BRUNT. ma i ea SS" Boe Wa es oe ea Cognitive Neuroscience: Origins and Promise Michael I. Posner Seeker Fnstirne Gregory J. DiGirolamo University of Uinois at Urbana-Champaign "Both Fred and Want had boped o bate payhology onan understanding ofthe neural bai of mena vents. Their efforts were usaccessful because the suuctre and funcon ofthe human bala ws sot ‘ailabl for epic oxdy atthe piysinlogia evel Over the lt part of hs cay, thee bas been ___amming, grow and viaity In ee Bold of human brain foneion. Ie thie paer, we taco ciel ‘developments in the fields of cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and tain gig related 10 the ‘evelopment of cognitive neuroscience. Cogtive Neuroscience has esublsed thet the decomposition ‘of mental events ca be uted with an understating ofthe mental and emotion compton cai out bythe human brain. Cogitive searosciece haste capability of iniveacing psychology in diverse seat fom how cilden develop to how adults gs rem how humans lam to how we imagine; fom. ‘oidonal coavo eo psychopatologies. Tn 1987, the James §. McDonnell Foundation held summer {ngdtue at Harvard University on cognitive neuroscience. Stephen Kosslyn was the Director of the Institute, and under his leadership, ‘an outstanding program of speakers was assembled. Michael Gaz~ ‘2aniga had persuaded John Brur, the President ofthe McDonnell "Foundation, tht it might be a good time to invest foundation funds in the creation of this new field. Michael Gazzaniga had already coined the name and had used it as the tle ofan institute that he had developed as part ofthe cogaitive science initiative stated a decade eae ‘There i a long history of investments from foundations eeating ‘now disciplines in scientific feds, For example, 2 decades ear, the Sloan Foundation invested in a number of fields, concentrating ‘in neurophysiology, and helped to create the fed of nearoscince. In terms ofthe sheer numbers of scholars altracted toa field, this venture has o be one ofthe best invesoments ever made. When the Sloan Foundation decided 0 act again to create the new field of cognitive science, they inchided psychology, linguistics and new roscienee as subdiscplines. Of course, the field of language was of major interest, and one ofthe earliest meetings in cognitive science vwas organized by Jacques Mehler (Mehler, Walker, & Garett, 1982) and was devoted slrmost entirely to this area. This meeting imzoduced European scientists to the broad range of work in cognitive tcence, At this mecting, one of us (Posner, Pea, & ‘Michael L, Rosner, Deparment of Peybiny, Seco Tense, Well Modical Ceatec, Corel Universi’ Gregory J. DiGilane, Beckman Taint, University of Winas at Urbana-Champaign. "The recench was supported in pr by Office of Naval Reseusch Geant 'N00014-96-0275 and by te Jann S. McDonnell Foundation with gaps to the Universiy of Oregon, the Weil Medea! Collegeof Comell Uni ‘esty, and the Cognitive Nowosicoce Progam and Cognitive Rehabil tation Program, CCorespondenoe concerning this nice should be adesed to Michoet 1. Porer, Saeko netae, epaceent of Psych, Box 240, 100 York ‘Aveaun, New York, Now York 10021. Eecvonic mail may be set 16 ‘mip2003@me corel ed 3 ‘Volpe, 1982) presented what was perhaps the first paper with the ‘general theme of an emerging discipline: “Cognitive Neuro- Science: Toward a Scionee of Syathesis.” Although cognitive science continues as an important enterprise, it has never hed the ‘explasive growth and influence of the ealier neurosciences inti tive. Though the sucess of afield cannot be insured by financial investment alone, a powerful scientific agenda ean attract te best ‘minds into new field and increase its chance of success ‘We think that cognitive neuroscience has just such an agenda, ‘As cognitive nesroscicnce enters the new millennium, it seems an sppropriate tie to relect on its history and to consider where the field is headed In this article, we alempt to outline some of the imtllectal background and discoveries in cognitive psychology, ‘neuropsychology, and neuroimaging that provided a foundation for the genesis of cognitive neuroscience, Because we ae not histo- flan, the treatment ie biased toward events and views that relate ‘more closely to our ovim thinking and areas of expecise: never- theless, we hope that this overview capaures the basic ideas and methods of the field, Every psychologist who entered the field in the mid-20th cen- tay studied the history of efforts to localize higher level mental fonction ia the bexin, Students ofthe fold were taught that mental function could not be localized. Karl Lashley (1925) ad discov- ered that interference with mane Jeaming in rats depended on how much tissue was removed and not on what pat of the corex wa removed, Studies of patients following traumatic frontal lobe dam. ‘age were also interpreted as showing that the brain operated as a whole during cognition. The principles of mass action and equi- potentiality were used to explain failures wo find any precise localization of cognitive function. Further, cautions were even extended to efforts to analyze cognitive processes into elements because the whole was then thought tobe differen than the sum of the parts, More specifically, it was thought that tasks were com- pletely altered when any part was changed. ‘As George Miller noted (Miller & Lenneberg, 1978), itis often ret obvious to psychologiss Why the issue of localization of function is of importance because knowing wha part of the brain| 874 | is involved may tell litle about what cognitive operations are ‘occuring. Mille (p. 6) suggested that the issue of localization is relaied to othe, moce general assumptions necessary for under- Standing the relationship between the human brain and behavior. ‘These are: 1 Complex brain functions can be decomposed into simpler, more general processes, 2. These components can be loalized anatomically and studied in elative isolation. 13. The simpler brain processes can be cortelated directly with their simpler behavior processes Inthe last several year, functional human brain imaging bas valida. many of tes sumptions. To gusp te stp and "significance of Cognitive ueuoscicace, iis impor Sreeens tetas tot sepychsigy pete wi brain imaging, that have produced this new synibesix. Table 1 ‘outlines the overall goal of using mental operations, as defined in copntive studies, to link cognition to neural systems, "We argue that development inthe understanding of localization of function and the neural excoity of the brain can influence theories and assumptions about higher cognitive processes. Spe- cifically, we review changes in the conception of major psycho- logical issues (such as priming, attention, and executive contol) ‘esulting from the growing integration of neuroscience data with cognitive data. Finally, we consider developments likely to occur fin the neae future. Cognition | Almost fiom the inception of efforts to develop models of | ‘uma cognition, investigators ft there woud be a time when cognition would be linked to developments in the brn sceaces. “esbert Simon (1981), whom many consider the founder of cog alive science, remarked ia his Compton Lectures: “The main cea forthe suembodimen: of mind 6, of cori, the teats tha Lhave just been dncusing, Te difference betwee the Icvace of @ computer and the hardware of the brain has noe ‘prevented compuers foe simulating a wide spectrum of kinds of Inoman thinking. It would be unfrtnate i this concasion were ‘teed to read that teuophysclogy has autiag to conrbu 10 ‘explanatons of human belavioe. This weold be idcalous doce. Table 1 Linking Cognitive Tasks of Daily Life to Br Level Evaple | Cogn system Language, atention, Verbal report. ‘motor contol Elementary operation Net, oa, 200m ‘Arica ineigense Pabbvay acivaton” Fact, ihibe™ Copies, ‘esl networks Neo system Pascal cone, basal PET, ERP. MBL angia Micros ‘Vint lamina rea V4 Catlular recoding Nore. framework for linking cognitive tasks of dy lite (op 20) to train systems (otlom two rows). This arcleconcenzaes on the mile ros (rows 2 and 3) by discntng how elementary inet operation ea be locallad i brain sue, PET = posiron emission tomography RP = | crencelaed poteatal, MRI = magoutie resonance imaging. ‘and tons of the human brain. POSNER AND DxGIROLAMO Iris physiology et we must tr for an explanation of the inks tf edapaton, At our koowiedge increases, the elation between posclgical and information processing explanaons will Become Jost ike the rion between quanta mechanical and physiological ‘aanations in biology. They conse wo linked levels of expx tation: the lining properdes of hefner system an showing up at the inetae been tem (p97) “The level of mutual support between these two aeas as proven ‘much closer than Simon might have suggested. [tis hoped that this article wil state both how closely Tinked the hardware ofthe brain isto the performance of cognitive and emotional tasks and. the importance of environment and self-regulation to the opera- ‘One of the iia bridge nition and brain funtion was developed by cognitive psycholo- gists in the mid-torate 1960s. Tt was demonstrated that a wide variety of tasks could be described in tems of mental operations (or subroutines) that took place over tes to hundreds of milisec- ‘nds (Newell, 1990; Sternberg, 1968) ‘The measurement of mental operations by reaction times (RTS) ‘vas always closely ssscisted with the idea of serial processing in fnoman performance. In the late 1960s, Saul Sternberg (1969) provided a general method for the isolation and investigation of ‘eral stages called the additive factors method. Tn his tsk, par- ‘icipans determined if a presented digit was a member of a set of ‘ems that they had learned previously. His data showed that successful determination generally tok place at arate of about 20 rms por item. The speed at which people could identify even complex pattems made it seem unlikely that all tasks could be ‘ought of as having the sera structure tha this task demonstrated (Treisman & Kanvisher, 1998). However, where such a scril frganizaion does apply, the additive factor: method remains powerfol tool for the analysis of mental processes and bas been applied successfully to brain imaging data (Dehaene, 1996; Saxd- et, 1998) In the mid-1980s, new developments paved the way for ¢ connection from cognitive operations (or computations) to pysi- cal architecture (or neural stucture). A numberof researchers led by Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) developed ways to analyze behavior by representing psychological concepts (eg. words) a8 a set of nodes connected by weights. This concept built on ideas of parallel dstibuted processing, for example, by representing a word as a hierarchy of features, leters, and words that were setivated in parallel, Using these methods, it was possible to simulate the empirical finding that a single Jeter bad a lower perception threshold if embedded in a word relative to being presented in isolation (Reicher, 1969) This powerful word supe- slorty effect, which appeared so counterintive in the era of purely secial meshods, was completly explicable if the stored information about words could be activated in parallel by single letters and thus reinforce the visual input to leer detectors. Cognitive. paychology proposed ways of dividing tasks into constituent operations and of using mental chronomety to mea- sure operations in empirical studies. With the advent of parallel distributed processing models, there were theoretical strvctazes i ‘which to embed the Findings of empirical studies. Now, the notion ‘of distinct cognitive modules, each computing a diferent opertion to achieve some behavior, led maturally to questions regarding localization of function. These developments provided important‘SPECIAL ISSUE: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE 875 tools to test the idea of whether these operations were localized within specific brain regions ‘With the adven: of neuroimaging it has become vecy important to document inthe milisecond range the time course of activity ia ‘neural substrates (0 distinguish purely seasory activation from top-down influences (Kosslyz, 1994), The importance of these time course measures is evidenced in proessses involved in the perception of objects (Treisman & Kanwisher, 1998). Several (pes of representation are constructed By the visual system in patallel, allowing observers to recognize, prepare actions in r= sponse to, and construct preferences toward sensory events ‘Awareness of an object is critically dependent on the frst 100 ms within 155 ms after input (DiGirolamo & Kanwisher, 1995; ‘Thorpe, ize; & Marlot, 1996). Neuroimaging and cellule studies hhave shown tht even the primary visual cortex (Posner & Gilbert, 1999) can show top-down influences; hence, a time coarse is needed to distinguish between sensory-dtiven ad attention-driven activations that appear similar in hemodynamic measures (e., Positron emission tomography [PET] or functional magnetic res ‘nance imaging (fMRI) ‘We tum to the study of neural function and localization in 2 senichronological onder of developmenc, and begin with lesion ‘methods and single-cell recordings in the next section. ‘Neuropsychology ‘he term neuropsychology has been applied to both lesion studies of mans and animals and efforts 10 record electrical activity from individual eells (or groups of cells) in higher pri rates (including some studies of human patients) The develop- rent of the microelectrode had an enormous impact on neuropsy= ‘chology. Staring inthe 1960s, the arrival of a means of exploring ‘the organization and responsiveness of the visual system of eats ‘and monkeys opeaed up new areas of exploration into the physi- ‘ology and function of brain processes (se, ¢., Hubel, 1987). In ‘the mld-19706, « number of researchers began recording cellular activity in aler-behaving monkeys (Evans, 1973; Mountcastle, Lynch, Georgopoutos, Sakata, & Acuns, 1975; Wurtz, Goldberg, & Robinson, 1980). ‘This methodology provided an important approach to understanding how the brain might cary out higher level cognitive functions like attention. Inthe following section, ‘we trace stadies of visual spatial attention from the development of ‘mental chronometry for determining the cognitive operations of spatial attention to the neural aeas involved in these operations, studies dat were based on single-cell recordings in monkeys and lesions in hurmens, Attention ‘The problem of attetion is one of the oldest in psychology (Games, 1890) and continues to be a vibrant and growing Field. The dominance of behavioral psychology in the United Stats Sn the frst half of the 20th century, however, postponed research ito the intmal mechanism of selecsive attention, Lategrty ofthe reticular formation to maintain the alert state provided anatomical reality foc one aspect (arousal) of atention (Moruzzi & Magous, 1949), The anatomical approach has led to many new Bindings relating the individ subcortical tansmiter systems (6g, dopamine, norepi- nephiine) to the computations underlying the selection of infor- ‘mation (Marroceo, Wit, & Davidson, 1994), Other approaches to attentional selection arese in work on the orienting reflex (Kal- rneman, 1973; Sokolov, 1963). However, changes inthe autonomic systems (eg, skin conductance) as a measure of orienting o°- ‘cuted over 1-2 s and made it difficult to analyze the cognitive ‘components and nevral systems underlying orieating (see, €.,, Dawson & Schell, 1982). Unlike sensory systems that can be studied in anaesthetized animals, atention requires an alet animal isteracting with the environment. Inthe mid-1970s, neurobiologits begaa to study information_processing_in_aler_monkeys_(Wurtz-et-al,1980) Because the visual system fad boon relatively well investigated sing microclectrodes, much of this work involved orienting to sual suimuli, During the past 15 years, there has been a steady ‘sdvancement i the understanding ofthe neural systems related to ‘he visual orienting of attention, Converging results have come ‘rom studies using single-cell ecording in aler monkeys (Cheluz2i & Corbeta, in press; Moter, 1998), from neuroimaging (See, 6 CCorbetta, 1998; Corbetta et a, 1998), and from lesion data (see Rafal, 1996, fora review), ‘The initial findings demonstrated a relatively restricted number ‘of neural areas in which the firing rates of neurons were selectively eahanced when monkeys were tsined to attend (0 location ot object. At te level of the superior colliculus, selective enhance. ‘ment was obtained only when the monkey also moved its eyes. i ‘contrast, neurons inthe posterior parietal lobe demonstrated solec- tive enhancement even when the animal maintained fixation. An sea ofthe thalamus, the lateral pulvinar, was similar tothe parietal lobe in containing cells that demonstrated selective enhancement Wwinenever monkeys attended (Colby, 1991). Later studies indicated ‘hat nearly ll sensory and motor systems could show the influence of attention (Moran & Desimone, 1985; Roland, 1993). Physiological scudies of cats and rodents (Skinner & Yingling, 1977) supgested that selection of the relevant chazels might Involve a thalamic gating mechanism using the reticular muleas of ‘he thalamus controlled by prefrontal sites. Peripheral gating ‘mechanisms still represent a potential source of selection that sight be especially imporant in lower rsammals. However, in ‘buman information-processing studies, twas clear that unattended {information often was processed toa high level, as evidenced by ‘an important messege on the voatended channel interfering with {he selected channel (Posner, 1978). Moce recent monkey and ‘human studies suggest that thalamic mechanisms might workin conjunction with sensory-procescing areas to gate information at cortical levels (LaBerge, 19953). The ability to sleet input chan- nels and the levels at which selection occurs has remained an active focus for cunent studies of attention. (ne effort to integrate cognitive ideas of atention with those arising in neuroscience used the ehronometvic techniques with ‘normal participants and patients who had lesions in tose axes ia ‘which atentional effects had been found in alert monkeys (Posner, (Cohen, & Rafal, 1982). To stedy how normal znd brain-damaged participants ovient, brief eves were used to provide information bout the location of a subsequent target. [n normal peticipans c ‘was found that a cue summoned attention vecy ripidly (0 its location and improved RT to targets that occurred there. If the376 POSNER AND GIROLAMO target ocurred a an uncusd location, RTs were slowed relative the ved location ‘Once attention moved from the cued location oa new location, reorienting to the previously cued location was inhibited sith respect to other Inesions inthe visual Feld hibition of return. ‘These results semed 10 make ecological scase, in that ateation could be seen at moving tovrard a locaton of interes in advance of the eyes and was usally followed by foveaton ofthe selected IocatonInbibition of rem appeared to bea mechanism ro fvor searching in novel locations. In the 1970s, puychologisis began to distinguish between ast saaic and controlled proceses (Posner, 1978). Visual words coukd activate other words simular in meaning (semantic associates) even_ ‘when a person had no awareness of the words’ presence (Marcel, 1983), However, selecting a word meaning for active ateation appenred (0 suppress the avalabily of other word meanings. ‘Aeon was viewed less aban ery seavry botdeneck end more fsa system for providing post for motor sets, consciousness, and memory (Alport, 1980). These higher level mechauisas of attention were assumed to involve font brain areas and ‘0 provide an important meaae of coordnaing cognitive proceies. “The sesame priming suds indicated that he parallel organiza- tion found for sensory information extended to semaatc process- ing; further, both sutomatic ané voluntary processes wee involved in these higher level cogiive ubilites (Neely, 1977. ln line with this work, it was determined thet even spatial sstenton could be diferentiund on the basis of automatic or woluntary aspects. For example, fa peripheral ee indicted that thetargt would coeur elsewhere, fection was fist found athe location ofthe cue and then tthe Location indicate bythe cue It ‘ppeared that atenton could ether be summoned automaticaly by a peripheral ue or be moved voliotarly and tha the copsitive roceses involved in these operations could be isolated using hronometse methods (Posue, abot, Prieich, 8 Coben 1987) To determine ifthe cognitive operations were rlated to the sane brain acat as thse thal were modulated by alten, 1e- ‘Searcher ested patients wit esions of the pital obo thalamus, an superior coliculs on this same orienting tsk. Back paient ‘poup showed a deficit that could loosely be eae neglect ofthe convalesional side, bot the details demonstrated remurkably cif- fereat problems suggestive ofthe operations that avolved oiet- ing. Fo example, Yesions in he parca lobe primaiyprocuced deficit when aention was already engaged a different location (Gsengage) Lesions of the colialis influenced the speed of ‘movement (move), whereas thalamic lesions appeaced to make it dificult wo select target among compesiors even when station wat conectly oriented engage). Mental operations appeared lobe Tocalized in specific bran eas. However, only te presence of an interconnected vertical network of aceas (or neaal etc) could produce succesil orienting. These results suggested fea tio of opeations, one in which several brain areas all worked in concert 10 pecfom a single cognitive task. This specific model is sil in doub, and there are many ideas about how spatial ateaton ‘works. However, the idea was important in tha sugges oth that cognitive computations were anatomically localizale and that ‘most tasks involved a whole se of computations and hence, a ‘numberof separate neal areas. Exploring this idea required an ability to examine simultaneously many brain eras i normal participants while they performed cognitive tasks. However, 10 ‘method preseat inthe late 1970s could accomplish this tsk. ‘Neuroimaging ‘The effort link cognition to specific brain systems depends on having methods avaiable to secure links between cognitive com putations and neural processes (Sejaowski & Churchland, 1989) In 1978, a Scientific American ace (Lassen, Ingvar, & Skinho, 1978) reviewed the work of Seandinavian researchers exploring the use of changes in cerebral blood flow during reading. Reading 1 sory is a complex tsk and iavolves many meatal operations; during this ask much ofthe brain was ative, but te potential for ‘ure analysis was elealy present. Cognitive Anatomy Since the 1970s, under the general de of neuroimaging, many ‘methods for exploring the pars ofthe brain ative during cognitive tusks have become available (Posner & Raichle, 1994; Roland, 1993; Toga & Mezziotta, 1996). The parameters for classifying ‘methods are based on the spatial resolution and temporal precision of the techniques. PET and {MRI are two methods with good spatial solution that are used to measure bean atvity ia humane tring cognitive tasks. To move beyond the localization of ana- ‘emical areas in humans, itis useful to use methods eastive tothe time dynamics of information processing. Cognitive studies have sown that to understand cognitive operation requires analysis in ‘he millisecond range. Te temporal precision of various methods {s changing rapidly (Se, e.g, Dale & Buckner, 197), but imaging methods based on blood flow require changes in blood vessels that limit their temporal pecision to the constraints of the hemody- namic lag (~I~4 s). Eventrelated brain potentials (ERPS) and :magnetoencephalograms (MEG) are two alternative methods that hhave precise lemporal resolution. Currey, studies that combine localization methods (¢., PET) and time-dynamic methods (e4., [ERPS) provide a convenient way to ace the rapid time-dynamic ‘changes that occur i the course of humaa information processing (eee, eg, Heinze et al, 1994), Te would be ideal if noninvasive imaging methods were devel: ‘oped that provided the desized combination of high temporal and spatial resolution. However, all curent technologies have their own Timitaions. For example, celular recording is limited to snimals and is associated with sampling problems. MEG is expen- sive and, unless many channels are used, must be repositioned for examination of each ares. ERPS suffer from difficulty i localizing the neural generators of the electrical signal dretly from scalp distributions: subdermal electrode recordings solve this problem, but opportunites for such recordings are uncommon. fMRI and PET are limited by the time for blood vessels co reflect brain setvity (hemodynamic lag). Event-related (MRI uses averaging techniques sizlar to cognitive or ERP studies to improve on the time course resolution and rectifes the problem of having to block tal types (Gee, eg, D'Esposit, Zarahn, & Aguine; 1999; Jo- septs, Turner, & Friston, 1997). Bach ofthe extant methods will lead to modifications that may address some or all of these prob- lems, and new methods are becoming available all he time (se, eg, Gratton & Febiani, 1998).SPECIAL ISSUE: COONTTIVE NEUROSCIENCE 87 Experimenial design. A frequent design for brain imaging studies involves a comperison of an experimental condition with a control condition. In PET, for example, one often subtracts the dara ‘blained in the contol condition from the experimental condition, ‘with the goal of determining what operations are uniquely in- volved in the experimental condition. Consider an effort «0 see ‘what pans of the brain sre involved in sensing motion. If the ‘experimental condition is a set of moving dots and the control condition is the same dots without motion, a subtraction may be ‘thought to involve motion sensitive areas (Zeki, 1993). This type ‘of design has been quite successful in localizing areas of th visual system that ae related 10 processing motion, color, or form. A quite different design. js to use the same stimuli but require the ‘participant o atid wo different aspects ofthe stimuli, Attention to ‘motion in one condition versus altending to colar or form in another condition bas been shown to activate prety much the same areas as when subtracting activation from moving versus nonmoy- ing stimuli (Coretta, Miezin, Dobmeyer, Shulman, & Petersen, 1990) Things become more complicated when higher level cognitive processes are involved, Ibis certainly not possible to say that most experimental and contro tasks differ in only one way. For exam pile, consider a tas in Which one wishes to undeestand how a word association is generated; the experimental condition may involve ‘generating the use of a noun (e.g. see hammer and say "pound"), ‘whereas the contol condition miay involve merely reading the ‘word aloud. "The resulting subtraction might cid one of the sensory and motor components but leave intsct a number of operations related to differences in atention and effort required between the experimental and control tsk, as well as de operation of fterest (Gc, Semantic processing). This issue has sometimes been called the problem of pure insertion, and it is generally agreed that it is ‘pot posible to guarantee successful contol of all but one operation. Fortunately, the isolation of cognitive operations ean be achieved in differeat ways for imaging studies than for pucely ‘ehavioral methods. Table 2 indicates the use of a hierarchical nandbook (pp. 381-605). Boston: Bikaner Bourke, P. A, Duncan, J, & Nimmo-Smith 1. (1996). A general factor Involved daslask performance daseineet, Quarterly Journal of ‘Seperimenal Pochology, A, 505-545. [Bucknes, RL (1988), Event-ealea RI andthe hermdynae reponse, aman Brain Mapping 6, 37-377. ‘Bus, 0, Luu, P, & Poser, M. 1 (2000) Copnisve and emtionl inflvenes inthe anterior cingulate catex. Trends in Cognitive Se nce 4 (0), 215-222 Bush, G., When, P3, Resea, B.R, Jesike, MA Melnemey, S.C, & evch, SL. (1958). The eotting Stroop: Aa itexexsce tak pela ined for functional neusimaging—Validaton sty with functional [MRE Hunan Brain Mapping, 6, 290-282 (Caner, C. 8, Brave, TS, Barc, D. M, Batak, M, M, Nol Da, & ‘Coben, 1D. (1998, May D Atorios cingulate cortex, enor detection, ud online montcag of perfomance. Science, 280,747, (Catec, C8, Minton, M, Cohen, 1D, (1985), Ieecicence ad f= ‘sion eae ding selective atenion: An HPO PET study of Stop ‘ask performance. Neuroimage, 2, 264-272 Caner, CS. Mins, M, Nlcbols,T., & Coben, 1D. (1997. Antetior ‘logue ayras dysfunction end seletve attention in shizophene: Aa (70,0 PET sty sing single wil Soop tsk performance. Amer- ean Journal of Payers. 184, 1610-167 (casey, BJ, Trainor, R., edd, Vans, Y, Valois, C.K, Mambrger, 5. Komch, P & Rapopor, J. L (1997). The role of the anttor cingulate ie tome nnd coosolled proenes: A developmestl new roatalomical study. Developmenal Psychology, 20, 61-69, (Casey, B. 1, Trin RJ, Oren J. 1, Sebubert, A.B, Nystrom. LE, Gea J. Caselanos, F.X, Max, J. V, Nol, D.C, Coben, 1D, Fora, S, D.-Dah. RE, & Rapopat, J. (1997). A developmental fictional MRI sy of preffomal avon dating performance of a osteo tsk, ural of Cognitive Neuroscene, 9, 835-847. (Cela Ld Corbera, M. (apes). Contal mechatine of vseospe- tal atestion in the eat ra. In M.S, Garzanige (2), The ne cognitive neurosciences. Cambige. MA: MIT Pres. ‘Coey,C., Wikinson, W-E, Parashos, A, Soady, S, A. R, Sliven, RF, Paterson, L. J, ie. G. S., Webb, MC, Spier C. By Ae Djang, W-T. (1992). Quanative eer anatomy of the ing human brains A cosesstional study esing magoetereynance imaging New ology, #2, 527-536 (Coen J.D, Rome, R.D. Servan Schreier, D8 Farah, M3. (1934, Mechanistts of spaial ication: The selation of macrorctue € smjrostructre in prital neglect. Journal of Cognitive Nenrosclence, 6, 377-387, Colby, ©. L. (1991). The nearosnatomy and neurophysiology of steaton. Jounal of Child Neurology, 6, 9-118 ‘Caets, M, (1998). Froato pascal cortical networks for dnetng ste ton ad te eye ro visual loetons: Henticl,independent or ove ing neural systeam? Proceadings ofthe National Academy of Science 55, 631-836, Covet, Mt Akbutak, E, Contra, TE, Saye, A. Zy Olingt, JM Dry, HA, Linenieber, M. R., Riche, M. B, Ven Eases, D.C Pewee, $. By & Shulman, G. L (1998) A commen network of ‘oneGopal seas for ateton and eye movements. Neron, 21, 161-773 Corbet, M, Mizi, F. M, Dobmeyer, S. Salon, 6. , & Paes, ‘SE, (1990, June 22). Atetonal wodulaion of neural processing of shape, cle, ed velocity in bursa. Sconce, 248, 1336-1559 Cortes My Mic, FM, Dobmeyes, S Shelman, G. L, & Petersen, '.E. (191), Selective and divided action dng visas diseiiation of shape, colo, and ead: Functional anslomy’by positon erissioa tomosraply. Journal of Nearosctenc, 11, 2382-2402, Covteta, M, Miezi, FM, Shulman, G. L, & Pewrsn,$.E (1983). A ‘PET stay of vniepeil strson Journal of Nermscience, 13, 1202= 16, Cort, M, Shulman, G. L, Micain, FM, & Petersen, SE. (198, ‘overex’. Sopesioe pital cone station dring pail ateton abi and visu Sete conjuction: Selene, 770, 802-805. Cowan, N (1995). Arnon aud mena: Am negrated framework New ‘York: Oxford Univesity Press Dale, A. M, & Buskoer, RL. (1997). Selective averaging of rapily resented individual tins using IME. Huon Brain Mapping, 5, 329 340, ile, AM, Lin, AK, Pichi, B. R, Buckner, RL, Bll, JW. Lewine, J.D. & Halsea, E2000). Dynamic saxnic parame snapping, combining IMI aed MEG for high reolon amging of cxtial activity. Neuron, 26, 55-67. Dewioa, ME. & Schell A.M, (1982), Elerodernal responses © Mepedaaduratended signiicare sma ung iho litening Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Percepion and Perfor. mance, 8, 315-324 Dehoene, S. (1996). The organization of brain activations ia number ounpaisca: Even-lted potential 4 the adtvefucors sett ournal of Copitve Neuroscience, 8, 41-68 ‘Dahaene, S, Poster, M, [,& Tuckes,D. M. (199). Localization of @ nea stem for or deteson ad competion. Prcholgicl Se ence, 5, 305-208, DDaryshite, $. W., Vogts B. Ay & Jones AK, (1998). Pan end Stoop lererence tasks aca separate processing moc inacerioe si Ault cos. Exermetal Brin Research 118, 32-50 DDesimome, R & Duncan, J. (1995). Neual mechanisms of selective wanton. Atal Review of Neuroscience, 18, 193-22. D'Eqosito, M, Deze, J. A, Alsop, D.C Shin, R Ky Aas S, & Grossman, M, (1995, November 16. Ths seual bass of the cet executive system of working memary. Nature, $78, 279-282, D'Biposio. M. Zarabe, . & Apne, G, K. (199). Eveatelaal fone: "ial MRI: Implications for cognitive psychology. Prychologca! Bu dein 123, 155-164 Diciolame, G1, a Kanwisier, N. G, (1985, November). Accessing stored representations ix objec! recognition begins within 155 msec. Paper preseced arth 36th Anoual Meng of the Pychonomie Sore), Los Angeles, CA. Dolan, RJ, Fetes. P, Fit, C.D, Fria, K. 5 Frackowis, R. S14 & Grasby, P.M, (1995, November 9). Dopuinerte modliton of Jnmpaled ogni scvntion nthe ae cinpulte corte ia shiz leit, Nene, 378, 180-182, Drevets, W. C., & Raihle, M. E. (1998), Reciptocal suppression of| ‘ego cereral Blo Now dag emotional wets higher cognitive Process: Imlcations for inferactons between emotion and cognition, Copition and Enation, 12,353-385 Drives, Jy Baylis, G. C, & Rafal, R (1982, Novembec 5). Perctived Sigwe-round segrecatin ond symmety percepinn in Visual neglect Narre 360, 73-75, Duncan, J (1985), Ateson,imeligence, andthe fool lobes. In M. Gazzanigs (Bl), The cognlive neurosciences (gp. 721-733). Cane ridge, MA: MIT Pres ‘Dunesn J, Emule, He Wiliams, P1996). Inellgence and the fatalRitts, P MEK PT, Feito KJ ‘SPECIAL ISSUE: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE 887 Jobe: The oxganization of posl-izeted behave. Cognitive Pychoeny, 30, 257-38. Dancap J, Hughes, & Ward, R (1997. Compesve brie sty in visa! atenion Curent Opinion in Nenrbiology, 7, 25-261 Barly, T. 8, Pose, M.T, Raimaa, 2M, & Rael, M. B, (19890 Hyperaivity of the lt sat pial projection: Pat. Lower level hear. Peehlarle Development, 2, 85-108, any, TS, Poser, M, ly Ratan, E. M, & Raicle M.E. (19898). Left stra pllidal byperactviy in schizophrenia: Pat I. Poenomenclogy and thought sors. Psyehutric Developments, 2, 109-121. Bott, EV. (1973, Febru 2). Motor corer eeflenes sociated wih eared moverseais. Scene, 179, 501-503. Ferandez-Dagn, Dc Poses, ML. (1997). Resting dhe mechan of ‘rieming and aletng, Newropychologia, 35, 77—A86. Fit, CD, € Dai (0995), Abnormal ingle modulacon of fon empralcomectvity ia shioopresa. Neuroimage, 9, 337-342 Fox, PT, Mintun, M.A, Raich, ME. Mien, FM, (1986, October 30), Mapping human visal coe wil positon emission tomography. etre 23, 806-809. Fox, .E, Parsons, LM, & Laneastes, JL. (1998). Beyond the single stay: Funcsioalocaon meta-analysis is copstve neuroimaging, Cur- ent Opinion tn Newrobitog,@, 178-187, ‘isda Hl, 8, Roberson, LC. & Treisman, A. (1995, August 1). Parca contbuios eo visual feature binding. Sclence, 26, 853-855 "eston, KJ. (1997). Imaging coeitivesnatomy. Trond in Cognitive ‘Seience, 121-27. rth, C.D. (1992). The copnitve newopsychlogy of sehlephrena, ‘Loadoa: Ecbsum ‘ith, C.D, & Dolan, RJ, (1998), Images of payshopatology. Current Opinion in Newobiology, 8, 259-282. Fit CD, Peston, K-1, Herold, S., Sibeswaig, D. Fletcher, , Cail, (C.Dolan, RJ, Frtckowiak, R. S.J, & Lidele P.F. (1995) Regional train atvty in cron sehiophvsic patients dating the peformance ‘ofa versl foeny tsk, Britoh Jounal of Psychiatry, 167, 343-289. Gebving, W.3, Gross, B, Cols, M.-H. Meyer, D. E, & Doochis, B (1995) otal sytem for er detection a compensation. Paycho- logical Science, 4, 385-390. ‘Gzocg, M.S Ket. A., Pare, PL, Resins, N, Ring, H., Casey, B,J, Trae, M.R, Horwitz, B,Herscovte,P, Post RM. (198, Regional bain stv when selacing response despite inteence: AR HO PET szudy of the Swoop and an emosonal Stoop, Haman Brain Mapping, 1, 194-209. (Grau, 6.8 Fabian, M. (1998). Dynamic bai aging: Bventeated ‘opti signal (EROS) measures ofthe tne couse and localization of copsitvereated activity. Ppehonomic Buln and Review, 3, 535- 63. “wks, HL, Hiya S.A. Luck, $.3, Moaloss, M, Dawning. C1 “& Woodward, D . (1950). Vselatenion modulate igs! detection, Journal of Experinenal Pechology: Human Perception and Perfor mance, 16, 802-811 Hebb, D. 0. (1949). Organization of behovior: A neuroprcholosicl theory. New York: Wily. Heinze, H. 1, Mangea, G. R.. Bucher, W., Hnsichs, HL, Sebo, M, ‘Monte, TF, Gosel, A, Scherg. M, Johannes, S., Hundeshagen, H, Gazzmigs, M.S, & Hillyad, SA” (1994, December 8). Combine spa and temeval imaging of brain activity dang vel selective sienon in humans, Natur, 372, S43-546, Filia, S.A. TodenSuelen, W. A, de Mont, T.F. (998). Tem poral dyaunis of eady pecepual processing. Current Oplnion i Neurobiology, 8, 202-210 ‘iran, DL. (1974). Thorecal implicaons of he spcing effet. In RL Selso (Ed), Theories n cognitive psjechology= The Loyola Sym positon (Vol 10, pp. 77-99). New York: Academic Press. oe, D. H. (1987). Bye, Drain, ond vision New Youk: Selene Amer ‘ean Libra, Ing, RB, & Roberson, LC. (1998). The wo ses of pereption Camsidge, MA: MIT Press. James, W, (1890. Princperofpeychotogy. New Yor: Hot Sondes 2, Schumer, E. H., Smith, EE Lauber, E 1, Awh, B. Mines. Koeppe, R.A. (1997), Verbal working merry load ies regional bain activity as measuted by PET. Journal of Coane Newroscenes, 9, 462-495. Josephs, O, Tuner, Re Pst, K. (1997) vent elated MII, Honan ‘Brain Mapping, 523-248, Joepinet, My Stepise, K. Ma, Fh, C. D, Brosks,D. J, Frackowiak, R.S.J, &Passingham, RE. (1997). Anatomy of motor leaning: The fomal cortex and asention to acon. Journal of Nearophioloey, 77, Ba Se Xahneman, D. (1973) Attention and effort. Baglewood Cills,NE Preatce Hall. Kami, A Meyer, G, Rey-Hipalit, C, Jena, P, Adams, MM, Tore, 1, & Ungeleider, LG. (1998). The acgiston of skilled motor pettorance: Fat and slow experience driven change in primary Motor nex, Proceedings of the U.S. Nasional Academy of Slenes, 95, 61-68, Kusoer, 5. Pisk, M.A. DeWeee, P, Dosimone, R, & Unger, 1, G. (1999) Ioeeased scivty inthe human visoal cortex ducing rected atenton in the sbwence of vital simiitiog, Newron, 22, ‘sia. ‘iusboume, M, Hicks, R.E(1978).Fonsonal cereal space: A model for overfow,teacefer and interference effet in bamin performance: A tuucil review. In J. Requin (8), Attention and performance: Vol. 7. (pp. 45-362). lise, NI: Eebacm, Koss, S. M. (1984). nage and Brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Kos, SM, Alper, N.M, Thompson, W. ., & Maljovic,V. (1992), Visual mental imagery severe topography rpaizeé vista cr tox PET iavestgaioas Journal of Coritine Newosience, 5, 263-287, Kol, My Thompson, W. L, Kim, J, & Alpert, N. M. (995, ‘November 30), Topogrptiealrepceseatton in mental images in p= macy visoa cortex, Nature, 378, 496-58, Krscplin, E0921) Clincal pychiany: A textbook for sents and ‘pisllane. New York: Maca, Kramer, A. P, Hab, 8, & Gopher, D. (1989. Tsk coordinon and ‘ging: Espiontions of execative conto processes in the as siting pandigm. Acta Pecholgic, 101, 39-378. ‘LaBerge, D. (980), Thalamic and conical mechanisms of aseoin s0¢- ‘sted by recent poxitvon emision tomography. Journal of Cognitive Mearseence, 2, 388-272 LaBerge, D. (1995), Anentonal processing: The brain's art of mind ness. Cambie, MA: Barvard University Press. Laerge,D. (1995). Computonal and arama mls of selective ‘tention in obec ientifiston Ia M Gazzangn E), The cognitive neurosciences (pp 619-663). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ‘LaBerge, D. & Hochbaum, M.S. (1950) Psiton emission tomography ‘measurements of paiva activity dorng an ane task. Jowral of ‘eursclence, 1, 613-619. ‘Ladavas,E, Menphin, ©. de Umit, C. (1984). A rebailiation stay of ‘emispaialnelet. Copnive Neuropsychology, Il, 73-85 Lashes, KS. (1929), Brain mechani ond inelgence: A quantitative study of injuries tthe bran. Chicago: University of Cicago Press. ‘Lasoa, NA Ingvar. D-H, & Skibo J (1978, Osbep) Bra function ‘8 bod How. Selene american, 239, 62-7 Ibis, 8.7, & Fad, M. A. 01998). On the Toe of seecve ata visual pereption. Proceedings ofthe National Academy of Seience 9, 3-830, Lack §. 5. & Hiya S. A. 1994), Bleophysilogee comeates of festa analysis during visual search. Psychophysiology. 31, 291-308,888 POSNER AND DrGIROLAMO Mack, Ay & Rock, L (1998). Inauentonal Blindness. Cabege, MA MIT Press. MacLeod, CM, (1991), Half century freserch onthe Stop effect: Ax intgratve review. Prcholgicl Bulletin, 102, 183-209. Macden, 1.4 Hata, JM (1997), Application of positron emission temograpy to agent cogeiive changes, In KR. R. Krishnan de P.M. Dorsiswamy (Eas) Brom imaging m clinical pychiny (9p 515-613) New York: Deke. ; Marcel, A. (ED). Conscious ane unconscious prcepion: Experts on il making and word recogaicon. Cogn Pepehology, 15, 197= 21, Marco, T- Wite, EA. & Davison, MC. (194). Arousal ssa Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 4, 186-170. Daoowity DJ, Wong. ©, Hierics, H, Heinze, HI. & Flyer S.A. (1999) Iavolvemeat of abit an exasate iual erica areas sn spl atenton. Nance Neuroscience, 2, 364-368, Metsniiss BD, Poser, M. Ly & Given, (1997). Brain plastic fo Teaming vistal words. Cope Prychotog, 22, 88-110 MeConisk . A. (197), Oseting without sarees, Journal of Esper | imental Peyhotogy: flunan Perception and Performance, 23, \8-18D. | MoGiinchey-Beroth,R, Milberg, W.P, Veale, M, Alexander, M8 Kilda, P. (1995). Semanse priming inthe neglected visual Geld: Evidence from a lexical devision sk. Cognine Sleuropnchology, 10, i 79-108. MeGuie, P. K., Queste, DJ, Spence 5. Ay Murray, RM. Fh, C.D. | & Lida, PF. (1958). Pathophysiology of “postive” ough dsoréat in schizpluena. British Journal of Prehitry, 173, 31-235, Mabie, 1, Walker, F.C. fe Gaeret, M, (de) (1982), Perspectives om eral represeniaton: Experimental and thearatea studies of cognitive processes and capactles, Hilda, NJ: faba Miller, GA, & Leoreberg, E (Eis), (1978). Poychology and balay of language and sought: Esay in honor of Eric Leneborg. Now York: ‘Academie Pes Moran, 1, & Desimone, R. (1985, Augost 29). Selective attention gates | ‘aul proceting in he extras conex,Seence, 29, 82-784 Moruzi,G., & Magoun, H. W.(1949), Brainstem secular formation and sctvation of EEG. Elecaencephalography and Clinical Newophyeia- ony 1, 455-473. ‘Motte. B.C. (1953), Foca atenton presices sail slecve process Singin visual cate areas VI, V2, and Vs i the preseace of congeing | iti Journal of Meuropsilogy, 70, 909-018. ‘Motes, B.C, (1998), Newophysclogy of visual anton fa R. Para ‘man (a), The ante Brae (gp. 31-70). Carbidge, MA: MIT Pest | ‘Moonicasis, V. B. (1976). The weeld around wat Neural command fea | ons for selective atenton. Neuroscience Research Progress Glen 14(Sapp), 1-47. Mountcase, V. B, Lynch, J. C, Georgopouos, A. P Ska, Hy & ‘Acuoa,C. (1975. Posucioe pacel association cone of the monkey: ‘Command futons fr operons within exapersonal space, Journal ef Neurophysiology, 38. 871-008 [Nesly, JH, 0977). Semantic pining and retrieval fom lexical memory: | Roles of ihibitionlessspreating scvatin wad linited-eapacty sen | tion Jounal of Experimentl Pychology: General, 105, 226-254 Nel, W. T. (1970, Inhibitory and facilitatory processes ia elective tention. Journal of Experimental Pyehology Human Perception and Performance, 3, 44-450 Nesser,U. (196. Cognstve prychology, New Yad: Appleton Cet erat ~ Newell, A (1990) Unified teares of copii, Carbrige, MA: Harvard Universi res Norman, D. Ay & Shalic, T (1986). Amenion 40 ation: Wied an antomatccootol of beavio. lB J, Davidson, G. B. Sehwart,& D. Shspieo (Eds), Coniousness end selfregulain (Vol. 4, 9p. 1-18 New Ved Pleaum Prresianaa, R,& Geeawood, P.M. (1998). Selective atetion in ging ‘ard dementia In R.Parsuraman (Ed), The anerive bran (pp 461~ 487), Camige, MA: MIT Pres. ‘Purdo, J. V., Pardo, P. 5, Sager, KW, & Ralehe, M. E1990) The ‘soto cngulte cortex mediates processing selection ia the Stoop ‘tonto! cons paradigm. Proceedings of he National Academy of Selence, 87, 296-259. Psdo,P, Koesvich, M. A, Vogler, GF, Pardo, J. V, Towne, Ba ‘Clonningr, C.R, & Poster, MT. (200), Ocnetc aed sae variables of seuocopsivedjsunction nschizophcuia: A twin ty. Sclzophre ia Baller, 26, 489-477 Mimi A ll eno Son, ML, Fk LR, Bsn RRP, RE (99), Auntie aon, Pets of he Roa 2 Loon 8.331, 1AT=1. ‘etenen, 8. Fox, P-T, Poster, M,1, Minnn, M., & Ralele, M. (0989), Posizen emison tomographic stale of the processing of Singh words. Journal of Copntve Neuroscience, f, 153-170. Petrie, SE, Fons P., Savder, AZ, Racha, ME (1990, August 30), Activation of the sxaciate and froetal orca aes by visa ‘words and wordslikestimel. Scene, 248, 1041-1084 Plato, (1984), Dialogues (RE. Allen, Tran). New Haven: Yale Unive sity Pres. Powe, MI. (1978). Chronomeri explorations ef mind. Hills, NI ‘bao, Posner, Mz 1 (1992). Atetin a a cope nd acura syste. Current Disetions in Prycolopical Science, J, Vi-I Posner, ML, Absallaey, Y, MeCandist, B.D, & Seeco, S.C (1999) ‘Neuroanatomy, ciety, and plasty of word reading. Neuroreport 10, RI2-R2. Poxnts, M Coben, ¥, (198), Components of visual ota. Ia Bouma & D, Bowtie (Eds), Arznton and performance: Vol 10. Gp. 531-56) Hillsdale, NI: Erba, Poaner, M1, Coes, ¥., Rafal RD. (1982), New syste conte of ‘spatial oseming. Philosophical Transcripts of the Royal Society of London, 187-198, Posne, M1, & Dehsene, 8. (1994), Atentional networi. Trends ix euroscionce, 1, 75-79. Posner, M. I, & DiGioamo, GZ (1998). Esseuvestenin: Coll, target detection and cognitive contol. In R. Pxastraman (Bd), The atencve bran (pp 401~423), Cambridge, MA: MIT Pres Posner, ML, & Gilbert C.D. (1999) Anestion and peimary visa cortex Proceedings ofthe National Academy of Science, 56, 2585-2587. Poane, M. 1, Inbotf, A. W., Pedr, C.J, Coes, A. (1987), 1oating atetiooal systes: A cognitveanatomical analysis. Peychobilo, 15, 10121, Posne, ML, & McCandis, B.D. (1995), Bran deeisy during redng Ta Kien dP, MeMullen (i), Converging methods for undertand- ig reading and desi. Comores, MA: MIT Press Posner, M. 1, & Pavese, A. (1998). Anatomy of wort and senence meng. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 98, 99 sos. Posnes, M. I, Pea, Ryd Volpe, B. (198). Cognitive neuroscience: De ‘velopment toward sence af sytheas, Kn J: Mehler, C.T. Walker, &M. Garett Eas), Perspectives on mental representation: Experian lal and thorecal aes of cognitive proceses and capaci (yp. 251-276), Hilda, Ni: Econom Posoe, Me I, & Peron. E. (1950) The anton sytem of the human train, Amual Review of Neuroselence, 13,2542. Posaef, ML, & Raicle, M. E.(1904). bmager of mi. New Yee Scenic American Libey. Posner, M. Ld Rail, ME. (1998), Neuroimaging of baman tain ‘Taoedoa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Scene, 95,163-929, Posner, M. L, & Rotibat, M. K (1998). Ateaton,sel-cegsiton and‘SPECIAL ISSUE: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE 889) consciousness. Tranactlons ofthe Phlosophicl Society of London 8, 353, 1915-1927 Posner, ML, Wales, JA. Feed FA, & Raf, RD. (1987) How | do the pases lobes dict cover atemton? Nevropachaogia, 25, 35-14 Rafal B.D. (1996) Vigualstenton: Converging operon from neal ‘oy tod psychology In AF. Kouet, MG. H, Coles €G. D. Logan (Gia), Conersing operations in the sadly of sua selective aeton (op. 139-192) Washington: American Psychologlel Associaton Rafa, RD, (1998) Neglect Ia R.Parsuaran Bd), The attentive brain ‘pp, 489-525). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Ralcle, ME (1998), Behind the scenes of functional rei imagog: A ‘istorical end physiological peapectve. Proceedings of the National Academy of Steno, 98, 765.772. Raicle, ME: Fie) A Vises T- 0: Meco Ac MPa For, PT de Pees, 5. (1994) Prot elsted changes in Busan ‘ain funcional anstenyéurag noumounrleaing. Cerebral Comex. 4, F365. Rayner Kd Pollak. A. (1985). The prychology of reading. aglewoos ‘Cli, NE: Prone Hal Reicher, GM. (1969) Prep! recognition a «funeson of mesning- floes of stimulus ate. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 8, / 275-280, [Rizzoat, Gy Riggio, Ls & Sheiga, B.M. (1994. Space and selective ‘enon, Ta C. Ut & M. Mascortch (Eds), Arenon and perar= ‘mance: Vol. 15, Conscious ond woncontcous txfomation processing (p. 232-265). Cunbrige, MA: MIT Press. Roberson, IH, Maningiy, 3. B., Roden, C., & Dever, 3, (1988, Sepeaser 10}, Phaicaleting of meglet paens overcomes their sal defo in visual awareness. Near, 385, 19-172. Ropers RD, de Mons, S, (1995). Coss of a predicable Sitch beeen simple copitve asks Journal of Experimental Pechology: General, 124, 207-231, ‘Roland, P. (1993), Brain aeination. Now York: Wiley-Liss. ‘Rosse, ¥., Rod, G, Pislle Lune A, LiL. Blson,D. & Perea, 1MET. (1998, Sept 10) Pra adaption 1 a vightard opal eva rebates et hems neglect. Nese, $95, 166-169. Rott H. A. & Rotax. M, K. (1986) Ateson in eanty development ‘Theres and variations. New Yerk: Onfore University Press, Raxetnet, DE, & MoClellnd, 3 L. (1986). Paral disvibuted pro- i ‘cessing? Explorations inthe microsuctre of cognition, Cambie, IMA: MIT res Staders, AF. Q998), Blemems of human perfomance: Reaction po- | ‘ceses and aterson inhuman il, Mae, NU fu ‘Scher, M. (199). Fundamentals of eple source alsin . Granda &G.L. Romani Eds), itor evoked magnetic els and potentials: ‘Advance audiology (pp. 1-20). Basel, Swteran: Karger. Sejaowa, 1.1, & Coucland, P.§(1989}- Brain and coin. fn MI Posner (Ei), Foundations f copnitve science (gp. 301-356). Cam lige, MA: MIT Pres ‘Simon, H. A. (981). The sciences ofthe areal. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press ‘Skinner, J. E, & Yingling, C. (1977. Conta gating mechanisms tht ‘egulateevdntelsed potetals and behavior. fn J, Dexmed (4), Atenion, voluntary conrction, and event-related cerebral potentials (pp. 30-69). Base, Swtzeland: Kargee Sobol, BN: (1963). Perception and the conditioned reflex. New Yodk: ‘Mactla tember, S. (1969). The discovery of processing sages: Btesions of onder” mtd. In W. G. Koster (E4),Atemon and performance: Vol 2. Donderssomposion (pp. 276—315). Amstercu: Nort: Holand ‘Stoop, JR, (1935) Stoies of inerfeence ia serial verbal reactors. “Journal of Experimental Peyehology, 18, 613-662. “alaach, 3, Toumour, D. P (1988). Coplanarserotte atlas of be ‘ran brain, New York Theme. "Thorpe, $. Fiz, D, & Mato, C. (1986, fave 6). Speed of processing in the Duman visual eystes, Mane, 381, 520-522. ‘op, A. W. de Mazi, 5. C. (1996). Brain mapping? The mathe. Sn —~Disgs CATARaaenie Pe — ‘Toot. RB. H, Mendole, J.D, Hadjithani,N. K:, Leen P, Li |A., Regpas, J.B. Sereno, M. L, & Dae, A.M. (1997) Fustionsl Dalia af V3A ad related areas in human visa cortex Journal of ewoxcince, 17, 160~7078. Treman, AML, d Kanwisher, N.C. (198), Perevlag visually pe- Sete objects: Recopaiton, arenes, snd modula. Current Opa ‘an in Nearobilogy, 8, 218-22, ‘Tye. M. (199). The imagery debae. Cambridge, MA: MIT Pres Ungerer, LG. Courmey, §. M. & Haxby, 1. V. (199). A neural ‘Sjtem for buman visual working memory. Proceedings of he National ‘Academy of Slence, 95, 883-850. ‘Wayne, A.D, Mail, A, Dae, A, M., Rosen, B. R, & Schacter, DL (1999, Apri. Fifth Annual Meoting ofthe Cope Nearoicience Society. Paper presente atthe Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Neu rossonce Socay, Washington, DC. Weber. A, Kramer, AP, de Miller, G. A (1997). Selective processing of superposed objects” An elctophysological analysis of object ‘based atecional selection. Balogical Prcholog, 45, 159-182 West, RL (1996), An aplication of prefrotl cortex faction to cog lve aging. Pehologlal Bulletin, 120, 272-282, Whale, PJ. Bush, G, MeNally, RJ, Wie, S. Meterne, S.C, enh, MA. Rateh, 8. L. (1998). The emotional counting Stoop pusdigm: A fanciondl magne resonance imagieg prcbe ofthe ate- or cingulate ffecive division. Bilopical Paya. 15, 19-28. Wiggs, CL, de Mari, A. (1998). Properties and mectansrs of peep tua pining. Curent Opinion in Neurobiology, 8, 227-233. Wojcik E, & Kanvisher, N. (1999). The general of peal involve- ‘neo in visual ateton.Newron, 23, 747-76 Warz, RH, Goldberg, ME, & Robinson, D, L. (1980). Bebviont ‘modulation of vsuel esponses inthe monkey: Stimals selection for _ttenion and movement. Progress i Paychobology and Physiologica! Poyctlegy, 9, 4-83 ek, 5.1995) A vison ofthe Brain: Oxford, Englad: Basi Blackwell Received June 11, 1999 Revision received November 10, 1999 ‘Accepted November 16, 1999