Running head: POPULATIONS AT RISK

Populations at Risk:
African American Youth
Melissa L. Lafferty
Wayne State University School of Social Work

POPULATIONS AT RISK

Abstract
African American youth are an at-risk population. Specifically, this population is at risk for
perpetrating and being victims of violence and bullying, performing poorly in or dropping out of
school, delinquency, substance abuse, developing sexually transmitted diseases, depression, and
having dysfunctional family relationships. African American youth in urban settings
disproportionately reside in neighborhoods characterized by poverty, crime, and violence, which
increases their risk for exposure to community violence. Furthermore, because this population is
identified as oppressed, social workers may experience ethical dilemmas when working African
American youth. In order to overcome these dilemmas and provide the best possible services to
this population, social workers should always adhere to the NASW Code of Ethics.

POPULATIONS AT RISK

Populations at Risk:
African American Youth
A population at-risk is a certain group or culture that is more likely to be exposed to
danger or harm than other populations (The Law Dictionary, n.d.). Particularly, African
American youth, especially those in urban settings, are at risk for initiating and exposure to
violence and bullying, performing poorly in or dropping out of school, delinquency, substance
abuse, developing sexually transmitted diseases, depression, and having dysfunctional family
relationships. Furthermore, social workers may experience ethical dilemmas, such as conflicting
norms and values, uncooperative clients, or issues with cultural competence, when working with
at-risk African American youth.
Anthony, Alter, and Jenson (2009) define risks as, Events, conditions, or experiences
that increase the probability but do not ensure that a problem will be formed, maintained, or
exacerbated (p. 46). Risk factors fall under three main categories: individual, environmental,
and interpersonal (Anthony et al., 2009). These factors predict the increased likelihood of an
undesirable outcome (Nebbitt, Williams, Lombe, McCoy, & Stephens, 2014). Risk factors can
be further divided into levels of influence and protective factors, which act to shield the effects of
risks. Over the past 20 years, research has consistently found that the risk factors associated with
adolescent problems are related to delinquency, violence, alcohol and drug abuse, school failure,
and early or unwanted pregnancy (Anthony et al., 2009).
Effects of Membership
Studies have shown that certain minority youth are at greater risk for violent behaviors;
specifically, black adolescents are more likely to initiate physical and weapon-related violence
than white, Hispanic, or Asian youth (Wright & Fitzpatrick, 2006). Additionally, the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (2004), as cited in Wright and Fitzpatrick (2006), found that
minority youth are also at greater risk for victimization by aggressive peers. African American
youth in urban settings disproportionately reside in neighborhoods characterized by poverty,

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crime, and violence, which increases their risk for exposure to community violence. This
exposure then increases their risk for emotional and behavioral problems (Busby, Lambert, &
Ialongo, 2013). A considerable amount of research indicates that African American adolescents
who live in urban neighborhoods, especially those with high poverty rates, are exposed to
significantly more community violence than Caucasian youth. This negative exposure will often
lead to poor academic performance, increased aggression, bullying, risky sexual behavior, and
mental health issues such as depression (Busby et al., 2013).
Many experts believe that African American youth who are regularly exposed to
community violence think that aggressive and violent responses are effective (Busby et al.,
2013). Adolescents adopt behaviors that make them feel safe, so those who observe a high
amount of community violence may adopt violent behaviors in order feel secure and cope with
their living conditions (Williams-Evans & Myers, 2004). According the Bureau of Justice
Statistics (2006), as cited in Busby et al. (2013), African Americans are twice as likely as
Caucasians to be victims of serious violent crimes, such as rape or aggravated assault, and six
times more likely to be victims of homicides. Additionally, statistics reveal that African
American youths are significantly more at risk than white youths to be victims of gun-related
injuries. According to Williams-Evans and Myers (2004), African American males aged 15-19
are 11 times more likely to die by gunshot than white adolescent males. In addition, African
American females aged 15-19 are five times more likely to be killed by gun violence than white
adolescent females.
Many experts suggest that bullying is more prominent among adolescents from racial and
ethnic minorities (Albdour & Krouse, 2014). According to Albdour and Krouse (2014), African
Americans are involved with perpetuation and victimization of physical, verbal, and cyber
bullying more than any other racial group. Specifically, African American adolescents who live

POPULATIONS AT RISK

in poverty are more likely to demonstrate aggressive behaviors and bully others. Socioeconomic
status is also likely to trigger victimization; youth are more likely to ridicule African Americans
about their clothing or physical appearance more than any other group. Additionally, previous
violent experiences, negative peer relationships, and academic problems increase the likelihood
of an African American adolescent becoming a bully (Albdour & Krouse, 2014).
African American youth who are exposed to community violence often imitate violence,
aggressive behaviors, and antisocial social behaviors, which correlates to poor performance in
school (Busby et al., 2013). African American students drop out of school at higher rates and
graduate from school at lower rates than their white peers (Albdour & Krouse, 2014). According
to Busby et al. (2013), multiple studies have shown that African American adolescents who are
exposed to violence in their communities are more likely to skip school, have low grade point
averages, and receive low standardized test scores in reading and math. These youth also tend to
have fewer positive interactions with their teachers and peers, as they act more defiantly in the
classroom. Due to this negative interaction and intimidation, teachers and other students are
more reluctant to help this population with their studies. Low academic achievement is also
associated with a higher incidence of contemporary fighting (Wright & Fitzpatrick, 2006).
African American adolescents are also at high risk for delinquency. According to Charles
Puzzanchera from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2009), although
black youth accounted for only 16% of 10 to 17-year-olds, they were involved in 52% of juvenile
Violent Crime Index arrests and 33% of juvenile Property Crime Index arrests in 2008.
Structural strain theory suggests that delinquent behavior is the result of individual frustration
from being unable to achieve legitimate social and economic success (Joseph, 1995). Albert
Cohen (1955) and Cloward and Ohlin (1960), as cited in Joseph (1995), contend that persons
who are alienated from socially approved means or perceive their opportunities to success as

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being limited often develop delinquent subcultures for support and recognition. African
Americans are disproportionally represented in urban public housing developments; these
neighborhoods are generally characterized by high rates of poverty, crime, violence, and social
disorganization (Nebbitt et al., 2014). Therefore, African Americans generally have low
socioeconomic status, which results in high perceptions of blocked or limited opportunities
(Joseph, 1995). These perceptions often weaken social bonds with positive influences, such as
parents and school, and put African American youth at risk for forming relationships with
delinquents and other negative influences. According to Janice Joseph (1995), bonding with
delinquent groups combined with alienating themselves from parents, school, and positive peers
leads to a high risk for delinquent behavior.
One factor that closely associates to juvenile arrest is substance abuse, which also
correlates to violence and recidivism (Woodson, Hives, & Sanders-Phillips, 2010). According to
Woodson et al. (2010), African American youth who have been exposed to high levels of
violence are two to three times more likely to drink alcohol and smoke cigarettes and/or
marijuana on a weekly basis. Additionally, black youth are more likely to use cocaine and other
combinations of drugs than other racial groups. Furthermore, African American adolescent
females who do not have a stable home environment experience violence more often and engage
in risky behaviors such as drug dealing and trading sex for drugs. In particular, African
American women who are exposed to high rates of community violence and poverty often feel
powerless or hopeless; inasmuch, they often engage in substance use and limit their mobility or
motivation to engage in self-protective behaviors (Woodson et al., 2010).
Adolescents who are involved in the juvenile justice system have a higher risk of
developing sexually transmitted diseases than their non-delinquent peers (Woodson et al., 2010).
According to Woodson et al. (2010), African American adolescent females experience

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disproportionally higher rates of early sexual activity, teenage pregnancy, and HIV/AIDS than
females of other racial and ethnic backgrounds. Additionally, black adolescent females are more
likely to engage in sexually risky behaviors, including having a high number of sexual partners,
not using condoms consistently, substance use before sexual activity, and getting pregnant, than
other female youth (Alleyne-Green, Coleman-Cowger, & Henry, 2012). Specifically, black
female youth who are victims or perpetuators of dating violence are more likely to engage in
risky sexual behavior. Furthermore, African American male youth have a significant risk for
HIV infection compared to all other adolescent groups (Voisin & Bird, 2009). This higher rate
for infection is often contributed to early sexual activity, frequent sexual activity, sex without
condoms, perception that other peers are having sex, gang influences, media influences
promoting sex, and inadequate parental supervision. Ultimately, these risky sexual behaviors can
negatively impact these adolescents health and lives.
African American adolescents and young adults, especially females, may experience
depression more than any other racial group (Lindsey et al., 2006). However, for many years,
experts believed that the rate of depression in African American adolescents was significantly
lower than in white adolescents (Repetto, Caldwell, & Zimmerman, 2004). Research has now
shown that African American youth exposed to community violence tend to report more
problems with aggression, depression, and anxiety (Busby et al., 2013). Depressive symptoms
include intrusive thoughts and feelings, difficulty with concentration, hopelessness, and lack of
belongingness. Additionally, research has shown that depressive symptoms can impair
adolescents ability to function well academically by diminishing motivation to learn and overall
academic achievement (Busby et al., 2013). Furthermore, exposure to community violence has
been connected to anxious symptoms, and several studies have found connections between
community violence exposure and post-traumatic stress symptoms and post-traumatic stress

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disorder. Additionally, adolescents exposed to community violence may exhibit fatalistic

behaviors or thoughts and believe that they will die at a young age (Guterman & Cameron,
1997). These feelings often lead to increased anxiety and depression, which leads to higher
levels of stress, lower self-esteem, and problems with academic performance. Anxious African
American youth may then turn to negative coping mechanisms such as substance use, criminal
and sexually risky behaviors, and affiliation with gangs (Repetto et al., 2004).
Finally, African American youth are at risk for having dysfunctional family relationships.
Home environment plays a key role in shaping adolescent health and behavior outcomes (Wright
& Fitzpatrick, 2006). Black adolescents who grow up in families that have conflict and use
violence for discipline will adapt to and accept this behavior as normal (Choe & Zimmerman,
2013). According to Choe and Zimmerman (2013), research indicates that a high level of family
conflict is a risk factor for youth violence. Family conflict and youth behavioral problems
operate as stressors on the family environment, so when an adolescent begins to act violently, the
family members will respond with more arguing and fighting, which perpetuates a cycle of
violence. The adolescent may then become verbally abusive, manipulative, passive-aggressive,
physically violent, emotionally abusive, or controlling of others (Williams-Evans & Myers,
2004). In addition, parents who live in violent neighborhoods are less likely to discourage their
childs aggressive behavior because they believe that this behavior is necessary for their child to
survive or defend himself (Busby et al., 2013). Furthermore, African American youth are more
likely to have less parental monitoring, as they are more likely to come from a one-parent home
or have parents with substance abuse problems (Anthony et al., 2009). Less parental monitoring
is associated with more behavioral problems or risk factors such as risky sexual behaviors,
substance use, antisocial behavior, delinquency, fighting, and poor performance in school
(DiClemente et al., 2001).

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Ethical Dilemmas
Due to the membership effects of being a part of an oppressed population, social workers
may face ethical dilemmas when working with African American youth. Potential dilemmas
include having very differing norms and values from black clientele, working with clients who
are uncooperative or unwilling to change their behaviors, and having issues with cultural
competence. These dilemmas could affect a social workers ability to establish trust and rapport
with a client from this population, so social workers should always adhere to the NASW Code of
Ethics when faced with an ethical dilemma.
African American adolescents are a unique population of people with their own personal
values, so some social workers, especially those who are not African American, may have
trouble understanding such different beliefs. For example, while most social workers value
NASW principles such as service and integrity, some African American youth may value facets
such as gang association. Studies show that urban African American adolescents in
impoverished communities often join gangs in order to cope with their stressful environments
(Harper & LaVome, 1999). According to Harper and LaVome (1999), black youth may value
their affiliation, as gangs offer perceived benefits such as a sense of belonging, status, power,
control, identity, guidance, excitement, and protection. Social workers know that gang affiliation
can result in higher risk behaviors such as substance use, fighting, violence, and risky sexual
activity, so working with youth who have a detrimental belief system may be very difficult and
frustrating.
When working with a client with differing values, social workers should remember to
respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person and focus on ethical standard 1.01
Commitment to Clients. Under the ethical value Dignity and Worth of the Person, the NASW
Code of Ethics states:

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Social workers treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of individual
differences and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers promote clients socially
responsible self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance clients capacity and
opportunity to change and to address their own needs. Social workers are cognizant of
their dual responsibility to clients and to the broader society. They seek to resolve
conflicts between clients interests and the broader societys interests in a socially
responsible manner consistent with the values, ethical principles, and ethical standards of
the profession (National Association of Social Workers, 2008, para. 17).
Additionally, ethical standard 1.01 Commitment to Clients emphasizes the importance of clients
primary interests and well-being. Therefore, when working with a client with differing norms
and values, social workers should strive to be mindful of individual differences while promoting
self-determination as well as the clients well-being.
In addition, African American adolescents and their families may have negative
perceptions about mental health care, so they may act uncooperatively or be unwilling to engage
in therapy (Lindsey et al., 2006). In a study conducted by Lindsey et al. (2006), researchers
found that African American adolescent boys do not believe that white professionals can
understand African American problems. The respondents identified shame and embarrassment
and would not disclose information to their mental health provider. When a client is not open or
honest with his or her social worker, the social worker is then unable to provide his or her client
with the most effective services possible. Social workers should refer to ethical standards 2.05
Consultation and 2.06 Referral for Services when faced with uncooperative clientele. When a
client is unwilling to engage in therapy, the social worker should consult a colleague or
supervisor to see if he or she has any recommendations for handling the problem. Furthermore,
if the client is unable or unwilling to work with the social worker after multiple sessions, the

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social worker should refer the client to another professional who may be able to serve the client
more effectively (National Association of Social Workers, 2008).
Lastly, some social workers may face issues with cultural competence. African American
adolescents are a part of two distinct cultures: the African American culture and the adolescent
culture. Lu, Lim, and Mezzich (2007), as cited in Aggarwal (2010), define culture as, The
meanings, values, and behavioral norms that are learned and transmitted in the dominant society
and within its social groups (p. 306). Some social workers may have issues understanding
cultural norms that differ from their own, which would make working with diverse populations,
such as African American youth, rather difficult. Social workers who have issues with cultural
understanding should refer to ethical standards 1.05 Cultural Competence and Social Diversity
and 5.02 Evaluation and Research. Social workers should perform research on populations that
they are unfamiliar with and seek to obtain education on social diversity and oppressed groups
(National Association of Social Workers, 2008). Furthermore, social workers should ask a client
relevant cultural questions to gain a better understanding of the client and his or her cultural
system (Aggarwal, 2010).
Conclusions
Populations at risk are more likely to be exposed to danger or harm than other
populations. In particular, African American adolescents, especially those in urban settings, are
at risk for perpetrating and being casualties of violence and bullying, performing poorly in or
dropping out of school, delinquency, substance abuse, developing sexually transmitted diseases,
depression, and having dysfunctional family relationships. African American youth in urban
neighborhoods, especially those with high poverty rates, are exposed to significantly more
community violence than Caucasian youth. This negative exposure will often lead to poor
academic performance, increased aggression, bullying, risky sexual behavior, and mental health
issues. Adolescents will adopt behaviors that make them feel safe, so those who observe a high

POPULATIONS AT RISK

12

amount of community violence are likely to adopt violent behaviors in order feel secure and cope
with their living conditions. Additionally, previous violent experiences, negative peer
relationships, and academic problems increase the likelihood that an African American
adolescent will become a bully. African American youth who are exposed to community
violence are more likely to skip school, have low grade point averages, and receive low
standardized test scores. These youth are also at high risk for delinquency, which correlates with
substance abuse and sexually risky behavior. Furthermore, African American youth exposed to
community violence tend to face problems with aggression, depression, and anxiety, and many
experience family conflict or limited parental involvement.
Social workers may experience ethical dilemmas when working with African American
youth and other at-risk populations. Common dilemmas include conflicting norms and values,
having clients who are unmotivated or unwilling to work with the social worker and/or
interdisciplinary team, and problems with cultural competence. While most social workers value
NASW principles, some African American youth may value harmful facets. Additionally,
African American adolescents may have negative perceptions about mental health care, so they
are unwilling to engage in therapy. Furthermore, some social workers may have issues
understanding cultural norms that differ from their own. In order to resolve these ethical
dilemmas, social workers should adhere to the values, principles, and standards listed in the
NASW Code of Ethics. Social workers must remember that the culture of African American
youth is unique and many community factors contribute to their behaviors and problems.
African American youth face many distinct risks, so social workers should strive to provide them
with the most effective services possible.

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