H.B.S.

Unit 1
Summary Outline
Wan Luan Lee

1.1 Human
System

Skeletal System
The skeletal system includes all of the

bones and joints in the body.

The skeletal system also provides

attachment points for muscles to allow

movements at the joints.

Each bone is a complex living organ that

is made up of many cells, protein fibers,

and minerals.

The skeleton acts as a scaffold by

providing support and protection for the

soft tissues that make up the rest of the
body.

Muscular System
The muscular system is responsible for the

movement of the human body.

Attached to the bones of the skeletal system

are about 700 named muscles that make

up roughly half of a persons body weight.

Each of these muscles is a discrete organ

constructed of skeletal muscle tissue, blood

vessels, tendons, and nerves.

The primary job of muscle is to move the

bones of the skeleton, but muscle also

makes the heart beat and constitutes the
walls of other important hollow organs.

Nervous System
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal

cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that

connect these organs with the rest of the body.

Together, these organs are responsible for the control

of the body and communication among its parts.

The brain and spinal cord form the control center

known as the central nervous system (CNS), where

information is evaluated and decisions made.

The sensory nerves and sense organs of the

peripheral nervous system (PNS) monitor conditions

inside and outside of the body and send this
information to the CNS.

Efferent nerves in the PNS carry signals from the

control center to the muscles, glands, and organs to

regulate their functions.

Endocrine System
The endocrine system includes all of the glands

of the body and the hormones produced by those

glands.

The glands are controlled directly by stimulation

from the nervous system as well as by chemical

receptors in the blood and hormones produced by
other glands.

By regulating the functions of organs in the body,

these glands help to maintain the bodys

homeostasis.

The endocrine system effects cellular metabolism,

reproduction, sexual development, sugar and

mineral homeostasis, heart rate, and digestion.

Cardiovascular (circulator)
System
The cardiovascular system consists of the

heart, blood vessels, and the approximately

5 liters of blood that the blood vessels
transport.

It is responsible for transporting oxygen,

nutrients, hormones, and cellular waste

products throughout the body.

The cardiovascular system is powered by the

bodys hardest-working organ the heart.

Even at rest, the average heart easily pumps

over 5 liters of blood throughout the body

every minute.

Respiratory System
The respiratory system provides oxygen to the bodys

cells while removing carbon dioxide, a waste product

that can be lethal if allowed to accumulate.

There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system:

the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of

respiration.

The airway carries air between the lungs and the

bodys exterior.

The lungs act as the functional units of the

respiratory system by passing oxygen into the body

and carbon dioxide out of the body.

The muscles of respiration work together to act as a

pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs during

breathing.

Digestive System
The digestive system is a group of organs

working together to convert food into energy and

basic nutrients to feed the entire body.

Food passes through a long tube inside the body

known as the alimentary canal.

The alimentary canal is made up of the oral

cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small

intestines, and large intestines.

Accessory organs of the digestive system include

the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver,

gallbladder, and pancreas.

Immune System
The immune system is our bodys defense

system against infectious pathogenic

viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as
parasitic animals and protists.

The immune system works to keep these

harmful agents out of the body and

attacks those that manage to enter.

The key organs of the immune system

include the thymus and bone marrow, as

well as secondary lymphatic tissues
including spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels,
lymph nodes, adenoids, skin, and liver.

Lymphatic System
The immune and lymphatic systems are

two closely related organ systems that

share several organs and physiological
functions.

The lymphatic system is a system of

capillaries, vessels, nodes, ducts, and

other organs that transport a fluid called
lymph from the tissues as it returns to the
bloodstream.

The lymphatic tissue of these organs filters

and cleans the lymph of any debris,

abnormal cells, or pathogens.

Urinary System
The urinary system consists of the kidneys,

ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and

produce urine.

The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra

together form the urinary tract, which acts as a

plumbing system to drain urine from the kidneys,
store it, and then release it during urination.

Besides filtering and eliminating wastes from the

body, the urinary system also maintains the

homeostasis of water, ions, pH, blood pressure,
calcium and red blood cells.

Integumentary System
The integumentary system is an organ system

consisting of the skin, hair, nails, and exocrine

glands.

The skin is only a few millimeters thick yet is by far

the largest organ in the body.

Skin forms the bodys outer covering and forms a

barrier to protect the body from chemicals,

disease, UV light, and physical damage.

Hair and nails extend from the skin to reinforce the

skin and protect it from environmental damage.

The exocrine glands of the integumentary system

produce sweat, oil, and wax to cool, protect, and

moisturize the skins surface.

Reproductive System- Male

The male reproductive system includes the

scrotum, testes, spermatic ducts, sex

glands, and penis.

These organs work together to produce

sperm, the male gamete, and the other

components of semen.

These organs also work together to deliver

semen out of the body and into the vagina

where it can fertilize egg cells to produce
offspring.

Unlike the female reproductive system, most

of the male reproductive system is located

outside of the body.

Reproductive SystemFemale
The female reproductive system

includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes,

uterus, vagina, vulva, mammary
glands and breasts.

These organs are involved in the

production and transportation of

gametes and the production of sex
hormones.

The female reproductive system also

facilitates the fertilization of ova by

sperm and supports the development
of offspring during pregnancy and
infancy.

How Systems Work Together

to Maintain Homeostasis?
Homeostasis is maintained within the body by a complex series of organs and

organ systems.

All the organ systems of the body work together to maintain homeostasis

within the body.

There are ten major organ systems in the human body. Each one plays a vital

role in maintaining equilibrium within the body. All the systems work in
tandem to maintain homeostasis

Examples: The lymphatic system, also known as the immune system, is

responsible for protecting the body from foreign invasion, and The digestive
system is responsible for the digestion and absorption of the nutrients from
the food.

Each system works together in order to maintain homeostasis.

1.1.2 Regional
Directional
Terms- University
Language

Directional Terms
Superior and inferior toward and away from the head, respectively
Anterior and posterior toward the front and back of the body
Medial, lateral, and intermediate toward the midline, away from the

midline, and between a more medial and lateral structure

Proximal and distal closer to and farther from the origin of the body
Superficial and deep toward and away from the body surface

Why Use Directional/

Universal Terms?
In order to describe body parts and positions correctly, the medical

community has developed a set of anatomical positions and directional

terms widely used in the healthcare industry.

The anatomical reference point is a standard body position called the

anatomical position.

When people use universal terms then anyone from any backgrounds

will know what you are referring to. There is no confusion and it will
take less time to explain if they already know.

The directional terms can point out the specific positions in the

human body.

1.2 Human
Tissues

What Is
Tissues?

An integrated
ground of cells with
a common
structure and
function.

Four Common Tissues

Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Muscle Tissue

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue consists of two main

types of cells: neurons and

neuroglia.

Neurons are the basic unit of

nervous tissue.

A neuron consists of two major

parts: cell body and nerve processes.

Functions of the nervous system are

sensory input, integration, control of

muscles and glands, homeostasis,
and mental activity.

Muscle Tissue
Muscles tissues consist of 100,000s of

muscle cells that are also known as

"muscle fibres".

These cells act together to perform the

functions of the specific muscle of

which they are a part.

Adults have a certain number of muscle

cells. Through exercise, such as weight

lifting, the cells enlarge but the overall
number of cells does not increase.

Function of muscle tissue: movement,

maintenance of posture, joint

stabilization, and heat generation.

Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is composed primarily

of two elements: cells and a matrix.

The matrix consists of fibers and

ground substance.

The function of connective tissue is

either to join bodily structures like

bones and muscles to one another or
hold tissues like muscles, tendons, or
even organs in their proper place in the
body.

Examples: bones and red and white

blood cells

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial cells are bound together

in sheets of tissue called epithelia.

Occurring in sheets of tightly

packed cells

It is made up of cells closely

packed and ranged in one or more

layers.

Functions of epithelial tissue:

protection, sensation, absorption,

excretion, diffusion, cleaning, and
reduces friction.

1.2.2 Focus on
Skeletal System

20 Major/Key Bones
Skull

Carpals

Mandible

Metacarpals

Sternum

Pelvic Girdle

Radius

Femur

Phalanges
Rib Cage
Tibia
Fibula
Vertebral Column (cervical, thoracic,

lumbar, sacral and coccyx)

Scapula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Patella
Clavicle
Humerus
Ulna

Two Types of Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton

Axial Skeleton

Parts of The Vertebral

Column
It is also known as the backbone

or spine.

It is a bony skeletal structure

found in vertebrates.

It can break into five parts.

Cervical (C1-C7)
Thoracic (T1-T12)
Lumbar (L1-L2)
Sacral
Coccyx

Sternum Parts
The sternum, or breastbone, is a flat

bone at the front center of the chest.

The sternum develops as three distinct

parts: the manubrium, the body of the

sternum, and the xiphoid process.

Manubrium
The widest part of the sternum.
Main Body
The longest part of the sternum.
Xiphoid Process
Smallest part of the sternum.

Bones Different between

Male and Females
We can determine the sex by

observing and measuring the

pelvis, skull, femur, tibia, and
humerus.

The only difference between a male

and female human skeleton model

is that the female has a more
rounded pelvis.

The male pelvic inlet is narrower

than the female pelvic inlet and is

more heart shaped, whereas the
female pelvic inlet is more circular
and wider.

Forensic Anthropology
Forensic anthropology is the branch of physical anthropology in which

anthropological data, criterial, and techniques are used to determine the sex,
age, genetic population, or parentage of skeletal or biological materials in
questions of civil or criminal law.

The most valuable bones in sex determination are the pelvis and the skull.
The femur, tibia, and the humerus provide unique measurements that often

assist in determining sex, race, height, and age.

1.3 Identity DNA

What Is
DNA?
DNA is a doublestranded, helical
nucleic acid molecule
capable of replicating
and determining the
inherited structure of a
cells proteins.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

What is the structure of DNA?
DNA has a doubled helix that is formed by hydrogen bonds between

polynucleotides.

What are the functions of DNA?

Stores an organisms genetic material in the nuclei, replicates itself when

dividing, and provides code or template for the particular sequencing of

amino acids that bond together and make a protein.

How does DNA differ from person to person?

Each person has different sequence of bases.
What role does DNA play in our identity?
each person has there own unique sequence of bases which distinguishes

the shape or proteins which determine their function giving each one of us
our own unique look.

DNA Base Pairs

The rules of base pairing (or nucleotide

pairing) are:
A with T: the purine adenine (A) always
pairs with the pyrimidine thymine (T)
C with G: the pyrimidine cytosine (C)
always pairs with the purine guanine (G)

The rules of base pairing tell us that if we

can "read" the sequence of nucleotides on

one strand of DNA, we can immediately
deduce the complementary sequence on
the other strand.

What Is Gel
Electrophor
esis?
Gel electrophoresis is
the separation of
nucleic acids or
proteins, on the basis of
their size and electrical
charge, by measuring
their rate of movement
through an electrical
field in a gel.

Restriction Enzyme
Restriction enzyme, also called restriction

endonuclease, a protein produced by

bacteria that cleaves DNA at specific sites
along the molecule.

Each restriction enzyme recognizes a short,

specific sequence of nucleotide bases.

When digesting DNA with only one enzyme,

there is a possibility that two unrelated

individuals may show similarities in their
DNA fingerprint gel.

Using more restriction enzymes decreases

the statistical probability of this occurring.

Restriction Fragment
Length Polymorphism
(RFLP)
DNAs from different individuals rarely have the same array of restriction sites
and distance between these sites.

This differences are referred to as Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism

(RFLP). Such differences may arise through mutations. By cutting a DNA

sample with a particular restriction enzyme, DNA fragments are of different
length are obtained. Those unique pattern of band can be use in forensic
science during criminal investigation.

The RFLP probes are frequently used in genome mapping and in variation

analysis (genotyping, forensics, paternity tests, hereditary disease

diagnostics, etc.).

DNA fingerprinting
A fingerprinting, also called DNA

typing, DNA profiling, genetic

fingerprinting, genotyping, or
identity testing.

The procedure for creating a DNA

fingerprint consists of first

obtaining a sample of cells, such
as skin, hair, or blood cells, which
contain DNA.

Scientists isolate and identify

variable elements within the basepair sequence of DNA.

Biometrics
Biometrics is the measurement and analysis of unique

physical or behavioral characteristics (as fingerprint or

voice patterns) especially as a means of verifying
personal identity.

A biometrics system can authenticate that you are who

or identify you by comparing your information to that in

a file.

How can the field of biometrics be used to verify and

protect identity?

Biometric identifiers are unique to each

individual. Since every person has their own

biometric profile that cannot be exactly duplicated
it`s the perfect form of identity verification.

Examples: DNA, fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice

patterns, facial patterns and hand measurements

Resources
http://www.innerbody.com /
http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/muscular-system
http://

www.dummies.com/how-to/content/what-organs-are-part-of-the-lymphatic-system.htm
l
http://study.com/academy/lesson/connective-tissue-types-functions-disorders.html
http://www.wisegeekhealth.com/what-is-the-main-function-of-connective-tissue.htm
http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/mammal/epithelial.htm
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/BasePairing.html
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/499775/restriction-enzyme
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/probe/docs/techrflp /
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/167155/DNA-fingerprinting