing the sex tape. House
of Cards did not portray any choice challenges.
Dissemination Challenge
None of the shows exhibited dissemination challenges.
Slater and Rouner, (as cited in Borchers 2013) state that messages displayed in
entertainment media can influence audiences beliefs about social groups and social issues.
Because of this, it is imperative to study how accurately different professions are portrayed
through television dramas. Based on the episodes used in this research, entertainment writers do
not demonstrate as many challenges that crisis managers face as they do techniques the crisis

Stanley 22

A LOT LIKE CRISES

managers use. Portraying challenges that crisis managers face may be even more vital than
depicting the practices. Through representing more challenges, audiences may be more
sympathetic to a real life crisis manager. Audiences may also be more inclined to consider how
difficulty underlined in crisis management.
Conclusion
Based on the episodes of Criminal Minds, House of Cards, and Scandal used in
this research, popular primetime television dramas portray most of the crisis management
techniques outlined by Heath (2006). Because entertainment media oftentimes shapes the views
and beliefs of an audience, the primetime portrayal of crisis management matters greatly in terms
of the social fabric. According to the most widely used tactics, writers for dramas find
partnerships with the public, communicating with honesty and compassion, collaborations with
credible sources, accepting uncertainty, and communicating messages of self-efficacy most
important or entertaining. Writers do not seem to find common crisis communication challenges
as riveting or as important for audiences.
Limitations and Future Research
Limitations for this research include only working for one semester and only analyzing
one episode of three shows. In the future, I would like to analyze a variety of shows, researching
several episodes from each. Because Heaths (2006) best practices article was written before
social media was so prevalent, it would be interesting to research if there were additional
practices that need to be observed in the midst of a crisis.

Stanley 23

A LOT LIKE CRISES

References
Beers, B. (2012). White Hats Off [Television series episode]. In Scandal.

Bernero, E. A. (2010). Reflections of Desire [Television series episode]. In Criminal Minds.

Booker Jr., L. (2014). Crisis management: Changing times for colleges. Journal of College
Admission, (222), 16-23.
Borchers, T. (2013). Persuasion in the media age (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Coombs, W. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development and
application of situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review,
10(3), 163-176. Retrieved September 22, 2014, from http://www.palgravejournals.com/crr/journal/v10/n3/full/1550049a.html
Criminal Minds: Season Nine Ratings. (2014, May 8). Retrieved November 18, 2014, from
http://tvseriesfinale.com/
Enander, A., Lajksj, ., & Tedfeldt, E. (2010). A tear in the social fabric: Communities dealing
with socially generated crises. Journal of Contingencies & Crisis Management, 18(1),
39-48. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5973.2009.00596.x
Fincher, D. (2013). Chapter Three [Television series episode]. In House of Cards.
Hale, J. E., Dulek, R. E., & Hale, D. P. (2005). Crisis response communication challenges.
Journal of Business Communication, 42(2), 112-134.doi:10.1177_0021943605274751.pdf
Heath, R. L. (2006). Best practices in crisis communication: Evolution of practice through
research. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 34(3), 245-248.
doi:10.1080/00909880600771577

A LOT LIKE CRISES

Stanley 24

Kim, J., Kim, H. J., & Cameron, G. T. (2009). Making nice may not matter: The interplay of
crisis type, response type and crisis issue on perceived organizational
responsibility. Public Relations Review, 35(1), 86-88. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2008.09.013
Kastrenakes, J. (2014, February 20). New 'House of Cards' season reportedly finished by over
half a million people in one weekend. Retrieved November 18, 2014, from
http://www.theverge.com
Munteanu, N. (2012). Mass communication: Component of human security insurance strategy in
crisis and conflict management. Revista Academiei Fortelor Terestre, 17(3), 249-255.
Obsenson, T. (2013, October 4). 'Scandal' Season 3 debuts w/ historic ratings! 10.5 Million
Viewers 712,877 Tweets. Retrieved November 18, 2014, from
http://blogs.indiewire.com/
t Hart, P., Heyse, L., & Boin, A. (2001). New trends in crisis management practice and crisis
management research: Setting the agenda. Journal of Contingencies & Crisis
Management, 9(4), 181.