Professional Documents
Culture Documents
New international
approaches
to the.solution
of ethnic
problems
in Central
Europe
Rudolf
... ,.,
Joo
and
Re k a Sx e m e r k en y i
:.
FI)M
PEACE
BY
CONTAINMENT
TO
PEACE
BY
Europe.'
CONVICTION
The
unexpccted,
powerful
of national
and of
1.
sovereignty
11ls chapier was wriucn in 1997. For practical purposes, the term 'Central Europe' is used
in this study to include ihat group of small and medium-size countrics that wcrc under
Communist rulc bctwecn the curreru borders of the European Union and the fonner
Soviet Union. 111is docs nOI include fonner Yugoslavia. International political science
literaiure oftcn uses the tcrnis 'Central/Eastern Europe' and 'Central and South-eastern
Europe' to denore the historicai and cultural differenees in the region itself. Scc, for
instance, Samuel P. Huntington, 'The Clash of Civilizations?' Ftm:ig71 AJfizi,, Vol. 72, No. 3,
Surnmer 1993, pp. 29-31; Jeno Szucs, 'The Three Historicai Regions of Europe: An
Outlinc', Acta Historica Aoulcmiac Scientarum Hungarieae. Vol. 29, 1983, pp. 131-8,t 111e
acadcmic deliatc on tcrminology and definirion of IC 'inner Ironticrs' of Europe continucs.
fi.O
'Rudolf
and
100
Rcka
opposing
Szemerkenyi
illegitimate
from the
reaction to the unfolding drama in the fonner Yugoslavia and to the persecution
of ethnic minorities in various countrics of the region. Many bclieve that demonic
forces arc escaping as a Pandora's
after the disappearance
Comnumist A11l1lifeJto, also dating back to 1848), Western dcmocracies ha~e to Iace
the appearance of a new one, this time the 'ghost of national ism' :'
Supportrs
of both approachcs,
Peeples who had bccn forccd to live within the borders of countrics with which
they could not ielentify and whose regimcs they detested prooundly,
2.
Planner
Hopkins
University
'Nationalism
Ethuic
Press,
and Dcmocracy',
in Lan]'
triecl to free
Diamond
and Marc
Kararnycky,
7/lc I',d/ q/lhe Soincts and. the CJI(I//mgr ,!/llIdcl",7Id(.'I/<I:, pp. 21-4,0, New York, John
1993.
3.
For a dctailcd
of the linkage
bctwccn
sclf-dctcrmination
Wiley,
and popular
Barrack,
and Johll
Model',
4.
analysis
Johns
I'a., US Anny
A. Ausink,
'State Collapse
Violencc:
J 994; Pauline
Toward
H.
a Prcdictive
Hroch,
Sukurnar
Central
and Eihnic
Periwal
European
University
'National
Sclf-detcrmination
Publications,
1995.
from a Historical
pp. 65-82,
Pcrspcctivc',
Budapest/London/New
in
York,
approach
of
New
international
es to the
solution
ethnic
Qroblems
in
Central
EuroQe
history,
niltionalism
nations. In Central
Europe,
their own nation-state, began to persecure the minorities living on their tcrritorv in
order to eliminate rival ethnic claims. In the process they used, more often than
not, the same methods and ideological arguments as their forrner oppressors had
used against their own claims.
/.,. The question of nationalily has a long and complicated history in this region
since the emergence of ruodcrn nauens in the early nineteenth century. The postCold War resurgence
questions
policy instrumcnts,
succcssful accommodation
of various management
techniques,
cforts,
the democratization
NATIONAlISM:
'OLD'
AND
'NEW'
FACETS
phcuorncnon
in the
Traditionally,
politicai and ethno-cultural borders have not coincided. Either the political cutiry,
the state, was larger than the nati on (comprising distinct ethno-national elemeius
at the sarnc time), or the 'nation' was spread out on a larger tcrritory than that
which belenged
5.
Scc also BeJljamiJl Akzin, States al/ri Nations, New York, Andlor
Books, 19()(j;.Jaroslav
CroOITI Heim,
Krcjci
1981.
fil
62
Rudolf
and
100
Reka
Szemcrkenri
Historically, ethno-national
regions geographically.
Thus,
have predominantly
and
decentralized
issue as an
of nation-building,
the nation-building
European counrries came much too late. Thesc eflorts, Irom the pcrspectivc of the
minority cultures wilhin the newly forming nations, had involved incvitably nationdestroying elcments as well, provoking various Iorms of resistance from the alTected
comrnuuities. In Central
elements in the ongoing politicai dcbate on Ieasiblc multi cultural accornmodation. In a final analysis,
they reprcsented
a serious
obstacle
to successul
in Central Europe
ill
New
approaches
of
disappearance of a
politicai ideology and a regime. together with the disappearance of economic and
military blocs.
These phenomena,
smaller group identities. This, in tum, reinforced politcal alignments along ethnic
lines and-the drive towards a greater degree of politcal and cultural autonomy on
societal or international level. The intensity of national consciousness also had a
'contagious'
ethno-national
more decentralized
'a:ffected community.
Media
global
major difference
can be found
in the reshaped
least poteutially,
a historically
unprccedcnted
opportunity
international
has opened, at
for co-operation
betwccn great powers eonfronted ali with new risks and threats of the post-Cold
War era. There is no longer a willingness to return to the political realism of the
inter-war era in Europe, when competing great powers took sides in the interstate
and intrastate coulicts of Central Europe and the Balkans.
The effort to cnhancc
organizations
the missions
integration
process,
played
behaviour.
Some states
escalated
consequellces: displacement
Western
European
of populations,
conflicts
state
with dramatic
material destruetien. Thcse have also prompted a higher degree of readiness for
co-operarion among major international
G.
Istvan
Bibo, 'The
dctcnninauon.
L. Horowitz,
Distress
of Easc-European
Small Staics' in
DCIIWO'(1(.)',
and Publicauous,
Reuolution,
Self
1991; Donald
63
64
Rudolf
100
and
Reka
Szemerkenyi
and outside
state borders.
The
traditional
state structure
is being
challenged, both from bclow and from above. Decpening and enlarging regio nal
integration,
contaets
incrcasing
global communications
arc weakening
and multiplying
cross-border
local eommunities,
corporations and NGOs are taking over many former state funetions.
This is not to say that the 'nation' is dying out in this process. f'jo national
interest has eeased to exist ill the twentieth century. The nation-state will remain
an enduring aetor of international politics in the Ioresecable future. It will continue
to be the standard
politieal organization.
in several eountries
(Bosnia and
and external
pronouneed
role of international
international
organizations
pressures
will probably
of governmental
and non-governmcntal
actors alike.
It is almest paradoxical
who le fonner
Cornrnunist
Europe
independence
at a time whcn
their
of national
sovereignty are under pressure to ehange. This contradiction can be resolvcd only
by a modcru intcrpretation
and isolatienist policies and is open to the ideas of international co-operarion and
integraiion. This attirude, if it gains ground, may facilitatc international cforts to
handle minority problcms and prevent intercthnic violcnce in the future.
7.
Thcrc arc a number of suidics based on this approach. Sce, for instance, Ralph Petcrs, 'The
Culture of Future Conlicr', Parameters, Vol. 25, No. 4, Win ter 1995/9G, pp. 18-27; Baker
and Ausink, op. cit.
New
es to
approach
of
SECURITY
THREATS:
INTO
VIOlENCE?
A POTENTlAl
FOR
ESCALATION
Therc has been a~ in-depth discussion of Central and Eastern European ethnic
tension in Westeril expert cireles which has revealed an apparent discrepancy
betwecn Western political discussion and decisions. The message stemming from
. this .discrepancy seerned anything but promising for the peaceful resolution of
diflcrences. At first, it seemcd that unless tension had a direct imp act on Western
territory
or interests,
interest there. Despite lengthy Western hesitancy concerning the war in former
Yugoslavia, this perceptiori has diminished since the Dayton Accord. For Western
policy, the question is when and how ethnic tension escalates into violence .
./-':
Yet, even without becorning violent, ethnic discord has a potential to slow
down, dis tort and ultimatelv impede the necessary economic and political reforms
in Central and Eastern Europe. Thus, even when there is rclatively little chance
for ethnic tension to escalate, it is important to promote the peaceful demoeratic
management of the conflict towards its gradual solution.
It is understandablc
of national fee!ing in Central Europe has tended to focus on its potentially violent
aspcci. However,
understanding
such
an approach
of the problem.
can dcvelop
into
a unidimensional
the development
of
effective policies for dissolving ethnic tension. Ali aspects of Central European
governmentaI policies should be examined closely. Abalanccd
what has be en achieved
understanding
of
of the region
themsclvcs dealt with the cthnic issue and with the tensions that sprang from it,
helps us develop the right line of action for the future.
When
the problem
of ethnic minorities
in Central
Europe
surfaced
in
1989/90, the first dciciency in the mnner of approaching it turned aut to be the
lack of standard
international
speciically or exclusively
a Central
European
problem
community
practically
every
had an unhappy
experience
is one
65
66
Rudolf
100
and
Reka
Szemerkenyi
European
states to treat this problem in the framework of international law, for a variety of
reasons. The goal of formalizing international
tangible in some Central European
through
the Conference
governments'
on Security
and Co-operation
in Europe
(CSCE)8
process, the Council of Europe and the various organs of the United Nations.?
While the frequent reference to the ethnic issue at international forums was
often cited as a source of concern for Western countries, the rationale behind
establishing international standards on potentially contentious issues is a proof iq
itself of the demoeratic intentions of Central European governments.l1any
newly
elect ed Central European policy-makers believed that the most effectve way of
handling
accepted
and respcted
code
of conduct
for treating
minorities,
by 'de-
The Visegrad co-operation was launched as weil as the Pentagonale, which later
developed
Initiative
operarion is at bcst an indirect and long-term policy tool for solving the problem
of ethnic minorities in the region, it was expcctcd that a web of relations among
these countries
would ultimatelv
contribute
relations
potential
for a number
of reasons,
continued
noticeable regional dialogue were a signal for the peaceful resolution of confliets.
Tensions
New
approaches
of
European
countries.
neighbouri~g
Central
It was a problematic
European
in t e r n a t l o n a l
the
solution
ethnic
.l!roblems
in
Central
Euro)!e
to
question
countries,
in bilateral
especially
relations
of
lacking internationally
accep ted norms, and was further complicated by the linkage established by some
between the treatment of minorities and the respect for national borders. It is of
greatinterest
contributed
to understand
to the development
and to the
stabilization of the region, or whether the policies have tended to increase the
potential of military escalation of the nationality conflict.
A dose analysis of the fields of bilateral relations in Central Europe shows an
,
ministries of defence
on the
cultural, human rights and political IcveIs, and not to let them escalate into the
Iield of military diplomacy.!" A quick overview of rclations in the field of defence
among the countrics generally regarded to have the most tensc relatens reveals
that, even in the first few years of the post-Cold
nationalism-related
relatious
betwcen Romania
and Hungary,
agrcemcnts,
nurncrous
the
Skies Agreement'
mectings,
the
undisturbed
support
for
the.
other decisions
surround ing the situntion of the cthnic rninorities have been most consciously and
carefully kept out of the military domain. Ethniclnationality
10.
conflict in Central
For an excellent analysis of the arising (political, demographic, cultural, cconomic, social
and psychological) alicnalion of the ethnic groups within a society lacking ill policies
largelcd al the various ficlds, sec Guy Hcraud, Les Communants lillguf/iques en 'Iute d'un
statut. pp. 22-30, Nicc, Prcsscs d'Europc, 1990.
!iZ
{iS
Rudolf
and
100
Rcka
Szemerkenyi
Europe, used for political and rhetorical purposes is, and has been since 1989,
cultural, historicai and political in nature, but not military.
Therelore the prime focus of international effort has to shift to removing the
psychological fears that exist in some Central European countries. This may seem
but a small difference in historicaI perspectives: examples abound of wars that
were launclied out of psychological fears. The difference is far more important.
however, if our goal is to deveJop elective policies to solve the problem arising
from nationalism.
character
of these
was
seen by some as the coming out of deep freeze of ancient memories and longburied feeJings. For others, it was the 'revenge' of nationalism that was able to put
an end to Communist
international ism:
of nationalism, the revolutions of 1989/90 would probably not have come about.
The attainment
of national sovereignty
development
in
of national
indepcndence.
Equally
important
afLel' the
self-identification
of, the
European idea." These two togcther, and in their irueractiou, constiluted the basis
of various policies in praericaily all Central European countrics. Both of these
aspirations were Iurther enhanced by these countries' cxpericncc of having their
nonnal historicai development brutally intertupted by Sovici aggression.IJ
ll.
12.
13.
On the ncgauvc force of nationalism, see also Misha Glcnny, Tize Rcbirth if History, Eastern
Europe ill the Age ofDcnuxracy, London, Pcnguin Books, 1990, 1993.
Thornas W. Simmons Jr, ElIJ/(:m Eurot ill the Pos/war World, pp. 226-67, New York,
St Manin's Press, 1993, oflcrs a good insight into thc many parallel forccs aftcr the end of
the Cold War.
On the srrcngtli of the idea of 'rcturning to Europe', see Andrcw COllCY,East-Central Europe
'!Iier the Cold War, Poland. the Czech R'il/lblic, Slooakia and HUI/gw)' ill Search '!lSecunl)', London,
Macinillan Press, 1995.
.,
.
N e w.Ln.Le.r;n a t io
approaches
of
n.a.l __ .6.9.
to the
solution
e th n iLl! rob I e nl 5 i n
Central
EuroQe
It is the effort to conciliate and hannonize these two driving forces that ofTers
the most b<,tlanced basis of analysis of this area's nationality policies throughout
the period. It can be argu ed that the European
inspired
decisions in Central Europe, from the economic field through the cultural to the
politicl, and that has inluenced measuring the failure of reforms as well.
At the same time, it is the power of the European
clearest indication
military conlrontation
Europe.
Central
European
countrics
have demonstrated
altogether
a conlict,
however
peacefully,
Europe, but
to solving
it.
community
undertakes
solution in a peaceful environment. What is essential is to deal with the root causes
of ethni c conflicts.
MULTICULTURAlISM:
IN INTERETHNIC
A NEW
RElATIONS
PARADIGM
Tbc more than four decades of the Cold War division of the continerit and
especially of the Pax Sovictica in the Eastern part transforrned
this historically
70
Rudolf
and
100
Reka
troubled
Szemerkenyi
included
considerable.
freedom
and
national
indcpendence,
in international
was
After the Iall of the Iron Curtain, Central Europe needs more than
stability by containment
methods of
long run and cannot be brought back after the dismancling of the Warsaw Pact.
For an acconunodation
in the fonner Yugoslavia and in some regions of me former Soviet Union sent a
clear message that Central and Eastern Europe might be just ariother potendal
arca of conflict and seismic movements. Reality provides empirical evidence to the
contrary, but such a broad generalization calIs for at least two further reservations.
On the one hand, there are wide diferences between countrics of Central and
Eastern Europe and the forrner Soviet Union, including their ethnic composition
and minoriry policies. In the geographical arc from the Ballic to the Adriatic and
the Black Sca, the politicai wcight of the nationaliry issue is gcncrally greater in
the south-eastern countries than in the countries to their north and west. In terms
of ethnic composition the following countries have relalivcly few minorities on
their territory,
constituting
Poland
(Cerrnans,
Slovenia
gypsies, Ukrainians,
Czechs);
Romania
(Hungarians,
gypsies,
Their ratio exceeds 10 to 15 per cent of the total population; in some districts and
14.
Insiabiliry
in Europe
International
approach
of
figures,
however,
do not nccessarily
indicate
smallcr
political
.'....
environment
and management,
escalate into violeut conflict and tribal wars. Societal disasters of these kinds can
be anticipated,
prevented
or at lcast modcrated
measures. Policies directed at the root causes of cthnic tension have proved to be
c/Iective in improving the situation in many countries of the world.
When facing the challenge of how best to accommodate
both states and minoritics
multiculturalism,
might start an avalanche: a small gesturc today will result in a disaster tomorrow;
an elcmcntary school in the mother tongue of a minoriry today, a loss of territory
tomorrow, Minorities
assimilation
frequently
nationalism
past, the
memOll' of rccent pain brceds and maintains mistrust towards authority and a
permanent
governlTIcnt.
15_
suspicion
concerning
Sornetimes
For ctlmo-dcmograpliic
the underlying
these concerns
intentions
arc based
of the majority
on concrete
historicai
Rcfcrcncc,
1990_
21
72
Rudolf
100
and
Reka
Szemerkenyi
civic identity
and the
rninorities' own ethnic identity preserved at the same time. In other words, loyalty
to the state in which they live and of which they are citizens does not prohibit or
contradict the rninorities' right to preserve and develop their own national and
ethnic characteristics, Rather, they go hand in hand.
These two elements
are in contradiceion
autonomyor
and/or
minority protection,
emigration
and to support
of the minority(ies)
the concepts of
as a realistic
means of
system did
very liulc to change eflcctively the relations between nations and ethnic groups in
the arca, dcspite its 'intcmationalist'
selving the tensions, Iroze them. The propaganda discourse on the rapprochement
and mcrging of socialist nations and nationalities (sli:I./tenie i sliauic, in the Soviet
political dictionary) covered the policies of forcible assimilation and subordination
to the interests of the dominant natiens.
It is pertinerit
experiences
in solving minority
conflict in
tensions, Belgium
has developed
for multicultural
16.
an innovative
constitutional
arrangement
An interesting collection of the rcflcctions of the politicai actors in the Communist and
post-Comrnunist pcriods can be found in Galc Stokcs, F1'01/1 Stalinism 10 Pluralism, A
Documentary History if Eastern Europe sincc 1945, New York, Oxford University Press, 1996
(on 'Nationalism', sec pp. 257-72).
New
int ern a t ion a.L
approaches
to the
solution
of ethnic_J!roblems
in
Central
EuroJ!e
accommodation
combining
problems e:ven today, but the legal and political efforts to find solutions for ethnic
coexistence are worthy of attntion. The Spanish experience is equally important.
Spain undertook a major reform of dcccntralization
ater-Ceneral
Scotland. No similar solution has been possiblc in Northern Ireland so far. There,
intercommunal
and international
interethnic
minority of this
of Nordic
regional
co-
combined with
territorial autonorny for the Swedish inhabitants of the Aland Islands. The Swiss
model of multiculturalism
and multilingualism,
goes back to the MiddIe Ages. It oficially recognizes the equal cultural rights of
the German-, Freneh- and Italian-speaking communiries. 111e Swiss Confederation
also prornotes the minority rights of a 40,OOO-strong community, called Romansch
or Racto-romans,
Grisons, and it is rccognized as one of the four national languages on the level of
the Confederation
in Switzcrland.!?
a significant
demoeratic
nations can and should live side by side. Politicai Irontiers ceased
of how
being dividing lines bctwcen peeples and started gradually to disappear within thc
European
17 .
Community,
.101111Coaklcy
joseph
V. Montvillc,
Mass., Lexingtoll
Co'.'llict
Books/D.C.
al/ri
Hcalh, 1991.
za
74
R ud o I flo
and
o
Szemerkenri
Reka
institutions,
have
movcmeut have been set up to improve relations betwcen nations with difficult
historicai legacy, for example the Freneh and the Germans in Western Europe
and the Dalles and Norwegians in the Nordic region.
There was no similar undertaking in the historically sensitive relationships in
Eastern Europe du ring the Cold War. The Polish-Lithuanian,
Czech-Cerrnan,
Slovak-Ukrainian,
and Romanian-
Hungarian-Rornanian,
Russian, Bulgarian-Serbian,
Rornanian-Ukrainian
Serbian-Albanian
societies remained
another. This situation more often than not presenred the old national stereotypes
and the distorted clichs about other natiens. Also, there was a widerring gap
between the official discourse of 'fraternal Iriendship' and political reality. In the
1970s when Spain, Belgium, France and the United
fundamental
territorial decentralization,
Kingdom
undertook
regions and to the nationalities living there, the central power of the state was
reinforccd in Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union,
Dcspite
widcspread
scepticisrn,
has become
an
INTERETHNIC
RElATIONS:
FACING
THE
CHAllENGE
of normative
Copenhagen
instrumcnts
No. 1134
the 1990
'affirmative
III
the Declaration
Bclonging
to
New
i n ter n a .i.o.n.a.L
approaches
to the
solution
of ethnic....J!roblems
in
Central
Euroj!e
25
National, Ethnic, Religious or Linguistic Minorities. Since the end of the Second
World War, this Declaration is the first document dealing exclusively with the
problem of persons belonging to minorities that has a univers al character. This
fact also indicatfs
codification
the substantial
of minority
to progress
in the international
Several
major decisions
step in deciding
Commissioner
resistance
on the creation
of the Office
of the High
with a team of
(formerly the CSCE) member states, especially in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Council of Europe also showed an increased interest in relation to minority
issues. In 1993 the Council adopted the Vienna Declaration, the annex of which
..~elates to minorities. T11e same year in Strasbourg, the Parliamenrary Assembly of
the Council of Europe adopred Reconunendation
relations in Central
Europe.
It underlined
the
Romania.
The test of these bilateral agrcements is, obviously,
their implementation.
These documcnts should not be secn as an end but, rathcr, as the heginning of a
process. They can be crucial instruments for the consolidation of security in the
18.
An interesting analysis can be found in Timothy D. Sisk, Poioer Sharing and lntcmalional
ill Ethnic Corflid, Washington, D.C., Carncgic Corrunissiou, 1996 (US Institute of
Pcacc, 'Pcrspcctivcs' Scries},
Mcdiation
---
76
Rudolf
100
and
Rcka
Szcmerken.l'.i
arca, if they briug about actual co-operation in interstate relations, and if they
improve the status of minorities inside the countries.
The adoptiori of universal
protection demonstratcs
concerning
mino ri ty
that real progress has been made since 1990 with respect
requirements
demoeratic
countries
these minimum
and education
generally.
As
language plays a key role in national identity, the protection of the mother tongue
is one of the most important 'survival strategies' of minoritics. Depending on the
counrry's ethnic composition, cither aspiratien for state bilingualism or for local
bilingualism can be found (the latter describes the olicial use or two languages in
adrninistrativc
population).
districis
whcre minorities
constitutc
the majority
of the local
Institutional plurality also can help minorities to claim their right for
and power-sharing
coalitions
- by taking
part
in central
For instance,
or local
one of the
After
parries
approaches
of
want to
nationality
-Home rule based on local municipal, county or regional (provincial) level as weil
as fedcral or confederate
solutiens to accommodate
chances that the worst of the tensions may be allayed and the nationalitics Iind
satisfaction in coexistence with other communities wirhin an integrated society.
Education and media could play an outstanding
promcting
have bccn a few positive initiativcs ill this ficld. National cxpert committees were
establishcd
to reconcile
education,
improving
Domcstic
and
programmcs
promoting
private
information,
teaching
tcxtbooks
used in public
intcrpretations
institutions
on both sidcs.
are sctting
countering
up
in this way
systerns of certain
communication,
19.
international
nationalist propaganda,
education
socictics.
the rcvolutionary
Emerging
modern
changcs in transrnission
technologies
of
For an international
overview
accorumodation,
scc
771C Siuuuion if MiI/OIi/Ii'J ill Europe (Political Scries W-4), Strasbourg, European Parliarncnt,
E193; Georg Bruuncr, Nationalitatcnprohlemc und A1in&rhcitcn/w,!fliUe ill OJ/curo/J(l, Ctcrsloh,
Verlag
Bcrtclsrnann
Minoritics,
Stiflung,
High Cornmissioncr
on National Minoriries',
Thcory
on National
11.
78
Rudolf
100
and
Reka
Szemerkenyi
have also introdneed new technical means and opportunities to enhance chances
of decentralized, multicentric, interacting Central European societies, where the
minority
societies, the programmes promoting tolerance and a culture of pe ace are still few
in number
and modest
More should
be done,
probably in the period ahead, is internal conflict, which has, in most cases, roots
in ethuic and cultural policies. By the shift of focus from interstate to intrastate
confrontation,
the signilicance
of the cultural
aspects of security
has been
dramatically increased.
Successful coexistence
national
majorities
and transatlantic)
and
When
institutions
project their values and ideals in this part of Europe, they widen the range of
examples and create a larger area of shared values and codes of conduct. This has
the potential eventually to develop a common security idcntity on the continent,
to encourage subregional
'crossability'
co-operation,
of state bounclaries.
A large number
the
problerns,
Uniou's
and NATO's
experience
proves, intcgration
politicai and military channels for early warning and crisis management.
Subregional co-operation can also ereatc a larger gcographical and politicai
setting beneficial for successful accommodation
centrcd,
I'act/COMECON
isolationist
tendency
of the Warsaw
period
has
modest opening. the revival of a few subregional and interregional forms of co-
Lt ern a t ion a I
to the
solution
ethnif..-.2roblems
in
Central
EuroQe
New
approaches
of
operarion in Central Europe, such as the Central European Initiative, the AlpeAdria, or C~rpathian co-operation.
These frameworks are considered as complementary
the Western integration
contacts of
subordination
(Cieszyn)
regions,
Central
Europe
needs
more
:progranunes and action in order to enable its civic societies to raise the level of
political culture, to increase understanding in majority/minority
countries, confidcnce-building
in intercommunity
relations. In these
devclop
the capacity
to
understand
the political bargaining process. These efforts may help dispel suspicions, held by
part of the majority
minority
cndcavour
population,
some
which prompt
anti-state
interit
people to discover
that
endangers
environment'
(lIIi1ldcrlu:i(rji-cundliche
contributien
of international
abandonment
in every
the country's
organizations
bas to be accommodated.
.za
80
Rudolf
100
and
Reka
Szemerkenyi
minorities are treated by political actors, will influence substantially the future ol
peacc and stabiliry in the area as weil as the chances of democracy
in th,
co-operation
urider the
anc
community
Beltelsmann Foundation
CONClUSION
Central
and Easlern
European
countries
mariner in which the Western democracics have deali wim their ethuic problcms.
They might draw on the succcsses and Iailures of thcse experiences,
in their
existcnce are indeed in the realrn of the possible. Thcse modcls, togelller with the
new instruments
for international
and joanJlc
'Community
of minoritics,
Rclations
contain numerous
Colin Knox
22.
ill
Northern
(Rcports},
19!J2.
Ircland',
.Jol/mal qJ
21.
Hughcs,
protection
New
approaches
of
nonnativc
and institutional
international
the
solution
ethnic
eroblems
in
Central
Europ'e
to
in the
world civilization
in the foreseeable
World
".Gonference on Cultural Policies held in Mexico City in 1982 stated in its Final
Report:
Evcry culture rcprcscnts
traclitions and forrns of expression arc its most effcctive means of demonstrating its
prcscncc in the world. Thc assertion of cultural identity therelore contributes to the
liberation of peoplcs. Converscly, any form of domination constitutes a denial or an
impairmcnt of that idcntity."
Special characteristics do not hinder but cnrich the community of universal values
uniting peoples. Hcnce recognition of the presence of variery of cultural identities
whenever
various
cultural pluralism.
There
is an inclination
betwecn causes and consequellces; it is not ethnic diversity in and of itself, but the
perception and treatmcnt
and cxclusivist policies directed against minoritics can be highly destabilizing and
may uliimatelv lead to violcucc. Promotion
policies can reducc
aggressive
strains
of chauvinism
in both majority
and
minority,
At the end of the tweutieth century rninoriiy questions cannot be solved with
the political 'meihods' practised by irrcdcntist
movernents,
by forcible border
whereas there are only some 180 states, forcible homogenizaeion and
political subordination
23.
Mcxico City, 26
82
Rudolf
100
and
Rcka
Szemerkenyi
The morc the minority sees its own interests and values respected, the less
likely it is to embrace
radicalism
and extremism.
Tolerance
by the majority
Europe concludes:
A 1992 report of the North Atlantic Assembly Civilian Affairs Committee makes
a similar concluding proposal for the Central European countries,
Genuinc
motivation
for elltering
in Central
problems
tend to be a true
majorities
and minorities
in
Central Europe carry the burdcn of historicai prejudices, ncgative stereotypes and
mutual suspicion about true intcntions. In such a heavily loaded environment,
policies need to be targeted at the socio-psychological level as well. Without thesc,
econornic, bilatcral political or other measures cannot eflectively defuse mutual
hatred. Thcsc psychological efforts imply influencing group beliefs and attitudes
in favourablc dircctions, and creating and maintaining a readiriess on the part of
communiries living tagether to engage in dialogue.
24.
NoW Europe,
p. 187,
New
in_ternational
approaches
to the solution
of eth!!.lL.J?roblems
in
Central
Eur0.l!e
policy can becomc the Archimedean point of democracy, a relatively small device
which
can move
the complex
machinery
of general
demoeratic
politicai
construction.
Tolerant multicultural policies may have a beneficial spill-over effect on the
democratization
becomc a moderating
Ba