SA fe Yo Ber G) Dynamics of Plate Interiors Edited by A. W. Bally P. L. Bender T. R. McGetchin R. |. Walcott Geodynamics Series Volume 14 American Geophysical Union Washington, D. C. Geological Society of America Boulder, Colorado 1980@) aS) WS to esimony 2iohstni stol4 yllod .W.A yd betiba rebned 1.4 nitoteOoM .A T ttoatoW 1A eehee 2oimpnyboso f emuloV nolnU tpoleyriqoe® noohemA 2 6 notoniteow pohemA to yleloo? losigeloe® abowied aubives gerBASINS AND SUBSIDENCE - 4 SUIOARY Shell O11 Company, P. 0. yer Introduction oe ‘A wide variety of perspectives - Properly representing the sonewhat disJointed state of the are 1s contained in this collection of pepers on basin evolution and subsidence. These contributions can be easily grouped in papers concerned with geophysical models of basin subsidence and papers of 2 doinantly descriptive nature that ~ vith sone excep- tions ~ do not make a deliberate’effort to quanticatively test the subsidence and uplift Aistory with one oF aore geophysical nodels. Although all authors made a diligent effort co provide their contributions on time, the final publication of this volune was unfortunately Gelayed, ‘Therefore, this sumary vill also try to call attention’ to sone relevant recent papers chat were published after the authors pubsitted and edited their aanuscripts. For Sncther review of the genesis of placfore basins, see Sleep et al, 1980. Geophyaical Models In this volune, Turcotte offers & general tneroductton co evolutionary motels fo sed! eentery besinsy Sott illustrates the apple: Stitey of such aodele to passive aargines Hinally, arcyushtov et all, discuss the pos Sibte altecco of aiffecentiates Cisiay from the lover sumcle fo gprend in traps az the b st noving lithospheric plates. Tn sone cases, Sich spetading even extends vader the crust. tn peinefples'che folioving mais subetse achentens have been proposed: ; i Sobyudence due tovaetinent loading. icoedisg to Bott and also other auth, aub- Sidonee fut eoiely co this nechantem cannot Feanonably exceed cwo co three ines fhe ini- Etat water depen and: chee say noe apply to very Enlek sequences of shaliow wacer depositsy but, Eoistatee by Boce and: Turcotte, sedinent doas= {ng nay well have a-atgnifteant influence on the sebeddence of (chick sequences deposited Efetperacar ox'4 Soncinensa! fase environment Consequently, other processes oF "driving Save’ tobe tavokad to explain what ay ee > Bally Box 481, Houston, 93. 71001 4, Texas AG Haen (1978) eatis “tectonte subsideace”. Tgostatic subsidence die co cooling of & Etidiomphess a ehe_soz £ ge in density. Heating of the GTehosphere and "ite cract Teeulcs in uplife and ‘crustal thinning die to surface erosion. later, cooling vould cause subsidence of such an attenuated crust. dovever, the -ancunts of Gpuige and surface erosion required ro explain the origin of deep sedimentary basins (levy 10 exceas of 5 im) ave unreasonably Large; and, therefore, additional mechanisns are needed (see Royden et al. 1980). subsidence due co cooling ney also be the consequeace of simple Iithosphertc screcching Glekensie, 1978; Royden et at, 1980; sclarer fand Christte, 1980). Such szvecching may be Scconplished by Liseeie normal faulting in che per crust conbined with ductile necking of the lover crust and/or upper eantle. 4. Ror discussed in this series of papers 16 4 Bechanten proposed by Royden et cl. (1580), Ghereby sedimentary basins and passtve coptt- Rental margine way be fored by cracking of Continental Lithosphere and the {ncruston of Ultzabasie dikes and/or dtapirs, This model te Felated to the ones described Later under 5 and &, but £2 envisages che process to be shore ‘Livea and Linited £0 the formacion of graben gystens, that nay initiate sedinentary basins. Sr A donaity increase of lower crustal or Lisnospherie socks due t0 gabbro-eclogite phase changes oF else metanorphisn may aise lead co Lsostatie subsidence. Tt has, however, been aifticule to denonstsace thar such 2 process hhas occurred on a large scale in nature (see, ‘tise, Sleep et al., 1980). The effect of ‘formation of metastable phases to denser stable phages at lover crustal conditions on passive margins has been discussed by Neuge~ bauer and Spohn (1378). 6 ‘The two preceding mechaniens may be viewed spectal cases of partial “oceantzatt: However, complete basification or "ocesniza~ tion” of the crust 1s believed to be caused by a supply of ultrabasic material from the mantle or deeper, In this process, the top layer of the crust Seconea bgsic, while the lower crustasus eas cLassnearion high temperature creep occurs, on passive Gargine high densiey oceanic iichoopnere Silt ‘under thé adjatins continent, s process | -Wileheventually may intctace oubicctton and | = SS pan agi Te eT sien | REEgin,, Tn their view - and Tn conevaae to | BSCE = these authors feel that the viscosity of __,. it Madde crust too negh to permit ereen. ’ Are onwaN or esas UMES vm 8. Sloss and Spaed (1974) and Sioss (2980) mm visualize variations of the rate of flow of melt from continental to oceanie asthensephexe, 194) hi ts me In sheir model, trapping of melt beneath conti i Seo Benes causes uplift, while the draining of melt to oceanic aechenospheric circulation wove cause continental deflation and sbsideece chat would also coincide with ascelerated sercfloce ty, tm nat ed ie spreading. BE ERESOR Cooma 5 SE ASeyssiov, ia ehis volune, relates uplite yuma mango nig Tcinaneaamcaveo mn onuaton anid suboidence’ events to Perioddeedie apes ‘Setsartt anatase differentiates that are formed at the core faatle boundary and chat spread below the Tithoephere, Tor a review of the Lthospheric theologte charactertatice that ace relevant to basiatssb- Sidence models, the reader io referred ¢0'Beiwe sone (1978), Seaimont and. Seecncy (1978) and Beaurone (1575). Particularly 14 the last gub- Leation, the author states that {t-te diffe cule to decide among composing thesiagiee Glastic, Elascic-teriectiy piestic, Wiseo~ elastic and Pover Lav Creep) or various com binations of these properties, Therefore, nore information on aaiclating aechentons and on 12 Cand pte ne in 2 econ Sees © moon ancora 7 hee tt lng ee me SEE ete 20 eprummntorty ace nme Present and past lateral changes. dn Lichospherte ras serine eee eat as I pfoperclan weds be Reaied Ge spect Pte erie Plete understanding of Lithosphere rheclogy. meat estore 2 decay 2 Oe reend dent oe oH ern A explanation of the great vartety of sasin types may require different combinations of the 2 Se sbove-nentioned mechantsne and possibly yet = Sa Other mechanisns that so far have sot been pro Table 1, Basin Classification (after Bally Posed. Fron a geologic parspective, £2 1 00 and Snelson, 1980, with permission of Can. the other hand desirable to classify basin . - types IF only: eo got an overview of the Large number of individually charactertette basins that occur {n che world. This author naturally becomes ulsrabate and acquires « density equal prefece ia ows eieeerticarnts oeagy aut fo or even greater cian the natle (scious, Bally and Snelson, 1980), but quite sbvicusiy 1508). "“Resosding to Artyushiy, suche peo Such classifications have a degree of arbitte- cans is snplausible, because a mixture of bodies Tiness aad cas easily" rept seee beeen : Of nual crustal and nascle conposi¢ion eine Syatenes The classification (iabie 2) as 2 tivaye ressin Lighter than aancle matter and, Heane £9 replace the old geosyaclinal ciessttt- Consequently, cannot sft {neo fe. tation, because the Latter doce not adequacely Gl ——Sriaace, aa hte volume, rerdeve ite" aptina- reflect advances in plate tectonics. Fig. 1 g tion for’ passive nargin subsidence and crustal _provides's segecectonts ftaresenis ahtehtis 5 thinning due eo creep of a ductile aicéle see Seed es background fora clasettication, igs. 5 over cfuat covard the oceans, Such" creep i 2,°3, 4 ahow the dscedvution of ehree der ze caused by unequal topographic Loedvog sevoss baain fandlies, dec, bestes Located an the a reve tochncaeal erga Figid Lithosphere, pévisucural basins’ end ep! etter and Weisener (1979) modified Bots! utural basins Figs 3 shove thas for Norte conetpte: and Wossed the ichoopieessIneS ane hnerica, the ¢iffercat basis ocesr aide by WHHEY Drsvtle Layer-ent-w tower IAjarTHUhich ——_ida'sn'a rincie ernagea te eety ide BY ke Layer-entw over Tayer TH-vRsch $OCEANIC ceust MEGAsuTURES CENO.-mESOZOIC HE reeriany [etne.mesozoie 4 a-susouction MM cicraccous PaLEozOIC 4 Bsusouction HEE Jurassic RECAMBRIAN FELSIC INTRUSION HERE Ace unknown ape Pig: jis _Tectonte map of the world: Megasutures are zones of dominantly non rigid orogente deformation and sed: fimentary basins included within such Zones Arubduction (after Ampferer) involves the limtted subduction of continesnas Lith sphere; che symbol corresponds to the boundary cf a folded dels tact and partially overthrusting continental crust. 3-subduction (aft is subduction of oceanic Lithosphere with folded belts facing oceanic Beni The felsic intrusion boundary separates areas of Mesozoe and Cosseos Sgneous activity in China from areas that are not #0 affected (after Sally and Sne! Perspective, a different genesis nay be expected for the different basin types and sone of these subdivisions, In the following, the classification will be Used as a guide to review the applicability o non-applicabilicy of che many proposed subsie dence mechanisns to sone of the more iaportant basin classes, son, 1980, with permission of Can. Soc. Petrol. Geologieta), Concerning the Applicability of Vertous Geophysical Models to Different Basin Types following observations are based on the Papers contained in the asin and Substdenc. Section. For the sake of continuity, ve have Sefrained from eiting cha specttic absetvation and thoughts of the author of this volume and BASINS AND SURSTDENCE 7BASINS ON RIGID LITHOSPHERE HE coon 90 ED cee wcasrne Basins on rigid Lithosphere. these 3t¢ further subdivided on Table 1 (after Sally and Snelson, 1980, with permission of cone Soc, Petrol. Geologists). Fig. 2. of many other publications; ve do, hovever, cite sone recent publications that were sot avatiable when our authors subaiteed thei papers, Atlantic type (passive) continental narging typically show a lover faulted section cone ponding to an early rifting event and an eonee Sequence of sediments that correspenl an dcifting phase. The two gections are often OF more widespread unconiormi- fecinents of the upper seitence are typically of about the seme age as fhe oldest adjacent oceante couse Atlantic-type nargins are well explained by 2 Gonbination of: (1) Thermal origin, des SRE,of the continental Lithosphere. The unser Sriscle layer of the scretched Lithosphere coy fxtend along liseric normal faults hae seis vor {nthe lower crust or upper mantle. (3) faject Sdon of basic intrusive material. (3) Coolie dstoctated vith advanced ocean spreading oot Tpdifted by sedimene loadings and (4) efece in ibs middle and lover crust and possibly oseas Sovard continent creep in the underlying asthenosphere. The wltinate causes of the thermal ortgta are not The effect of hypothetical effects of creep in the inven cust, or of asthenospherie exeep Recent studies by Steckier and Wates (1978), Keen (1979) and Watts and Steckler (19795 oy the subssdence of the North Atlancie eargte 8 pany eEE based on vell data and reflection setemic Etudes. |The subsidence reconstruccione at Ehese authors included proper correctints Sograction (4.0., che Layers were “decoope od! ang {or water death changes as indicated by Palooenvironeental bathymettic anaivers” According to Keen, in the order of 45 co 65 Percent of the subsidence on Subsidence vbich the above-nentione! sushore Eefor to as "tectonic subsidence” ts oy nay authors found to be explainable as tac, response to thermal cooling of she WAEES and Sceckler then attempe co {alate axe Teustatic” effects by assuning that sectors Subsidence 1s indeed cherma! and by lease Sauare fitting of an exponential carve to the subsidence data. They conclude that che mace um rise of sea level during late Cretaceess is Rot Likely to exceed 150 a Studies by Yontadert et ai (1979) across She Atlantic-type margin of the norchers Golf Of Biscay were particularly useful in differen Eating the effects of @ submarine riceiag gent from later eubsidence due to cooline Active rifting in the northern Gulf of dtecay is acconpanied by 10 co 15 C2 onmesere wns WE coat wisest Fig. 3. Perisutural basins, adjacent to suse duction boundaries but located on rigid 1icho- These axe further subdivided on Table 1 (after Bally and Snelson, 1980, with peraees ston of Can, Soc. Petrol. Geologists)crust due t0 cooling, gidence decreases continuously from the occas’ spapdtent boundary (ac about 4000 m) tevece ne the eupreaks Thus, for any point on the serena Eig, Mbsidence versus tine curve is an expert Sepak, he PME conatane of which inereasce nie depth Recently LePichon and Sibuet (1960) OF ekannad, the Gulf of Bincay area in ché Lighe cEatekenste's (1978) stretching model ‘Tres se eats, thE, "che aaoune of beieele seretthing aaeineg PSE & kn of continental crust tesches'a geximua value of about 3 and 18 equst cane Creare basing appear to vary widely anong For a large number of cratonie Lexie ve have only a very dim piature of cheir MMstory. Sut ie 4s fair to staee that where we have the data, sost cratonic basnnt Sipett to be underiatn by aore or Less coapier Tite systems. Consequently, one ta tomscon ee apply @ passive sargin-type'therzal aodel sor basins, thae ie, a fouel where a thermal event initiates the rift {BE and subsequent cooling would lead tonan exponential decrease in the substdence carn, EPI-SUTURAL BASINS cena SRC ewe 8 RE ramon rr ss EME easns noone or eceane cust go wats sas Tv recommen eos Fig. 4. Epdsutural basing located on Cenozoie= Mesozoic megasuture. These are further oak éivided on Table 1.” 4 enail number of Preserved Paleozoic episutural basins (e.g., Gulf of St. Lawrence, Sidney Bain) ere gaz shown (after Bally and Snelson, 1980, sich Permission of Can. Soc. Patrol. Geologists). Foduction of Feflection Lines and vell daca. They nave nes Puted subsidence after proper corrections tee pete ete Of Compaction and the depth of aepe- Sition of the sedimente. These aurhors Gente? garate thae following earlier crustal exrereon tiyins the Permian and Triassic, respectionts? the main extensional phase occutres ee (aay Srasste through Late Cretaceous, woscly in (cay, between 50-75 ims) che Viking grebec Thermal relaxation of the asthenosghere fei jou. #RE extension caused general subsicence sotiny ceseatien of saucer shaped basin during Uses the aegOus snd Tertiary tines. In other wooke, fhe origin of the North Sea basin may te explained in teras of cooling that follous a najor stretching events For oat other cratonic basing, the informa Sion regarding initiation and ceseation at rifting and subsidence ROt precise Snaugh to test any of the proposed geohseical nodels or combinations of models, Ppberisutural basins have been subdivided on Table 1, and the most iaportanc ones ese thorn on Fig. "3. The subsidence of deep 20a trenches ts now Sgnerslly related to subduction and explains ia Bets of @ cooling oceanic lithosphere, flenerct bending and loading by an delane ere aad see ‘accretionary wedge on one side of that lichen Sphere (Watts and Talvani, 1974; Parsone ang Molnar, 1976; Caldveii et'al., i976, 1999) Surprisingly, quantifative studies of vie pabeddence of foredeepe' and corresponding nedels have become available only very resentiy> development of sone foredeeps has been rovicced 2228888 and Roeder (1975), Roeder (1980) sna Bally ‘and Snelson (1960). Sections across trot ge Foredseps are shown on Pig. 9. the exancice flected indicate the great imporsance of shone Pazine for hydcocarbon exploration. ron 4 eee~ pollesl perspective, <2 vould appear thae waty foredeepe are underiain by a platforms sequen, Of a oasetve margin type, ives, with an soriy and narrow graten system chee ‘elatively high angles to the frands of the adjacent fold belcs. Such graben systems ate overlain by posterifting platen Sequences. These in turn are overlete ty wedges etc sediments that thicken fowards the adjacent mountain ranges ond con fain such of the detritus derived trom the Rountain ranges. In ¢ fitee apprexinactone Roeder et al. (1978) itiuetrated che subsidence history of the/appalachian foredeep (fis, 5) BASTNS AND SUBSIDENCENORTH AMERICA. BASIN MAP Fig. 5. North Auerica basin map. The clastic wedges of foredeeps are fre~ quently separated fron the platform sequence and Underlain by aajer supraregionai unconforaities ov mappable guberop patterns that sug- ig Breeding the deposi~ ‘The pre-Kaskaskia suberop shown on Fig. 96 nay reflect continent-wide warping immediately 10 SALLY preceding the deposition of the clastic wedge Felated to Devonian cectogenesis in the Appala~ chian and Innuitian folded belts of North Anerica, The complex pre-Cretaceous subcrop (Fig. 9b) reflects structural events immediately preceding the deposition of the clastic weds that formed as a consequence of Cretaceous ces togente eventa,in the Western Cordillera.Ass TH eI LHOsPneRE PISTUEAL ASS EE meee ome aa Beene FeisuTuRat Ans Fe mca Ean LEGEND FOR (+ NORTH AMERICA BASIN MAP. Fig. 6, Legend for che North Anerica map. The Aclantic-type or passive margin basins of North ‘Anerica are related to the opening of the Atlancic and Arctic Oceans during Hesozose— Cenozoic tines; the eratonic basing are doni- nantly filled with Paleozoic sediments and may for may not display an early Paleozote rifting event} the foredeeps of the eastern and south- ern U.S. and the Canadian Arctic are associated with the adjacent Paleozoic fold belts; the foredeeps of western Norch Anerica are asso~ elated with the formation of the adjacent Western Cordillera; the doninantly marine episutural basins of the West Coast and Alaska are either associated vich backare spreading or else vich che formation of the San Andreas, fault systen; the dominantly continental basins of the Basin and Range province are Linked with the foreation of @ major Cenozoic shear systen that was superposed on the Western Cordiilera of the U.S, and Mexico. Only the generalized distribution of a largd number of suall basins 4s shown; the backare basins of the Caribbean are foreed either by backare spreading (Yucatan Basin) or by capturing of oceanic fragaents (Colonbian and Venezuelan Basins). To explain convincingly and to model the aubeidence of the deeper rift and platform por- tion of a foredeep in terms of an Atlantic-type nodel, more precise timing of the rifting inter~ val and a reconstruction of the subsidence ratt Are neoded, The subsidence of the foredeep clastic wedge may well be explained by a com bination of flexural bending and one-sided load~ ing by thrust sheets on a bacenent ranp that dips under the adjacent mountain range; any additional tectonic subsidence effects would need to be explained in terms of deep crustal flow, loading that occurs deeper in the 1itho- sphere or possibly the crustal delanination under the adjacent uplifted mountains (Bird, 3978). Beaunont (1980) quantitatively models che subsidence of the clastic wadge of a foredeep in terms of regional isostatic adjustuent of the Lithosphere under the mass load of the adjacent migrating fold-thrust mountain belt. Thus, the foredeep is due to downward flexure of the lithosphere by the thrust bele; an addi- tional depression 1s caused by the {nfilling of mountain derived sedinent. Using the Alberta Foredeep of Western Canada as a test, Seausont shows that a viscoelastic theology for che Lithosphere provides the best agreesent between model and observation. In the classification of Table 1, there are two variations of episutural basins, the blook- foulted foredsep bavins (e.g., Wyoning Tertiary basins) and the Chinese-tyre fastns, for which no quantitative models have been produced. Boch basin types have faulted margine, ond the geo- metry and nature of these marginal faults Le the Subject of much debate, In the Wyoming ane Colorado Rockies, one school clains that the bounding faults sceepen with depth (for & review, see Matthevs 111, 1978); others, how ever, are swayed by convincing geophysical evi~ dence (Smithson et al., 1978, 1979; Braver et 4a1., 1980) that at least one of the faults are feverse faults that "sole" of flatten in che Lover crust of upper aantle. The latter inter- pretation would suggest that the Tertiary subsi- Gence in the adjacent basin is in essence flere due to loading of the Lithosphere by a crystal- Line basement thrust shoot. ‘A similar mechanism may be invoked for the subsidence of Chinese-type basing (for 3 sap Showing the disteibucion of these basins, see Bally, 1980). In China, as in the Colorado- iyoming-Uzah Rocky Mountains, more geophysical data and careful subsidence studies are needed. ‘Epteutunad basing are subdivided ince cub- groups on Table 1, and the types associated with Besubduction zones (Bally and Snelson, 1980) are shown on Pig. 10- In general, the subsidence of forsare basins (basing located on the azc-trench gap) is poorly understood, prinarily because ve lack Getatled and published high resolution seismic sections that are calibrated by wells. In Sone cases, foreare basins nay be doninated by graviey sliding and assoctaced normal faule~ ingy dn others, thetr evolucion nay be influenced by the tectonic evolution of the underlying accretionary wedge; and, finally, sone authors suspect an entirely extensional origin for these basins. Baokare basing of the Western Pacific type as well a3 the "contsnencal" backare basins of the Pannonsan type #11 appear to be iniciaced by a rifting phase and folloved by later subsi- dence, A thermal origin associated with crvs~ tal stretching sens likely for these basins (ckensie, 19780; Molnar and arvacer, 1978; and Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979). Subsidence of the Gulf of Lion ~ a backare BASINS AND SUBSIDENCE 11= (s19}8oT099 *tox30g “905 “weg 50 worssTmxed Was ‘ON6T ‘doopoaoy ueyyor teddy (q) wora0q 02 dor woz suyseq dovpazos jo sotdueng “7 “tg svostous “doopa: oe N« VQVNVD N&gISaM vom o2t om oF, 9 cs tached pooner) cow z | racer | | amar | waoaivia Nvissny oz NoLLWI390vK8 TYDUAAA NVIHOVIVdd¥ 1V¥LN3DKNOXVILLE AREA VALLEY & RIDGE BELT GEOL. QUADRANGLES My 3005 PENN wesre miss Fae oev CRATONIC 400° ‘Quiescence J sit ‘oRD SPREADING = RIFTING sood cron Fcamalatseer| jwauco| CUMULATIVE THICKNESS Fig. 8, Trinomial diagram illustrating cumulative sedimentation along a section ‘acrosa the Tennessee thrust belt, after data in published geological quadrangle Bape. Vertical axis te in tine; horizontal axis contains cumulative formation thickness in individual curves arranged palinspastically along a cross section. Each curve represents data taken from a quadrangle map. The thick line is che Sclater-Francheteau curve of oceanic subsidence for comparison. The deviation of the time-thickness plots from the Sclater-Francheteau curve reflects reflects the Closing of the ocean during the Upper Ordovician. Te is assumed chat cusulative sedinentation reflects crustal subsidence except in the deep water sedinents of the Gtiddle Ordovician) Telitco-Sevier shale complex, Shaded areas are tines and spaces of erustal unrest, including @ late Canbrian event of rifting, a Middle Ordovician ‘and a Carboniferous foredeep event. (Figure and caption afta’ Roeder et al., 1978, ‘ with perniesion of U. of Tennessee, Dept. of Geol. Sciences.) basin ~ has been explained by Steckler and Watee (in preparation) in tems of thermal cooling, following substantial lithospheric stretching (S.e., by about a factor of 10). These authors note that geological evidence does not support auch large amounts of streteh- ing of the continental crust; and, therefore according to Steckler and Watts, heating a ciated with stretching has to be supplemented by additional heating mechanisas, such as pre~ existing high thermal gradients or active heat- ing due to deep seated mantle processes. In any event, their study shovs that subsidence for backate basins aay be modeled using criteria and methods that are similar to those used for pa sive margins. Tt has, hovever, been noted chat backare basins’ tend 0 survive only for limited periods, say (60 Ma) while passive margins form and subeide over auch longer tine spans, Tn other words, the iniesal genesis and subsi- dence history aay be sintlar, but backare basing appear to have a built-in self-destruct echaniea The Pannonian Basin has been studfed in some detail, and its crustal structure is rather well, known (Horvath ond Scegena, 1977). Recently Sclater et ai. (1980) have looked at. the inera-Carpathtan episutural basins and their thermal origin. For @ aunber of peripheral basing (e.g., the Vienna Basin), these authors postulate a two-fold stretching during Early- Middle Miocene, leading to a very fast initial Subsidence and slov later gubsidence due to conductive cooling of the Lithosphere. The more central basins of ungary (e-g-, Fannonian Basin) prove nore difficult to explain. A nodel assum ing stretching by a factor of three could explain the thermal subsidence and the heat flow, Unfortunately, this 1a not supported by the available geologic information, which suggests the absence of a well defined initial subsidence. Sclater et al, offer alternative soluctons either a tvo-fold stretching accompanied by sub- Crustal attenuation of the :ithosphere or else attenuation of the vhole suberustal Lithosphere and part of the crust by subcruscal melting and erosion. Finally, thege 4s 2 group of basine related BASINS AND SUBSIDENCE 13,Ang. On the other hand, the shoulders of vast eral.'s curves would mark the slowdown and cessation of one major plate tectonic regine and {ts configuration and the begianing of another new place cecconte configuration. Dur- ing one such configuration, different nodes of rectogeneais occur simultaneously in different. pares of the world (see, also, Sloss, 1960). Te fe concluded that the global cycles pub- Lehed by Vail et al, and the sequences des exibed by Sloss and Mia follovers may indicate Widespread (but not globally ubiquitous) cor- Telation of phases of basin subsidence, Unconformittes that separate the cycles are the response to short periods of plate reorganize tion (for inseance, due to continental colli- siona, ridge-continent collisions, changes in spreading systens, collapse of large marginal sea domains, etc.) that are folloved by new subsidence cycles. ‘The "global” unconfornities that separate najor stratigraphie sequences also correspond Father well fo Stille's (1924) orogenic phases, and recently Schwan (1960) considered the cor~ Felatabilicy of these Alpino-type orogenies Wich discontinuities in sea-floor spresding (Fig. 12), Ziegler (1978) showed sinilar rela~ tons, but in his case he ties then also to unconfornities that occur in the cratonic realm of Northwestern Europe. In the Light of Gilluly's eloquent ertticisn, it would be sore plausible to relate roughly correlatable "worldwide" (better: widespread, because they are not ubiquitous) unconfornities to major plate reorganizations, which are not ogee rasan | Rea| phe sta acon ls pear 4g |e i i ot | i 3 stromata —] Fig, 12, Correlation of discontinuities in ecean-fioor spreading and unconformities of orogenic phases (after Schwan, 1980). 16 RALLY. necessarily orogenic or mountain butlding tec~ tonic events. Such unconforaities simply reflect uplifts which may affect cratonic and noweratonic reaine in different ways. Wien Tegunption of "plate tectonics as usual" after a ajor global reorganization, eubduction-related sis and subsidence {n cratonic realns Whether the synchroneity of globally wide spread phases of basin subsidence and uplli Phases is controlled by the rhythm of astheno- spheric flows between continents and oceans (Sloss and Speed, 1974; Sloss, 1980) has yer co be supported by geophysteal observations. ALL our arguments are not yet suffiesently precise to come up with a systematic review of worldvide basin-forming events, and this one ie Limited co expressing only a fev guesses: 1. The papers in this velune and other publica tions dimly suggest that major worldwide rifting events and the formation of associated graben aystens occurred during the latest Precanbrian. In a plate tectonic perspective, this could indicate the breakup of a late Precasbrian Supercontinent which, so far, is also only vaguely cireunseribed by paleonagnetic data (Pangea 2 of Morel and Irving, 1978). The rel Eton of such an event to widespread Penafrican- Batkalian orogenic activities also renains obscure, 2, ‘The breakup, of a supercontinent like Panges ince Triassic tines proceeds in major segnents, 0 that the inception and duration of rifting nay differ for the different segments. The sub- Sidence due to cooling associated with the open- ing of segaents of an ocean begins at different tines during the dispersal of Pangea, t.e., Mid- Juraseie for the North Atlantic, Lowar Creta~ ceous for the South Atlantic, late Cretaceous for the Greenland-Northern Europe Atlantic, Focene for Australis-antarctica, upper Miocene for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, ete. 3, Accepting plate tectonics as'a working hypo- thesis, it vould follow chat the subsidence his tory of foredeeps should correlate with the Subsidence history of that segment of a spread~ 4ing ocean that 1s responsible for the subduction ain building process hich has to the effects of ocean spreading. Coney (1979) has illustrated this point by relating the opening of the Atlantic to the Mesozoic-Cenozoie evolution of the Western Cor- dillera, The over-all synchroneity of the sub- sidence on the Atlantic margin and the Nesozoic~ Paleogene foradesp of North Anerics support these relations. Sintlarly, the opening of the Indian Ocean land the subsidence history of its margins may be tied to the subsidence history of foredeeps of the lpine-Himalayan system, 4. The wajority of the backare basins of che world appear to be in{tiated by thermal rifting and/or stretching processes during late Peleo- cene tines (althoygh there are « nuaber of sig-nificant exceptions). Further subsidence pos sibly due to cooling and/or spreading in the arginai basins occurs during the Neogene, Rofa ‘and Richardson (1978) suggest that during the Focene, a major reorganization of global place notion pattern occurred where notions with large N-S components were replaced by motions with Large E-i components because of an increase in Length in collisional boundaries, Consequently, increased En sea-floor spreading chat appears to be associated wich a sunber of backare basing nay be induced by such reorieatations. ‘The above-mentioned speculations provide pos- sible ratidnales for an over-all correlatability of worldwide subsidence episodes of differing character that are based on the plate tectonic hypothesis. Such rationales becone such nore tenuous when applied co cratonic basins (ayne~ clises) snd arches (anteclises). Of course, the separation of cratonie basins and foredeepe te sonovhat arbicrary, and authors differ on their nitions. But the major problen is that we id reasonably accurate cross sections based on reflection seismic data and quantitative subsi- dence reconstructions across many cratonie basins in the vorld before we undereake any cor relation. These are not currently availabié Adherenes of Fixise concepts (Beloussov, 1962, 1975) or of global expansion (Carey, 1977) would search for different rationales to explain ‘any global correlatability of subsidence, but these alternative hypotheses are not nearly so dependent on establishing such global correla: tions. For instance, the nechanisns proposed in Artyughkov's contribution in this volume are interesting in that they accept plate tectonics but assume the existence of long-lasting plunes that channel hot differentiates fro the lover mantle, vhich may migrate in traps that are formed at the base of the Lithosphere, As such trapa may exist for long periods, they may vel! explain repeated upligt in certain areas. Future Research Our speculations on global correlatability lead naturally to questions chat may concern Zuture research on basin subsidence, i.e de obvious from our summary chat we lack precise basinyide subsidence measurements for many areas. Also, the precision and documenta tion of available measurenents Leaves much £0 be desired. Van Hiate (1978) has laid out the pro- cedure for a more reliable analysis of basin subsidence, viich should include (a) a proper evaluation of paleontologic and paleoecologic informacion, (b) compaction corrections, and (@) an indication of the origin and the radio~ netrie calibration of the tine scale used. There ts still substantial uncertainty in the choice of radionetric scales (Cohee et al., 1978), and this 1s pareicularly erictcal for subsidence studies of Paleozoic and late Pre- The aechodology for the application of geo- physical model studies co subsidence studies 18 contained in the recently published papers by Steckler and Watts (1978), Turcotte and McAdoo (1979), Keen (1979), Aoyden et al. (1980), and Sclater and Christie (1980). 4 nusber of these Studies also indicate their practical inpartance for the evaluation of che petroleum pocential of sedimentary basing, Clearly, the aaturation history of organie-rich petroleum source beds is influenced by the thermal evolution of sedimen- cary basing. 2. Subsidence studies that are based on vell data only and that are not complenented by reflection seianic Lines are inherently weakened by the circuastance that most hydrocarbon exploration vells are designed co test anom lies, To understand the size, the local or regional significance of such anomalies, ir 1s desirable whenever possible to conplenent subsi- Sence date with reflection satanic sections that hopefully would reveal sore about the nacure of tthe bottom of the basin (i.e., extensive fault- ing may suggest an initial thermal event, or, conversely, lack of faulting would favor models emphasizing flexural bending) « 3. Causes for subeddence and najor uplifts within basins are often postulated to be located in the lover Lithosphere (lover crust and nantle) and the asthenoaphere. For this reason, geophysical studies (reflection, refraction and wide angle reflection surveys) of the lover crust the aantle, and the asthenosphere are most impor~ tant, Cooperation with surface and subsurface geologists would insure that these studies are Haid out to adequately characterize the geologic dimensions of basins and the uplifts that form their margins (1.e., deep seisnic sounding experiments - refraction, wide angle reflection, ‘and deep crustal reflection, etc. - should cover doth the basin and the adjacent flanks and uplifts). With che notable exception of the USSR and parts of eastern Europe, deep Litho- spheric and asthenospheric daca dbcained with ‘subsigence the intent to characterize areas, and adjacent areas of uplifc are ra able digferentiate anong various proposed subsidence nechaniens. 4. A significant counterpart of basin subsi- dence is related co uplifes that form its rise. The genesis of euch uplifes is poorly know and the incentive to study then is Limited, because erosion has eliminated auch of che record. How fever, it mist be emphasized that regional and ‘supraregional suberops such as those described by Levorsen (1960) and Cook and Bally (1975) Fig. 9a and b provide valuable information cot cerning tilting movenents. Togecher with deep geophysical informacion, such studies could Lead fo the Zormlation of alternative mdels for the formation of arches. 5. A theraal origin of many basin types is pos~ talated by a nunber of geophysical models. To BASINS AND SUBSIDENCE 17test thea, heat flow studies of the type die~ cussed by a number of our authors are needed. Ie is most desirable to conplenent such work with studies that atteape co unravel the thermal evolution of the basin fill. Such studies include clay compaction, the metamorphism of clay minerals, organic maturation studies based fon various indicator (coalification, vitrinite reflectance, spore translucency, consdonta, hydrocarbon maturity, etc.). These suggestions for future research should be amplifies by a plea to continue traditional studies (t.e., stratigraphy and all other geolo- gle compilation directed tovard quantitative Knowledge of subsidence history, gravity, nag- netics, etc.). But above all, we would itke to strese that subsidence and basin evolution atu- ies are most aucceseful when done by teans of various specialists; no single individual 12 able to master all the methods that are required to study the evolution of basins. In a nut~ shell, mltidisetplinary geological, geochent- cal, paleontological, and geophysical work 1s @ “nuee" for subsidence studies. Acknowledgenenta: T thank Shell O11 company for providing time and help to edit the papers of chis part end for permission to publish this review, I would particularly like to thank H. Seote and D. Branson for preparing che i11us- trations and K. Ziegler and J. Carewrighe for the retyping of all manuseripts of Part I of this volun Bally, A. W., Canada's passive continental aar~ gina ~'a vavieu, Mae. Geophys. Rese, 2(4), 527-340, 1576. Bally, A. Ws, and S, Snelson, Realms of subes- dence, Can! Soc. Petrol. Geol. Hem., 6 1-94, 1980, Bally, A. W, et al., A sketch of the tectonice of China, Open File Rep., 80-501, U.S. Geol. Surv., Reston, VA, 1980. Beaumont, C., The evolution of sedimentary ‘agine on viscoelastic Lithosphere: theory and examples, Geophys. J. Boy. Astron. Soc., 55, 473-498, "1978. Beaunont, C., Foreland Bagins, submitted to Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soc., 1980. Beaumont, C., and J. F. Sweany, Craben genera- tion of sajor sedinencary basing, Tectono- hysies, 50, 719-723, 1978. Beaunone, C., On rheological zonation of the Lithosphere during flexure, Tectonophysics, 53, 367-365, 1979. Beloussov, V.'V., Basic Problems in Geozec— tonies, 609 pp., HeGrav Hill, New York, 1962. Beloussov, V. V., The crust and upper aantle of the oceans (in'Russian), -, Nauka, 1968, Beloussov, ¥. V., Foundations’ of geotectonice (in Russian), Soscow, Nyedray 260 pper 1973. 18 BALL Bird, Peter, Initiation of intracontinental ‘Subduction ‘in che Hinalaya, J. Geophys. Res., 83(B10), 4975-4987, 1978 Bird, Peter, Continental delamination ard the Colorado Plateau, J. Geophys. Res., 84, 7561- 7571, 1979, Brever, J. A., $. B. Smithson, J. B, oliver, S. Kaufman,’ and 1. D. Brow, The Laranice Orogeny: Evidence from COCORP Deep Crustal Seismic Profiles in the Wind River Mountains, Wyoming, Tectonophysics, 62, 165-187, 1980. Briggs, G., and D. Roeder, Sedinentation and plate tectonics, Ouachita Mountains and ‘Arkoma Basin, in A Guidebook to the Secinen- tolety of Paleozoic Flysch and Associated Deposits, Ouachica Wountaine-Arkons Basin, Dilahoss’ Dallas Geol. Socee Iie Tess caldwell, J. C., W. F. Haxby, D. By karig, and D. L. Turcotte, Oa the applicability of universal elastic trench profile, caren Planet. Sci. Lect., 31, 239-246, "1576. caldwell, J. Gr, and'D. L. Turcotte, Dependence of the ehickness of the elastic oceanic Lithosphere on age, J. Geophys. Ras., 54, 7552-7576, 1979. Carey, 8. Wr, The expanding earth, Developeencs in Geotectonies Ser., No. 10, 488 pp, Anster- dam, Elsevier, 1977. Cohee, V. G., M. F. Glaessner, and H. G. Hed~ berg, eds., Contributions ¢9 the geologic tine’ scale, An. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Studies in Geology, 388 pp., 1978. Coney, P. Ju, Nesozole-Cenozdic Cordilleran plate tectonics, Geol. Soc. Aner. Mex. 152, 33-50, 1979. Cook, 'T. D., and A.W. Bally, eds., Strettare phe Aelat of Norch and Central deere, 272 pp.» Princeton University Press, 1975. Devoy, J. Fo, Finite plate implications: Some Anplications for the evolution of rock masses ae plate margin, Aner. J. Sci., 275-4, 260- 286, 1975. Donovan, Dr T., and E. J. Hy Jones, Causes of vorldvide changes in sea level, 3. Geol, Soc. Tond., 136, 187-192, 1979. Fischer, A. G., Geological tine distance rates: the Bubnoff unte, Ceo 549-552, 1969. Gtlluly, J., Steady plate sotton and eptsodte orogeny and magnatisn, Ceol. Soc. Auer. 11, 84, 499514, 1973. Horvath, F,. and L, Stegena, The Pannonian Basin: ‘a Mediterranean intersre basin, in Structural History of the Mediterranean Basins, (3. Biju Duval and E, Moatadert, eds.), Editions Tech- nip, 133-142, 1977. Johnson, J. G,, Tiniag and coordination of oro- genie, eptrogenic and eustatic events, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 62, 3263-3298, 1971 Keen, €. E., Thermal history ané subsidence of rifted coitinental aargine ~ evidence fron Wells on the Nove Scotian end Labrador Shelves, Can. J. Earth Set., 505-522, 1979.LePichon, X., and J. Gy Sibuet, Passive margins: ‘a model of formation, manuscript submitted to J. Geovhys. Res., 1950. Letouzey, B., 8. Biju-Duval, A. Dornel, R. Gon= nard, K krttschev, L. Montadere, and D, Sun gurly, The 3lack Sea: a marginal basin geo- Physieal and geological data, in Structural History of the Mediterranean Basins, (3. Biju-Duval and L. vontadert, eds.), Editions Technip, 363-376, 1977. Levorsen, A. 1., Paleogeologic Napa, W. i Freeman agd Conpany, 1960. Lyuseiith, ET N., On che thalassogenests hype ‘theses’ and on'crustal blocks (in Russian), Tev. AN SSSR, Ser. Goophys., 11, 1959, Matthews TIT, V., ed., Laranide folding asso- elated with basement block faulcing in the western hited States, Geol. Soc. Aner. Men., 52, 370 pp., 1978. McKenzie, D., Sone remarks on che development of ‘sedimentary basing, Earth Planet. Sei. Lett., 40, 25-32, 1978. Molnar, P.,’and T. Atwater, Interare spreading and Corditleran tectonics as alternates related to the age of subducted oceanic Lithosphere, Earth Planet. Sei. Lett., Al 330-340, 1978. Montadert, L., D. ¢. Roberts, 0. de Charpal, and ', Guentoc, Rifeing and subsidence of the’ nor thern continental margin of the Bay of Biscay, Inte, Repts, of the Deep Sea Drilling Proi., XLVETT, 1025-1060, 1979. Morel, F., and E, Ttving, Tentative paleoconts— ental aps for the early Phanerozoic and Proterozoic, J. Geol., 86, 535-561, 1978. Neugebauer, H. J., and T. Spohn, Lace stage developuent of nature Atlantic-type continen— tal aargine, Tectonophysics, 50, 275-305, 1978. Parsons, B., and P. soinar, The origin of cuter topographic rises associated with trenches, Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soc., 45, 707-712, 1576. Potters, S. W., West African cratonic strati- graphic sequences, Ceology, 7, 528-531, 1979. Roeder, D., Geodynanics of the Alpin Mediterranean Systen ~ A Synthesis, Eclogae Geol. Helv., 2, 1980. Roedae, E,, D. E. Gilbert, Jr., and W. D. Witherspoon, Evolution and macroscopie strue~ ture of Valley and Ridge thrust belt, Tennes~ ind Virginia, 25 pp., Univ. Tenn. Geol. Sei. Studies in Geology, 2, Knoxville, 1978. Rona, P, Ary Worldwide unconformities in marine jediments related to eustatic changes of sea level, Nature Phys. Sef., 244, 25-26, 1973. Rona, P. Ac, and =, 8, Richardson, Early Ceno- zoie global plate reorganization, Zarch Planet. Set, Lete., 40, 1-11, 1978. Royden, L., J. G. Sclater, and R. P. von Herzen, Continental margin subsidence and heat flov: important parameters in formation of petroleum hydrocarbons, Aner, Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bul 64, 173-187, 1980. Sehwan, W. ‘orogents ing during Lac Jazasste-lace Terciary cine, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., 64, 359 373, 1980. 38 Sclater, J. G., and 2. A. tal stretching: An explanation of the post nid-Cretaceous subsidence of the Central North Christie, Concines- Sea Basin, in prose, 1980. Sclater, J. G., L. Royden, ¥. Horvath, B.C. Burchfiel, $. Senken, and L. Stegena, The formation of the intra-Carpachian basins 2s determined from subsidence data, manuscript, 1980. Sclater, J. G., W. Royden, $. Sempken, C. Burch= field, L. Stegena, and , Uorvath, Continental stretching: An explanation of the late Ter- tlary subsidence of the Pannonian Basin, in preparation, 1980. Sclater, J. G., L. Royden, and F. Horvath, The formation of the intra-Carpathian basins determined from subsidence history, Abstr. , ‘Extensional Tectonics Associated with Conver- gent Plate Boundaries, Roy. Soc. London, 1980. Sleep, N. 1, Platform subsidence nechanions and eustatic" sea-level changes, Tectonophysics, 36; 45-56, 1976, Sleep, N. Hi, J. A. Nunn, and Lei Chou, Platfors basins, 624 pp., ann. Kev. Earth and’ Planet. Set, 8, 1980, Stoss, L.'L., Synchrony of Phanerozoic sedinen- tary tectonte events of the North american craton and the Russian platform, Twenty Fourth Session, International Geological Congress, Section é, 20-32, 19723. Sloss, L. L., Concurrent subsidence of widely tated cratonic basins, Geol. Soc. Amer. Program Abs., 4, 668-669 (Fide Whitten, 1976), 19726. Sloss, L. L., Global sea level change: A froa the Ctaton, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Mos., 29, 461-467, 1978, SYoss, L. La, Subsidence of continental mar ging: The case for alternatives to thermal contraction, Inter-Uaion Commission on Geom dynanies, Working Group 3, Final Report, Ro A. Scruton, ed., in preparation, 1980. Sloss, L. L., and B.C. Speed, Relationships of cratonic and contineatai margin tectonic epi- sodes, in Tectonies and Sedimentation, (Ne Rt Dickinson, ed.), Soc. Eeon. Paleont. Mineral. Spec. Pub. 22, 98-119, 1974. Snithson, S. 3.5 J. A. Brever, 8. Kaufman, ‘J. B. Oliver, and C. Hurich, lature of the Wind River Thrust, yoning, from COCOR? deep reflection and gravity data, Geology, 6, 648-652, 1978. Smithson, $. B., J. A. Beever, 5. Kaufman, and J.B, Oliver, seructure of the Laranide River UpLife, Wyoming, from COCOR? deap reflection data and fron graviey data, Geophys. Res., 84(811), 5955-5972, 1979. Soares, P.C., Py M. B, Landin, and'V, J. Ful- BASTNS AND SUBSIDENCE 19E t fard, Tectonic cyeles and sedimentary sequences in the Brazilian {ntracratonic basins, Geol Soc. Aner, Bull., 89, 181-191, 1978. Steckler, HS., and A. B, Waees, Subsidence of the Atiantie-type continental aargin off New York, Zarth Planet. Sef, Lett., 41, 1-31,1978, Steckler, H. Sv, and-A. Bs watts, The Cull’ of Lion: Subsidence of @ young continental mar~ fin. Submitted to Nature, 1980. Stille, H., Crundfrages der vergleichenden Tektonik, Berlin, 1924. Turcotte, D_L., and D. C. MeAdoo, Taemal sub- ‘Sidence aid petroleum generation in che souch- western block of the Los Angeles basin, J. Geophys. Res., 84, 3460-3464, 1979. uyeda, Sy and Wi. Kanamori, Back-are opening and the mode of subduction, J. Geophys. Res., 83, 049-1062, 1979. ist Vedi, P. Roy RM: Mitchum, Jee, Re Ge Todd, ‘Ju'M. Widater, 5. Thompson IIL, J. B. Sangre, SIN, Bubb, ad W. G. Hatlelid, Setsate Stratigraphy and global changes of sea Level, in Seiende Stratigraphy - Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration, C. £. Payton, ed., 20 BALLY, Aner. Assoc. Petrol, Geol. Wem., 26, 49-212, 1977. van inte, J. £., Ceohistory analysis ~ applica tions of micropaleontology in exploration geology, Azer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., 62(2), 201-222, 1978. Vetter. U. Ri, and R, 0. Meissner, Rheologic properties of the iithosphere and applications to continental margins, Tectonophysics, 59, 367-380, 1979. Watts, A.'B., and M, Talwant, Gravity anomalies ‘seavard of deep sea trenches and their tec tonte duplications, Geophys. J. Ray. Astron. Soe., 36, 57-90, 1974. Watter A. B., and M. 8, Steckler, Subsidence and eustasy at’ the concinental aargin of eastern North Anerica, Maurice Eving Syaposium, Series 3, Aner. Geophys. Union, 718-234, 1979. Witten, E. 7. H., Cretaceous phases of rapid sedinent accumulation continental shelf, tem U.S.A., Geology, 4(3), 237-260, 1996. Ziegler, P. Al, Northwestern Europe: Tectonics ‘and Basin Developrent, Geologie en Miindouw, 57, 589-626, 1978.