CHAPTER 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES, DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAE ‘Asothermal Operation (PV = constant) An ideal reversible process at constant temperature. Follows Boyle's law, requiring heat addition during expansion and beat extraction during compression. Impractical due to requirement of very slow piston speeds. . ‘Adiabatic Operation (PVY = constant) An ideal reversible process with no heat addition or extraction, Work done ‘s equivalent to the change of internal energy. Requires imprectically high piston speeds. Polytropic Operation (PY" = constant) ‘A more nearly practical process. The value of index m usualy lies between unity and gamma, Volumetric Efficiency ‘A comparison between the mass of air induced per cycle and the ‘mass of air contained in the stroke volume at standard conditions. Usually used to describe 4-stroke engines and air compressors. The ‘Beneral value is about 90 per cent. Scavenge Efficiency Similar to volumetric efficiency but used to describe 2-stroke engines where some gas may be included with the ai tthe stat of compression. Both efficiency values are reduced by high Fevoluins, high ambient air temperature. Mechanical EMiciency ‘A measure of the mechanical perfection of an engine. Numerically ‘expressed as the ratio between the indicated power and the brake power2 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE Uninow Scavenger Exhaust arone end of the cylind>r top) and scavenge air entry at the boner end of the eylinder (bottom) so that there js a clear flow vreersing tre full eylinder length, e.g. B and W Sulzer RTA (see Fig. 0. Loop Seavenge sere snd seaenge air ety atone end of liner Coro) ease SORD AND and RL This general clasdcation simples oo etter variations ofthe sketch (rg 1) meses were ard sri ae diferent sidex of the cylinder with and without Sted ow loop (ios and ansveseSeavengs) Brake Thermal Efficiency ‘The ratio between the energy developed at the brake (output shal) of the engine and the energy supplied. FIGL COMPRESSION, EXPANSION soiree BASIC PANCIRLES 3 Specific Fuel Consumption Fuel consumption per Unit energy atthe cylinder oF ouput shaft, egfeWh (or kg/kWs), 0-19 kWh would be normal on & shaft nergy basis for a modern engine. Compression Ratio Ratio ofthe volume of air atthe start ofthe compression sroke 19 the volume of ar atthe end of this stroke (inner dead centre). Usual value for a compression ignition (Cl) il engine is about 125 10 135, (Le, clearance volume is 8 percent of stoke volume. Fuel - Air Ratio ‘Theoretical sr is about 145 ke/kg fuel but acual air varies from bout 29-44 kp/kg fuel. The percentage excess air is about 150 86-5 kgicg fuel. Performance Curves Fuel Consumption and EMicleney ‘With main marine engines for merchant ships the optimum esigned maximum thermal efficiency (and minimum specifi fuel consumption) are arranged for full power conditions. Ia naval practice minimum specific fuel consumption is at 8 given percentage of full power for economical speeds but maximum Speeds are occasionally required when the specific fuel ‘consumption is much higher. For IC engines driving electrical igenerators it is often best to arrange peak thermal efficiency at say 70% load maximum asthe engine units are probably averaging this load in operation. “The performance curves given in Fig. 2 are useful in establishing principles. The fuel consumption (kB/s) increases steadily with Toad. Note that halving the load does not halve the fuel consumption as certain essentials consume fuel at no load (eg. heat for cooling water warming through, et). Willan's law is a similar Uluswation in steam engine pracce. Mechanical efficiency steadily increases with load as friction losses are elmost constant. Thermal efficiency (brake for example) {is designed in this ease on the skeich for maximum at full loud. ‘Specific fuel consumption is therefore x tinimurn at 100% power: Fuel consumption on a breke basis increases more rapidly than Indicated specifi fuel consumption as load decreases due wo theREED" MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE, FIG 2 PERFORMANCE CURVES ° oy 100! % erie Forex —— {fuirly constant friction loss. In designing engines for diferent types cof duty the specific consumption minima may be ata different load point, As quoted earlier this could be about 70% for engines driving electrical generators. Heat Batance AA simple heat balance is shown in Fig. 3 ‘There ae some factors not considered in drawing up this balance but as a first analysis this serves to give a useful indication of the ‘heat distribution for the IC engine. The high thermal efficiency and low fuel consumption obtained by diesel engines is superior to any ‘other form of engine in use at present. 1, The use of a waste heat (exhaust gas) boiler gives a plant efficiency gain-as this heat would otherwise be lost up the funnel 2. Exhaust gas driven turbo-blowers contribute to hij BASIC PRINCES : FIG3 SIMPLE HEAT BALANCE _ mechanicat efficiency. As the air supply to the engine ix not supplied with power directly from the engine, ie. chaia driven blowers or direct drive scavenge pumps, then more of the generated [power is available fo effective brake power. Consideration of the above shows two basic flaws in the simplification of a hea balance as given in Fig. 3 () The difference between indicated power and brake power is not only the power absorbed in friction, Indicated power 1s necessarily lost in essential drives for the engine such as ‘camshafts, pumps, etc. which means a reduced potential for brake power. (b) Friction results in heat generation which is dissipated in uid cooling media, i.e. oil and water, and hence the cooliag analysis in a heat balance should include the frictional heat effect as an assessment. 3. Cooling loss includes an element of heat energy due to enerated friction 4. Propellers do not usuatly have propulsive efficiencies exceeding 70% which reduces brake power according t the output power. 5. In the previous remarks no account has been taken of the increasing coramon practice of uiising a recovery syem for beat nortnally lost in coolant systems.‘ [RED'S MOTOR ENOINEERING KNOWLEDGE Load Diagram, Fig. 4 shows 4 typical load diagram for a slow-speed 2-stroke, fengine. It is a graph of brake power and shaft speed. Line 1 {epresents the power developed by the engine on the test bed and uns through the MCR {maximum continuous rating] point. Lines parallel 10°2 represent constant values of Pe». Line 3 shows the maximum shaft speed which should not be exceeded. Line 4 is Important since it represents the maximum continuous power and imep, ta given speed, commensurate with an adequate supply of ‘charge tr for combustion, Line 5 represents the power absorbed by the propeller when the ship is fully loaded with a clean hull. The effet ofa fouled hull isto mave this line to th lft as indicated by Tine Se In general a loaded vessel will operate berween 4 and 5, while a vessel in ballast will operate inthe region tothe right of 5. ‘The aca tothe left of line 4 represents overload operation. ican be seen thatthe fouling ofthe hull, by moving line 5 0 the left, decreases the margin of operation andthe combination of bull fouling and heavy weather can cause the engine to become ‘gverloaded, eventhough engine evolutions are reduced. IDEAL CYCLES “These cycles form the bass fr reference of the actual performance ‘of IC engines. In the cycles considered in detail all curves are frictionless adiabatic, fe. ixeatopic, The usual assumptions are made such as constant specific heats, mass of charge unaffected by any injected fuel, tc. and hence the expression ‘air standard cycle’ may be used. There are two main classifieations for reciprocating IC engines, (a) spark ignition (SD)such as pecol and gas engines tnd, (0) compression ignition.(CT) such as diesel and oil engines, Older forms of reference used terms such as light and heavy oil engines but this is not very explicit or satisfactory. Four main air standard cycles ate first considered followed by a brief ‘consideration of other such cycles less often considered. The cycles Ihave been sketched using the usual method of P-V diagrams. ‘Otto (Constant Volume) Cycle ‘This eycle forms the basis ofall SI and high speed Cl engines. “The four non-flow operations combined into a cycle are shown inFig.5. Basic rancrLes Fig 4 ENGINE LOAD DIAGRAM8 RED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE Air Standard Efficiency = Work Done/eat Supplied __ (Heat Supplied - Heat Rejected) Heat Supplied referring to Fig. 5 de Air Standard Efficiency = | -Heat Rejected / Heat Supplied eMC Cre TMC Ch To, ‘ = 1-ne) using TUT, = TWTs = 1 where ris the compression ratio}. Efficiency of the eycle increases with increase of compression ratio, This i tue of the other four cycles. THEORETICAL (DEAL) CYCLES tl | | i ! , esiemacines ,4 Diesel (Modified Constant Pressure) Cycle ‘This cycle is more applicable to older CI engines wilising ong periods of constant pressure fuel injection period in conjunction ‘with blast injection, Mader engines donot infact aim at hi eyele ‘which in its pure form envisages very high compression ratios. The term semi-diesel was used for hot bulb engines using a Compression ratio Between that of the Otto and the Diesel ideal ‘cles. Early Doxford engines utilised form of this principle with low compression pressures and "hot spo’ pistons, The Diesel eycle is also sketched in Fig. $ and it may be noted that heat is received atconstant pressure and rejected at constant volume. Dual (Mixed) Cycle ‘This eycle is applicable to most modern CI reciprocating IC engines. Such engines employ solid injection with short fuel injection periods fairly syemmenical about the firing dead centr. ‘The term semi-diesel was often used to describe engines working close to this cycle. In modem tubo-charged marine engines the proach is from this cycle almost to the point of the Ono cycle, ice the constant pressure period is very short. This produces very hneavy firing loads but gives the necessary good combustion. Joule (Constant Pressure) Cycle ‘This is the simple gas turbine flow eycle. Designs at present are mainly of the open cycle type although nuclear systems may well [tlie closed cycles, The ideal cycle P-V diagram is shown ia Fig 5. and again as a circuit cycle diagram on Fig. 6. in which intercoolers, heat exchangers and reheajers have been amined for Other Cyctes ‘The efficiency of a thermodynamié cycle is a maximum whea the cycle is made up of reversible operations. The Carnot cycle of fsothermals and adiabatics satisfies this condition and this, ‘maximum efficiency i, referring 10 Fig. 7 given by (Ts - TATs ‘where the Kelvin temperatures ae maximum and siniqwm forthe ycle. The eyele is practically not approachable as the mean ffective pressure is $0 small and compression ratio would be excessive. All the four ideal cycles have efficiencies les than the[REED’S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE FIG6 GAS TURBINE CIRCUIT-CYCLES ae BER), t | | coos cree fontn evens Carnot. The Stirling cycle and the Ericsson cycle have equal efficiency 10 the Carnot. Further research work is being carried out FIG? ‘THEORETICAL (IDEAL) CYCLES amen Lisoraema | u ‘on Stirling cycle engines in an effort to utilise the high thermal ‘efficiency potential. The Camot cycle 1s sketched on both P-V an TSaxes Fig7. ACTUAL CYCLES AND INDICATOR DIAGRAMS. “There is an analogy between the real IC engine cycle and the equivalent ir standard eycle in thatthe PV diagrams ae sir. ‘The differences between thee cycles are now considered and for ‘Mustation purposes the sketches given are of the Oto cycle. The principles are however generaly the same for most IC engine cycles. (a) The actual compression curve (shown full line on Fig. 8) gives a lower terminal pressure and temperature than the ideal ‘adiabatic compression curve (shown dowed). This is caused by heat transfer taking place, variable specifi heats, a redueion in Y due to gas-ir mining, ete. Resuling compression is not adiabatic and the difference in verical height is shown a8 (b) The actual combustion gives a lower temperature and pressure than the ideal dve to dissociation of molecules caused by Figh temperatures, These twofold effects can be regarded asa lost of peak height of x+y and a lowered expansion line below the eu! adiabatic expansion line, The loss can be regarded as clearly fhown between the ideal adiabatic curve from maximum height, (shown chain dated) and the curve tial point x + y lower (Grown dated). (6) In fact the expansion is also not adiabatic. Thre is some heat recovery as molecule re-combination occurs but this is much less than the dissociation combustion heat loss in practical effet. The ‘expansion is also much removed from adiabatic because of heat transfer king place and variation of specific heats for the hot ga products of combustion, The actual expansion line is shown a5 # full line on Fig 8. Tn general the assumptions made atthe beginning ofthe section ‘on ideal cyeles are worth repeating, i.e. isentropic, negligible fuel charge mass, constant specific heat, er. pus the comments above such as for example on distociation. Consideration of these faciors plus practical details such as rounding of corners due vo noo Tstastancous valve operation ete. mean thatthe artual diagramt appears as shown inthe lower sketch of Fig. 8.12 [REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE BASIC PRINCES B FIGs TYPICAL INDICATOR (POWER & DRAW) DIAGRAMS Fics ACTUAL CYCLES (OTTO BASIS)“ REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING ENOWLEDGE ‘Typical Indicator Diagrams The power and draw cards are given on Fig. 9. and should be closely studied. Diagrams given are for compression ignition engines ofthe 2- and 4-sroke types. Pressures and temperatures are shown on the sketches where appropriate. The draw card is an extended scale picture of the combustion process. In early marine practice the indicator card was drawn by hand-hence the name, In modem practice an ‘out of phase" (60 degrees) cam would be provided adjacent othe general Indicator eam. Incorect combustion details show readily on the draw card. There is no real marked difference between the diagrams for 2-sroke or 4-soke. In general the compression point fn the draw card is more difficult to detect on the 2-stoke as the line is ferly continuous, Thre is no induction ~ exhaust loop for the 4-stroke as the spring used in the indicator is too strong to iscrisinate on a pressure diference of saya bar only ‘Compression diagrams are given aso in Fig. 10; with the fuel shutoff expansion and compression should appeer as one line. Errors would be dv 10a time lag inthe drive or «faulty indicame ‘eam setting or relative phase difference between camshaft tad crankshaft. Normally such diagrams would only be necessary om ‘inital engioe vials unless lss of compression or cam shift on the ‘engine was suspected. ig. 11 is given wo show the light spring diagrams for Cl engines of the 2- and 4-suoke types. These diagrams are particulazly useful in modern practice to give information about the exhaust — scavenge (induction) processes as so many eogines use rurbo- ‘charge. The turbo-charge effet is shown in each case and it will ‘observed that there isa general lifting up of the diagram due to he higher pressares OTHER RELATED DETAILS Fuel valve ft garda are very useful to obtain characteristics of injectors when the engine is running, A diagram is given in Fig 12 ‘felating tm a Doxford engine. “Typical diagram faults a normaly best considered isthe sermons is FIG 10 COMPRESSION DIAGRAMS >| A tren meter vas RETARD INDICATOR CAM COMPRESSION LINE Wucoeeter co ereantau tace™ wean ve ADVANCE INOIEATOR CAM. Y\—annessions Live ber \Searansion Une J INCORRECT N ADJUST INDICATOR ORNE Vet om16 REED'S MOTOR ENOINEERINO KNOWLEDGE FIG 1 TYPICAL INDICATOR (LIGHT SPRING) DIAGRAMS A StROKt Bene (C1) wnpuact weer ASIC PRINCIFLES ” FIG 12 FUEL VALVE LIFT DIAGRAMS sentient Er. mete ma RELATED DETAILS asleaeet Cs TYPICAL FAULTS SHOWN Gh ORAM CARD panicular area of study where they ae likely wo occur. However as an introdaction, two typical combustion fuls are ilustted on the draw card of Fig. 12. Turbo-charge effects are also shown in Fig. 11. and compression cant defect in Fig. 10. It should perhaps be stated that before attempting to analyse possible engine fault it is essential to ensure thatthe indicator itself andthe drive are free from any defect, Compression ratio has been discussed previously and with St engines the limits are pre-igntion and detonation, Poking and relttion 19 Octane number are important factors as are antenock Aadiives such a3 lead treaty] Pb (CHU). Factors more specific. to Cl engines are ignition quality, Diesel knock and Cetane number, et. In general these factors plus the important related topics of combustion an the testing and use of lubricants and fels should be particularly well understood and reference should be made othe appropriiecheper in Volume 8 Accuracy of indicator diagram calculations is perhaps worthy of specific comment. The area of the power card is quite small and planimeter erors are therefore significant. Maliplication by high8 [RED'S MOTOR ENOINEERING KNOWLEDGE spring factors makes errors in evaluntion of mip. also significant and cersinly of the order of at east 44%, Further application of ‘engine constants gives indicated power calculations having simular errors, Provided the rather inaccurate nanure ofthe final results is appreciated then the real value of the diagrams can be established From the power card viewpoint comparison is probably the vital factor and indicator diagrams allow this. However modern practice would perhaps favour maximum pressure readings, equal fuel quantities, uniform exhaust temperature, etc. for ylinder power balance and corsionmeter for engine power. The draw card is, particularly useful for compression combustion fault diagnosis, and the light spring diagram for the analysis of senvenge ~ exhaust ‘considerations, ‘Turbo-charging ‘This is considered in detail later inthis book but one or two specific ‘comments relating to timing diagrams can be made now. Exhaust requires wo be much earlier to drop exhaust pressure quickly before air entry and also requires 10 be of a longer period t0 allow discharge of the greater gat mass. Air period is usually slightly ‘greater, This could mean for example in the 2-sroke cycle exhaust from 76 degrees before botiom dead centre to 56 degrees after (onsymmenrical by 20 degrees) and scavenge 40 degres before and afer. For the 4-mroke cycle sir open as much as 75 degrees before top centre for 290 degrees and exhaust open 45 degrees before ‘bouom centre for 280 degrees i. considerable overt, ‘Actual Tising Diagrams Fig. 13 shows examples of acual iming diagrams forfour types of engine. It wil be seen that inthe case of the poppet valve type of ‘engi thatthe exhaust opens at» point significantly ear than on ‘the loop scavenged design. This is because the exhaus valve can be’ ‘contflied, independently ofthe piston, © open and close at the ‘optinium postion. This means that opening can be carried out ‘eater to effectively wae the palse energy of the exhaust gas in the turbo-charger. The closing position can also be chosen to iinimise the lots of charge sir tothe exhaust With the loop scavenged cngine, however, the piton contols the flow of gus ints ‘rexhanst wid the result thatthe opening and closing a thoes BASIC rRNCILIS 19 FIG 139 CRANK TIMING DIAGRAM FOR 2-STROKE LOOP SCAVENGED TURBO-CHARGED ENGINE. EXHAUST & SCAVENGE SYMMETRICAL ABOUT BDC. COMPRESSION,2 REED'S MOTOR ENOINEERING KNOWLEDGE FIG 135 4.STROKE NATURALLY ASPIRATED ENGINE, [NOTE THE DIFFERENCE OF OVERLAP BETWEEN TUREO- (CHARGED & NATURALLY ASPIRATED 4 STROKE ENGINE. INDUCTION. exHAUST. FIG 13¢ 4 STROKE TURBOCHARGED ENGINE2 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDOE mS FIG 134 CRANK TIMING DIAGRAM FOR 2 STROKE TURBO-CHARGED ENGINE. (UNI-FLOW SCAVENGE. EXHAUST CONTROLLED BY EXHAUST V/V IN CYLINDER COVER). schven. BASIC PRINCES 2B bar are sme aot toon cen. To minimise eos Of charge tro exhaust hecho of exaust eng ran ‘eae by the mos effective pon of exnnet pon oer Comparion ofthe crank timing diagram of the vaturaly aspirted ad turbocharge 4s det cope es degre of valve overlap on he Inte, twbo-charging allows more efficient avenging of toooneen sos from the cylinder. The pear ow of oF ough oe oa Charged engine als cols the itera components ted pin a larger mass of charge air into the cylinder prior 10 compression commencing, ‘Types of Indicating Equipment Conventional indicator gear is fairly well known from practice and ‘manufacturers descriptive literature is readily avilable for precise details. For high speed engines an indicator ofthe “Farboro' type is often used. Maximum and compression pressures can be taken readily using a peak pressure indicator a3 sketched in Fig. 14, FIG 14 PRESSURE INDICATOR srr iN), Powe: Fz4 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDOE ‘Counter and adjuster nut are first adjusted so marks on the body coincide at 2 given pressure on the counter with idler whee! femaved. Idler wheel is now replaced. When connected to indicator cock of the engine the adjusting mut is rotated until vibrations of the pointer ae damped out. Spring force and gas pressure are now in equilibrium and pressure can be read off direciy on the indicating counter Driven by toothed wheels) Electron Indicating ‘The Iinations of mechanical indicating equipment have become increanbgly appavent in recent years as engine powers have rise. With oupus reaching $500 hpeylinder inaccuracies of 40% ail teudw large variations in indicated power and therefore artempts 10 trlance the engine power by this method will have only limited access. The inaccuracies stem from frition and inertia of trechanical indicator gear and errors in measuring the height of the power card Modern practice ues eleetonic equipment 10 monitor and arayse the cylinder peak pressures and piston postion and display tomo ¢ VOU {video dapiay uni), The cylinder pressure is measured by 2 tansdcer attached tothe indicator cock. Engine postion is devecied by 2 magnetic pick up in close proximity ra toothed flywheel, The Infomation is fed 0 & microprocessor, wher iti averaged over a number of engine cycles, before calculations a= sade a8 10 indicated power and mean effective presure. Fig 18 ‘The sdvantages ofthis type of equipment i tha: I Itsupplies dynamic operational information. ‘This an ht injection timing can be measured wil he cngine is running, This is a more accurate method of checking injection timing since i allows for crankshaft twist while the ngne i under lon, unlike static methods which donot ‘eLcit compare operating conditions with optimum per "Tis should lead to improvernens in fuel economy and thermal ficiency 3..Can produce a load diagram forthe engine, clealy defining the safe operating zo forthe engine. 4, Can predce trace of fel pressure sein fuel high pressure lines, Valuable information when diagnosing fuel faults ‘Operational experience with this type of equipment has pointed Das PUNCHES FIG 1s ELECTRONIC INDICATOR EQUIPMENT fi J\6 REED'S MOTOR ENOINEERING KNOWLEDGE to unreliability of the pressure transducers when connected GGannuously 10 the engine. To overcome this problem CRinuacturers are experimenting with alternative methods of rarvuning cylinder pressure. One alternative is to permanently ‘ach a strain gauge t0 one cylinder head stud of each cylinder, Since the srain measured is a function of cylinder pressure this Hnformation can be fed to the microprocessor. The increased reliability of this technique will allow the equipment to o¢ permanently installed allowing power readings to be taken at any Tine. This type of equipment can be used to measure many other engine parameters {0 aid diagnosis and accurately monitor performance such as fuel pump pressure ec Fatigue Fatigue isa phenomenon which affects materials that are subjected to cyclic or aliemating stresses. Designers will ensure that the surest ‘of component i below the yield point ofthe material as measured fon the familar sreswstrain graph. However if that component is fubjected to eyelie stresses it may fail et a lower value due (0 fatigue. The most common method of displaying information on fatigue isthe SN curve Fig. 16, This infurmation is obtained from fatige tests usually caried out on a Wobler machine in which a standard specimen is subjected to an alternating stress due 10 rotation. The specimen is tested at a particular stress level until failure occurs. The number of cycles to failure is plowed against stress amplitude on the SN curve. Other specimens are tested st different levels of stress, When sufficient data have been gathered 8 complete curve fora particular material may be presented. wean be seen from Fig. 16. that, in the case of ferrous materials, there isa point known as the “fatigue limit”. Components stressed below this level can withstand a infinite number of stress reversals without failure. Since Suess = load CSA Ik can be seen that reducing the stress level on a component Involves increasing the CSA [cross sectional area) resulting in & ‘weight penalty. la marine practice the weight implications are, in general, secondary 10 reliability and long-life and so components se usually suessed below the fatigue limit. Tis is not the casein, Bases Al Fic 16 WOHLER MACHINE FOR ZERO MEAN STRESS FATIGUE TESTING.REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE for example, aeronautical practice where weight is a major Consideration. In this situation the component designer would Compromise between weight and stress levels and from the S-N Soive would caleulate, with the addition of a safety margin, the frarber of eycles the component could withstand before failure Securs. The working life of 4-stroke medium speed diesel bottom tend bolts are calculated in this way