OptiX Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction
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Understanding the IP address knowledge are the basics for the further IP address
configuration or planning in OptiX OSN 1500/3500/7500/7500II Hybrid MSTP
products.
MPLS basics and MPLS LSP are the emphasis of the course, it is the generic basics
of OptiX OSN 1500/3500/7500/7500II Hybrid MSTP products application and
configuration.
Understanding the PWE3 position in the OptiX Hybrid MSTP network and its
basic concepts.

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The physical layer contains the protocols relating to the physical medium on
which TCP/IP will be communicating.
Electrical/optical protocols describe signal characteristics such as voltage or

photonic levels, bit timing, encoding, and signal shape.
Mechanical protocols are specifications such as the dimensions of a

connector or the metallic makeup of a wire.
Functional protocols describe what something does.
Procedural protocols describe how something is done. For example, a

binary 1 is represented on an EIA-232-D lead as a voltage more negative
than 3 volts.
The data link layer contains the protocols that control the physical layer: how the
medium is accessed and shared, how devices on the medium are identified, and
how data is framed before being transmitted on the medium. Examples of data
link protocols are IEEE 802.3/Ethernet, IEEE 802.5/Token Ring, and FDDI.
The network layer, corresponding to the OSI network layer, is primarily
responsible for enabling the routing of data across logical internetwork paths, by
defining a packet format and an addressing format.
The transport layer, corresponding to the OSI transport layer, specifies the
protocols that control the network layer, much as the data link layer controls the
physical layer. Both the transport and data link layers can define such mechanisms
as flow and error control. The difference is that while data link protocols control
traffic on the data link, the physical medium connecting two devices, the
transport layer controls traffic on the logical link, the end-to-end connection of
two devices whose logical connection traverses a series of data links.
The application layer corresponds to the OSI session, presentation, and
application layers. The most common services of the application layer provide the
interfaces by which user applications access the network.

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The physical layer contains the protocols relating to the physical medium on
which TCP/IP will be communicating.
The data link layer contains the protocols that control the physical layer: how the
medium is accessed and shared, how devices on the medium are identified, and
how data is framed before being transmitted on the medium. Examples of data
link protocols are IEEE 802.3/Ethernet, PPP, HDLC, FR etc.
The network layer is primarily responsible for enabling the routing of data across
logical internet paths, by defining a packet format and an addressing format.
Examples of network layer protocols are IP, ICMP, ARP etc.
The transport layer controls traffic on the logical link, the end-to-end connection
of two devices whose logical connection traverses a series of data links. Examples
of transport layer protocols are TCP/UDP.
The most common services of the application layer provide the interfaces by
which user applications access the network. Examples of transport layer
protocols are HTTP, Telnet, FTP, Ping etc.

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Version: Identifies the I P version to which the packet belongs. This four-bit field
is usually set to binary 0100; version 4 (IPv4) is in current, common use. A newer
version of the protocol, is version 6 (IPv6).
Header Length: tells the length of the IP header.
Type of Service (TOS): generally used for Qos. This field actually can be broken
down into two subfields: Precedence and TOS.
Total Length: specifying the total length of the packet, including the header, in
octets.
Identifier/ Flags/ Fragment Offset: these three fields are used for fragmentation of
a packet.
Time to Live (TTL): is set with a certain number when the packet is first generated.
As the packet is passed from router to router, each router will decrement this
number.
Protocol: gives the "address," or protocol number, of the host-to-host or transport

layer protocol for which the information in the packet is destined.
Header Checksum: is the error correction field for the IP-header.
Source and Destination Addresses: are the originator of the packet and the
destination of the packet.
Options: is a variable-length field, and is optional.
Padding: ensures that the header ends on a 32-bit boundary by adding zeros after
the option
field until
a multiple of
is reached.
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IP addresses are 32 bits long; like all network-level addresses, they have a
network portion and a host portion. The network portion uniquely identifies the
network and is common to all devices attached to the network. The host portion
uniquely identifies a particular device attached to the network.
The hierarchical design of IP address reduces the size of route entry and it is very
flexible.
The binary to decimal calculation is as the example,
the binary 11101001 is represented by decimal format:

1*128+1*64+1*32+0*16+1*8+0*4+0*1+1*1=233.

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Class A IP addresses are for big internetworks. The first octet is the network
portion, and the last three octets are the host portion. Only 256 numbers are
available in the eight-bit network part, but 224 or 16,777,216 numbers are
available in the host part of each of those network addresses.
Class B addresses are for medium-size internetworks. The first two octets are the
network portion , and the last two octets are the host portion. There are 216 or
65,536 available numbers in the network part and an equal number in the host
part.
Class C addresses are just the opposite of class A. The first three octets are the
network portion, and the last octet is the host.
Class D addresses are reserved for multicast. Class E addresses are reserved for
future use.
The most commonly used addresses are from A, B and C. The IP addresses are
allocated by International Network Information Center.

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Private IP addresses are usually used by enterprise internal network.
Inter-NIC reserved the following IP addresses for private use:
Class A: 10.0.0.0~10.255.255.255
Class B: 172.16.0.0~ 172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0~192.168.255.255
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Private IP addresses can not be used to access Internet, because public network
has no routes for private IP addresses. NAT (Network Address Translation) can be
used to translate private addresses into public addresses

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The address for an entire data link, a non-host-specific network address is

represented by the network portion of an IP address, with all host bits set to zero.
Each device or interface will be assigned a unique, host-specific address such as

192.168.1.1. The device obviously needs to know its own address, but it also
needs to be able to determine the network to which it belongs, in this case,
192.168.1.0.
This task is accomplished by means of an address mask. The address mask is a 32bit string, one bit for each bit of the IP address. As a 32-bit string, the mask can
be represented in dotted-decimal format just like an IP address.

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A single class A, B, or C address can be used only on a single data link. To build an
internetwork, separate addresses must be used for each data link so that those
networks are uniquely identifiable. If a separate class A, B, or C address were
assigned to each data link, less than 17 million data links could be addressed
before all IP addresses were depleted. This approach is obviously impractical, as
is the fact that to make full use of the host address space in the previous example,
more than 65,000 devices would have to reside on data link 172.16.0.0.
The only way to make class A, B, or C addresses practical is by dividing each

major address, such as 172.16.0.0, into sub-network addresses.
The IP address now has three parts: the network part, the subnet part, and the
host part. The address mask is now a subnet mask, or a mask that is longer than
the standard address mask.
For example, the first three octets of the address of 192.168.1.17 will always be
192.168.1, but the fourth octet whose first four bits are now subnet bits instead
of host bits. The range is 0 to 15. it has 16 subnets and 14 host IP addresses in
each subnet.

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For point to point link, two IP addresses is enough, so the mask length is 30:
255.255.255.252
For broadcast link, the mask length is decided by host number of broadcast
network: if there are 60 hosts, mask length should be 26. if there are 120 hosts,
mask length should be 25.
For device identifier, for example, OSPF and BGP Router ID, loopback address is
used directly. The mast length for loopback address is 32, which is the same to
MPLS LSR ID.

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The Internet based on the IP technology prevails in the middle 1990s. The IP
technology, however, performs poorly in forwarding packets because of the
inevitable software dependence on searching routes through the longest match
algorithm. As a result, the forwarding capability of IP technology becomes a
bottleneck to the network development.

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To improve the forwarding capability, the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

technology comes out. It uses labels (namely, cells) of fixed length and maintains a
label table that is much smaller than a routing table. Therefore, compared with
the IP technology, the ATM technology performs much better in forwarding
packets. The ATM technology, however, is difficult to popularize because of its
complex protocol and high cost in deployment.

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The traditional IP technology is simple and costs little in deployment.

People then are eager to making a technical breakthrough to combine
advantages of IP and ATM technologies. Thus, the MPLS technology
comes forth.
Initially, MPLS emerges to increase the forwarding rate of routers.

Compared with IP routing, when forwarding packets, MPLS analyzes the
IP packet header only on the network edge but not at each hop. In this
way, the time to process packets is shortened.

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MPLS is the abbreviation of Multi-Protocol Label Switching. MP means it support

more than one protocol, such as IP, IPv6, IPX, SNA, etc. as we know, in IP
network, the routers forwarding packets by using packets destination IP address
and looking for the IP routing table to get the next hop, while in MPLS network,
we using label to forward the packets, named label switching. MPLS uses a short
label of fixed length to encapsulate packets. MPLS use FEC (Forwarding
Equivalent Class) to classify the forwarding packets. The packets of the same FEC
are treated the same in the MPLS network. later we will introduce the FEC.
By adding a label to the packet at the entrance of MPLS network, the packet is
forwarded by label switching, some thing like ATM Switching. And when leaving
the MPLS network, the label added is removed and the label packet is restored to
original protocol packet.
For more details about MPLS, refer to RFC 3031 (Multi-protocol Label Switching
Architecture).

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LSR is the basic component of the MPLS network. The network consisting of LSRs,
is called an MPLS domain. The LSR which located at the edge of the domain and
having a neighbor which not running MPLS is an edge LSR, also called Labeled
Edge Router (LER).
The LSR located inside the domain is called a core LSR. The core LSR can be either
a router that supports MPLS or an ATM-LSR upgraded from an ATM switch. MPLS
runs between LSRs in the domain, and IP runs between an LER and an router
outside the domain.
The LSRs along which labeled packets are transmitted form an LSP.

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Label Switched Path
The path that IP packets pass through on an MPLS network is called the
LSP. An LSP is a unidirectional path in the same direction with the data
flow.
The beginning node of an LSP is called the ingress. The end node of the
LSP is called the egress. The nodes between both ends along the LSP are
transits. An LSP may have none, one, or several transit(s), but only one
ingress and one egress.
Ingress
Indicates the middle node of an LSP. Multiple transits may exist on an LSP.
The transit mainly searches in the label forwarding table. Then, it swaps
the labels to complete the forwarding of MPLS packets.
Egress
The ingress pushes a new label to the packet and encapsulates the IP
packet as an MPLS packet to forward.
Transit
Indicates the beginning of an LSP. Only one ingress exists on an LSP.
Indicates the end node of an LSP, only one egress exists on an LSP.
The egress mainly pops labels out of MPLS packets and forwards the
packets that restore the original encapsulation.
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The ingress
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LSRs
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transit serves
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A label is a short identifier of fixed length with only local significance. It is used to
uniquely identify an FEC to which a packet belongs. In some cases like load
balancing, different labels are assigned to an FEC, but one label only represents
one FEC on a router. The label is a connection identifier, similar to the ATM
VPI/VCI and the Frame Relay DLCI.
A label is 4 bytes long. The above figure shows the encapsulation structure of the
label.
A label contains the following fields:
Label: indicates the value field of a label. The length is 20 bits. Label
space means the range of label values. Generally, the label space is
classified as follows:
015: indicates special labels.

161023: indicates the label space shared by static LSPs and CRLSPs.
1024 or above: indicates the label space for dynamic signaling
protocols, such as LDP, RSVP-TE, and MP-BGP.
Exp: indicates the bits used for extension. The length is 3 bits. Generally,
this field is used for the Class of Service (CoS) that serves similarly to
Ethernet 802.1p.
S: identifies the bottom of a label stack. The length is 1 bit. MPLS
supports multiple labels, namely, the label nesting. When the S field is 1,
it means that the label is at the bottom of the label stack.
TTL: indicates
Time To of
Live.
The length
8 bits. ThisWithout
field is the same to
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Labels are encapsulated between the data link layer and the network layer. Thus,
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A label stack is a set of arranged labels. An MPLS packet carries multiple

labels at the same time. The label next to the Layer 2 header is called the
top label or the outer label. The label next to the Layer 3 header is called
the bottom label or inner label. Theoretically, MPLS labels can be nested
limitlessly.
The label stack organizes labels according to the rule of Last-in, First-Out
and processes labels from the top of the stack.

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The Forwarding Equivalence Class (FEC) is a set of data flows with the same
attributes. These data flows are processed in the same way by LSRs during
transmission.
FECs are identified by the address, service type, and QoS. For example, during IP
forwarding through the longest match algorithm, packets with the same
destination belong to an FEC.

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Push
When an IP packet enters an MPLS domain, the ingress adds a new label to
the packet between the Layer 2 header and the IP header; or, a transit
adds a new label to the top of the label stack, namely, the label nesting.
Swap
Pop
When a packet is transferred within an MPLS domain, a label is deleted

from the top of the label stack and a new label of the next hop is added
according to the label forwarding table.
When a packet leaves an MPLS domain, the label is popped out of the
MPLS packet; or, the top label of the label stack is popped out at the
penultimate hop on an MPLS network to decrease the labels in the stack.
Penultimate Hop Popping
In fact, the label is useless at the last hop of an MPLS domain. In this case,
the feature of penultimate hop popping (PHP) is applied. On the
penultimate node, the label is popped out of the packet to reduce the size
of the packet that is forwarded to the last hop. Then, the last hop directly
forwards the IP packet or the VPN packet.

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The availability of a static LSP makes sense only for the local node that cannot
sense the entire LSP.
On the ingress: A static LSP is set up, and the outgoing interface of the
ingress is enabled with MPLS. If the route is reachable, the static LSP is Up
regardless of the existence of the transit or egress. A reachable route
means that a route entry exists whose destination address and the next
hop address match those in the local routing table.
On the transit: A static LSP is set up, and the incoming and outgoing
interfaces of the transit are enabled with MPLS. If the incoming and
outgoing interfaces are Up on the physical layer and protocol layer, the
static LSP is Up, regardless the existence of the ingress, egress, or other
transits.
On the egress: A static LSP is configured, the incoming interface of the
egress is enabled with MPLS. If the incoming interface is Up on the physical
layer and protocol layer, the static LSP is Up, regardless the existence of
the ingress or the transit.
A static LSP is set up without label distribution protocols or exchanging control

packets. Thus, the static LSP costs little and it is applicable to small-scale
networks with simple and stable topology. The static LSP cannot vary with the
network topology dynamically. The administrator needs to configure the static
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Dynamic LSPs are set up automatically by the signaling protocol. The following
label distribution protocols are applicable to an MPLS network.
LDP
The Label Distribution Protocol (LDP) is specially defined for distributing

labels. When LDP sets up an LSP in hop-by-hop mode, LDP identifies the
next hop along the LSP according to the routing and forwarding table on
each LSR. Information contained in the routing and forwarding table is
collected by IGP and BGP. LDP indirectly uses routing information rather
than is directly associated with the routing protocols.
RSVP-TE
The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) is designed for the integrated

service module and is used to reserve resources on nodes along a path.
RSVP works on the transport layer and does transmit application data.
RSVP is a network control protocol, similar to the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP).
RSVP is extended to support the setting up of a Constraint-based Routed
LSP (CR-LSP). The extended RSVP is called the RSVP-TE signaling protocol.
It is used to set up TE tunnels.

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An MPLS tunnel is shown above. The MPLS label 100, 200 and 300 are assigned
by the operator.

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An MPLS label has a TTL field in the length of 8 bits. The TTL field is the same as
that in an IP packet header. MPLS processes the TTL to prevent loops and
implement traceroute.
RFC 3443 defines two modes in which MPLS processes the TTL, that is, uniform
mode and pipe mode. By default, MPLS processes the TTL in Pipe mode.
Uniform Mode
When IP packets enter an MPLS network, on the ingress, the IP TTL

decreases by one and is mapped to an MPLS TTL field. Then, the TTL field
in MPLS packets is processed in the standard mode. As shown in the figure,
on the egress, the MPLS TTL decreases by one and is mapped to the IP TTL
field.

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Pipe Mode
As shown in the figure, on the ingress, the IP TTL decreases by one and the
MPLS TTL is constant. Then, MPLS TTL is processed in the standard mode.
On the egress, IP TTL decreases by one. That is, when IP packets enter an
MPLS network, the IP TTL decreases by one only on the ingress and egress.

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The OptiX Hybrid MSTP products support the MPLS tunnels over the following
Layer 2 links:
FE
GE
10GE
Note: Currently OptiX Hybrid MSTP products only support static Tunnel (LSP).

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Penultimate Hop Popping (PHP) is a function performed by certain routers in

an MPLS enabled network. It refers to the process whereby the outermost label of
an MPLS tagged packet is removed by a Label Switch Router (LSR) before the
packet is passed to an adjacent Label Edge Router(LER).
Equal Cost Multi Path (ECMP) is a routing strategy where next-hop packet
forwarding to a single destination can occur over multiple "best paths" which tie
for top place in routing metric calculations. It potentially offers substantial
increases in bandwidth by load-balancing traffic over multiple paths; however,
there can be significant problems in its deployment in practice.

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MPLS-TP started as Transport-MPLS at the ITU-T (see G.81xx series of ITU-T

Recommendations), which was renamed to MPLS-TP based on the agreement that
was reached between the ITU-T and the IETF to produce a converged set of
standards for MPLS-TP.
Transport-MPLS (T-MPLS) was a standardization effort that was undertaken by

the ITU-T. ITU-T approved the first version of its packet transport
recommendation called Transport MPLS (T-MPLS) Architecture in 2006. By 2008,
the technology had reached the stage where some vendors started supporting TMPLS in their optical transport products. At the same time, the IETF was working
on a new mechanism called Pseudo Wire Emulation Edge-to-Edge (PWE3) that
emulates the essential attributes of a service such as ATM, TDM, Frame Relay or
Ethernet over a Packet Switched Network (PSN), which can be an MPLS network
[RFC3916].
A Joint Working Group (JWT) was formed between the IETF and the ITU-T to
achieve mutual alignment of requirements and protocols. On the basis of the JWT
activity, it was agreed that future standardization work will focus on defining
MPLS-Transport Profile (MPLS-TP) within the IETF using the same functional
requirements that drove the development of T-MPLS.

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For the MPLS-TP, the function of Data Plane as the IP/MPLS can be static
configured by NMS, including the OAM.
IP/MPLS:
OSPF protocal complete the routing table creation.
LDP (Label Distribution Protocol):is a protocol in which routers capable

of Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) exchange label mapping
information. LDP can be used to distribute the inner label (VC/VPN/service
label) and outer label (path label) in MPLS.
MPLS-TP:
NMS Configuration: The label is generated by the NMS, then forwarding to

the equipment to create the LFIB (Label Forwarding Information Base).
Control Plane: GMPLS, Equipment can without the IP protocal.

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The MPLS-TP control plane is based on a combination of the MPLS control plane
for PW and the GMPLS control plane for MPLS-TP LSPs,

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QinQ technology is a VLAN stacking technology, which conforms to the

recommendation for S-VLAN in IEEE 802.1ad and is an expansion of VLAN
technology.
The default Tag Protocol Identifier (TPID) value is 0x8100. It can be modified in
OptiX Hybrid MSTP.
Advantages of QinQ technology:
Expands VLAN and alleviates VLAN resource insufficiency. For example, a

VLAN providing 4096 VLAN IDs can provide 4096 x 4096 VLANs after
VLAN stacking;
Extends LAN service to WAN, connecting the client network to the carrier
network and supporting transparent transmission.
The default Tag Protocol Identifier (TPID) value is 0x8100
The TPID can be modified in OptiX PTN product

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The feature of this service is that the services are isolated by using the QinQ
technology. The advantage is that the network-side link is shared. When the
number of user VLANs is large, and multiple users use the same VLAN, this
networking type can be used.
In this case, the packets of different companies accessed on the user side are
added to different S-VLANs, and then are carried by the same link on the network
side.

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Concept of PW
The Mechanism that bears the simulated layer 2 services between clients to the
packet switch network (PSN).
AC: attachment circuit.
It is the physical or virtual circuit that connects a CE to a PE.

Forwarder
A PE sub-system that selects a PW to transmit the payload received on the AC.

PW signaling
The basis on which PWE3 is implemented. It is used for creating and maintaining
PWs. Currently, the primary PW signaling is LDP.
PW: pseudo wire.
It is a mechanism that carries the essential elements of an emulated circuit

between PEs over a PSN.
CE: Customer Edge.
It is a device that originates or terminates a service. The CE cannot be aware

whether an emulated service or a local service is in use.
PE: Provider Edge.
It is a device that provides PWE3 to a CE. It is usually the edge router that is
connected to a CE on a backbone network. A PE is responsible for processing the
VPN service. A PE performs the mapping and forwarding of the packets from the
private network to the public-network tunnels and that in the reverse order.
CW: control word.
A control word is a 4-byte encapsulated packet header. It is used to transmit

packets in an MPLS PSN.

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Normally, the Ethernet service need not be transmitted according to strict

sequence. In ITU-T G. 802.3, however, it is required that frames from the same
session should be transmitted according to the sequence. It cannot be assumed
that the PSN can realize the frame sorting. If strict sorting is required, the serial
number need be used.
The following describes the meaning of each field in the CW:
The first four bits must be 0, which indicates that the data is the PW data.
The packet must be ignored by the PE that receives the packet.
Reserved: It is of 12 bits. It is the reserved field and is often set to 0.
Sequence Number: It is of 16 bits. It is used to guarantee the packet order.

This field is optional. If the Sequence Number is 0, it means the packet
order check is disabled.

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OptiX Hybrid MSTP equipment support TDM E1 PWE3, also we named it as CES
(Circuit Emulation Service) E1
Between BTS and BSC, the CES service is transported through the Hybrid MSTP
equipment.
BTS use E1 connection connected to PE. BSC use one channelized STM-1
connection connected to PE.

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Unframed E1
Using all the time slots as a whole to transmit user data.
So, the total bandwidth for one unframed E1 connection is 2.048Mbps,

just like the bandwidth provided by a serial interface.
Framed E1
Time slot 0 used for signaling or other purpose.
Time slot 1-31 can be used for transmit service data for different users.
For example: Time slot 1 can be used for user1 to provide 64 Kbps
bandwidth, and time slot 11 to 12 can be used for user 2 to provide 128
Kbps bandwidth.
To use a PW to emulate the transmission of TDM service over a PSN, the

following elements must be carried to the other end of the PW.
TDM data
Frame format of TDM data
TDM alarm and signaling at the AC side
Synchronous timing information of TDM

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In the SAToP mode:
The equipment regards TDM signals as constant rate bit flows, instead of
sensing structures in the TDM signals. The entire bandwidth of TDM
signals is emulated.
The overhead and payload in the TDM signal are transparently transmitted.
In the CESoPSN mode:
The Hybrid MSTP equipment senses frame structures, frame alignment

modes and timeslots in the TDM circuit.
The Hybrid MSTP equipment processes the overhead and extracts the
payload in TDM frames. Then, the equipment delivers the timeslot of each
channel to the packet payload according to certain sequence. As a result,
the service in each channel in the packet is fixed and visible.

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Tunnel label: MPLS label, manually configured in OptiX Hybrid MSTP equipment.
PW label: manually configured.
Control Word: must use, to identify the sequences of the frames.
RTP (Real Time Protocol) Header/ Time Stamp/ SSRC Identifier: if RTP is required,
these encapsulations are required; if not, not required.
To improve the efficiency of the bandwidth, several E1 frames can be cascaded as

one unit, it means several E1 frame use one PWE3, Tunnel and Ethernet
encapsulation. The size of the unit is based on the configuration of buffering time.
By default the buffering time is 1ms. The larger value of buffering time the higher
bandwidth efficiency and also larger service delay.

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Differences of CESoPSN and SAToP:
The CESoPSN protocol can identify frame structure of TDM service. It may
not transmit idle timeslot channels, but it only extracts useful timeslots of
CE devices from the E1 traffic stream and then encapsulates them into PW
packets for transmission.
For example: only time slot 1-5 have data, all the other time slots are idle,
CESoPSN can choose only transmit time slot 1-5s data to another PE, the
opposite PE can reconstruct the original E1 frame, and then send it to
appropriate CE.

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OptiX Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

Electrical/optical protocols describe signal characteristics such as voltage or

Mechanical protocols are specifications such as the dimensions of a

Functional protocols describe what something does.

Procedural protocols describe how something is done. For example, a

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

Header Length: tells the length of the IP header.

Protocol: gives the "address," or protocol number, of the host-to-host or transport

Header Checksum: is the error correction field for the IP-header.

Options: is a variable-length field, and is optional.

Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

The binary to decimal calculation is as the example,

the binary 11101001 is represented by decimal format:

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

Private IP addresses are usually used by enterprise internal network.

Inter-NIC reserved the following IP addresses for private use:

Class B: 172.16.0.0~ 172.31.255.255

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

The address for an entire data link, a non-host-specific network address is

Each device or interface will be assigned a unique, host-specific address such as

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

The only way to make class A, B, or C addresses practical is by dividing each

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

To improve the forwarding capability, the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

The traditional IP technology is simple and costs little in deployment.

Initially, MPLS emerges to increase the forwarding rate of routers.

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Hybrid MSTP Technology Introduction

MPLS is the abbreviation of Multi-Protocol Label Switching. MP means it support

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