FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, ORGANIZATION SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION FAO/UNESCO INTERNATIONAL SOURCEBOOK ON IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE OF ARID LANDS IN RELATION TO SALINITY AND ALKALINITY PROSPECTUSFOOD AND AGRICULTURAL UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, ORGANIZATION SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL SOURCEBOOK ON IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE OF ARID LANDS IN RELATION TO SALINITY AND ALKALINITY PROSPECTUS ‘An international publication to provide: (1) a synthesis of modern scientific knowledge, (2) a guide to the practical experience obtained by leading countries in the field of irrigation and drainage methods in relation to salinity and alkalinity of arid lands, and (3) generalizations useful in the solution of practical problems. EDITORS. Dr. Victor Kovda, Co-ordinating Editor Chief, Salinity Laboratory of Soil Science Institute of Moscow; Professor, University of Moscow; Corresponding member, Academy of Science of USSR; and Director, Natural Sciences Department, Unesco, Paris. Dr. Robert M. Hagan Chairman, Department of Irrigation; Professor of Irrigation; and Irrigationist in the Agricultural Experiment Station of University of California, Davis, California, U.S.A. Dr. C. van den Berg Director, Institute for Land and Water Management Research, Wageningen and Lecturer in Land and Water Management, Delft Technical University, Delft, The Netherlands. ‘Technical Secretary Mr. de Forges Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Ecole Nationale d'Horticulture , Versailles, France. All correspondence concerning this project should be addressed to: Chief, Natural Resources Division, Natural Sciences Department, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris. ws/0461.21. Aims of the Project ‘Man's desire to achieve a better standard of living, together with the rapid increase in population are creating an unparalleled challenge to the world to increase food supplies and other agricultural products. ‘This requires both the improvement of existing irrigation systems and the opening of addi- tonal lands to agriculture through new irrigation projects. Such developments may often require the reclamation of land where salinity and alkalinity hazards occur. Imperfect irrigation and drainage practices frequently cause Salinity and alkalinity of soils, deterioration and even loss of cultivated land. In too many regions, the food production lost through deterioration of irrigated land outbalances the production from additional land being brought under cultivation through new irrigation schemes. It is believed that science and technology are advanced enough, if properly integrated and summarized, to offer solutions for many of the problems facing irrigated agriculture. Considerable research has been carried out and a variety of practical experience has been gained during the recent years in many countries. ‘This has often resulted in conflicting advice being offered on specific problems. The confusion thus created, together with local economic and social conditions, has seriously retarded the application of scientific knowledge to the improvement of irrigation and drainage projects. Such a situation is obviously detrimental to newly developing and emerging countries where the shortage of experienced staff makes it imperative to provide ‘simple and clear guidance on the procedures to be followed. Sefentific and technical information relevant to this subject has appeared in a wide variety of publications during recent years. In their work, Unesco, within the framework of its Arid Zone Major Project, and FAO in its activities on Land and Water Development, have already made constructive efforts in the collection, synthesis, and dissemination of such knowledge. However, there is ample evidence that, for easy reference by those concerned with practical field develop: ment, a widely distributed international sourcebook is now urgently needed whose aims would be: (a) To provide a summary of modern scientific concepts in a form convenient for use by administrators, engineers, agronomists, hydro-technicians, soil scientists, and other specialists dealing with irrigation and drainage methods and practices in relation to salinity and alkalinity of arid lands. (b) ‘To review procedures for forecasting water requirements of crops and the irrigation and drainage needs for irrigation projects under various conditions, giving particular atten- tion to the prevention of salinity and alkalinity problems. (c) To discuss irrigation and drainage systems and management problems in relation to salinity and alkalinity. (@ To assemble data required by the specialists concerned in the design and operation of irrigation and drainage works in the arid zone, ‘This international sourcebook is intended to provide (1) a synthesis of modern scientific knowledge, (2) a guide to the practical experience obtained by leading countries in the field of irrigation and drainage methods in relation to salinity and alkalinity of arid lands, and (3) to arrive at generalizations useful in the solution of practical problems in this field. ‘The sourcebook would thus constitute, on a world-wide basis, a scientific integration and evaluation of the experience acquired by specialists from a variety of countries. 2. Preparations for the Project It has been considered that to achieve the aims indicated above, the sourcebook should be undertaken as a joint project between Unesco and FAO and a Working Group has been established between the two organizations to this effect. ws/0461.24: A first meeting held in Rome (3-6 October 1960) has proposed that a group of three editors should be appointed jointly by the two organizations, and that authors and co-authors for the different chapters should be selected by mutual agreement from amongst the most experienced specialists working personally on the problems under consideration. In addition, contributors selected from member countries of either organization would be invited to co-operate in the preparation of the sourcebook. In this manner the material ultimately presented would be the result of deep and thorough discussions and mutual understanding of factual, scientific and practical data, on a world-wide basi: ‘The following specialists: Professor V. Kovda Professor R.M. Hagan Dr. C. van den Berg have accepted the responsibility for acting as editors and have generously agreed to waive any question of remuneration for this important work. Ithas been forther agreed that Professor Kovda assume responsibility for co-ordinating the work of the group of editors. In order to ensure adequate follow-up during all stages of the project it was also proposed that the work of the two secretarlats be co-ordinated through the office of Professor Kovda at Unesco and that the services of a part-time technical secretary be obtained for this purpose. A tentative outline of the sourcebook was set up at the first meeting of the Working Group as a basis for further study by the editors and a number of specialists. It has been recommended that the sourcebook should be ready for publication not later than Jaly 1963, and published in the official languages of the two organizations, namely English, French, Russian and Spanish. It has been agreed that the project should aim at the production of a sourcebook of approxi mately 600 to 700 manuscript pages (300 words per page). ‘A second meeting of the Working Group held in Wageningen (13-25 March 1961) has confirmed the general lines of the Project, drawn up the final outline and made suggestions for the specialists to be approached as authors and co-authors. Scope of the sourcebook ‘The final detailed outline will be found at the end of this prospectus. ‘The list of chapters is the following: Introduction Water and salt balances Soils in relation to irrigation, drainage and salinity Hydrophysics of arid and irrigated soils Chemistry of arid and irrigated soils Landscapes in relation to irrigation, drainage and salinity Quality of irrigation water Water, plant growth and crop irrigation requirements Plants in relation to waterlogging, salinity and alkali Irrigation systems and management Drainage systems and management XII. Some effects of irrigation and drainage on soils XH. Reclamation of saline and alkali soils XIV. Design and operational recommendations for the establishment or improvement of irrigation and drainage projects. ARR ggSs2BR°-8- It has been stressed that the book, while maintaining a sound scientific level, should remain ‘as practical as possible in order to meet the needs of specialists carrying out actual field work in newly developing countries. As a consequence it has been agreed that particular emphasis should bbe given to synthetic chapters at the end of the book and that the last chapter should make reference to the practical conclusions established at the end of each chapter dealing with the basic elements It should be understood that the reader of the book is expected to be acquainted with the general principles applied in irrigation, drainage and reclamation works. As a consequence, the chapters dealing with basic elements on these matters shall be as brief as possible. One of their main aims should be to establish a common terminology, and equivalences between terme used in various countries. An index, an international glossary and a selected bibliography of important works relating to the various chapters will be given in each edition. It is also recommended that concepts or problems treated in the book should be illustrated by examples taken from existing irrigation, drainage and reclamation schemes established for many year: 4. Procedures and schedule of work Because of the particular nature of the project which is meant to arrive at a practical synthesis of experience acquired and methods used in many different countries, a special procedure for the preparation of the manuscript had to be worked out. The general principle is that a main author will be asked to prepare a draft for each chapter. ‘This draft will then be submitted to a number of co-authors from different countries for additions and comments. At the same time the appropriate departments in the countries having experience of the problems under review will be requested to submit documentation, suggestions and comments which will be made available to the authors whenever appropriate, together with the replies received from the co-authors. ‘The revised manu- scripts will then be reviewed by the three editors and put into final shape for publication. ‘The point of view of the Working Group is that no effort should be spared to arrive at a truly international sourcebook in the preparation of which all those having something to contribute will have had a chance to express their views. Authors and co-authors will be contacted through appropriate channels and FAO and Unesco will invite officially the appropriate authorities in countries having particularly important experi~ ence in the subject matter to send their comments and suggestions as well ae any documentation oF information which might be of value to the project. It was considered that the following countries should be more specially approached in this respect: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, France, Hungary, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Portugal Spain, Sudan, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Republic, United Kingdom, United States of America and Union of Soviet Socialist Republice ‘The information and documentation should be sent to the Secretariat of the project at Unesco Headquarters ‘The main authors will be requested to submit by August 1961 an expanded outline of their chapters for the benefit of the editors and co-authors. National authorities and co-authors will be requested to send to Unesco by the same date source material to be used by the authors. The draft manuscripts from the main authors should be received by the Secretariat by the end of 1961 to be translated into English when required and sent for comment to editors, co-authors and contributors. Co-authors and contributors should send their comments and additional material by May 1962. In August 1962, the Working Group will meet in Tashkent (USSR) to review the manuscripts, the comments and material received from co-authors and national contributors and prepare recommendations for the main authors After this meeting the main authors will revise their manuscripts and return them by January 1963. After the necessary translations, a final meeting of the Working Group will be held at Davis, California, (U.S.A.) in April or May 1963 to arrive at the final text for publication. ‘ws/o461.2DETAILED OUTLINE INTERNATIONAL SOURCEBOOK ON IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE OF ARID LANDS IN RELATION TO SALINITY AND ALKALINITY PREFACE History of Project ‘Aims of book Development and reclamation of saline and alkali solls of arid lands ‘Types of persons for which book is prepared Acknowledgements ‘ws/0461.21. INTRODUCTION A. Aime of irrigation, drainage and reclamation operations Irrigation: to prevent water being Mimiting factor in plant growth Drainage: to maintain a favourable root environment for plants Reclamation: to develop soll into a suitable medium for plant growth ~ usually in- volving removing of excess of water and salt B. History of irrigation and drainage operations (with emphasis on salinization and alkali problems) C. Social and economic importance of irrigation, drainage and salinity problems D. Future outlook 1, Man! ‘opportunities to achieve a permanently successful irrigation agriculture Involves understanding of interrelations between irrigation, drainage and ‘salinity - most graphically considered in terms of maintaining favourable water and salt balances 2. Appraising value of irrigation, drainage and reclamation project Confiicting water us multipurpose concepts Economic, social and other considerations with special relation to salinity problems ws/o461.2I. WATER AND SALT BALANCES A. General relations between irrigation, drainage and salinity problems 1, Dynamic nature of water and salts in soils Concepts of water and salt balances to characterize irrigation, drainage and salinity problems B. Water balances (illustrated) Water balance of root zone in soils (soil moisture) 2. Water balance of saturated zone in soils (ground-water) 3. Water balances in virgin soils. Separated balances of soil moisture and ground- water (upland) Water balances in virgin soil water (lowland) Combined balance of soil moisture and ground- Contimity of different water balances in landscapes Relative importance of terms in water balances for different cases 7. Introduction of irrigation ‘Changes in water balances by irrigation 9. Ground-water level and drainage C. Salt Balances Salt balances of root zone and saturated soil 2. Separated and combined balances in landscapes: 3. Influence of irrigation on salt balanc 4, Importance of different terms of salt balance 5. Salt accumulation 6. Importance of capillary movement on salt accumulation D. Interrelations of water and salt balances 1. The importance of ground-water level 2. Salt concentration of irrigation~ and ground-water Different levels of salt accumulation in profiles ‘Types of salinization ws/o461.25. Alkalization 6. Seepage from irrigation canals as a factor in water and salt balances BE. Influence of soll characteristics 1, Soll porosity and ground-water level 2. Soll permeability and drainage F, Introductory discussion of elements in water and galt balances related to preventing and overcoming waterlogging, salinity and alkali (emphasis on man’s influence on specific elements in these balances) 1. Preventing and overcoming salinity: leaching 2. Preventing and overcom! ng high water table: drainage 3. Preventing and overcoming seepage: lining and drainage 4. Overcoming alkali: soil treatment Improvement of irrigation water Importance of management Possibilities of calculating water and salt balances 8. Need for technical information in preparing projects ws/0461.210+ II. SOILS IN RELATION TO IRRIGATION, DRAINAGE AND SALINITY A. Biology, ecology and general fertility of arid zone soils B. Physical characteristics of arid zone soils 1. Texture (granulometry) and structure with emphasis on hydro-physics Phenomena of cementation, super-density and formation of hardpans C. Physical factors in relation to soil hydro-physics and chemistry 1, Homogentety and stratification of profiles 2. Soll organic matter, humus and {ts mineralization Air in virgin and irrigated soils and reduction reactions during waterlogging Soll temperature as factor in soil formation, soil chemistry, soil structure and soil biology D. Soil formation processes in soils of arid zones with emphasis on relations to hydro- physics and chemistry Main groups of soil forming materials Specific réle of arid climate 3. Soll forming réle of groundwater E. Comparative terminologies used in soil classification F. Principal soils of arid zones with emphasis on nomenclature and properties of saline ‘and alkali soil (automorphic, hydromorphic and semi-hydromorphic soils) ws/0461.2-u- IV. HYDRO-PHYSICS OF ARID AND IRRIGATED SOILS Water in soil 1. General description non-capillary (gravitational), capillary, hygroscopic water gravimetric, volumetric, depth ratio units summary of formulas for calculation units and conversion factors Water potential (soil water tension, ete.) 1. Potential or energy level of water in soils factors affecting (gravitational field, surface and capillary forces, hydro- static pressures, solutes) 2. Expressions for water potential include soil water tension, suction, stre: PF, ete. 3. Water content - water potential relations for typical soils {include non-saline and saline conditions 4. Methods for evaluating water content - water potential relations tension tables, pressure plate and pressure membrane with brief mention of freezing, vapour pressure and moisture equivalent C. Water flow in soils 1. Saturated and unsaturated conductivities variation with soll water potential and pore-size distribution 2. Methods for measurement of saturated and unsaturated conductivities 3. Caleulation of flow rates data required and formulas 4. Infiltration and percolation analysis of gradients and conductivities wetting front effects of interfaces and layers of different conductivities relation to field capacity and water storage in soils ws/o461.2-12- 5. Capillary rise factors affecting rate and height of capillary flow computations 6. Flow in vapour phase Flow in relation to evapotranspiration D. Water retention in soils Factors determining retention including texture, structure, profile characteristics (interfaces, impermeable layers), and ground-water level 2. Saturation capacity Field capacity explanation in terms gradients and conductivity; factors affecting; typical values for textural groups methods for determining field capacity of soils; usefulness of field capacity for irrigation and drainage practice 4. Relation of groundwater in internal drainage of profiles waterlogging seasonal and long-term cycles in water balance ws/o461.2se V. CHEMISTRY OF ARID AND IRRIGATED SOILS Chemical properties of virgin and irrigated soils (normal, saline and alkalt) 1, Salts tn solution and precipitated 2, Clay minerals 3. Exchange phenomena Relation between salinity of soile and groundwater 1, Formation of salinity of groundwater 2. Critical level of groundwater in relation to salt content of groundwater 3. Correlation of salinity of soils and salinity of groundwater Formation of saline and alkali sotls 1. Sol! golution and salinity of solls 2. Seasonal dynamics of salts 3. Dynamics of soll solutions and salinity following application of water and leaching 4. Formation of secondary saline and alkali soils Chemical dynamics of salts and groundwaters under influence of long-term irrigation 1. Under conditions of poor drainage 2. Under conditions of imperfect drainage 3. Under conditions of perfect natural or artificial drainage (effect of water quality) Analysis 1. Analytical data needed 2. Evaluation of chemical properties of soils (include selected bibliography on analytical methods) ws/0461.2-4e VI. LANDSCAPES IN RELATION TO IRRIGATION, DRAINAGE AND SALINITY General laws of migration and accumulation of salts on lands 1. Baste picture of differentiation of salts in continental and littoral conditions 2. Migration and accumulation of salts in plateaux and watersheds, in valleys and deltas (continental or marine), in lowlands and depressions 3. Migration and accumulation of salts in connexion with local topography and miero~ elie! Criteria for evaluation and grouping of landscapes 1, Geomorphology and topography 2. Lithology, stratification and chemistry of geological formations 3. Origin, depth, In- and out-flow and chemistry of groundwater 4. Kinds of hydrologic situations (under natural drainage conditions) relation to hydrographic network relation to free water surface types of groundwater balance (hydrologic units) types of salt balances 5. Evaluation of needs for immediate soil reclamation and/or drainage 6. Prediction of water and salt balances after irrigation need for future soil reclamation and/or drainage Landscapes having free natural drainage 1. Fore mountain plains 2. Plateaux, uplands and high watersheds No needs in artificial drainage Landscapes having inadequate natural drainage higher terraces of river valleys, deltas and sea coasts drainage sometimes needed after several decades of irrigation ‘Landscapes having limited natural drainage lowlands and lowest terraces of valleys drainage needed on considerable portion of area soon after irrigation ws/0461.2-15- F. Landscapes without natural drainage continental and marine deltas, continental depressions drainage and leaching required from start of irrigation (sections C to F to be illustrated by cross-section diagrams showing geomorphology, lithology and hydromorpholoty) ws/0461.2-16- Vil. QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER Soluble components in irrigation water (Including seasonal variations) Suspended inorganic and organic materials in irrigation waters Water analysis Brief summary (without details of analytical procedure) of types of analyses (refer to selected bibliographies) Selection of components to be included in analysis for evaluation of waters for given purposes: Observations from existing practice using irrigation waters of specific quality Changes in irrigated soils under long-term application of water of specific quality (in physics, physico-chemistry, chemistry and biology of soils) Factors affecting suitability of waters for irrigation chemical, climatic, soi, plant and cultural factors. Practical classifications (and criteria for evaluation) of waters in relation to phenomena of salinization, alkalization, amelioration of irrigated soils Principal recommendations for applying irrigation waters of specific quality (amendments of different kinds, periodic leaching, drainage, etc.) ws/0461.2<1. Vill. WATER, PLANT GROWTH, AND CROP IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS ‘A. Water in the soil - plant - atmosphere system 1, Comparative terminologies 2. Réle of water in plant life quantities involved 3. Water flow in soil - plant - atmosphere water flow to roots surface water uptake by roots water transport in plant ‘transpiration (stress brief analysis of potential gradients and hydraulic conductivities in soll, plant and atmosphere) B. Availability of soil water to plants 1, Available water range, factors affecting, and limitations of concept 2. Soll water tension and osmotic stress 3. Hydraulic conductivities 4, Relation of soil water to plant growth and yield; other soll, plant, including root development and critical periods); climatic and management factors (including tabular presentation of limiting factors) 5. Effects of soil water on crop maturation and quality ©. Bvapo-transpiration 1. Climatic factors - radiation, advective energy, relative humidity, wind 2, Soll water as Limiting factor influences of soll water tension and bydraulfe conductivity 3, Effects of plant type and extent of plant cover water use per unit of dry matter production (transpiration ratio) influence of ‘soil fertility, disease, insects, etc. 4, Comparison with evaporation rates from free water and soil surface ‘ws/0461..2-18- D. Water requirements of crops and their determination 1. Comparative terminologies water requirement, irrigation requirement, water duty, etc. distinguishing between field, farm, and project requirements influence of irrigation efficiency, seepage, etc. tabular summary of units and computations nomograms for unit conversion formulas for converting flow rates to depths of water applied 2. Determination of crop water requirements variation with type of crop, extent of cover, and season of year direct measurement methods and data required calculation or estimation usefulness and data required for various methods E. Establishing irrigation programme 1. Soil, plant, climatic, management and cropping pattern, economic and water supply ‘actors determining suitable irrigation schedule 2. Usefulness of soll water measurements and plant observations or measurements 3. Computing irrigation schedules 4. Total water requirements with allowances for evapo-transpirational requirements, ‘conveyance and application losses, and leaching requirements ws/0461.21, -19- PLANTS IN RELATION TO WATERLOGGING, SALINITY AND ALKALI A. Cause of restricted plant growth under waterlogging 1. Effect of oxygen deficit 2. Toxicity of hydrogen sulphide and other reduced compounds B. Plant tolerance to waterlogging C. Causes of restricted plant growth under saline andalkali conditions 1. Salt concentration and osmotic pressure of soil water 2. Relation of soil water tension and osmotic pressure on water uptake by plants 3. Toxieity of different salts specific ion effects isturbance of normal quantity and balance of salts absorbed D. Plant tolerance to salinity and alkali 1. Factors influencing tolerance of plants to given salinity and alkali conditions 2. Quantitative data on yield depression caused by salinity and alkali 3. Grouping of plants on basis of tolerance E. Native plants indicators of groundwater, salinity and alkali F. Plants useful during soil reclamation operations 1. Plants tolerant to ponding (rice) 2, Plants tolerant to salinity and alkali (millets, barley, cotton, date palm, ete. 3. Crop management during reclamation periods ws/0461.2-20- XX. IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AND MANAGEMENT (with emphasi on relations to waterlogging, salinity and alkali) A. Water supply, storage and conveyance 1. Water supply wnite conversion tables or nomographs 2. Water storage brief outline of types of storage facilities for use in distribution systems or on farms changes in salinity of water during storage salinization of adjacent lands control of evaporation and seepage losses 3. Water conveyance elements in distribution system design and operation; systems and devices for flow regulation control of seepage by canal location, lining, ete. with emphasis on relations to waterlogging, drainage requirements, and salinity hazards Water measurement brief summary of operational advantages and limitations of various methods ‘and devices 5. Water allocation regulatory statutes and other methods water pricing structure water delivery programm: {discuss in relation to water use and conservation, crop production, water- ‘logging and salinity hazards) Operational characteristics, advantages and limitations of different irrigation methods Surface irrigation (furrows, strips, basins, and "wild" flooding), sprinkling, and ‘sub-irrigation (by regulation of groundwater) in relation to: land preparation requirement water supply requirements ("head", size and stream, main d'eau) uniformity of water distribution and irrigation efficiency ‘salinity of irrigation water, joll, and groundwater waterlogging and drainage requirements ws/0461.2=a Power requirements relation to farm operations, capabilities of farmers cost and maintenance C. Criteria for selection of irrigation system and method 1. Soils and topography 2. Groundwater conditions 3. Climatic considerations 4. Quantity and quality of water available 5. Cost of water 6. Conveyance losses 1. Total water requirements evapo-transpirational requirements and special needs of crops application losses leaching (in relation to application losses) 8. Power requirements, farmer capabilities, and other management and economic factors D. Elements of irrigation design 1. Surface methods (with information on land preparation including slopes, lengths of runs, unit water supply, ete.) 2. Sprinkler methods (with consideration of uniformity, wind distortion and evaporation los: 3. Sub-irrigation methods (relation of hydraulic conductivities, capillary rise rate, mobility and salinity of groundwater, etc.) E. Irrigation management in relation to: 1. Quantity of water supply Total quantity and seasonal distribution Size of stream ("head", "main d'eau") 2. Quality of irrigation water (refer to chapter VII H) Factors affecting proper depth of water for single application ws/0461.210. a. 12. ws/0461.2 =m Crop selection and management; cropping patterns Irrigation ~ soll fertility relations Irrigation - plant disease and insect relations ‘Cultural operations Avoidance of waterlogging Control of salinity and alkali Economic factors Health conditions Other factors-a3- XI. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND MANAGEMENT A. Diagnosis of necessity of drainage after the irrigation 1. Percentage of land irrigated) ) importance in drainage requirement 2. Bificiency of irrigation ) 3. Method of calculation and prediction of necessity and optimal time of installation and operation of drainage a. Réle of natural conditions and salinity b. Réle of percentage of land irrigated {Include consideration of drainage of water by evaporation from uncultivated land) Réle of efficiency of irrigation Réle of salinity of irrigation water Réle of quality of operation and management B. Drainage requirement Leaching in relation to salinity. Water storage capacity in soils. Required groundwater level. Required concentration of groundwater. Groundwater ‘and salt balances. Discussion of drainage principle. Drainage formulae. Permeability. Determination of permeability. Layered soils. Interrelation of groundwater level, salinity of soils and groundwater irrigation, drain depth and drain spacing. CC. Selection of drainage systems Drainage system in relation to irrigation and reclamation of saline soils. ‘Advantages and disadvantages of open drains and covered drains. Mole and pipe drainage. Lowering the groundwater table by pumping from drainage wells (vertical drainage) . Pumped water utilized for irrigation. Special drainage of seepage water. Biological drainage. D. Installation of drainage systems ‘Main drainage outlet. Construction of drainage canals. Installation of tile drains. Drainage materials (tile, concrete plastics etc.). Installation equipment. Remarks on drainage of saline and alkaline land. Installation of pumping systems. ws/os61.2aaa E. Operation and maintenance Watering and leaching programme. Water table and galinity control. Maintenance of open drainage system. Maintenance of covered drainage system. Maintenance of wells system. Organization and economics. ws/oas1.2<3 - XII. SOME EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ON SOILS Changes in topography Subsidence 2. Deposition of suspended water 3. Alteration of microrelief Erosion of irrigated land Changes in physical properties of sotls 1. Influence on texture and structure 2. Change of infittration rate 3, Effect on soil permeability 4. Formation of impermeable horizons (clay, carbonate, silica, etc.) 5. Changes in hydrology ‘a. Fluctuation of humidity b. Vertical movement (up and down) of soll moisture ¢. Formation and fluctuation of groundwater 4, Increased evapo-transpiration ‘Changes in chemical properties of soils 1, Dependance on drainage and water balance 2. Effect on soil minerals and absorbing complex 3. Changes in salt content and composition (including nutrient elements) 4. Effects on pH, redox - potential 5. Leaching, salinization, alkalinization ‘Changes in biology of soils 1. Bffects on microbiology 2. Effects on soil fauna 3. Roots, organic matter and humus status ws/oa61.2= 26 - E. Changes in fertility of 9: 1, Increased fertility in case of correct management 2. Decreased fertility in case of poor management F. Effects of long-term operation of irrigation and drainage systems on water and salt dynamics of soils (under good management practices) 1. Desalinization of soils 2. Desalkalization of soils 3. Demineralization of groundwaters as condition for sub-irrigation ws/o461.2- 2 XII. RECLAMATION OF SALINE AND ALKALI SOILS A Reviews of methods of reclamation of soils for irrigation (theory, mechanism of action, calculation, basic principles of application): 1. Physical ameliorations: deep ploughing, subsoil loosening, profile inversion, sanding Biological amelioration: plant covers, root systems, green manure, large amounts of manure 3. Chemical ameliorations: acid amendments, sulphur, gypsum, calcium-chloride 4. Hydrotechnical ameliorations: leaching, washing out and deep drainage 5. Synergic effect of combinations of reclamation methods Selection of methods of reclamation 1. Data needed. Soll survey, investigation, classification and evaluation 2. Choice of methods of reclamation in relation to origin and type of soils (salinity, alkalinity), water quality, drainage conditions Laboratory and field experiments Consideration of local practical experience of reclamation 5. Programming of methods and sequence of reclamation as part of design and irrigation Project development Reclamation of non-saline alkali soils (solonet2) 1, Chemical and organic amendments (doses, time, technique of application, action) Inversion of soil profile as method of improvement of permeability and mobilization of subsoils sources of calcium ‘The use (if necessary) of leaching, washing out (leaching between cropping periods) , shallow and deep drainage 4. Réle of crop rotation (during the period of reclamation and after) 5. Some concrete examples from practice of various countries Reclamation of saline - alkali solls (alkaline solonchak, sodium carbonate solonchak, takyr, etc.) Subsoiling, profile inversion and sanding ‘Adding of large amounts of manure Chemical amendments (if gypsum is absent in subsoil) Leaching during cropping season ws/oasi.2- 28 - 5. Washing out between cropping periods 6. Shallow temporary drainage in case of very poor washability of soils 7. Deep permanent drainage in case of high level of groundwater (primary or secondary) Reclamation of saline soils (solonchaks) 1. Control of salinity of soils by means of irrigation and leaching during cropping period. Percentage of land irrigation 2. Washing out of soluble salts (leaching between cropping periods); technics, ‘equipment, optimal time. Mechanism of washing out in different conditions of salinity, permeability, drainage intensity Washing out without drainage (examples from 2-3 countries) ‘Washing out with drainage (shallow, deep, combined shallow and deep); 2-3 examples from practice 3. Washing out of impermeable heavy solonchaks by means of application of irrigated rice culture (without and with drainage) with illustrations from 2-3 countries F. Crops during reclamation 1. Advantages of cultivation during reclamation 2. Crops resistant to waterlogging 3. Crops resistant to salinity or alkalinity 4. Crop selection 5. Soll treatment 6. Cultural practices G. Post-reclamation programme 1, Importance of quality of irrigation and management 2. Contimiation of operation of drainage and leaching for prevention of secondary salinity 3. Prevention of secondary alkalinity 4. Control of water table, salinity and alkalinity of soils and groundwater 5. Crop rotation and cultural practices 6. Forestation of canals ws/o461.2-29- XIV. DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OR IMPROVEMENT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PROJECTS Introduction 1. Varieties of national policies on land and water use 2. Importance of improvement of existing projects as compared with establishment of new project PART I. Establishment of irrigation and drainage projects A. Preliminary stage 1. General considerations (social, economic) 2. Minimum information required water availability and quality b. climate, geology, topography c. soils 4. groundwater depth, flow and quality (hydrological units) fe. crops, value, ete. 3. Approximations of water and drainage need 4. Salinity and alkali hazards 5. Feasibility of project 6. Main decisions on size, location, etc. B. Collection of data 1, Collaboration of specialists and institutions 2. Programme and time schedule of collection of data 1. Type and detail of data needed (maps) see B2 + aerial photographs permeability measurements and so on 4. Cropping systems, type and size of holdings 5. Field experiments ws/o461.2~30- C. Calculations and estimations Water requirement of crops 2. Leaching requirement as related to rainfall, salinity of soils and irrigation water 3. Experiments and estimation of losses Expected changes in groundwater level as related to leaching and losses 5. Required groundwater level as related to salinity of groundwater capillarity and ‘evapo-transpiration 6. Selection of irrigation method 7. Considerations on irrigation canals (interval and lining, capacities) 8. Selection of drainage system 8. Calculation of drainage depth, interval and capacity D. Requirements of total project 1. Calculation of total water requirement 2, Main irrigation canals 3. Caleulation of total drainage need 4. Main drainage outlets 5. Interrelation of irrigation and drainage systems 6. Special drainage problems 7. The complete design 8. Equipment, mechanism, machinery, materials E. Human factors 1, Awakening of interest and responsibility in public and government officiale 2. Training of specialists . 3. Development of advisory services 4. Training of farmers 5. Settlement problems F. Management 1, Establishment of pilot schemes 2. Selection of irrigation management practices: ws/o461.2-31- Water distribution and measurement Maintenance of irrigation system Drainage control and measurement of drainage discharge Groundwater and salinity control (network of piezometers and wells) 7. Maintenance of drainage system 8. Maintenance equipment for irrigation and drainage systems 9. Organization administration investigation and laboratory facilities, ete. PART II. Improvement and/or reconstruction of existing irrigation and drainage systems (All said in rest of chapter applicable to thie paragraph. Here only specific remarks added) History of irrigated system and land use 2. Collection and analysis of data on conditions of the natural factors of the system. (geology, groundwater, soils) 3. Collection and analysis of data on efficiency and technical status of existing irrigation and drainage network 4, Survey and analysis of effect of irrigation, local water management, local agricultural practice (eropping and rotation systems, other technical elements) Survey and scientific analysis of a. existing phenomena of waterlogging, salinity, alkali and silting b. existing local practice of prevention of these phenomena 6. Evaluation of relationships: a. between type of soils deterioration and natural conditions b. between type of deterioration and efficiency of irrigation percentage of land irrigated c. between type of soll deterioration and water and land management 7. Beonomical and social considerations of local environments 8. Elaboration of methods of technical improvements or reconstruction and reclamation of irrigation and drainage systems, and reclamation of soils ws/0461.2