JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOI. 100, NO. 2, PAGES 24,537-24.553, DECEMBER 10, 1995 Petrology of lavas from Sierra Negra volcano, Isabela Island, Galépagos archipelago Robert W. Reynolds Science Department, Central Oregon Community College, Bend Dennis J. Geist Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow Abstract. Sierra Negra volcano is a voluminous, active basaltic shield situated in the western Galapagos archipelago, a hotspot-related chain adjacent to the Galdpagos spreading center. The volcano has erupted Fe-rich tholeiitic basalts of very limited compositional range. Comparison of lavas from each of five strati- {graphic units covering the entire volcano indicates that the lavas are mineralogically Similar and compositionally restricted (4.4 to 6.9 wt % MgO). The lavas are Fe-rich and hypersthene-normative and plot in horh the alkaline and tholeiite fields af the alkali-silica diagram. Rare earth element (REE) patterns are steep and parallel. The major and trace element data indicate a comagmatic relationship by fractional crystallization of the observed phenocryst phases. Projections into pseudoternary phase diagrams suggest that the maginas cooled and crystallized at pressures be- tween | and 3 kbar. Calculated melt dens range from 2.73 to 2.77 g/cm}, which are higher than those of typical mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), Hawaiian tholeiite, and other Galapagos lavas. The high calculated melt densities may be caused by fractionation al greater depths than is ordinary for the other basaltic magmas. Suppression of plagiuclase and olivine crystallization in favor of augite iay eliminate the minimum density “window” that has been proposed for MORB. fractionation, Sievra Negra lavas have the most radiogenic lead and strontium isotopic ratios in the western Galépagos, indicating that the magmas have a relatively large contribution of plume material and have been minimally contaminated by entrainment of MORB-producing mantle, Magmatic 3He/4He isotopic ratios from Sierra Negra are approximately 15 times the atmospheric ratio, although these ratios clearly indicate plume helium, they are not the highest 3He/4He in dhe archipelago, suggesting that helium is decoupled from the heavier isotupes. High Suy/Yb ratios, light rare earth element (LREE) enrichment, and a steep REE slope are consistent with an origin by moderate extents (5-15 %) of partial melting of a gamet-lherzolite source with REE characteristics that are between chondrite and depleted Earth mantle sources. Sierra Negra lavas are compositionally monotonous because homogeneous plume-rich material has experienced long-term exposure to a well-regulated sublithospheric thermal cnvironment with additional compositional restrictions imposed in the lithosphere by high magma flux: Introduction ‘The focus of research in moder igneous petrology has been the documentation of processes that account for the diversity of igneous rocks. In the course of melting. coa- lescence, ascent, intrusion, covling, and hybridization, large variations in temperature, pressure, oxidation state, Copyright 1995 by the American Geophysical Union. Paper number 957B02809, 0148.0227/95/951B-02809805.00 and host-rock composition and structure are encountered by rising magmas. It is these variations that are largely re~ sponsible for chemical diversity in igneous rocks. However. not all magmatic suites are compositionally di- verse. Presumably, homoxeneous suites of lavas must re= sult in small variations in these conditions. The lavas of Sierra Negra volcano, in the western Galdpagos archipelago, form one such homogeneous suite. It is widely believed that the principal control on the versity of many oceanic unayunas is their density [Watker, 1989; MeBirney, 1993; Ryan, 1993]. Most mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), for example, erupts at a density min 21837REYNOLDS AND Gi 24,538, imum in the tholefitic liquid-tine-of-descent (2.65-2.70 wem3) [Sparks etal, 1980}. Low-pressute fractional erys- tallization is generally thought to account for the composi tional trend that evolves toward minimum-density melts [Stolper and Walker, 1980). Olivine fractionation, in par- ticular, causes the density of a liquid to decrease. When Plagioclase joins the assemblage, the density increases, re- sulting ina density minimum. From buoyancy considera- tions, it seems logical that minimum-density melts ought to erupt copiously, which is indeed supported by field ob- servations of MOB. Less commonly, other mafic mag- mas such as picrites and Fe-rich tholeites erupt, albeft in significantly smaller volumes than MORB. These mag. ‘mas are more dense than typical MORB and consequently Apparently, some property other than buoyancy produced by low-pressure crystal fractionation controls eruptibility in the hotspot setting. For example, in many plume provinces, such as Iceland [Jmsland, 1983], Ninetyeast Ridge [Weis et al., 1991], and the western Galipagos [McBirney and Williams, 1969, Fe-Ti rich lavas are most stundlant. ‘The subaerial lavas of Sierra Negra volcano in the west- em Galdpagos Islands consist entirely of Fe-rich, transi- tional basalts that are both compositionally vesticted and dense. Thus they provide an opportunity to examine the problems of chemical monotony and high melt density in Darin mo FIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY basaltic lavas. Within this context, this paper examines the possibility that both the compositional restriction and dense character of Sierra Negras voluminous basalts can be accounted tor by fractionation deep in the aceanic litho- sphere and high magma flux rates that invoke thermal bulfering of melt extracted from a homoxenous mantle Geologie Setting The Galapagos Islands are located on the equator, 10110 kat west of South America and consist of some 15 major islands, together with numerous islets, rocks aud seamounts, all of which are constructed upon a large sub- marine platform that rises abruptly from the abyssal seafloor (Figure 1). ‘The lithosphere is thickest (approximately 17 km) beneath Isabela Island [Feighner and Richards, 1994] and is approximately 10 Ma (Hey. 1977]. ‘The archipelago is generally thought © be a product of hotspot induced volcanism adjacent to the Galdpagos spreading center [Morgan, 1971]. Holocene eruptive activ ity has occurred throughout the archipelago, such that the age progression of the voleanoes does not form a simple linear pattern as seen in the Hawaiian islands Nevertheless, much of the historic volcanic activity in the Galépagos is restricted to the western part of the archipelago closest to the presumed ste ofthe hotspot. C ‘Santiago Pinzon, SS: 22. Negra Floreana « ESPANON Figure 1, Regional tectonic setting of the Galipagos archipelago. Sierra Negra is located in the western part of the archipelago at the southern end of Isabela Island (labeled in bold.REYNOLDS AND GEIST. SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY Sictra Negra is the most voluminous of the westein Galdpagos shields and is constructed mostly of voluminous basaltic aa flows. A detailed volcanic history of Sierra Negra is reported elsewhere [Reynolds, 1994; Reynolds et al. 1995]. The volcano occupies most of the south end of Isabela Island: it is 60 km long and 40 km wide and rises 1100 ut ubuve sea level (Figute 2), Sicita Negra is wpped by a broad, shallow caldera that has undergone several episodes of collapse, upheaval, and deformation. The sur face flows are divided into five principal stratigraphic age units: | is the oldest and 5 is the youngest. All exposed flows erupted during the past 900 years, with unit 5 en- vompassing the historic eruptions. Each age unit erupted from cast-northeast trending circumferential and radial fis- sures positioned on both sides of the summit caldera, on the upper flanks, and on the eastern and western lower flanks. Historic accounts document 10 eruptions between 1813 and 1979 (McClelland et al., 1986; Simkin and Siebert, 1994] with an eruption vccuning, on averaye, ev= cry 15 years, Although the record is incomplete, Sierra Negra is second only to Fernandina in historic activity in the western Galfpagos. The most recent eruptions have oc- curred from a circumferential fissure system immediately ‘north of the caldera, Flow volume calculations for the en- ie volcano and xeucuonologie data indivate that Sieta Negra has expericneed a short-duration, high discharge rate and large volume eruptions, producing a total subaerial Geologic Map ol Volcan Sierra Negra Legend Relative Age & o 200 200-1000 +1000 2000 fp sss, 00 FT > 200 Geologie Contact — Cinder Cone @ Eruptive Fissure a Tutt Cone A Sample Location - svor0y eeiew 24,599 volume of 6250 x 106 m3. The volcano has undergone over 90% resurfacing in the past 4500 years. (Reynolds, 1994; Reynolds et al, 1995) Petrography of the Lavas Lavas from all five stratigraphic age units are mineralog- scally similae im terms of type and amount af minerals pre- sent. The lavas ate holocrystalline, aphanitic to sparsely porphiyritic (generally much less than 5 % phenocrysts), and vesicular (average ~ 14 %). The groundmass of most lavas consists of a microcrystalline, intergranular to pi- lotaxitic arrangement of splintery plagioclase laths, into ich equant olivine, augite, and Fe-Ti oxides are inter- spersed. Microlitc and subophitic groundmass textures oc- cour in several specimens. All Sierra Negra lavas contain sparse phenocrysts of plagioclase olivine and clinopyrox- ene. Olivine occurs as euedral, skeletal microphenoerysts ‘ith ubiquitous glass inclusions and no textures indicative Of a reaction relationship. Karsteite contents of olivine range from Fog to Fogg. Olivine phenocrysts are consis- tently more magnesian than olivine in the groundmass. Buhedrallaths of plagioclase are labradorite wo bytownite in composition. In general, the composition of plagioclase is more variable in the evolved lavas. Weakly normally- zoned plagioclase (rim, Ango.77; core, Ang).g2) phe Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of Sierra Negra volcano showing the distribution of the five stratigraphic age units and eruptive centers.2s nocrysts are common in Sierra Negra lavas, althongh ascit- latory zoning is also present in a few specimens. The cores of the zoned phenocrysts approach the average An content of primitive unzoned plagioclase phenocrysts Clinopyroxene phenocrysts are also of uniform composi tion (Eng, 47. Wo3s.4. FS9.22). Titaniferrous magnetite (Mtgg.7g) and ilmenite occur in the groundmass of all lavas. Oxides are present as microphenocrysts in three lavas. Clromium-spinel, « common accessory mineral in primitive Galipagos basalts, was not observed in any of the samples. A slight difference in texture and mineral composition is observed between basalts from summit and lower flank eruptive centers. In the suntmit lavas, plagioclase phe- nocrysts (Ang4.77) are zoned and have textures suggesting that they have undergone partial resorption. Sparse phe~ noerysts of skeletal olivine (Fo4s.¢2), pyearsoxene (Ego. 42, Wo35.49. Fs9.17) and groundmass Fe-Ti oxides (Fimtgs.79, Hmgg.93) also occur in some summit lavas. ‘The lower flank lavas have more abundant phenocrysts (but stil less than 5%) of large, euhedral olivine (Fogo gq). n- zoned plagioclase (Angs.g7). and augite (En42.17. Wo40, 44, F512-15). together with groundmass opaque oxides (Tmt72.74. Ilmo9.02). In addition. an isolated. small oc- currence of strongly plagioclase-phyearsic basalt is located at Cetto Pelado, a lower flank evuptive center situated a few kilometers northwest of the village of Villamil, There REYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY may be a weak correlation of increasing Fo and An content with increasing age. although this could be an effect of ele- vation, because the old lavas are ull low on the volcano's flanks. Composition of the Lavas Rock samples were analyzed at the Washington State University geoanalytical facility according to the pro cedures of Hooper et al [1993]. Major elements, Ni, Cr, Se. V. Zr, Rb and Sr were determined by XRF techniques. Other uave elements were Ueterutined by inductively cou- pled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and included the 14 rare earth elements (REE), Ba, Th, Nb, Y, Hf, Ta, U, Pb, Rh, and Cs Estimates of relative precision based ‘upon analyses of standards and duplicate analyses are less than 2% for major-element oxides and less than 5% (except Cr, 17% at these levels) for all trace clements. Pb, He, and Sr isotopes were analyzed in the Chemistry Deparment at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution ac- cording to the methods of Kurz and Kammer (1991). Major Klements The most suikiny xeucemical fewture of the Sierra [Negra lavas is the limited compositional diversity (Table 1; Table 1a, Major-Element Oxide Analyses for Sierra Negra Lavas Sample Age SiOz THO. AlOy FO Ma MgO CxO_—-NayO. KO POs Totsl Mg NK sxo0 14938 3401372 1295 O21 555 332 065 042 9970 4337 397 SNIIZ 14830391514 1462023 S08 338 070 046 9949 3830 408 SNODS 14860 3521420133) 021 S86. 342 043 036 002) 4403 358 SNM 1491834377 aTB oz 3.0 SIs ud) U3) WU HSU SNO36 248524031320 a8) 023 S08 222 086 Oho bok 3800 3.08 SNOT 24925 «30213811223 020 6.36, 304 048 030 99.75 S816 3.52 SNOOR 2 4RRS ART 19951945022 SH 320 066 bas ID Adee 3.05, SNI20 2 48G2 3561357 1303 021 572, 320 054 037 99.4 8396 3.78 snot 2 #09 3)? 1287 092 ST Aig a2 nan ORI aa 36 SNoOL «= 34984 389 1329 1412024 458 374 084 065 99.78 366 458 SNI3 34923 329 STs aay UZT 38 S18 039 vss yoy Saxe S75 SNOIS 3478 BND GMT ODL SH 318 061 040 9e49 att 3.82 SNO2 348473861350 1389 022 5:26, 333 065 083 9938 4036 400 SNoist 3 d0 00 Pat Meak TIGR 8D 286 O42 027 tonos $238 338 SMI -3 440 40H 3091437 023 4.98, 336 065 O88 99.13 3792 401 SNII60 «3 ARIS. 3381419 1296-020 S00 317 OS! 034 9920 4896 Fan snow 34842-32351 BIB 022 S67 306 085 040 9892 4345 3.61 SNOT 44948356 1835 L380 02s ay $2) ONO Gay wd Ser Az SNOIIO 44955 3.96 1350 thor 023439 36 O75 06s SoS 3889 138 sNo9 448313871339 as 022338 335 o6t oat 9943 LoL 399 sNoId) 4 aR 3K6 RS) 092 See 3H dst 042 03s 4a 392 SNM] 44823 3613681349 O21 38H 332 058 039 9978 4361 390 SNOOL = 4 4929-298 1397 1201 O10 Bat 208 e090 G04 AND VR sxon06 44830 39113131371 022 S41 341 058 038 98:16 4135 3.99 SNIZIG #480996 14S 025.35, 317 060 0399918 don! 377 SNOI2 $4856 12612981479 024 a4 348 072 048 9960 3690 420 SNI26 © 34821 38L Al SL Uk 39 SH U36 Us> OU ALI 377 snows $4820 394 13181396 022 Sn 3g 089 038 99.17 4100 3.77 Sn 54809 4.16 SOL 384 023527 332 053 usz yar aus 399 Sev 048 036 © 041 082 ODL 052 019 000 O08 "—Wijerslement oxides are given a weight person, ad trace-sloment analyse are given in part per milion. 1 Sid Dev is I signs tard devin ofall sunpes. Presened to provide quanta suppor of chemical monotony anon 13sREYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY aaa Table 1b, Trace-Element Analyses for Sictra Negra Lavas Sale Ae oe NE Sm Oy Tm *Choodie 0237 0612 0095 0467 0152 Ons 0.2055 040274 02540 OSKs 0165S 00255 0.170 OMS “oR 250 750 132730 2@ 10 3704s 433 LOT 0456 Sas oss SND 1 ME SD G9 SER O29 RTT 178 062 369 O36 geod 1 ma 1 REL Tah 28S RL ost 399 O48 SNoss 1186429 ST 363 7392S 721k 8D Os: 31s O48 SNo2 | 1S 409 S42 1Oh 3ST Oss 293 043 gros 2380 SSS 7D RSS 30? S93 LO be 370 O57 Swit 2 7 M3430 mo? S53 21 gots 2 LIB bai 250 O38 swom 37 Sth BRM RAD RE TUT ORK Tek nse Vay ost seo 27287 60 Tad 2H 9S 1a) 77a 052 294 046 seiol 520s 83 eT 2 tay Las Osi 30 a8 swols 3M ha eS 1296s 290 077 as om SwIsl 3S AAAS 26581-20560 oar 246 037 Swiss $y 38S TO Ste SDT SLs a2 $8050 Sno) 3 deo ana S882 1) 2S 02k Os) 3a a6 sya} 210 34 GO 91762671373 Oo 316 O48 seed 4 Sor Ged $5 SK Toe 55 ioe thy Om 425 ues Swoon 4 a2 63ST 2 teks aL ose 327 ous sweat 41604646212 GIS 223 BM 125. 33 owe 251038 SNo2 3 dee S78 Tk MT 527 Sa 139 SS 5008 3858. swig = § 2027 $ MSTA, S69 ta2TA TS 3980 30s Oa shoos $208 as $83 74636731397 GES Sasa Swim $e 78629 sts 27D Ta8 TSS 43S 325030 #SDev us 97 12 $4 Mk 04-122 13 OS 07 OD Sk OR Mojorskeent oxides ae given in welht perrent and tave-elemen analyses a ive in prs er illo * Chongnte and MORI dita are taken rom Sn and McDonouah 198 4 ‘Std Dev {gna standard dean fl sampler, Parente provide quanta soppor of chomisal monotony among aa Table te. ‘Trace-Element Analyses for Sierra Negra Lavas =. > sy # hv on we we Be ee See" SS Pe a a ag ae ae 3H Majeenen ones ae given in weigh percteny, and wavelet analyses re en In parts er milion. * Chon and MORB da a taken from Sen and McDonough (1980), 1 Stevie Tigra standard evan fll samples Presented povie Gua sua eal mony ong aes. ures 34, 4, and 5), which contasts markedly with the ing 5.0 w 6.0% MxO (Figure 4). Other majur elements diverse compositions of lavas from neighboring Aleedo and arc likewise restricted (Figure 5). By comparison, on Cerro Azul volcanoes [Geist et al, 1995; Naumann and Alcedo volcano, immediately north of Sierra Negra, lavas Geist, 1993], Lavas from many different fissures, the range from olivine-tholeite to rhyolite (7 to <1) Ss MgO) summit and flank. and all stratigraphic units are restricted (Geist et al.. 1995]. At neighboring Cerro Azul. MgO in MyO from 4.4 to 6.9 we %, with the vast majority hav- varies from 5 wo 10%, and the lavas have a two Fold rangeK20 + NazO (wt %) 1 Opx Figure 3, (a) Alkuli-silica variation diagram of 29 Sierra Negra lavas. Symbols correspond to stratigraphic age units, Diagonal line divides alkaline and tholeiite basalts, Stippled area includes mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) compositions of Write et ai. (1993). Error bars represent 1 sigma variation based upon duplicate analyses. (b) Distribution of molecular normative data for 29 Sicera [Negra lavas in the basalt tetrahedron (projected from pla- gioelase) is shawn in their abundance of the alkalis (T. Naumann and D. J Geist, unpublished data, 1994). A typical suite of lavas from Kilauea, Hawai, ranges from 16 to 5% MgO. [Frey ‘and Rhodes, 1993]. Clearly, the most remarkable feature of Sierra Negra’s lavas is not their petrologic diversity, but their monotony. ‘Sierra Negras basalts are somewhat difficult to classify Ihe ie and Ke-enrichment trends observed in Sierra Negra lavas have long been noticed as characteristic of western Galdpagos tholeites [McBimey and Witliams, 1969]. The whole rock major element data plot on both sides of the Macdonald and Katsura [1964] line ofthe alkalisilica di ‘gram (Figure 3a) yet the corresponding molecular norms are distinctly hypersthene-rich (Figure 3b). ‘The suite is thus best described as transitional between tholeitic dnd al- kaline. The clustering of data about the tholeite alkaline line is fairly common in the Galipagos and results from the lavas being rich in the alkalis and poor in silica relative to Hawaiian suites [McBirney and Williams, 1969: White et al, 1993]. Isla Pinta’s (in the north part of the REYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY archipelago) lavas are transitional tholeiites similar in composition to those of Sierra Negra [Cullen and McBurney, 1987]. Mid-ocean ridge tholeiites. including those of the Galdpages spreading center, are poorer in the alkalis, TiO2, and FeO and richer in SiOz than Sierra ‘Negra lavas. The major clement compositions of Sierra Negra lavas are in fact intermediate between those of mid- ‘ocean ridges and Hawaii Despite the restricted range of compositional variation, several wens in Sieira Negta's lavas ate noteworthy. A spread of over 1.5% in silica is apparent onthe silica-mag- nesia diagram (Figure 4), suggesting both silica enrichment and depletion with differentiaion. Other major-element ox- ide plots (Figure 5) show that Al203, FeO and CaO de- cease with increasing MgO, whereas TiO, K70, and 1NayO increase as MgO decrease. Trace Elements ‘The lavas of Sierra Negra also are restricted in trace-ele- ‘ment composition (Table 1). Abundances of highly compatible trace elements (e.g.. Ba and Rb) are negatively contelated with MgO. Abundances of Ni and Cr correlate strongly with MgO content ( Figure 6). All of the incom. patible element concentrations in Sierra Negra lavas are el- evated in companson to normal MORB (Figure 7), and in- compatible-element ratios are constant. REE patterns are light REE entiched and parallel with no Eu anomaly. A subhorizontal linear distribution of highly incompatible to ‘moderately incompatible REE ratios, such as La/Sm versus La, 1s developed among Sierra Negra’s lavas (Figure Xa) This is in stark contrast to lavas from the central Galépagos islands [Geist , 1992; White et al, 1993], which have large ranges in incompatible element ratios. Sierra Negra lavas also contain high ratios of intermediate to heavy KBE (Sm/Yb: Figure Rb). Ratios of the incor patible elements are comparable to those of Haleakala, 7? —_emenment SiO2(wt %) t MgO (wt %) Figure 4. Silica-magnesia variation diagiam of 29 Sietea Negra lavas. Symbols correspond to stratigraphic age units. A computer calculated fractionation model [Nielsen, 1990] using the most primitive Sierra Negea composition (SN9ID1 at 1200 © 1100 OC: and QFM butter) 18 shown with a dashed arrow. The predicted trend is toward Si deple- tion.REYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY nso cao 305 i a s te 10: ad He + we : # 4 #y + i 2 { 2 : ‘ wy 3 a a ' 02 NagO 2 te ———. ey i m : re . ® Ta go (wt) igo (wt 6) Figure 5. Whole-rock oxides (in weight percent) versus MgO variation disysans for 29 Sierra Negra lavas. Symbols correypond wo suatisraphic age units. ‘The computer calculated Iractivuation model [Wielsen, 1990] using the most primitive Sierra Negra composition (SN9151 at 1200 ° - 1100 &C and QM buffer) is shown with a line, See text for explana tion of the AlO3 anomaly. Hwan [Chen et al, 1991}, and Pinta, northern Galapagos (Cullen and MeBirney. 1987). yet differ strongly from those of Floreana [Bow und Geist, 1992} and the conta Galépagos islands [e-g., Geist ct al, 1986]. The young summit lavas (age 43) of Sierra Negra show a somewhat broader range of trace-clement values relative to older (age 1-)) tank lavas, but incompatible trace-element ratios are constant throughout, ‘The age 1 and 2 lavas typically have higher eoncentiations of compatible elements and lower concentrations of incompatible cloments (Figures 6-). ‘Again, this may be a function of being erupted lower on the flanks of the voleano as much as age Isotopes Sierra Negras lavas also have an exceedingly small range in Nd, Pb, and Sr isotopic ratios (Table 2). The lavas are ch in 87Sr/80Sr relative to lavas from the Cialipagos spreading center and other western Galipayos volcanoes inure 94), and Pb isotopic ratios for Sierra Negra are also the most enriched of the western Galapagos voleanoes igure 9b). Galépagos lavas, in general, hve more radio- teenie Pb isotopic ratios than Hawnivan lavas [White etal 10951 “Magmatic $He/He isotopic ratios fiom Sica Nea ave appiuainnaely 15 times the atmosphere ratio (Ra) [Kure et al, 1993], which are intermediate between the highest and Towest Ra values from the Galipagos. Lavas from Fernandina volcano have the highest 3He/#He ratios (22.6 a) am the Galapagos, whereas ratios from the lavas of Santa Cruz are the lowest measured (abuut 9 Ra) [Kurz et 4., 1993]. Samples from thioughout the archipelago indi- Cate thatthe western pat isthe most enriched in *He!$He ratios, with lower ratios occurring systematically eastward Seross the rest of the platform. Sierra Negra 3He/4He rx ios are intermediate between those of MORB (8-9) and the748 REYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY 200: 20 200 150 x ry 100. Ba 0. 20. wd x 4 ages 10 aa Sys HD ° os 6 go (wt 7) Mao (wr %) Figure 6, Selected trace elements (in parts per million) versus MgO variation diagrams for 21 Sierra Negra lavas. Symbols correspond to stratigraphic age units. The computer calcu lated fractionation model [Nielsen, 1990] using the most primitive Sierra Negra composition (SN9151 at 1200 © 1100 0C and QFM buffer) is shown with a line. Ba and Cr correlate ‘well with the predicted fractionation trends. highest ratios (20-32) from Hawaii [Kurz and Kammer, 1991) Discussion ‘The range of Mg numbers (36-52) and Ni concentrations (4-63) of Sierra Negra lavas is substantially lower than values representative of primary mazma compositions. [Basalsic Volcanism Study Project, 1981]. Rather, all of the lavas have undergone substantial fractionation since ex traction from the mantle, making it difficult to establish petrogenetic relations to the source and to infer mantle pro- Differentiation ‘The coexistence of sparse euhedtal plagioclase, augite, and olivine phenocrysts indicates that these thee pases ‘were on the liquidus at shallow levels. Further, Pearce cle- ment-ratio modeling [Russell and Nicholls, 1988} indicates that fractionation of these three phases acconnts tor vist ally all of the limited compositional range of the Sierra Newia suite (Figures 10) and 0c). Rativy of elements aut included in any crystallizing phase, such as P, K and Ti, plot as a small group without a well-defined linear trend And therehy indicate that the lavas are comagmatic (Figure: 10a). Other ratios were selected to examine the occurrence of one oF mote erystalliziny phases (Figures 10b and 10e). Together, the plots indicate that fractionation dominated by plagioclase and augite (with small amounts of olivine) can explain the compositional variation in the Sierra Negra Very small amounts of iron-titanium oxides may have fractionated at the most evolved end of the fractionation se- quence (MgO < 4.5 wt %). Geist et al. [1995], for exam- ple, found evidence for titanomagnetite fractionation at 4.8 ‘wt % MgO and apatite fractionation at 4.0 wt % MgO in lavas from nearby Alcedo. Iron-titanium oxides are present in the groundmass of most Sierra Negra samples. The presence of titanomagnetite may therefore account for the slight differences between observed and predicted FeO* and Tip trends as well as position of two of the three anoma- Rock / MORE Incompatible Elements Figure 7. MORB-normaliz of 21 Sietra Negra lavas. sd trace-element distributionREYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY o Partial Metting W Sierra Negra @ Pinta 1 Haleakala 1 Floreana Sm/ Yb La/Sm 24s Toot B Anos 2 food Figure 8. (a) La/Sm-La variation diagram of 21 Sierra Negra lavas, The data plot along a Tinear wend cousistent with fractional erysallicativn, Syinbuts eonespond wo staisraphic age units, (b) La/Sm-Sm/Yb variation diagrams of Sierra Negra lavas (and sclected other vol- canoes). Because gamet selectively incorporates Yb relative to Sm, melting ofa garnet bear ing source shot produce high Sm/Vb ratios. The Sierra Negra data are consistent with the trends of the other postulated garnet-bearing sources (e.g. Pinta {Cullen and McBirney, 1987] and Haleakala [Chen ef al., 1991]), suggesting thal garnet is present in the source at Sierra Negra. (ec) La/Smyg.o-Sm/Ybyg.9 variation diagram of Sierra Negra lavas supcrim- posed on a simplified version of Figure 17b of White ct al {1993} ous points (SN9101, SN9110) that occur outside the clus- ter of conserved Pearce element ratios that include TIO? (Fizute 104). ‘The two samples have te lowest MgO vale ues of the suite. Subacrial altcration may account for the slight difference of the third anomalous point (SN9135), Which is oldest and abnormally low in K20. Major-element, least squares mass-halance calculations ‘over the compositional range observed in the lavas conform, with dhe fractional crystallization of approximately 36 % of the most primitive lava (SN9ISI) to produce the most evolved basalt (SN9110). The model uses the composi tions of the phenocrysts in sample SNYISI (Table 3). The model predicts a cumulate comprising 47% plagioclase (Aug2), 43% augite (Wogy Bug Fs15), and 9% olivine (Fox), and the gooduess of fit is indicated by an R2 of 0.15. Corresponding Rayleigh-fractionation modeling of incompatible trace elements, using the major-element ‘model 0 calculate the liquid fraction and assuming bulk distribution coefficients of zero, suggests that daughter compositions are within the range of those predicted by the ‘major element mass balance calculations, Parallel REE and incompatible element ratios are also consistent with fractional crystallization. The small variation in Sr con- centrations susuests that ity bulk distribution cuelficient vas near unity, consistent with plagioclase fractionation. ‘The 1 bar fractionation model of Nielsen [1990] applied to sample SN9ISI predicts substantial fractionation of pla- gioelase hetore angite. and olivine join the crystal assem- blage. The disagreement between the model and Sierra [Negra data is particularly apparent on a plot of AlpO3 ver sus MgO (Figure 5). Tis well establised dat higher pres sures suppress plagioclase (and olivine) crystallization innats REYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY Table 2a, Pb and Sr Isotopic Data for Sierra Negra Lavas Sample Age Elevation 206904 py SiEmor 207/01 py SdEnor 208201 py SaEmor GING 5, SEnor SRI 119 9S¥U UU 13.85 HOUTE9UZ LON URES UHWOLL SNOIOS 31085 «1938030038 15.6019 0.0081 39.0822 0.0079 0.708302 0.00012 SWS 8129 OUI S32 UTD 9 Uo us Uo SNOW 4 ——-30,—«193630LODI6 S811 10013 3.0398 10033 0708120 O.00013 SN9107 5 1087 194060010022 13.0310 0018 39.1878 0.0085 0.703382 0.0013 SNOT. 5 74719-3641 010020 1S:5812 10016 300160 ODT 1703405 BOTT Table 2b. Helium Isotopic Data for Sierra Negra Lavas Sample Age Hleve- 3HltHle He (melt) Hele vation (IVR quSTPig Wa (ch) 30 180016 1219610. 1756/177 1) 16S0OR T8O6E-10 AD TaL10 1699/02 90MEI 35.i9-67 6 ieou-nd tMaro 171 sent SHH (i the ratio measured by crushing in vacuo. 3He!He (elt and te mei are measuted by heating In vacuo metnods (sre by Kary and Kner [1991]. preference 10 augite [e.z., Morse, 1980]. Thus, Sierra Negia’s lavas may have undergone fractionation at pres sures substantially higher than I bar, where plagioclase crystallization was suppressed. This hypothesis may be tested by application of the phase diagram penjections de- veloped by Grave et al. {1992}, which was developed for ‘mid-ocean ridge basalts but accounts for different alkali and ‘TiO2. Projection of the Sierra Negra lavas into the system aygite-olivine-silica indicates that the Sierra Negea lavas are parallel to the olivinc-augite (1 plagioclase) eotectic be- tween 1 and 3 kbar (Figure 1); likewise, the data cluster between the I- and 3-kbar eotectic (which plots as a point) in the system plagioclase-augite-olivine. Further support for augite fractionation comes from the observation that CaOIAIO4 decteases steadily with decreasing Mg# (not shown). We therefore suggest that most of the crystalliza- tion of Sierra Negra’s magmas took place in the middle to Tower crust, at depths of between 3.5 and 10.5 km, and that the lavas are related by fractionation of olivine, plagioclase, andl angi. Diverging Silica Trends ‘Natural magmas are observed to fractionate toward either tholeiitic or alkalic compositions [Yoder and Tilley, 1962] Ue distribution of Si€0y-MpC) data for Sierra Negra lavas siggests that hath silica enrichment and depletion have oc- curred. Nielsen's [1990] model butfered at OFM predicts uly Si depletion with crystallization. Two factors may explain the diverging silica trends in Sierra Negra lavas, First, differences in 02 can strongly affect the evolution ary trend of magmas [Carmichael, 1991]. Iron-rich compo sitions may develop under low-f02, closed-system condi- tions, whereas Si-rich compositions can evolve by interac- hon with high:f03 hydrated emus! [Oshorn, 1959; Brooks et fal, 1991] In contrast, Carmichael (1991) used thermody namic arguments to suggest that the oxidation stare of magmas is determined primaily by dheit souiee teions and ‘changing oxidation conditions en route to the surface do not substantially alter the redox state of a magma Fractionation modeling [iVielsen, 1990) of Sierra Negra lavas, tested over /O7 of -1 1 +2 lux units of the QFM buffer, produced Si-depletivn profiles in all caves for the MgO range of the lavas, because oxides never saturate the ‘more magnesian magmas. Changing oxidation conditions of Sierra Negra magmas are therefore nota likely cause of, the different fractionation paths of Sierra Negra lavas ‘A second alternative is that the diverging silica trends are caused by erystallization of basaltic parents at higher pres sures, as suggested above. The transitional nature of the Sierra Negra magmas is also critical to the production of variable silica contents in the fractionated magmas. Crystallization at low pressures, where olivine is important relative to augite + plagioclase crystallization, Would pro- 0.7098 Fonandna a [im= © y g 2 Damn x Eovar \ » Foca Redonda me 27080 | 4 Sion Negra 5 Wot ap eae g t areas 187 2 a = 6 is z Ps g 134 ‘e tae 206 py /204p, Fleure 9. (a) Distribution of 8781865 - 206PD/204PH isotupic tativs for the westem Galépagos volcanoes (including data fromWhite etal. (1993)) and the Galipagos spreading center; (b) distribution of 207Pb/204P5 206Pb/204Pb isotopic ratios for the western Galépagos Voteanoes inching data from White et al [1993}) and the Galdpagos spreading center. In both data sets. Sierra Negra lavas plot as the most entiched member of the sroup, well away from a typical MORB signatureREYNOLDS AND GLIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY 24547 1 Aget © Agez 4 Ages a Aged + Ages @TK (b) (2Ca + Na) /K (Plagioclase) 10 2 3 AUK Kigure 1, (c) 05 (Mais Fe)/k (Olivine) © 2. Pearce element-ratin variation diagrams [Russell and Nicholls, 1988] for 29 Sierra Negra lavas. (a) Molar TH/K - P/K. The tight cluster of conserved element ratios sug~ gests that the lavas are comagmatic. (b) Plagioclase is discriminated fron augite by com paring the molar ratio 2Ca iNa versus AV/K. "The slope greater than one indicates that élinopyroxene is fractionating in addition to plagioclase. (c) Olivine is discriminated by comparing the molar ratios 19 (Mg + Fe) versus SK. ‘The slope of less than one indicates that plagioclase. clinopyroxene. or both are fractionating in addition to olivine. Symbols, cotrespond to stratigraphic age units. duce silica enticlunent, because olivine contains les silica than the parental magma, Conversely, at higher pressures, Where more augite erystallizes, silica depletion would oc- cour, because augite contains more silica than the parental magma. Such a relationship can be discerned on Figure 11, where the volectics steaily shift toward the olivine aper with increasing pressure. We suggest that different batches of Sierra Negra magma crystallized above and below the threshold of olivine: versus augite crystallization, podhicing slightly variable trends in silica. Different amounts of olivine and augite crystallization are also supyrnted by dhe Ni concentrations in the lavas (Figure 6); the low-Ni lavas are richer in silica, consistent with them having undergone greater ofivine fractionation, and the Ni-rich lavas helong to the silica-depletion trend, We emphasize, however. that lhe differences ane slight, Inespeetive of the slight diffe ence in silica trends, the major and trace element and iso- topic data indicate that all exposed Sierra Negra lavas are broadly comagmatic and related hy very slight differences in the pressure and extent of fractional erystallization, Lava Density thas been suggested by many investigators that changes tn melt density with cooling and fractionation strongly control the ability of magmas to travel to the Earth's sur- fave fe, Sparks et ul, 1980, Sinton and Detrick, 1992) The beat example is that of MORB, which has a relatively uniform major element composition that is thought to rep- resent a density minimum browight on daring fractionation ‘dominated by olivine first then plagioclase. Melt densities of Siena Nera lavas are calculated at Latin and 1150 °C using the partial molar volume data of Bortinga and Weill [1970] and Lange and Carmichael [1990]. The results are Viral the same, fut the Kostinga and Weill (1970) vale ues are plotted in order to compare more directly Sierra Negra data (o the melt density-factionation profiles of Stolper and Walker [1980] (shown in Figure 12). The Sierra Negra data range in density from 2.73 to 2.77 gfem’ and are Roth denser and more evotved than typical MORB, {Stolper and Walker. 1980). Iron-rich submarine lavasfrom the Hawaiian volcanoes of Loihi and Kilauea {Garcia et aly 1909) have slightly luwer densities (2.69-2.74 s/em3), whereas subacrial lavas from Kilauea and Mauna Tne [Macdonald and Katsura, 1968) have comparable melt densities in the range of 2.72-2.74 glem ‘Because more primitive lavas are not served at Sierra Negra, itis difficult to tell whether the lavas have evolved through a MORB-style minimum density "window of enupsibilty” [Stolper and Walker, 1980] of whether frac- tionation occurred without shallow-level evolution to a density minimum. One possibilty is thatthe lavas could have begun low-pressure crystallization only after previ- cou crystallizing at higher pressures, as suggested above. Auigite has a “iractionation density” essentially equal t0 that of Sierra Negra basaltic magma. whereas olivine and plagioclase have higher and lower fractionation densities [Sparks and Huppert, 1984]. Therefore fractionation at pressures of about 2 kbar, where all three phases are crys tallizing from the magma, would cause iron enrichment but litle change in the melt density. Fractionation at lower pressures, where olivine, plazioclase, and auxite appear successively, eauses the well-established density minimum in the tholeite liquid line of descent. We conclude that the homogeneity of the Sierra Negra suite is nat caused by a density minimum, as has been suggested for MORB. Partial Melting Models ‘The overall enrichment of incompatible trace elements, together with the enriched isotopic signature, suggests that the source material for the Sierra Negra lavas is Similae 10 ‘mantle material typical of ocean island hotspots (Zindler ‘and Hart, 1986; Hofmann, 1988, Weaver, 1991]. The small amount of Sr, Nd, Pb, and He isotopic variation and Sierra Negra's isotopic end-member position among Galapagos volcanoes indicates that the voleano 1s supplied by relatively homogeneous, uncontaminated mantle plume material [White et ul, 1993; Kurz et al, 1993]. Siewa Negra's enriched, restricted range in incompatible and REE values contrasts with the broad distribution of values re- ported from the central Galipagos islands, which are at Uuibuted to substantial variations in the extent of melting and entrainment of asthenosphere [Swanson ef al., 1974, Bow, 1979; Geist et al., 1986; 1988; Geist , 1992; White erat, 1993} Positive values of eng. high La/Sm (2.6-3.0) and LavYh (6.1-7.0), and steep intermediate to heavy REE ratios (Figure 8b and 8c) suzyest that he Sieira Newra source is ight REE depleted and gamet-bearing. Because garnet se- lectively incorporates Yb relative to Sm, small extents of ‘melting of a garnet-hearing source should produce lavas ‘with high Sm/Yb ratios, which is observed among Sierra Negra lavas. In vontuast, lavas from Floreana (and some ‘other Galépagos volcanoes) have flat, unfractionated heavy REE profiles relative to Sierra Negra [Bow and Geist, 1992]. “These observations argue for a shallower, spinel- bearing source for Floreana lavas, Garnet-bearing sources are postulated for the lavas vf Pinta [Cullen and McBirney. 1987), Santa Cruz (Bow, 1979), and the western Galapagos voleanoes [White et al., 1993]. By comparison, most Hawaiian lavas have well-documented garnet-bearing sources [e.g., Chen er al, 1991), REYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY ‘A comparison of the REE profiles from other voleanoes i also enliyineniny (Figure 13). ‘The REE pauerns of Pinta lavas arc very similar to Sicrra Negra lavas, and Pinta lavas are thought fo reflect a garnet Iherzolite source mate rial [Cullen and McRirney, 1987]. In addition, REE pat- tems of Kilauea lavas are similar to those of Sierra Negra: these ate thought be derived from melting of thet zolite, although a mixture of source materials is likely [Leeman et al, 1980]. More complicated models of the Kilanea sourre involving percolation of partial melts (McKenzie and O'Nions. 1991) indicate melting in both the garnet and spinel stability fields, and maximum melt factions are calculated to be about 7%; a similar model should be applicable to Sierra Negra’s parental magmas. In conclusion, Sierra Negra's lavas are constrained to have re- sulted from moderate (5-15 4) extents of partial melting of a ganet-lherzolite source with REE characteristics that are between chondrite and depleted Earth. This conclusion is consistent with those of Geist [1992] and White et al [1993] for other western Galipagos voleanoes, Voleano-Wide Compositional Homogeneity ‘The lanye-seale temporal and spatial restieion in hava ‘composition is Sierra Negra's most outstanding geochemi- cal feature. Itis clear that this homogeneity isnot caused hy any type of density-titering mechanism, becatse the lavas have evolved beyond the minimum density window ‘of eruptibility. For at least the past 6900 years, Sierra Negra has experienced frequent, high-volume cruptions (Reynolds, 1994; Reynolds etal, 1995] which may party explain the compositional uniformity atthe lavas. In con- ‘rast the less active Alcedo volcano has produced rhyolites and intermediate lavas, but Alcedo's eruption rte is at leas an order of magnitude lower [Geist et al., 1994]. Moreover, Sicrra Negra is different from Kilauea, where lavas with MgO less than 9 wt are rare, but more primi tive lavas are common [e.g., Leeman ef. al., 1980: Frey and Rhodes, 1993} ‘The volcano wide compositional homogencity at Sierra [Negra must somehow be related to the processes of magma generation, ascent, and evolution. Among the possible mechanisms for limiting compositional variation are con- tinual mixing of parental and evolved magmas, melting of homogeneous source, and exposure of the magmas t0 & repeatedly constant temperature environment. ‘Magma mixing was probahly not an important process in limiting the compositional variability of the Sierra Negra suite. Magma mixing ina shallow chamber resuicts compositional variability because primitive magmas al- ‘ways hybridize with cooler evolved magmas that reside in the magma chamber (eg. Walker etal, 1919}: nether ot the compositional extremes ever erupts. For example. it has long been suggested that magma mixing in mid- ‘oceanic ridge magia chambers is responsible for the pro- duction of compositionally restricted lavas (e.g, Walker et al. 1979: Sparks etal. 1980: Sinton and Detrick, 1992 Ekewhere in the Gulipagos, Isla Pinas lavas, which are similar in many respects to Sicrra Negra lavas, are thought to have resulted from the offsetting effects of magma mix ing and crystal fractionation [Cullen and MeBimey, 1987]. ‘At Pinta, abundant megacrysts with resorption and reversedREYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY rasta Table 3. Summary of Mineral Chemistry 'SN9I32_SN9195_SN9ISI_SN9IO5 _SN9110_SNOT40_5N9I26 Plagizelase Sioz 56:70 49.49 48S 49.68 5052 S086 47.00 AO} 293 08S 3117 34003051 837 3259 To, ot 007 “00s 00s 0.09 0.06 Feo 079 OS} 068 05867 ae MO 001 007 om: amt tas MgO Ol 0 ule Lis 09 GO 897418177483 4281209 16.56, NnO 013-302-230, 308.38 362203 Ky00St 007006003006 Toul 99.31.78 WAS W.ZD BEVEL SULT An 043007330775 0730 O70 0463 OIS AbD 03390272 022302740284 0290179, Gr 00810005 0002 0.007 .0n7 0008.6 Otvine Si0g 3822 39.06 3594 39.5435 SDD SH ALO: 007 003008 004008. OOS 003 TiO.) 008008 amass OT FeO 41071931 38091684 STB 818 Moo “ao ‘Oa 0st 7a S14) MgO 2382 4106 26244342 26223878 21.87 Go “har “ost 03003003503) sr NO 008 00200302 0s 003 OF 2000000000000 mou Taal 10141014 10.3 1004 1008-1013 1009 fo 08070789 OSs O21 OS O79 Usa Ts 049302110449 0.179 0.269 02810826 Pyronene Sion S05) 5146 S092 SAR ATT 4S AlgO3 308 297 320143552 BAL Tid 13 oe 1OS tos 2462S Feo Tn 338 812 13919281019 Mio 012020 04S “oss oto MgO 1389 18st S67 13931390 .1s x0, fos 71d RT 1711969 19.02 Nao 035026 0270.35 Oak 08 20 00 oma m0 Tow 9347 99.18 98.26 1014 99.26 98.59 Ea oust O4i6s 0459 0s IR 0422 B 0127 0093 01010226 ©0458 0.71 Wo naan nati 0430 0.369 04240407 Spinel * sy 0a 020 033 033 Anos; 115 207 101 rar) Tid, 2260 205 2156 208 RO 878 06 ou oss Mao 067 ‘om 050 0a MO 116 176 100 133 Cro 9 36 ows os x03 071 078 088 087 io” not na 0.00 04 Toit 96.33 9487 9426 03 Imenite * Sion 008 0.6 010 00s Als 021 037 025 016. Tio, 4798 4146 4500 48.10 FO 469 an a6 ais Mio 0.00 00 058, 057 MzO 1.69) 308 237 23 cr03 0.02 ous 0 006 voy 049 092 039 068 Mio 002 003 oot 0.00 Tonto ore sar 97.06 Uy 0734 oat oar 0390 Me 0.266 0282 0304 oz Tim 0900 0003 Oe 0930 “Analyses performed at Washington State University using a Cameca Camebax lection microprobe. Operating conditions: 20 KV, 12 x TLOE-12-9A, fam Beam, ‘TAPLIF. PET spectrometers. * Groundmase mineral,0.75 CPX 07500, 0.5 Gz 0.5 Cpx 901 4 3 Cs Plag 05 01 Figure 11. Sierra Negra’s lavas projected into the sys- tems (top) clinopyroxene-olivine-quartz and (bottom) clinopyroxene-plagioclase-olivine according to the alyo- rithm of Grove et al. [1992}. In the top diagram, the lines are the clinopyroxene olivine (projected from plagioclase) cotectic, and the open circles are the olivine-augite-low-Ca pyroxene reaction points at various pressures (units in Kilobars). The open circles on the botom diagrann are the projection of the plagioclase-clinopyroxene-olivine cotectic at various pressures. Both diagrams are calculated according to the method of Grave et al. [1992] zoning profiles are the principal evidence for magma mix- ing. Further, incompatible trace elements are enriched in the Pinta suite more than is explainable by fractional crys- tallization alone. However, at Sierra Negra, there is litle ‘evidence to indicate an excess of incompatible elements be yond what is predicted by simple fractional crystallization models. Moreover, there is little evidence for textural or compositional disequilibrium within the phenverysts. Consequently, magma mixing probably is not the reason for the restricted compositional variation at Sierra Negra ‘Trace element distributions and isotopic ratios indicate that mantle materials with essentially the same composi- tion must be melting to produce Sierra Negras magmas. Not only has sinilat urantle matetial melted, it has melted REYNOLDS AND GEIST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY 2.85: 2.80: 215 270 Density (gm / ec) 265 02 os 8 os Fe/ (Fe + M9) mot Figure 12. Liquid density versus molar fraction (FelRe+Mg) profiles at | atm for MORB and alkaline suite basalts (data from Stolper and Walker [1980]. All Fe is re- ported as FeO, A window of eruptibility occurs for MORE. favas whe the figuid density is less dense than the crustal density. Sierra Negra lavas (solid circles) have calculated liquid densities (liquidus temperature = 1150 ©C) that plot above and on the evolved side of the MORB density-frac- tionanion curve, tw neatly the same extents. Otherwise, Sierra Negra’s lavas ‘would have variable incompatible element ratios, as is ob- served at many other Galdpagos volcanoes |e.g., Geist, 1997]. Hecanse the extent of melting is controlled by tem- perature and source composition, this ubservation suggests that the temperatures of the homogencous mantle source regions are essentially the same. A cusp in the mantle solidus curve may well provide « mechanism for thermal huffering in the mantle [Wyilée, 1988). with melting oc- curring in a hot rising plume. Concomitant removal of Iieat from the source area, which would tend to hold the po- tential temperature constant, is facilitated by melt extrac- ZA Siorra Negra Bina A Mauna Loa Rock / Chondrite Rare Earth Element Figure 13. Comparison of Sierra Negra, Pinta ‘and MeBirney, 1987, and selected Hawaiian (McKenzie and O'Nions, 1991] rare-earth clement (REE) patterns.REYNOLDS AND G tion. We therefore conclude that compositionally similar parcels of mantle are exposed ro a consistent thermal envi- ronment to produce Sierra Negta’s magmas. ‘Thermal buffering of magmas as they ascend through the lithosphere is another mechanism capable of achieving large-scale compositional monotony, particularly for com- ponents such as MgO that are strongly controlled by the extent of crystallization. If batches of maga ascend wit ‘out reacting with their surroundings or mixing with other ‘magmas, their compositions are controlled by the tempera- ture to Which they cool, although other factors, such as the: ‘mvechunisin of crystal segregation, also play a role. Each batch of magma cools to nearly the same temperatute aud consequently crystallizes to nearly the same extent. We be- lieve that the large influx of magma into the Sierra Negra ‘magmatic plumbing system essentially buffers the erystal- lization environment to a steady temperature (about 1180 ©C according to the models of Grove et al, (19921 and Nielsen [1990]). This mechanism accounts for the rela tively evolved magmas, their monotony, and the absence of features indicative of magma mixing. In summary. Sierra Negra lavas are compositionally monotonous because a houoxeneous source material has ‘experienced a long-term exposure to a well-regulated sub- lithospheric thermal environment. Further compositional restrictions are imposed by a high magma flux which regu- lates the lithospheric temperatures to which the magmas are exposed, it (urn a contol on the amount of crystal tion they experience. Summary Siorra Negra's most distinctive petrologie characteristic i the restricted Fe-rich, transitional chemical composition of its lavas. ‘The lack of chemical variability on a millennia- scale over the five major eruptive periods reflects a contin ‘uous supply of homogeneous magma delivered by a well established plumbing system. The volcano is continually replenished by magmas formed from moderate (5-15 %), ‘but constam, extents of partial meling of a homogeneous gamnet-lherzolite source. Slight chemical variations ae hanced by subsequent crystallization at pressures ranging from 1 to 3 kbar to produce Si-rich and Si-depleted compo- sitions. Ponding of the melt within the lithosphere. at depths of 4 10 11 km provides a staging area where evolu tion occurs by fractionation of augite, olivine, and plaxio- clase, For the most part, the limited range in magma diver- sity appears to be buffered to Fe-tich compositions by a well-tegulated, thermal environment, controled by high ‘magma flux rates. melting of similar mantle materials at equivalent temperatures, and frequent, lauge-volume erup- tions. Until such time as the magma supply rate dimin- ishes as the volcano moves away’ from the focus of the Galapagos hotspot, 1118 predicted that the compositions of Sierra Negra's lavas will remain buffered as Fe-rich, transi tional lavas interpretation of the origin ofthe iron-rich basalts through fractionation at | to 3 Kbar may have implications for the seemingly common association of this type of ‘magmas in other plume provinces (e.g.. Imsland, 1983: Weis eval, 1991), Although primary plume melis may be consistently richer in iron than those of mid-oceani ridges, ST: SIERRA NEGRA PETROLOGY 581 Langmuir et al. {1992] have shown that the effect of the Galépagos plume decrencas the FeO* contents of the parental melts. Thus differences in the primary melt FeO* ‘canmot be a common explanation. Instead, the thicker erust of hotspot provinees may cause most magmas to pond in the lower oceanic crust, cool, and fractionate. This is un like the upper crustal magma chambers beneath typical ‘mid-oceanic ridges. where those magmas usually evolve by the sequential crystallization of olivine, plaxioclase, and augite. Because the hotspot magmas fractionate augite to- gether with plagioclase and olivine, no minimum density window develops and the magmas differentiate to iron-rich ‘compositions before erupting, Acknowledgments. This work was supported by NSF srants EAR $801903 and EAR 9117640 to Dennis Geist. The permission and support of the Galapagos National Park are ‘gratefully appreciated, as is the invaluable logistical backing of the Charles Darwin Research Station, especially Arnoldo Tupiza._ William Melson, Fred Frey, and Wilfred Bryan pro: vided especially constructive and thoughtful reviews that sub- Stantally improved this work. Invaluable isotopic analyses and fleld assistance were provided by Mark Kurz and Dave Kammer. In addition, Roberto Barragan and Kerrie Weppnce provided help in the field. Our work on Sierra Negra is dedi tated (@ Alvany Sache, our Field assistant in 1992, who was Killed in March 1993 by a phreatie eruption in the erator of (Guagua Pienuncha, References Basaltic Volcanism Project, Basaltic Volcanism on the Terrestrial Planets, Pergamon, Tarrytown, N.Y. 1981. Kottinga, Y., and D. F. Weill, Densities of liquid silicate systems calculated from partial molar volumes of oxide components, Am.J.Sci, 269, 169-182, 1970. Bow, C. 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