Spring Semester Portfolio by Elle M, Evan M,

and Jaz D
Different levels of organization within an ecosystem
To create an ecosystem, there has to be levels within the organization. These
levels consist of:
Individual, Species, and Organisms: An
individual is any living this organism.
Population: A group of individuals of a given
species that live in a specific geographic
area at a given time.
Community: A community includes
populations of different organisms of
different species in the same living area.
Ecosystem: An ecosystem includes more
than a community of living organisms
interacting with the environments. (Abiotic)
Biome: A set of ecosystems with similar characteristics with their
abiotic factors adapted to their environments.
Biosphere: the sum of all the ecosystems established on earth.
Food Webs
A food when is a system of
interlocking and independent
food chains. Food chains show
where certain animals get their
food from, and which consumer
eats what prey. The levels in a
food chain are called trophic
levels. We begin with the sun.
The sun is the most important
factor due to the fact it is the
source of all energy in the web.
The first level of any food web is
green plants and vegetation,
which absorbs the suns light in
order to make their own food by photosynthesis. Green plants are therefore
called the producers in the food web.
The second level of the food chain is called the Primary Consumer.
These animals consume the green plants, being herbivores like insects,
sheep, caterpillars and cows. The third in the chain are called secondary
consumers. These animals usually eat the primary consumer. These animals
consist of carnivores like lions, cats, or snakes.

The fourth level is usually called Tertiary Consumers. Quaternary

Consumers eat tertiary consumers. At the top of the levels are Predators.
These are animals that have little or no natural enemies. These predators
have a large variety of prey to feed on. When an organism or predator dies,
detrivores eat them up. An example of a detrivore would be vultures, worms
or crabs. The rest of the animals are broken down my decomposers and the
exchange of energy continues. Decomposers start the cycle all over again.

Processes involved in the nitrogen cycle

Processes involved in the nitrogen cycling are 78% on the air is nitrogen.
Nitrogen is most important to life because it is a key part of amino and
nucleic acids. Nitrogen is also in the important to the ATP which is the energy
molecule for living things.
The nitrogen cycle
involves three major
steps. These steps
consitst of:
1) Nitrogen fication
plants and animals
depend on this to obtain
nitrogen. Symbiotic
bacteria, known as
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
can convert nitrogen in
the soil to ammonia
which can then be taken
up by the plants.
2) Nitrification this happens after nirogen has been fixed, and other
bacteria convert it into nitrate. The first step of this process is Nitrosomonas.
This converts ammonia into nitrite, and then nitrite is converted into nitrate
by the process of Nitrobacter.
3) Denitrification this process is played by a number of microscopic
bacteria, fungi and other organisms. Nitrates in the soil are brokwn down by
these particular organisms and then released into the atmosphere.
It is the cycle in the atmosphere that happens within the biosphere which
involves the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

Describe and recognize ecological niches

A Niche is a term used to describe the relational position of a species or
population in an ecosystem. A niche includes how a population responds and
reacts to lack of resources and enemies, and also shows how it affects those
of the same factors. The abiotic and physical environment is also a part of
the niche because it influences how populations affect, and are affected by
resources and enemies. No two species can occupy the same niche in the
same environment for a long time. A niche can also describe an organisms
history, habitat, and place in the food chain.

Characteristics of freshwater streams and rivers

Freshwater stream and rivers are bodies of water flowing one way. The
temperature is always cooler than the source than it is at its mouth. The
water is also clearer at the source and has higher oxygen levels. Fresh water
fish such as trout and heterotrophs can be found at the source. Towards the
middle of the streams and river, the width increases due to more body
capacity and erosion. The flow is also more increased towards the middle and
end. As well as this, the number of different species increases, too.
Numerous aquatic green plans and algae can be found. Towards the mouth of
the river and stream the water becomes murky from all the sediments it has
picked up along its journey, which in turn, decreases the amount of light that
is able to pass through the body of water. Due to the lack of light, there is
less diversity of flora, and due to the fact of lower oxygen levels, fish that
require less oxygen can be found here.
Intra-specific and Inter-specific interactions
The inter-specific competition is the competition for resources between
individual of different species. This could consist of competition for mating
partners, territorial competition, and dominance competition. In Intra-specific
competition, members of the same species compete for food, shelter, water,
and mates.
Climate change can cause species distribution
Climate change over the past thirty years has produced numerous
shifts in the distributions and abundances of species, and has been
implicated in one species-level extinction. Climate change could possibly be
the cause of extinction in some cases. Higher temperatures may kill off
animals due to higher temperatures restricting surface activity during the
spring breeding season. In relation to this, increased air temperatures may
both decrease activity time and increase energy maintenance costs leading
organisms to die from starvation more regularly than overheating. In aquatic
organisms, increased water temperatures may lead to increased metabolic
demand for oxygen while reducing the oxygen level of the water. Another
reason would be how climate change can cause an increase in fire frequency

and these fires may alter animal

distribution and may be the
proximate cause of extinction. An
increase of heat will lead to melting
of the icecaps and rise sea levels,
meaning it will eliminate coastal
habitats and modify the salinity of
freshwater habitats.
Climate change can affect
distribution in many ways. One
reason for species distribution is the
increasing temperature making the
ground dry and leaving the earth in a desert like condition. This will not only
affect the survivorship of particular species, but also the natural resources
they have adapted to use in their natural environment. Species are then
forced to move elsewhere to find new places to live and find food to eat
because they can no longer stay in their old habitat.
Cause and effects of ecological succession
Ecological succession is a fundamental concept in ecology that refers
to an orderly, predictable change in the community. The succession can be
initiated by the formation of new habitats which are unoccupied or from
disturbance of an existing
community. Ecological succession
is caused by a change of
ecosystem and its impact on the
species and their own
environment. Under altered
conditions the first species living
in the habitat may fail to flourish
and the second species moving in
may find it easy to flourish.
Succession may also happen
when the conditions of the
changes drastically and suddenly
happen. This may result in a
destruction of the species and also alteration of the dynamics of the
ecological community that may also result in a struggle for dominance
among the present species in the altered environment.
There are two types of succession, Primary succession, which occurs in
areas which are incapable of sustaining life as a result of lava flows, sand
dunes, or left over rocks. Secondary succession occurs in areas where a
community has been removed from an area that previously existed.
The causes are biotic and climatic factors which destroy the existing
populations of the area. Continuing causes of succession are aggregation,

and things like competition and migration. Also, stabilizing causes include
climate factors that result in the stabilization of a community.
Global Water Resources and use:
The watershed is an area of land that separates the waters flowing into
different rives. The water collected in a watershed
determines the flow and depth of the river. The
biggest watershed in the world is the watershed for
the Amazon River which covers 6,144,727Km2 of
the earths surface.
A water diversion is any transfer of water
across watershed boundaries through a man-made
pipeline or canal. They can transfer water between
the different watersheds of different
lakes and rivers within the basin. A
classic example of water diversion can
be found in the Great Lakes. The most
major diversion in the Great lakes
would be the Chicago diversion from
Lake Michigan into the Mississippi River
System. Another example would be the
Forestport diversion. This is where New
York diverts waters of the Black River
into the Erie Canal and the Hudson
River watershed

Water Pollution
The main types of water pollution consist of:
Nutrients pollution - the process where too many nutrients (mainly
nitrogen and phosphorus) are added to bodies of water begin to act like
fertilizer, causing excessive growth of algae which can be harmful. Its
caused by runoff water from storms that go into the river after flowing over
land with rich soil.
Surface water pollution natural water resources of the earth become
polluted by many different reasons. This is caused by runoff storm water
containing chemicals such as grass fertilizer.
Oxygen depletion oxygen molecules in the water become less
concentrated which causes death of fish and aquatic animals, and also
harmful algae.

Ground water pollution - long-term water-level declines caused by

continuous groundwater pumping.
Microbiological - natural form of water pollution caused by microorganisms
such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
Suspended matter - The suspended particles eventually settle and cause
thick silt at the bottom. This is harmful to marine life that lives on the floor of
rivers or lakes.
Chemical water pollution - Industrial and agricultural work involves the
use of many different chemicals that can run-off into water and pollute it.
Metals and solvents from industrial work can pollute rivers and lakes. These
are poisonous to many forms of aquatic life and may slow their development,
make them infertile or even result in death. Pesticides are used in farming to
control weeds, insects and fungi. Run-offs of these pesticides can cause
water pollution and poison aquatic life. Subsequently, birds, humans and
other animals may be poisoned if they eat infected fish. Petroleum is also
another form of chemical pollutant that usually contaminates water through
oil spills when a ship ruptures.
Oil spillage - oil spills, routine shipping, run-offs and dumping pollution into
water sources such as oceans and large rivers cause major pollution. Oil
spills can cause a much localized problem but can be catastrophic to local
marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters. Oil cannot dissolve in water
and forms a thick sludge in the water. This suffocates fish, gets caught in the
feathers of marine birds stopping them from flying and blocks light from
photosynthetic aquatic plants.
Cultural eutrophication
Eutrophication is characterized by excessive plant and algal growth due to
the increased availability of one or more limiting growth factors needed for
photosynthesis. Cultural or artificial eutrophication occurs when human
activity introduces increased amounts of these nutrients, which speed up
plant growth and eventually kills the lake of all its animal life. Eutrophication
is common in freshwater ecosystems and is really a part of the normal aging
process of many lakes and ponds. Human activities almost always result in
the creation of waste, and many of these waste products often contain
nitrates and phosphates. The excessive amounts of nitrates and phosphates
act as an extremely powerful fertilizer for plants and algae and speed up
their growth.
Sewage treatment/septic systems

The waste produced from 60% of the US

population is collected in sewage systems and
carried away by 14 billion gallons of water each
day. It travels to a plant where it is treated so
the water can then be reused. Once the water
reaches the plant, it undergoes primary
treatment. The simplest, and least effective,
method of treatment is to allow the undissolved
solids in raw sewage to settle out of suspension
forming sludge. This primary treatment removes
only one-third of the BOD and virtually none of
the dissolved minerals. The water then
continues its journey to the secondary treatment. Here the effluent is
brought in contact with oxygen and aerobic microorganisms. They break
down much of the organic matter to harmless substances such as carbon
dioxide. Primary and secondary treatment together can remove up to 90% of
the BOD. The water then undergoes chlorination to remove its content of
bacteria. The effluent from secondary treatment is returned to the local
surface water.
Clean Water Act:
In 1972, congress
passed a law to
protect all waters of
the United States.
This is called the
Clean Water Act, and
is still used today to
protect the nations
waters. The
environmental protection agency and army corps of engineers have
proposed a landmark rule clarifying the longstanding clean act protections
for streams, wetlands, and other waters that are important for fish, wildlife,
communities and economy. The clean water act set the basic structure for
regulating discharges of pollutants to waters of the United States. Related to
this Law, the Water Impairment Identification - Section 303(d) requires States
to identify waters that do not, or, are not expected to meet applicable water
quality standards with technology-based controls alone. Nonpoint Source
Management Program - Section 319 was shortly later established to
recognize the need for greater federal leadership to help focus State and
local nonpoint source efforts.

Sources and impacts of nonpoint source pollution and ways to

decrease it
Nonpoint source pollution is usually caused by
land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric
deposition, drainage, seepage or hydrologic
modification. The term "nonpoint source"
means any source of water pollution that does
not meet the legal definition of "point source"
section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act. Nonpoint source pollution can
include:

in

An excess of fertilizer, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural

lands and residential areas
Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy
production
Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest
lands, and eroding steam banks
Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines
Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic
systems

There are many things that people can do to

reduce the pollution caused by nonpoint sources.
To begin with, we can all plant thick vegetation
around water sources to slow run off and soak up
pollutants. We can also use natural alternatives to
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. People can also
start washing their cars on the grass so that the
soapy water soaks into the ground. Animal owners
should also pick up after their pets, as the waste
contains bacteria and viruses that contaminate shellfish and cause the
closing of bathing areas.

Air Pollution News article summary:

The new carbon emission standards that were proposed last year for coal
fired power plants should substantially improve human health as well as
reduce premature deaths. The study done by Syracuse and Harvard
University found that while health benefits of the rule would be indirect,

illnesses such as asthma and lung

disease have a direct impact. More
importantly the new rule would help
prevent 3500 premature deaths and
1000 heart attacks.
Sources of air pollution
Area Sources: Small pollution
sources such as dry cleaners, gas
stations, auto body paint shops,
commercial buildings( heating and
culling units; surface coatings),
residential buildings (fire places: surface coatings), fuel combustion in nonroad machinery, boats, railroads, lawnmower, barbeque grill, open burning,
landfills and wastewater treatment
Mobile Sources: On-road vehicles (cars, trucks, buses), off-road equipment
(ships, airplanes, agricultural and construction equipment)
Point Sources: Major industrial facilities such as chemical plants, steel
mills, oil refineries, power plants, hazardous waste incinerators

Causes of Smog:
Smog is produced by a set of complex photochemical reactions and sunlight
which form ground level ozone, come from sources such as automobile
exhaust, power plants, factories, and
many consumer products including
paint, hairspray, charcoal starter fluid,
chemical solvents.
Steps in formation of smog
1. Atmospheric conditions cause a layer
of warm air to blanket a layer of cooler
air. 2. The pollutants are trapped and
are unable to rise. 3. If the conditions
persist, the pollutants in the warm air, near the ground can increase to
dangerous levels. 4. Primary pollutants, mainly oxides of nitrogen and

volatile organic compounds, come from internal combustion engines. 5. The

primary pollutants are converted to secondary pollutants under the presence
of sunlight.
Temperature inversions and their effect on Environmental and
Human health
Temperature inversions form where the normal decrease in air temperature
with increasing altitude is reversed and air above the ground is warmer than
the air below it. They are significant because they block atmospheric flow
which can result in freezing rain, intense thunderstorms, tornadoes, smog.
Problems relating to burning coal
Acid mine drainage, smog, acid rain, environmental toxins, respirator,
cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular effects, black carbon, coal fires, coal
combustion waste, coal sludge or slurry, floods, forest destruction,
greenhouse gas emissions, loss or degradation of groundwater, disturbance
of farmland, rangeland, and forests which has not been reclaimed, mercury
production, methane release, radioactivity, subsidence, thermal pollution
from coal plants
Particulates and Sources
Particulate matter also known as particle pollution is mixture of extremely
small particles and liquid droplets, including acids (such as nitrates and
sulfates) organic chemicals, metals, soil or dust particles. EPA groups particle
pollution into two categories:
Inhalable course particles such as those found near roadways and dusty
industries are larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers
in diameter
Fine particles such as those found in smoke and haze, are 2.5 micrometers in
diameter and smaller. These particles can be directly emitted from sources
such as forest fires, or they can form when gases emitted from sources such
as forest fires or the can form when gases emitted from power plants
industries and automobiles react in the air.
GMOs and Industrialized agriculture
GMOs (or genetically modified organisms) are living organisms whose
genetic material has been artificially manipulated in a laboratory through
genetic engineering, or GE.

Several animal studies indicate serious health risks associated with GM

food, including infertility,
immune problems, accelerated
aging, faulty insulin regulation,
and changes in major organs
and the gastrointestinal system.
The AAEM asked physicians to
advise patients to avoid GM
foods
Creating plants better resistant
to weeds, pest and other
diseases; such as corn
Benefits of GMOs are:

Bigger yields to create more efficient use of land, less uses of

herbicides and other pesticides.
Foods with better texture, flavor and nutritional value.
Foods with a longer shelf life for easier shipping.

Finally, GM foods can create an essential sustainable way to feed the world.
Industrial agriculture pollutes air, water, and soil, reduces biodiversity, and
contributes to global climate
In addition to the obesity epidemic and the chronic diseases related to it,
consuming an industrially produced diet has other important health
consequences that are directly tied to production methods
Pesticides:
Pesticides have been linked to a wide range of human health hazards,
ranging from short-term impacts such as headaches and nausea to chronic
impacts like cancer, reproductive harm, and endocrine disruption.
Acute dangers - such as nerve, skin, and eye irritation and damage,
headaches, dizziness, nausea, fatigue and systemic poisoning - can
sometimes be dramatic, and even occasionally fatal.

Chronic health effects may occur years

after even minimal exposure to
pesticides in the environment, or result
from the pesticide residues which we
ingest through our food and water. A
July 2007 study conducted by
researchers at the Public Health
Institute, the California Department of
Health Services, and the UC Berkeley
School of Public Health found a six fold
increase in risk factor for autism spectrum disorders (ASD) for children of
women who were exposed to organochloride pesticides.
Pesticides can cause many types of cancer in humans. Some of the most
prevalent forms include leukemia, non-Hodgkins lymphoma, brain, bone,
and breast, ovarian, prostate, testicular and liver cancers. In February 2009,
the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry published a study that
found that children who live in homes where their parents use pesticides are
twice as likely to develop brain cancer versus those that live in residences in
which no pesticides are used.
The pesticide treadmill is a term indicating a situation in which it becomes
necessary for a farmer to continue using pesticides regularly because they
have become an indispensable part of an agricultural cycle.
Integrated pest management, or IPM, is a process you can use to solve pest
problems while minimizing risks to people and the environment. IPM can be
used to manage all kinds of pests anywhere, in urban, agricultural, and wild
land or natural areas.