Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ECOSYSTE
MS
5th form
IGCSE GEOGRAPHY
NAME
..
Climate
Climate zone
1
WHERE
Tropical forests are found near the equator in Central and South America, parts of Africa and
Asia. They are hot and humid and contain a huge variety of plants and animals - around half
of all the world's species. The trees are mostly hardwood. The climate is called equatorial.
All the areas with an equatorial climate are lowlands. In the Americas, a narrow strip formed
by the Andes Mountains separates the Amazon Basin from a smaller area of equatorial climate
in coastal Columbia, Panama and Costa Rica. The Andes have a much colder climate because
temperature falls as the altitude increase. For the same reason, the area of equatorial climate
in Africa does not extend right along the equator to the east coast the altitude of the East
African Plateau reduces the temperature, for example Mount Kilimanjaro (located at 3S) is
even snow capped
TASK:
1. Shade in the equatorial climate zone on the map above.
2. Label on the map above the main areas with an equatorial climate lie within 10
latitude of the equator
In general, tropical rainforests have hot and humid climates where it rains virtually everyday.
The level of rainfall depends on the time of year. Temperatures vary through the year - but
much less than the rainfall.
The graph shows average rainfall and temperature in Manaus, Brazil, in the Amazon
rainforest.
Why is it so hot?
Latitude or distance from the equator
Temperatures drop the further an area is from the equator
due to the curvature of the earth. In areas closer to the
poles, sunlight has a larger area of atmosphere to pass
through and the sun is at a lower angle in the sky. As a
result, more energy is lost and temperatures are cooler.
In addition, the presence of ice and snow nearer the poles
causes a higher albedo, meaning that more solar energy is
reflected, also contributing to the cold.
One day is very much like another, with places receiving 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of
darkness.
The sun rises at 0600 hours and its heat soon evaporates the morning mist, the heavy overnight
dew and any moisture remaining from the previous afternoons storm.
Even by 0800 hours temperatures are as high as 25 OC, and by noon, when the sun is near its
vertical position, they reach 33 oC.
The high temperatures cause the air to rise in powerful convection currents. The rising air,
which is very moist due to rapid evapotranspiration from swamps, rivers and rainforest
vegetation, it cools on reaching higher altitudes.
When it cools to dew point the temperatures at which water vapour condenses back into
water droplets large cumulus clouds develop. By mid afternoon, these clouds have grown
into black, towering cumulonimbus, which produce torrential downpours, accompanied by
thunder and lightning. Such storms soon cease, leaving the air calm. By sunset, by about
1800 hours, the clouds have already begun to break up. Nights are warm (23 oC) and very
humid.
TASK: Draw an annotated diagram to illustrate why it rains in the afternoon:
variations in tropical climate are dominated by changes in precipitation, which are in turn
largely influenced by the tropical rain belt or Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a portion
of the Hadley cell. The ITCZ is shown, for July average, in the graphic. Areas of ascending air
have heavy rainfall; areas of descending air are dry. The ITCZ somewhat follows the solar
equator throughout the year, but with geographical variations, and in some areas (India) is
heavily influenced by local large-scale monsoons.
THE TROPICAL CLIMATE CONTROL
The most important climate control in regard to the tropical climate types relates to the
position of the Inter Tropical Convergent Zone or ITCZ. The ITCZ is an area of low pressure and
marks the point of trade wind convergence. These two roles make it an important ingredient
in atmospheric circulation and give it a critical role in the formation of the Hadley cell.
The ITCZ's location varies throughout the year and while it remains near the equator, the ITCZ
over land drifts farther north or south than the ITCZ over oceans. This is due to greater
variation of land temperatures. The location of the ITCZ can vary as much as 40 to 45 of
latitude north or south of the equator based on the pattern of land and ocean. Despite these
variations the ITCZ relates closely to the altitude of the sun and marks the point where the
sun is highest in the sky. In temperate latitudes relative migration of the sun between the
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is responsible for creating the seasons but in tropical
latitudes it is responsible for the migration of low pressure and the resulting shifts in seasonal
tropical rains.
In order to answer the following question, look back at the climate graph for Manaus
ECOSYSTEMS
Rainforest ecosystems are characterised by heavy convectional rainfall, high humidity,
lushness of vegetation and nutrient-rich but shallow soil. These factors give rise to a unique
water and nutrient cycle.
9
The roots of plants take up water from the ground and the rain is intercepted as it falls - much
of it at the canopy level. As the rainforest heats up, the water evaporates into the atmosphere
and forms clouds to make the next day's rain. This is convectional rainfall.
The rainforest nutrient cycling is rapid. When the trees grow, they remove nutrients from the
soil to be returned later when their leaves fall. The hot, damp conditions on the forest floor
allow for the rapid decomposition of this dead plant material. This adds hummus and nutrients
to the top of the soil.
However, as these nutrients are in high demand from the rainforest's many fast-growing
plants, they do not remain in the soil for long and stay close to the surface of the soil. Rapid
chemical weathering processes in the hot and wet climate result in very deep soils, yet the
deep soil below has few nutrients, because of leaching. The nutrients have been taken down
in solution and removed from the soil by the rainwater.
If vegetation is removed, the soils quickly become infertile and vulnerable to erosion.
Therefore, if the rainforest is cleared for agriculture it will not make very good farmland!
Rainforest soils
Soils are red due to the high iron and aluminium content. There is a thick layer of leaf litter
and decomposing organic matter on the surface.
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In their natural state, rainforests are so dense that light doesnt not penetrate far into them. From the
air they appear as a continuous mass of trees, broken only by rivers. The trees are very tall, with
straight trunks which branch only at the top. The forest structure is composed of five tiers and is well
adapted to the climate in which it grows.
RAINFOREST PLANTS
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There are a large number of species in the rainforest, but they all look alike. Each species is
widely spaced apart. The south east island of Borneo, for example, has more than 10,000
plant species, including 3000 tree species. They are mainly hardwoods such as ironwood,
mahogany, ebony and rosewood.
The forest is not seasonal some trees will have flowers, and others fruit, while some are
losing their leaves. The deciduous trees drop their leaves at any time of the year, so the forest
has an evergreen appearance. A tree may have branches with no leaves, whilst others have
full foliage. It grows continuously until fully grown. The leaves are broad and often have
depressed central vein which leads to a drip tip
A fan palm
Buttress roots
Lianas
Strangler fig
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15
ANIMAL
ADAPTATION
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Producer
Producer
green
plants
convert
energy by
photosynth
esis
Consumer
Consumer
herbivores
eat green
plants
consum
er
consumer
carnivores
eat
herbivores,
om nivores
eat both
decom
poser
decomposer
bacteria
and fungi
The energy passes in the direction of the arrow. A simple example of a food chain would be:
Suns energy plants produce leaves and fruit squirrels eat them raptors eat squirrels
raptor dies, bacteria and fungi decompose the raptor
On the death of any animal or plant, the nutrients they contain will re-enter the soil for new plants to
take up. So, the two important processes in ecosystems nutrient cycling and energy flows are linked.
There are many food chains in the forest. They are interlinked as a complex food web, because an
animal is potentially hunted by more than one predator (or is prey for more than one animal)
TASK:
1. Draw two food chains for the rainforest
2. Draw a food web for the rainforest
PEO
RAINFOREST
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POSITIVE
IMPACTS OF HUMAN INTERVENTION
Improved transportation - new roads and airports. Better transportation means easier
access to raw materials like minerals and timber. Rainforest resources can be
transported away and sold.
Infrastructure, hospitals and education can be improved from the money gained from
selling natural resources.
Profits from selling resources can be used to improve a country's infrastructure. For
example, profits from the sale of rainforest resources can be used to build schools and
hospitals.
Raw materials, eg tropical hardwoods such as ebony and mahogany, can be sold for a
good price abroad.
Mineral deposits in the Amazon include bauxite (the main constituent of aluminium),
iron ore, manganese, gold, silver and diamonds. Minerals can be sold for high profits.
Large-scale farming brings money into the country and provides food and jobs for the
country's growing population.
Small-scale farming provides food for rainforest communities and the landless poor of
Brazil.
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PROBLEMS
o
o
o
o
o
OF HUMAN INTERVENTION
New roads divide up parts of the rainforest and can cut
off connections between different biotic and abiotic
systems. For example, a road can stop monkeys such
as the golden lion tamarin from travelling to gather
food and, in turn, distribute seeds to re-sow plants in
the forest.
Land clearance for farming, transportation and mining can lead to deforestation.
Hardwood trees take many years to grow so can be difficult to replace.
Fertile soils that make farming possible are quickly washed away when the forest is
cleared. If soil ends up in rivers, this can lead to flooding.
Loss of animal habitat occurs when trees are cut down. Hence, deforestation can result
in endangering animals and plant life, or even causing them to become extinct.
Profits from large-scale farming and selling resources often go back to MEDCs or large
companies and don't benefit the rainforest communities.
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Watch http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/rainforest-destruction-kalimantan-indonesia-andcosta-rica/3096.html
TASK: What have been the effects of rainforest clearances in the Amazon Basin (just
use the information on Pg 237 in your Wider World text book)
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If the forest is left alone, it maintains the soil fertility it has by returning
nutrients to the soil in leaf fall. It also reduces soil erosion in a number
of ways:
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24
POSSIBLE
STRATEGIES INCLUDE:
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Agro-forestry - growing trees and crops at the same time. This lets farmers take
advantage of shelter from the canopy of trees. It prevents soil erosion and the crops
benefit from the nutrients from the dead organic matter.
Selective logging - trees are only felled when they reach a particular height. This allows
young trees a guaranteed life span and the forest will regain full maturity after around
30-50 years.
Education - ensuring those involved in exploitation and management of the forest
understand the consequences behind their actions.
Afforestation - the opposite of deforestation. If trees are cut down, they are replaced to
maintain the canopy.
Forest reserves - areas protected from exploitation.
Monitoring - use of satellite technology and photography to check that any activities
taking place are legal and follow guidelines for sustainability.
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CHARACTERISTICS
TASK: With reference to place you have studied. Describe the climate
characteristics of a tropical desert climate.
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29
The rising air that leads to so much precipitation in equatorial climates eventually
descends to the Earths surface in the tropical deserts. This descending air is a major
cause of desert aridity.
Having risen to the tropopause, the air moves towards the poles and starts to cool
becoming denser as a result
It then sinks down to earth at about 30N and 30S creating g high pressure at the
surface
The sinking air becomes compressed and that compression causes warming. This
results in a decrease in the airs relative humidity
After reaching the surface, the dry air moves from the high pressure area back to the
low pressure in equatorial climates as the trade winds. The trade winds are strong and
constant and, because they derive from sinking air and blow over land to the deserts,
they do not contain much moisture. The combination of sinking air and dry trade winds
leads to very low precipitation in the tropical deserts. Some air also moves towards the
poles.
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The circulations of air between the equator and 30N and 30S are known as the
Hadley cells.
2) MOUNTAIN RANGES TO CREATE RAIN SHADOWS
Many deserts lies in the rain shadow of large mountain ranges. Where these mountain barriers
are located close to the sea, they prevent moisture being carried onshore by air masses from
reaching places on their less sides. Moist air which is being brought inland by prevailing winds
or secondary winds will reach the mountain ranges and be forced to rise, leading to
condensation and precipitation on the windward side sof the mountain. Warm dry air then
descends down the less sides of the moutains which are, consequently, despried of moisture.
Examples are the Patagonian desert in South America, or the Atacama desert in South
America.
3) THE INFLUENCE OF CONTINENTALITY
Remoteness from the sea is another major cause of aridity. Places in maritime (close to the
sea) locations generally have much higher rainfall than continental interiors. Therefore, we
find deserts further inland. The Sahara desert is the most inland place in the African
continent. This is particularly important for cold desert locations.
Because water heats up and cools down more slowly than land, coastal areas have warmer
winters and cooler summers than places further inland. This is known as the maritime
influence, when air blowing in from the sea brings the temperature of the sea to the land.
4) COLD OCEAN CURRENTS
There are cold ocean currents off the coast of tropical deserts. These currents are large bodies
of water that move from the oceans nearer the poles to areas nearer the equator.
The cold water influences the climate in two ways:
1) moisture is condensed offshore into fog and mist, which may then travel short
distances only to be burnt off by the rising morning temperatures
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2) any onshore winds passing over the cold ocean surface will themselves be cool and
have a very low moisture carrying capacity making them incapable of producing
rain.
COLD AT NIGHT?
Desert air has very low relative humidity, so desert skies are often cloudless or have very little
cloud. This results in extreme diurnal (daily) temperatures. Without cloud, the maximum
amount of solar radiation can reach the Earths surface, so daytime temperatures are often as
high as 38C. But, in summer they can reach as high as 50C.
However, at night without clouds to stop the Earths long wave radiation escaping into
space temperatures can fall rapidly to 15C in summer and 5C in winter. So, daily
temperature ranges in deserts are very large all year round.
Low temperatures at night can result in the condensation of water vapour, forming dew
(droplets of water on the surface).
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Joshua tree
and desert
scrub
Places where water comes to the surface, usually from a spring is known as an oasis, where
denser, taller vegetation is able to grow.
Desert soils can also cause difficulties for plants. They are either rocky or sandy, and very
porous, so water passes very quickly into them after rain
Sand soils are mobile, (so plants can easily be covered) and loose (so plants can be uprooted).
Nevertheless some grasses spring to life after the rain, such as in the sands of the Namib
desert
Desert soils are thin and contain very few plant nutrients. This
is because very little organic matter is available to decompose
into them
Many desert soils are grey, because they contain salts drawn
to the surface in solution after rain and then deposited at the
surface when the water evaporates. Only salt tolerant plants
such as saltbush, can grow in saline soils.
Because of the harsh conditions, the seeds of some desert plants are forced to lie dormant for
years and then flower and fruit very quickly after the rain. They have a very short life cycle
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35
The camel of the Sahara desert and other dry areas in North Africa have many specialist
adaptations. They have long eyelashes and can close their nostrils for protection in
sandstorms. They can go without water for months and can drink a lot of water very quickly
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when it is present. As food is not readily available, camels store fat in their humps. As this is
digested, hydrogen is released and mixes with oxygen to form H2O water.
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Hump:
Thick Wool On Back:
Sandy Colour:
Nostrils Which Can Open And
Close:
Residential areas
Film industry
Gambling
Tourism
Las Vegas 2 million inhabitants
CHALLENGES
URBAN AREAS:
Investment. Profits from tourism have been invested in education and other
programmes for local communities.
CHALLENGES
ENERGY
Oil and gas reserves underneath the desert
50% of Algerias GDP comes from oil and
gas
Solar power work has begun on
constructing a solar power plant in the
desert. Power will be transported under the
Mediterranean sea to Europe
THE FUTURE
Because Egypts farmland is increasingly being lost to urbanisation, wind blow sand and salinity the
government has begun a scheme to irrigate more land away from the Nile Valley
DROUGHT
Droughts occur when a long period of abnormally dry weather leads to a severe water
shortage. Droughts are also often caused by the activity of humans as well. Human activities
that can help trigger droughts include:
Widespread cutting down of trees for fuel. This reduces the soil's ability to hold water
and dries out the ground, triggering desertification, leading eventually drought.
Construction of a dam on a large river. This may help provide electricity and water to
irrigate farmland near the reservoir: however, it may also cause drought downstream by
severely reducing the flow of water.
Effects of drought
DESERTIFICATION
This is the process that sees productive land turned into non-productive desert. It usually
affects dry areas on the edge of deserts, eg The Sahel, south of the Sahara Desert in Africa.
WHAT
CAUSES DESERTIFICATION?
Desertification is a complex process. It is caused by physical processes and human
mismanagement. Factors which may cause desertification include:
Climate change especially long dry periods, causing drought. The dry conditions
cause the vegetation to die, so the land loses the protective cover that vegetation
provides.
Too many animals within the area leads to overgrazing.
Population growth traditional, less intensive, methods of farming decline. There is
more pressure on the land for growing crops. Nomadic tribes that once moved around
may start to farm in one area. Marginal land that is less suitable for farming is used.
Wood is also used for buildings, heating, and firewood, causing deforestation and soil
erosion.
WHAT
HOW
Recent evidence suggests that there are some areas where the process of desertification has
slowed down. However, the areas on the edge of deserts are still fragile and need very careful
management.
Commercial farmers, encouraged by government policies, have moved into the best dryseason land and converted it to commercial agriculture. As savannah is converted into
cropland, the natural vegetation is removed and the soil's nutrients are rapidly used up.
When the Serengeti National Park was established in the 1950s to conserve wildlife and
encourage tourism, human access to the park was restricted and the Masai were excluded
from it.
The Serengeti's population has expanded rapidly over the past 30 years. This has resulted in
larger herds grazing the grassland and more trees being cut down for fuel. As vegetation is
removed there is a risk of soil erosion.
These interventions forced the nomadic Masai farmers onto marginal land. Their traditional
pastoral migration patterns have been disrupted and they have been compelled to use
smaller areas of land for their cattle. Overgrazing has been the inevitable result.
The Serengeti's increasing population has resulted in a growth in demand for meat, which has
led to a rapid increase in meat poaching. Poachers are now killing around 150,000 wildebeest
a year - and a dramatic fall in the wildebeest population will cause a knock-on effect
throughout the ecosystem.
SUSTAINABLE
POSSIBLE
SOLUTIONS