Introduction to Rhetoric: an Overview

What is rhetoric? Rhetoric is art and study of using language effectively. There are many
purposes for using language, so studying rhetoric helps to understand how a writer manipulates
language for an intended purpose, usually to persuade an audience.
Historical Overview:
Aristotle: Most of the study done in rhetoric is rooted in Aristotelian ideology.
Aristotles Three Appeals:
o Ethos: appeal to the speakers credibility, to his or her good will
o Pathos: appeal to the audiences emotions
o Logos: appeal to the logic of the subject matter; facts and truths
Arguments are comprised of two parts, divided into four sections:
States the Case
Proves the Case
1. Introduction
3. Proofs for and against the case
2. The statement of the case/narration of
4. The summary/conclusion
the subject
Development of the five departments of rhetoric:
o Inventioninventio, ways of discovering ideas and supporting material
o Arrangementdispositio, ways to arrange the parts of the essay
o Styleelocutio, ways of embellishing
o Memorymemoria, mnemonic techniques
o Deliverypronuntiatio, ways of practicing and giving oral speeches
Aristotle held that rhetoric, when not used for evil intent, is a practical art that is based in
logical argumentation.
Cicero (106-43 B.C.E):
Cicero expanded Aristotles form for arguments into six sections, rather than four.
States the Case
Proves the Case
1. Introduction (exordium)
4. Proofs for the argument (confirmatio)
2. Overview of what created the issue
5. Proofs that disprove the
neading resolution (narratio)
counterargument (refutatio)
3. Exposition of the points to prove or the
6. Conclusion, final appeal to the audience
divisions of the arguments (partitio)
(conclusio)
This format gave rise to the modes of composition. Narratio became the narrative
essay; partitio became the expository essay; confirmatio became an argumentative essay.
Cicero contributed to the division of style into three levels:
o High- style used to move an audience
o Middle- style used to delight an audience
o Low- style used to teach an audience
Cicero asserted that a good orator should know a lot about the human experience, be
cultured and eloquent.

Quintilian (35-100 C.E)

Quintilian believed that a good orator should be knowledgeable about the human
experience but also be a moral individual.
He aided in the division of rhetoric into two sciences, incorporating the study of poetry:
o Grammatical studies, led by the grammaticus, taught what correct discourse and
poetic interpretation looked like, the knowledge of what.
o Rhetorical studies, led by the rhetoricus, provided students with the ways to
accomplish goals by action, the knowledge of how.
Contemporary studies mimic this type of instruction!
Quintilian pushed for imitation, translation, and paraphrasing as the best means of
developing writing skills.
Communcation Triangle:
Author
Expressive
Writing
Ethos

Literatur
e
Text
Referential
Writing
Logos

Audience
Persuasive
Writing
Pathos