3/20 Electrical and Information Data 1995 Version { Cambridge University Engineering Department )Contents ELECTRICAL AND INFORMATION DATA BOOK 1994 Version prepared by C.E. Maloney, N.G. Kingsbury, M.D. Macleod 1 GENERAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND SOLID STATE PHYSICS values) 2a 2.2 23 24 25 2.6 Metals and Alloysete. 0.0.0.0. e cece eee Dielectrics. Semiconductors (properties at 300 K). . Superconductors: Solid state physics for crystalline materials. . . Magnetic Materials... 0.200 2.6.1 2.6.2 26.3 2.6.4 Group I: Materials used in the electrical power industry . . Group II: The nickel-iron alloys Group III: Permanent magnet materials . Group IV: Ferrites... .... 3 ELECTROMAGNETISM. 3a 3.2 33 34 35 3.6 39 3.10 Transmission Lines. 4. Electromagnetic Fields. Fundamental Variables and Equations. . . - Maxwell's equations (integral form). Gauss’s Laws (associated with Maxwell’s equations)....... 2. ‘Maxwell's equations (point form). Gauss’s laws (point form). . Gradient law Poisson's equation. Biot-Savart Law. Laplace's Equation. 3.10.1 Lossless Transmission Lines . 3.10.2 Lossy Transmission Lines . CIRCUITS INCLUDING LOGIC Star-Delta Transformation (Y - mesh or T - x) 4.2, Tee-equivalent of Coupled Coils aaa one rs 14 “ 44.3 Coupling Circuits... 6.0... 6. cece eee eee eae : 15 44 Resonant Circuits. . 2.0. .e eee eee eee eee ee .. B 45 Logic... ee ee eee ee 16 “61s Boolean Algebra geese) te ere i puco0DDGGGGG 16 5 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF TRANSISTORS OPERAT- ING AT LOW FREQUENCIES, INCLUDING THE OPERATIONAL AM- PLIFIER 47 5.1 Bipolar Transistors : a 5.2 Junction Field-Effect Transistors. . : 18 5.3 Insulated Gate Field-Effect Transistors (including MOSFETs)........... 18 5A Operational Amplifier 19 6 ELECTRICAL POWER AND MACHINES 20 6.1 Transformer... ...... ee eee eee re 6.1.1 Complete equivalent circuit... 2.20.02... - 20 6.1.2 Simplified Equivalent Circuit... 0... 2.6. oe) 6.2 Three-phase synchronous machine fect e eee beeen 2 6.2.1 Equivalent circuit for cylindrical rotor machine (motor) .....-... + a 6.2.2 Basic relationships E a 6.3. Three-phase induction motor .....-...- see 63.1 Equivalent circuit... 2.2.02. eevee bce cee eee ee a1 63.2 Basic equations... 6.6... . 2 7 FOURIER SERIES ANALYSIS OF PERIODIC WAVEFORMS 24 8 TABLE OF FOURIER TRANSFORM RELATIONS 25 9 TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM RELATIONS 26 10 TABLE OF Z-TRANSFORM RELATIONS 27 11 CONTROL me 12 COMMUNICATIONS 291 GENERAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS Electron rest mass Proton rest mass Neutron rest mass Proton/Electron mass ratio Electronic charge Electronic charge/mass ratio Velocity of light in vacuo Permeability of free space Permittivity of free space Planck Constant Boltzmann Constant Stefan-Boltzmann Constant Molar number (Avogadro's constant) Faraday Constant Standard Volume of Perfect Gas Molar (universal) gas constant Ice point Standard Atmospheric Pressure Standard Acceleration me my My my [me 9.109 x 10-kg 1.673 x 10-77 kg 1,675 x 10-7" kg 1.836 x 10° =1,602 x 107° C 1.759 x 10 C/kg 2.998 x 108 m/s 4x x 10-7 H/m 8.854 x 10-? F/m 6.626 x 10-™ Js 1.381 x 107 3/K 5.670 x 10-8 J/K*m?s 6.022 x 10° kmol~? 9.649 x 107 C/kmol 22.41 m? /kmol 8.314 x 10° J/K kmol 273.15 K 1.01325 x 10° N/m? (=1 atm) (10° N/m? = 1 bar) 9.80665 m/s?2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND SOLID STATE PHYSICS (Typical values) 2.1. Metals and Alloys ete. Copper Aluminium Tungsten Manganin Nichrome Carbon Iron Stainless steel 2.2 Dielectrics. Mica Glass Porcelain Polystyrene P.TPE. Transfr. Oil Alumina Quartz Polythene Polycarbon- ates Resistivity Temp. Coeff. Temp. Coeff. Specific Thermal Melting at 20°C of Resistance of Heat- Conducti- Point me Expansion Capacity —_vity °C Qn. at 20°C kK" J/kg K W/mK 172x 10% 39x 10-4 25.5 x 10°F 380 385 1083 28x10°§ 40x 10-4 16.7 x 10" 880 200 660 55x10-§ 445x104 44x 10S 140. 160 3370 445x10-§ 0.1x10- 18x 10° 26 910 03x10“ 15x 10-* = 17x 10-F 450 13 1350 4500 x 10-5 x 10-# 5.4.x 1078 840 LT 3500 100x10-§ 54x 10-* 11.6 x 107% 250 67 1537 72x 10-8 : 9x 10° 500 16 1427 Relative Dielectric Permit- Strength tang at Resistivity tivity MV/m Qm 6 20 © 25x14 «3x10 «= 3 x10-* 19 — 10 5 20 6x10-* = 8x10" 12x 10-* 10? - 10! 6 30 220x 10-75 10-4 100 x 10-4 : 25 20 05x 10-* 0.7 x 10-4 3.3.x 10-4 21 20 5x14 2x 10-4 2x 10-4 101 — 101% 22 15 4x10 5x10-4 30x 10-4 - 85 : 20 x 10-* - - e 38 20 10x 10-4 : : 106 2.3 20 2x 10-* : - 108 — 10! 31 - 50 x 10-4 : : 10" — 104 2.3 Semiconductors (properties at 300 K). Germanium Silicon Gallium Arsenide 1.40 Indium Antimonide 0.16 Relative 16 12 12.5 Energy Mobilities Gap Electron Hole Permittivity eV mfVs_ m/Vs 067 0390.19 112 016 0.05, 0.9 0.04 7.0 0.07 72.4 Superconductors: Be or Bg at 0K tesla (T) Al 0.01 Pb 0.08 Nb . 0.08 Nb Sn 184 u Y Ba Cu0 93 ~ 100 TI BaCaCud 125 ~ 120 Critical current density is very variable: Nb Sn will carry 10° A/m? in a field of 5 T at 4.2 K in wire form. Y Ba Cu0 will carry 10° A/m? in zero magnetic field at 77 K in thin film fom. h 8 sor} Flux quantum 5° = 2.07 x 107° J sO“. Energy gap ~ 3500 Te. 2.5 Solid state physics for crystalline materials. Density of states for nearly free electrons: where E is the energy measured from the bottom of the band. For a semiconductor where E. — Ey > 3kT, the electron density in the conduction band may be written as (B-E) Nee Eo} wo where E- is the energy of the bottom of the band and the effective density of states, Ne, is given by The equation of continuity for excess minority electrons is on 2 pytns pW(nE). aT rt is the carrier life-time. D is the carrier diffusion coefficient. is the carrier mobility. E. is the electric field. Einstein’s relation between mobility and diffusion coefficient:2.6 Magnetic Materials The number of magnetic materials in common use is very large and the data given here do not attempt to cover more than a few representative examples. For most purposes the materials may be grouped into four categories, as shown below, though there are some useful materials which lie outside these groups. 2.6.1 Group I: Materials used in the electrical power industry These materials, notably cast steel and various silicon-iron alloys, are relatively inexpensive and have high values of maximum fiux density. The silicon-iron alloys have moderately high permeabilities and fairly low hysteresis losses. Magnetization curves are given in Fig. la. 2.6.2. Group Il: The nickel-iron alloys By comparison with Group I, these alloys are much more expensive, have much higher permeabil- ities, lower hysteresis loss and lower values of maximum flux density. They are widely used in the light-electrical industry. Several different alloys are available to provide different compromises between cost, permeability, maximum flux density and resistivity (to reduce eddy-current loss). Small quantities of elements other than nickel and iron are sometimes added. Representative types of alloy ar Percentage Trade Names Initial Maximum Resistivity of nickel relative Flux Density Qm permeability Wb/m? Mumetal 10,000 70-90 Permalloy C to 08 6.0x 10-7 etc. 30,000 Radiometal 1,800 45.50 Permalloy B to 16 5.5 x 10-7 etc. 2,400 Rhometal 1,500 35-45 Permalloy D to 13 9.0 x 10-7 etc. 2,000 Magnetization Curves are given in Fig. 1b. 2.6.3 Group III: Permanent magnet materials Several alloys of nickel and aluminium, with or without cobalt, copper aad titanium, have been developed for the manufacture of permanent magnets. These materials have high remanent magnetism and high coercive force. ‘Magnets sintered from Barium Ferrite powder have been developed, and are characterised by low remanence and high coercive force. Cobalt /rare earth materials which exhibit an extremely high maximum energy product are recent developments. Cobalt/samarium is available in two forms:a, Sintered metal: Remanent flux density 0.87 T Coercive force 1280 x 10°A/m. b. Moulded powder in Epoxy: Remanent flux density 0.435 T Coercive force 640 x10°A/m. ‘This material may be machined. The demagnetization characteristic is linear between the remanent fiux density (H=0) and the coercive force (B=0) Representative demagnetization curves are shown in Fig. 2. 2.6.4 Group IV: Ferrites In addition to the alloys mentioned above, a wide range of non-metallic ferrites has been devel- oped for magnetic purposes. In general, the purely magnetic properties of the ferrites are inferior to those of the alloys, but the former have much higher resistivities and so can be used at much higher frequencies without serious eddy-current loss. A great many mixed ferrites of divalent metals have been prepared, but only three will be mentioned. Manganese Zinc Ferrites Different materials in this range, with different proportions of manganese and zinc, have useful magnetic properties in the frequency range from 1 kHz to 20 MHz. Other properties lie in the ranges Initial relative permeability 850-1500 Maximum flux density 0.34 - 0.40 Wb/m? Resistivity 0.5 - 1.0 Om. Nickel Zine Ferrites These materials cover a useful frequency range from 1 kHz to 200 MHz and have the following properties, Initial relative permeability 20 - 650 Maximum flux density 0.19 - 0.32 Wb/m? Resistivity 10? Om, Barium Ferrite, ‘This material is quite different from those mentioned above and is used in the manufacture of permanent magnets. Representative properties are Remanent flux density 0.36 Wb/m? Coercive force Ll x10° A/mtesla 2-0; : — TATED. SILICON-!RON = 1-6 | J 1-21 Le Er 0-8 Ke ve 0-4 cash 0 100 200 300.400 500 H A/m Fig. la B tesla 1-0, 0-75 ay S» 0-5-4 > 0-25 S - 9 1B Y arom 2 0 207 30 0 BO H Alm Fig.1bcOLUMAX 7 OM soe 1-2 L 1 no 0-8 a 8 0-6 3 anc G TT # o-4 9S . | FERRITE 7 _ x (13-5, 0) ‘ : 0 710% 6x10 5x104 4x10 3x10% 2x104 110% 0: 0° 3 H A/mm Fig. 23 ELECTROMAGNETISM. 3.1 ~ bh vos shh Eh & br Electromagnetic Fields. Fundamental Variables and Equations. Current, ampere (A), defined via force between parallel straight wires carrying current, Potential, volt (V), defined such that 1 ampere x 1 volt = watt. Charge, coulomb (C), defined as 1 ampere-second. Charge density, C/m*. Current density, A/m?. Magnetic flux density, tesla (T), defined via force on a test current element. Magnetic field intensity, defined via the circuital law, A/m. Electrical polarisation, dipole density per unit volume, C/m?. Magnetisation, A/m. Electric ficld intensity, defined via force on a test charge, V/m Electric flux density, defined via Gauss’s law, C/m?. Electrical conductivity, siemen/sn. Dielectric permittivity, F/m. (For free space éo = 8.854... x 10"!? F/m.) Relative permittivity, ¢» = ¢/e0 Magnetic permeability, H/m. (For free space yo = 4x x 10-7 H/m.) Relative permeability, ur = 44/140 Speed of light in vacuo = (soe) m/s. Constitutive relations For linear materials: 103.2 Maxwell’s equations (integral form). he fa S is any open surface bounded by a closed curve C. Is 1 Maxwell-Faraday equation. & " ‘Maxwell-Ampere equation; also generalised circuital law. 3.3 Gauss’s Laws (associated with Maxwell’s equations). fp D-dS = Q, charge enclosed within closed surface S, f.B-ds = 0 aways. 3.4 Maxwell’s equations (point form). Curl of field intensity: vx vx 3.5 Gauss’s laws (point form). Divergence of flux density: mI 1 3.6 Gradient law. Gradient of potential: — VV, (electrostatics only), - (2 epee lay +n) in Cartesian coordinates. 3.7 Poisson’s equation. vv = PIE» (becomes Laplace's equation for p = 0). u3.8 Biot-Savart Law. dH Idé sin8/47 7? (scalar notation) (vector notation, where # is the unit vector in or did the direction of 1). Tdl x ifan? 3.9 Laplace’s Equation. In rectangular coordinates av ie ev fn ev oe * OF * OF In cylindrical coordinates a ( *) 1aV eV aor) + oe Oe 3.10 ‘Transmission Lines. 3.10.1 Lossless Transmission Lines L = loop inductance / unit length. C = shunt capacitance / unit length. Wave velocity vie Wavelength 9 Characteristic impedance Zo = «/f. Phase constant § = 3 Propagation constant = For sinusoidal time variation, with forward and reverse waves superposed, V(z,t) = (Aew3™ + Beil) eet Mast) = z (Aev#* — Beit) emt At ¢ = 0, with load Zp, voltage reflection coefficient, A-& = B/A= co A = Th lien 21% = lt = ee For any value of x, p(z) = pre. Characteristic tn impedance Zp, xo X=0 21+ Zoj tan Bt Zor Zi jren Hl Input impedance Zin = Zo -3.10.2 Lossy Transmission Lines R G Characteristic impedance Zo Propagation constant loop resistance / unit length. hunt conductance / unit length. KG jut V(z,t) = (Ae7™ + Ber) et T(2,t) = z (Aew™ — Ber) oie 21 + Zotanh rt Bn 20° 77, taht plz) = pier 1B4 CIRCUITS INCLUDING LOGIC 4.1. Star-Delta Transformation (Y - mesh or T - x) . A Za z Zz Zp Ze c B c Z B STAR (Y) DELTA (MESH) a Ze Zp a Zz Ze Zz c Cc T T 2, = TxLal(Zs + a+ Zs) att t+ 2 = Z0s/(Z1 + Z2 + 2s) natty ah Zhr|(Zi + Za + Za) B= Bt Zor Ake 4.2 Tee-equivalent of Coupled Coils L,-M4.3 Coupling Circuits Cy is usually relatively large and C2 small. At midband, when the effects of C; and C2 can be ignored, v2 = vy Ro/ (Fi + Re)- At high frequencies, vz drops to 70% of the midband value when 1/wC2 = Ry Ro/ (i + Ra): ‘At low frequencies, v2 drops to 70% of the midband value when 1/uyCy = Ra + Ra. w1 and wz are known as the lower and upper half power angular frequencies. They are also the -34B, turnover or 45° phase shift angular frequencies which are other names to describe the same condition. 4.4 Resonant Circuits Undamped resonant angular frequency, wo, is given by wgLC = 1. Quality factor Q = wU//P where U is the total stored energy in the system, and P is the mean power dissipation Series resonant circuit: wok 1 fe re Qos A = zar(14 210%) z . [ at frequencies close to resonance Lo Parallel zesonant circuit: 1 _ we oe fe) = Bre = “G Yeo (1+2i007% yu at frequencies close to resonance Lo For series resonant circuit, Z = r(1+ 9) when 6iz/us £1/(2Q0) Half power bandwidth = (1/Q)x resonant frequency.4.5. Logic COMPLEMENT: X= A AND: X=A.B NAND : X Spe Se 4p 5 5 5 _ OR: X= A+B NOR: X= AsB EXCLUSIVE OR: X= AB+AB cP Excitation table_| ‘Truth table —! e Qn Qnii| JK Jn Ben | Qnar 4 a 0 0 jo x lOueacn laos ka} — o 1/1 x| Jo ilo 1 1 |x 0 1 of 2 ip Fl eee 1 0 [x1 111% In the excitation table X represents a ‘don't care’ state, 4.6 Boolean Algebra Commutation Association A+B=BtA A+(BH+C)=(AtB)+C A-B=B-A A-(B-C)=(A-B)-C Absorption Distribution A+(A-B)=A A(B+C)=A-B+A-C A(A+B)=A A+(B-C) +B)-(A+C) De Morgan’s Theorems where the bar indicates the inversion operation, A meaning ‘not A’. 165 SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF TRAN- SISTORS OPERATING AT LOW FREQUENCIES, INCLUD- ING THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 5.1 Bipolar Transistors Collector Base Collector Base 7 Emitter 7 NPN Pe pose Collector Veh Emitter Emitter Emitter PNP DEVICE SYMBOLS EQUIVALENT AC CIRCUIT (Common emitter) The currents and voltages shown on the diagram are small a.c. signals superimposed upon a specified d.c. operating condition. The hybrid parameters (h) depend on the d.c. operating condition and relate the signals by these equations: Me = hick + hretee tg = Ayetn + Roctee ‘Typical values for a BC1O8B at 1 kHz, junction temperature of 25 °C and at the dc. operating conditions of Ic = 2 mA, Vog = 5 V are: ies 3.2to8.5kQ : hres 2x 10-4 hye; 24010500: hoe; 30 to 100 wS. fre and hoe often may be neglected. wv5.2 Junction Field-Effect Transistors. Drain Gate t J Source N-Channel FET Yos | Drain Gate ( f J Source P-Channel - FET DEVICE SYMBOLS EQUIVALENT A.C. CIRCUIT Source Source ‘The currents and voltages shown on the diagram are small a.c. signals superimposed upon a specified d.c. operating condition. The device parameters depend on the d.c. operating condition and relate the signals by this equation: fa = GmYqe + de] te. Typical values for the low-power silicon transistor 2N'3819 are: Gmi 2-65 mS: r4;> 20k. 5.3 Insulated Gate Field-Effect Transistors (including MOSFETs) D D GS Substrate |S Substrate IS S Enhancement Depletion N-channel N-channel D D D & Substrate Substrate G s 7 — ta) 8 ma Enhancement Depletion P-channel P-channel In many cases the substrate is internally connected to the source electrode and the symbol for the p-channel depletion FET is as shown in Fig. (b). The circuit model is as for the junction PET.5.4 Operational Amplifier Symbol Circuit model vite t= Alo, — 02) + Aon Ais the differential gain and Azm is the common mode gain. Frequently Aem may be neglected for the purpose of analysis. 196 ELECTRICAL POWER AND MACHINES 6.1 Transformer 6.1.1 Complete equivalent circuit Ty Ri & i 7 | 1 | - < ei vy | r h i V,] Z!LOAD | us | 1 ° + 0-4 I TM = TN A _E ™ ~ ™M 6.1.2 Simplified Equivalent Circuit Tw ot Re Xa 206.2 Three-phase synchronous machine 6.2.1 Equivalent circuit for cylindrical rotor machine (motor) |e a v V = Terminal phase voltage it Input phase current Synchronous reactance (per phase) Generated phase emf. we 6.2.2 Basic relationships &, = Synchronous speed (rad/s) & = Supply frequency (rad/s) Pp = Number of pole-pairs . 6 = Electrical load angle. wee 3VE Electromagnetic torque, T= oon? 6.3 Three-phase induction motor 6.3.1 Equivalent circuit TR x qh xX} a2 Basic equations Slip,s = 2 Be ‘Total torque, T= oTaRs ws; = synchronous speed as defined in 6.2.2. &, = Rotor speed (rad/s) 2264 Separately-excited d.c. motor 6.4.1 Equivalent circuit for separately-excited motor Mt eo Va Field Armature 6.4.2. Basic relationships Koo Koi, emf constant flux per pole o= oD rotor speed 65 — Per-Unit Calculations 65.1 VAy = Base VA (three-phase) Vy = Baseline voltage - % Ly = vay = Vas hb BM, 6.5.2. Change of base VA VAvey Zu) = — Zpact) Vary 237 FOURIER SERIES ANALYSIS OF PERIODIC WAVEFORMS If g(t) is periodic over —T'/2 to T/2 then: D+ Don cos(nent) + by sin(nurot)] a 2 TR 2th where a, = BL ponte!) and beam [9 sin! at or: Where wo = 2x/T = 2x fo: fo = 1/T is the fundamental frequency. Half-wave rectified cosine wave: ai4i 2 A (_y yer c08(2nwot) a(t) = = + 5 cos(wot) + Re.) ao p-phase rectified cosine wave (p > 2): att) = Bint Leaders Square wave: 4S sin(2n — 1)wot or (y= ty Set oir : : 8 2n—1 Triangular wave: tty a) = Sy ae 10 a t = Sawtooth wave: ee att) = 2 Seay new) 6 A it zy 7 ty Pulse wave: tet ke \ sin(nmta/T) t g(t) = gh+ed cata T) cos(nwot)| 27 248 TABLE OF FOURIER TRANSFORM RELATIONS =) 6 za 06CTt a(t = to) time shift eit g(t) ig) differentiation silt) +92(t) convolution = [att o)dr g(t) 92(t) multiplication ‘Waveform: Spectrum (w = 2rf): a= gf cura — |awy= [ane 1 DC level | 27 6(w) = 5(f) u(t) unit step 160) 4 cient 2 (wv — wo) 05 (wot) + [6(w — wo) + 6(w + wo)] sin (ot) F16(w — 0) ~ se + 40)] = 6(t-nT) impulse train z= 6 ( - =) com rectangular pulse etsine (24) ° ay ; at Note: sine(z) sin(z) eH Gu) Ge — Ho) (GeyGe) Gi) G2) frequency shift FO) Gae) =e 2 Gilw - 2)G,(2) a0 Duality: If g(t) transforms to p(w), then p(t) transforms to 2x9(-w). Symmetry: If g(t) is real, then G(-w) = G*(w) (* means complex conjugate). If g(t) is real and even, then G(s) is real and even. If g(t) is real and odd, then G(w) is imaginary and odd. Parseval’s theorem of energy conservation: f™ lg(t)'dt = + [Crewe 259 TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM RELATIONS Waveform: g(t) (defined for t > 0) Laplace Transform: G18) = clot) = f° a(ter* at 0) impulse u(t) unit step ® sin (uot) 08 (wot) sinh (wot) cosh (wot) e-**[A.cos (wot) + Bsin (wot)} ee a(t) g(t—r)u(t -r) where r > 0 to(t) tg differentiation di £9 a integration foyer (0) + 92(¢) af gilt — r)an(r)dr convolution F4G 7a Po 7-8 Fug A(s-+4) + Buy (sta tug G(s +a) shift ins G(s) shift in ¢ a ~ Als) s6(s) - 9(0) so(e)~ tao) — 0-2 (B) = ( Gs) $ es) Ga(s)Ga(s) 2610 TABLE OF Z-TRANSFORM RELATIONS Sequence: Ory = 0,1,2,-+° 2 Transform: Ge) = Lae* = 1 (unit step) AD (k+m-1)! (a=W! eek sin (wok) cos (wokT) Tauck [sin Wolk + 1)P) ~ asin (kT) r*[Acos(wokT) + B sin (wokT)] To. Sk Dom 9 = lim G(z) jim ge = lim(2 — 1)6(2) sin (wT) 27? cos (oT) = 1 = cos (oP) 2~ 0s (wo) 27) + = d-az? T= 2rcos(woT =? + 22? A+1r2z71(Bsin (wo) — Acos(woT)) T= Or cos(woT)2-t + 122? G(r!) 2G() ~ 290 271G(z)+ 94 2™G(2) — 2.99 — --+~ 29m—1 EMG (2) + NG Ht gm (initial value theorem) (final value theorem when poles of (z= 1)G(2) are inside unit circle) 2711 CONTROL X(s)_ +. On ¥(s) Bs) H(s) Loop Transfer Function: 29 = @(syH(s), Es) ¥(s) G(s) G(s) Closed-loop Transfer Function: +G(s)\H(s) 1+ Kg(s)” X(s) 's)H(s) = K g(s), an explicit function of loop gain K. where it is convenient to define G(: Stability of the Closed-loop System: ‘The closed-loop system is stable if the roots of the characteristic equation, 1 + K'g(s) = 0, have negative real parts. Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criteri If 1+ K'g(s) is n't order and is expressed as the ratio of two polynomials, A(s)/B(s), where A(s) = dys" + dy—18""1 +... +o, then the closed-loop system is stable: for n = 2, if all a; > 0; for n = 3, if all aj > 0 and aya > aoas; for n = 4, if all a; > 0 and a,a703 > apa + aga? (Further relationships exist for n > 4.) Nyquist Stability Criterion: For a stable closed-loop system, the full Nyquist plot of 9(s), for s = jw and 00 < w < 00, I should encircle the (—7, 0) point as many times as there are poles of g(s) (i.e. open-loop poles) in the right half of the s-plane. The encirclements, for the path traced by increasing w, must be in a counterclockwise direction. Root Locus: The roots of 1 + K g(s) = 0, the closed loop poles, trace loci as K’ varies from 0 to oo, starting at the open-loop poles and ending at the open-loop zeros or at infinite distances. All sections of the real axis with an odd number of singularities to their right are sections of the root locus. At the breakaway points (coincident roots): dit /ds Angle condition: 9(s) (2m +1)x (where m is an integer). Magnitude condition: |g(s)| = 1/K Asymptotes: If g(s) has P poles and Z zeroes, the asymptotes of the loci as K — oo are straight lines at angles (2m + 1)n/(P — Z) to the real axis. Their point of intersection @ with the real axis is given by: o = (5 poles of g(s) — ¥° zeroes of g(s)) /(P - Z) 2812 COMMUNICATIONS Shannon’s Law for Channel Capacity: ‘The maximum bit rate C at which information may be transmitted over a channel of bandwidth B Hiz and with a mean signal power $ and noise power NV is given by: C= Blogy (Q. + §) bit/s. Amplitude Modulation: The modulated signal s(t) is related to the modulating signal z(t) by: s(t) [ag + 2(t)] cos(wot + $) Peak amplitude of z(t) 0 ‘Modulation index, m, Frequency Modulation: The modulated signal s(t) is related to the modulating signal 2(t) by: s(t) = a9 cos[uct + (t)] where e = Kpa(t) rad/s, Frequency deviation, fp ae [Peak amplitude of 2(t)] Hz em If 2(t) = a, cos(wayt) where the modulating frequency fy = M4, then: Modulation index, mp = J2. = KEG: fu OM Carson’s Rule for FM signals: Modulated signal bandwidth = 2(mp + 1)fur = 2(fp + fw) 29