8.

2
Since climate is so important, climatologists want to
understand what influences climate and how climate
changes. They have found evidence that Earths climate
has changed dramatically over long periods of time.

Ice Ages
An ice age is any period when large parts of Earths surface was
covered with ice. There is evidence that there have been several
ice ages over Earths history. Climate changes significantly during
an ice age. For example, during the last ice age, the average global
temperature was almost 10 C lower than it is today. Each ice age
has been followed by a warmer period.

dig deeper

During the last ice age, ice sheets about 3 km thick covered
much of Canada. As temperatures gradually became warmer, the
ice melted, and climates around the world changed slowly over
time. These changes are so slow that you would not notice them
during your lifetime. The last ice age was about 20000 years ago.
Figure 1 shows how Earths climate has cycled between ice ages
and warmer periods over the past 400000 years.

Reading Tip
Finding the Main Idea
The first place to look
for the main idea is the
first two sentences of a
paragraph. Sometimes
the first sentence gives
an introduction to the
topic, so check the
second sentence to see
if it states the main idea.

Temperature
(C above/below current)

ice age: any time when

most of Earths surface
was covered with ice

Change in Average Global Temperature over Time

4 C
0 C
4 C
8 C
400 000

300 000

200 000

100 000

Years before present

Figure 1 This graph shows changes in Earths average temperature over the
past 400 000 years.

296 Chapter 8 Earths Climate System

NEL

Gathering Evidence from the Past

How can scientists determine what the climate was like thousands of
years ago? People did not keep records of temperature, rainfall, and
other climate data until about 200 years ago. Climatologists study
past climate conditions using evidence gathered from proxy records.
A proxy record is any natural material, such as rocks and ice,
that preserves clues of climate conditions in the distant past. These
include ice cores, tree rings, coral reefs, and fossils. In any material
used as a proxy record, changes take place and are preserved that
relate to climate conditions.

proxy record: stores

of information found in
natural materials that give
clues to what the climate
was like in the past

The data obtained from proxy records are indirect records of

climate. This means that they do not show actual measurements of
conditions, such as temperature or rainfall.

Evidence in Ice Cores

Regions at Earths poles, such as Greenland and Antarctica, have
glaciers and ice fields that are many kilometres thick. This ice has
not melted in thousands of years. As the ice formed, small amounts
of air became trapped in bubbles that remain in the ice today.
These bubbles can tell us about what the air on Earth was like
when the ice first formed. To collect this proxy data, scientists drill
deep into the ice and remove long cylinders of ice called ice cores
(Figure 2). The ice and the air bubbles at the bottom of an ice core
can be up to 800000 years old.
Once climatologists have collected them, they cut the ice cores
into very thin slices. Then, they determine the amount of specific
gases in the air trapped in the bubbles.

Figure 2 This scientist

has removed an ice core
from the drilling tube.

By analyzing air bubbles in many different ice cores, climatologists

have concluded that the concentrations of some gases in Earths
air have changed over time. Figure 3 shows how carbon dioxide
concentrations have changed during the past 400000 years.

Carbon dioxide
(ppmv)

Carbon Dioxide Concentration in Earth's Air

350
300
250
200
400 000

300 000

200 000

100 000

Years before present

Figure 3 Much of the data for this graph came from Antarctic ice cores.

NEL

8.2 Evidence of Past Climate Change 297

Evidence in Tree Rings and Coral Reefs

In many regions on Earth, growing trees form one growth ring per
year. Wider rings form in years when there is more rain and warmer
temperatures (Figure 4). Trees can live for many hundreds of years,
so growth rings can provide proxy records of past climate conditions.

Figure 4 The narrow

rings in the tree trunk
represent poor growing
years. Wider rings are
formed in years with good
growing conditions.

Coral are small organisms that live in large groups in the ocean,
forming coral reefs. A new layer of coral is added to the reef
every year. Coral grow more slowly and form a thinner layer on
a reef when the ocean temperature is cooler, compared to when
conditions are warmer. The thickness of the coral layers in a reef,
therefore, provides clues about the ocean temperature over time.

Evidence in Rocks, Sediments, and Caves

Layers of soil build up on Earths surface over time and may
eventually form rock. As these layers form, they may trap clues about
climate. For example, soil often traps pollen from the plants that
grow in it. This pollen can be preserved in the soil and rock layers for
thousands of years. The trapped pollen grains can be used to identify
what plants grew in the past. Since some plants grow better in warm
conditions and others grow better in cooler conditions, the types of
pollen in the layers are a proxy record of past climate conditions.
Sediment is matter that settles in water. In the ocean, sediment
slowly forms layers of rock on the ocean floor. Scientists drill cores
of sediment similar to ice cores. From the cores, scientists have
identified fossils of marine organisms that once lived in certain parts
of the ocean. The fossils were found in parts of the ocean that are
now much cooler than would be suitable for those organisms. This
indicates that the climate must have been warmer in those areas
when the organisms were alive.
Figure 5 The formations
in this cave grow faster
when the climate is rainy.

In caves, rock formations grow from minerals present in dripping

water. The minerals harden into rock. Scientists measure and date
the layers from these rocks. By studying the layers, scientists can
figure out how much precipitation fell in the past (Figure 5).

What Proxy Records Indicate

Scientists graph and interpret information about Earths climate
from proxy records. From these data, scientists can see trends
and patterns in Earths climate. Today, proxy records indicate that
average global temperatures are increasing.

298 Chapter 8 Earths Climate System

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TRY This Looking Back in Time

6.A., 6.C., 3.B.

Skills: Performing, Analyzing, Communicating

Not all atoms of oxygen are the same. Table 1 shows

data from a coral reef over the years 1960 to 1982.
The row Oxygen ratio change shows differences in
the ratio of two types of oxygen atoms found in the
reef. The row Ocean surface temperature change
shows changes in the water surrounding the reef.
Scientists think that the ocean temperature affects
the ratio of these types of oxygen atoms in coral
reefs. In this activity, you will analyze these data to
see if they support this hypothesis.

1. Use the data in Table 1 to plot two graphs.

Plot Year against Oxygen ratio change in the
first graph. Plot Year against Ocean surface
temperature change in the second graph.
A. Compare the two graphs. What pattern do you
notice between changes in the oxygen ratios and
the water temperature? T/I
B. Does your answer in part A support the hypothesis
that changes in oxygen ratio are related to
changes in ocean temperature? Explain. T/I C

Equipment and Materials: graphing handout;

coloured pencils

Table 1 Changes in Oxygen Ratio and Ocean Temperature in a Coral Reef over Time

Year

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

Oxygen ratio
change

+0.3

+0.3

+0.3

+0.4

+0.4

+0.5

0.1

0.3

+0.2

0.1

Ocean surface
temperature
change

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.4

1.8

1.6

+0.8

+2.0

+1.6

+0.1

0.6

8.2 Wrap Up
Climate has continued to change from ice ages to warmer periods
throughout Earths history.
Proxy records are indirect records of past climates found in natural materials.
Proxy records of Earths past climate can be found in ice cores, tree rings,
layers of coral, soil and rock layers, ocean sediment, and caves.

Check Your Learning

1. What do the ice ages tell us about how Earths
climate has changed in the past? K/u
2. Why do scientists study proxy records, such as
tree rings, ice cores, and coral reefs? K/u
3. Suppose a scientist in Ontario found fossil pollen
grains of a lily plant that grows only in tropical
regions. What climate information could the
scientist determine from this proxy record? K/u
4. How can studying fossils, such as the one shown
in Figure 6, help scientists learn about Earths
past climate? T/I

NEL

Figure 6 A fossil of a fern leaf. Ferns grow in

warm, moist environments.

8.2 Evidence of Past Climate Change 299