Research Design

Depicting Validity (clusters around bulls-eye) and

Reliability (consistent, tight clustering)

Valid but
unreliabl
e

Invalid
but
reliable

Valid
and
reliable
Based on Babbie
(1998)

Point of Focus
Unit of
Analysis

Point of Focus
Characteristic

Individual

Social group

Social
artefact
(physical)

Social

Gender, age,
sex, highest
educational
qualification,
marital
status,
disability,
height, region
of origin
size,
structure,
location,
aggregated
description of
members

Orientation
attitudes,
values,
beliefs,
norms,
prejudices,
personality
traits,

policy,
strategy,
rules,
regulations,
goals;
aggregated
orientations
of their
members
size, weight,
colour, speed; characteristic
s of people
associated
with them
where, when, political or

Action
purchase,
sell, make
decision, go
on strike,
participate

merge,
invest,
contribute,
pray, sponsor

Pace, drill,
grind, weigh,
project etc.

succeed, fail,