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Contents
CONTENTS
Part
#1. Mathemathics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.2 Probability & distribution
1.3. Numerical Method
1.4. Calculus
1.5. Differential Equations
1.6. Complex Variables
Page No.
1 42
18
9 14
15 19
20 30
31 37
38 42
43 69
43 49
50 54
55 62
63 64
65 66
67 69
70 87
70 72
73 74
75 77
78 80
81 83
84 87
88 114
88 90
91 94
95 96
97 98
99 101
102 104
105 110
111 114
115 138
115 116
117 118
119 122
123 124
125 129
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Page.I
#Reference Books
Contents
130
131
132 138
139 170
139 145
146 150
151 155
156 159
160 161
162 163
164 170
171 194
171 177
178 182
183 192
193 194
195 209
195
196 197
198 199
200
201 204
205
206
207 209
210 225
210 214
215 217
218 219
220 222
223 225
226 -227
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Page.II
Mathematics
Part - 1: Mathematics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.1.1
Matrix
Definition: A system of m n numbers arranged along m rows and n columns.
Conventionally, single capital letter is used to denote a matrix.
Thus,
A=[
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
Column Matrix
[1 ]
1
1
Number of columns
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Page 1
Mathematics
=A
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Symmetric
Skew symmetric
a h g
h g
f]
[h b f ]
[h
g f c
g f
Symmetric Matrix
= A
1.1.1.11
1.1.1.12
)
Unitary Matrix: If we define, A = (A
Then the matrix is unitary if A . A = I
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1.1.1.13
Mathematics
Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A = A or a = a
1.1.1.14
1.1.1.15
always real
Idempotent Matrix
If A = A, then the matrix A is called idempotent matrix.
1.1.1.17
Determinant:
n square matrix.
a
D = det A = |a
a
a |=a
-a
Determinant of order n
D = |A| = det A = ||
a
a
a
a
|
|
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Page 3
1.1.1.19
Mathematics
1.1.1.21
Inverse of a Matrix
| |
b
1
a
Important Points:
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0,
(Here 0 is null matrix)
3. If AB = , then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesnt mean BA = .
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are
singular matrices.
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix.
6. AB BA (in general) Commutative property does not hold
7. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property holds
8. A(B+C) = AB AC Distributive property holds
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Page 4
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Mathematics
+p
Note:
Elementary transformations dont change the ran of the matrix.
However it changes the Eigen value of the matrix.
1.1.1.23
Rank of Matrix
If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r r elements is called minor of A of order r.
Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r when,
i)
It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors.
Special case: Rank of Square matrix
Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
r(A.B)
min { r(A), r (B)}
r(A+B) r(A) + r (B)
r(A-B)
r(A) - r (B)
The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
diagonal.
5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
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Page 5
Mathematics
1.1.1.24
x
x
a
a
Where, A =
,
[a
B =
[x ]
Inconsistent means:
No solution
Cramers ule
Let the following two equations be there
a
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(i)
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(ii)
a
D = |b
a
b |
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Page 6
b
D =|
b
a
|
a
a
D =|
a
b
|
b
Mathematics
and x =
Characteristic equation: | A
I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
Eigen vectors: [
]X=0
For each Eigen value , solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
there cant be different Eigen values.
Properties of Eigen values
1. The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to the sum of its principal diagonal.
2. The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
3. The largest Eigen values of a matrix is always greater than or equal to any of the
diagonal elements of the matrix.
4. If is an Eigen value of orthogonal matrix, then 1/ is also its Eigen value.
5. If A is real, then its Eigen value is real or complex conjugate pair.
6. Matrix A and its transpose A has same characteristic root (Eigen values).
7. The Eigen values of triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. Zero is the Eigen value of the matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
9. Eigen values of a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix has absolute value 1.
10. Eigen values of Hermitian or symmetric matrix are purely real.
11. Eigen values of skew Hermitian or skew symmetric matrix is zero or pure imaginary.
| |
12.
is an Eigen value of adj A (because adj A = |A|. A ).
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Page 7
13. If
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Mathematics
Vector:
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Page 8
Mathematics
Probability
B =, P(A
B) =0
Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
are said to be equally likely.
Odds in Favour of an Event =
Where m
n
.
.
P(A) P(A)=1
Important points:
P(A B) Probability of happening of at least one event of A & B
P(A B) ) Probability of happening of both events of A & B
If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Addition Law of Probability:
a. For every events A, B and C not mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)- P(A B)- P(B C)- P(C A)+ P(A B C)
b. For the event A, B and C which are mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
If P(A B)= P(A) P(B)
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P. / denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
P(B/A)=
)
( )
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Page 9
Mathematics
P(B/A) = P(B)
[ P(A) 0]
= P(B). P(A/B),
[ P(B) 0]
Bayes theorem:
An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B , B ,.., B .
If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then,
P. /=
(
(
). ( )
). ( )
Distribution
f(x ) = 1 (Discrete)
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Mathematics
P(x ) =
f(x )
) ]
Var (X)= (x x
) f(xx )
(Discrete case)
)-,E(x)-
Properties of Variance
1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx)
= C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
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Page 11
Mathematics
covariance=0,
2. Exponential distribution :
3. Uniform distribution:
4. Cauchy distribution :
f(x) = e
, x
, here
= , x
f(x)=
, b f(x) a
= , otherwise
f(x)= .(
)
Mean:
For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , . . , x )
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Mathematics
For a grouped data if x , x , . . , x are mid values of the class intervals having frequencies
f , f ,.., f ,then, =
If is mean for n data; is mean for n data; then combined mean of n +n data is
=
If , be mean and SD of a sample size n and m ,
SD of combined sample of size n +n is given by,
(n
n )
D = m -m
( n)
=n
+n
(m ,
= (n
+n D +n D
(n D )
Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Important Points:
Mean is best measurement ( all observations taken into consideration).
Mode is worst measurement ( only maximum frequency is taken).
In median, 50 % observation is taken.
Sum of the deviation about mean is zero.
Sum of the absolute deviations about median is minimum.
Sum of the square of the deviations about mean is minimum.
Co-efficient of variation =
100
( , )
-1 (x, y) 1
(x,y) = (y,x)
|(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
Line of Regression:
The equation of the line of regression of y on x is y
The equation of the line of Regression of x on y is (x
y=
x) =
(x
x)
(y
y)
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Page 13
Mathematics
Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X x ; Y y)
Properties of Joint Distribution Function/ Cumulative Distribution Function:
1. F (
,
) =
2. F ( , ) = 1
3. F (
, ) =
{ F (
, ) = P(
y) = 0 x 1 = 0 }
) = F (x) . 1 = F (x)
4. F (x, ) = P(
x
5. F ( , y) = F (y)
Joint Probability Density Function:
Defined as f(x, y) =
Property:
F(x, y)
f(x, y) dx dy
= 1
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Page 14
Mathematics
1. Bisection method
This method finds the root between points a and b.
If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (Intermediate Value Theorem).
First approximation to the root is x1 =
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
b.
Similarly x2 and x3 . . . . . are determined.
Simplest iterative method
Bisection method always converge, but often slowly.
This method cant be used for finding the complex roots.
Rate of convergence is linear
2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)
( )
xn+1 = xn
(
This method is commonly used for its simplicity and greater speed.
Here f(x) is assumed to have continuous derivative f(x).
This method fails if f(x) = .
It has second order of convergence or quadratic convergence, i.e. the subsequent error at
each step is proportional to the square of the error at previous step.
Sensitive to starting value, i.e. The Newtons method converges provided the initial
approximation is chosen sufficiently close to the root.
Rate of convergence is quadratic.
3. Secant Method
x
=x
) (
f(x )
Page 15
Mathematics
, f(x ) =
( )
)
2.
+n -
Page 16
Mathematics
L U Decomposition
It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13
1 0 0
a21 b22 c23
L21 1 0
=
a31 b32 c33
L31 L32 1
Page 17
Mathematics
Numerical Integration
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(remaining terms)+
a) max |f ( )|
, , -
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
a) max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
f(x)dx =
h ( first term
{
last term)
a)
max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
Page 18
Mathematics
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Page 19
Mathematics
1.4 Calculus
1.4.1
Limit of a Function
Let y = f(x)
Then lim
f(x)=
0< |x a|< , |f(x)
i.e, f(x)
|<
x) = 1
a
=x
a
nx
x
e =1+x+
log(1
x) = x
log(1
x) =
Sin x = x
n(n
1)(n
.........x
.........a
.........
+
.........
.........
.........
Cos x = 1
Sinh x = x
.........
.........
Cosh x = 1
.........
sinx
=
x
lim (1
lim(1
lim
lim
1
) =
x
x) =
1
x
1
x
= log a
=1
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Page 20
lim
lim
log(1
x
x
x
x)
Mathematics
=1
a
=
a
lim log|x| =
L Hospitals ule
When function is of
limit.
or
f(x) = lim
Properties of Continuity
If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then
a. (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a
b.
is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0
c. |f| or |g| is continuous at a
olles theorem
If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) exists for every value of x in open interval (a,b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that
( )=0
Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
x axis
C
C
2
C1
a
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Page 21
Mathematics
( )
= f (c).
(0< <1)
1.4.2
( )
=
( )
b
( )
( )
Derivative:
( ) = lim
( )
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Page 22
Mathematics
Homogenous Function
Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn . / is called homogenous function of
order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2
f(x,y) = xn
an yn
. /
1.4.3
+ 2xy
+y
= n(n
1)u
Total Derivative
u=
+
x+
.
y
f( )
f( )
b) Local
Find
at x = ,
If
If
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Page 23
If
Mathematics
If
But If
If
If
If
at x = .
= , proceed further
Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval.
Point of Inflexion
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Point of
inflexion
i)
ii)
=0,
iii)
Taylor Series:
f(a
h)= f(a)
h f(a)
f(a)
.........
Maclaurian Series:
f(x) = f( )
x f( )
f ( )
f ( )
= 0,
2. (i) if rt
(ii) if rt
(iii) if rt
(iv) if rt
,s=
=
, t=
solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)
s
and r
maximum at (a, b)
s
and r
minimum at (a, b)
s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
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Page 24
1.4.4
Mathematics
1. x dx =
, n
2. dx = log x
3. e dx = e
4. a dx =
(prove it )
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
cos x dx = sin x
sin x dx = cos x
sec x dx = tan x
cosec x dx = cot x
sec x tan x dx = sec x
cosec x cot x dx = cosec x
dx = sin
12.
dx =
sec
13.
dx = sec x
x )
24.
dx = log(x
a ) = cosh ( )
25.
dx = log(x
a ) = sinh ( )
26. a
x dx =
27. a
x dx = x
log(x
a )
28. x
a dx = x
log(x
a )
29.
dx =
tan
30.
dx =
log (
) where x <a
31.
dx =
log (
) where x > a
32. sin x dx =
33.
34.
35.
36.
sin
sin x
sin x
cos x dx =
tan x dx = tan x x
cot x dx = cot x x
ln x dx = x ln x x
37. e
sin bx dx =
(a sin bx
b cos bx )
38. e
cos bx dx =
(a cos bx
b sin bx )
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Page 25
39. e ,f(x)
Mathematics
f (x)-dx = e f(x)
Integration by parts: u v dx = u. v dx
v dx)dx
I L A T E
E
Selection of U & V
Inverse circular
(e.g. tan 1 x)
Exponential
Logarithmic
Algebraic Trigonometric
x)dx
f(x)dx+
=0
4. f(x)dx =2 f(x)dx
=0
a<c<b
f(x)dx = f(a
x)dx
f(a x)dx
f(x)dx =
if f(a-x)=f(x)
if f(a-x)=-f(x)
if f(-x) = f(x), even function
if f(x) = -f(x), odd function
f(x)dx
Improper Integral
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a
then it is called as improper integral.
b in case of f(x)dx,
1.4.6 Convergence:
f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
If (i)
f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) g(x)dx converges , then f(x)dx also converges
If (i) f(x) g(x)
for all x and (ii) g(x)dx diverges, then f(x)dx also diverges
( )
( )
If lim
diverge.
is converges when p
The integral
The integral
dx and
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Page 26
1.4.7
Mathematics
Vector Calculus:
=.
Directional Derivative:
is the resolved part of f in direction N
.
The directional derivative of f in a direction N
= | f|cos
f. N
is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Where N
Direction cosine: l
n =1
Gradient:
The vector function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
as grad f.
grad f = f =
1.4.9
f is vector function
If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along f and magnitude of this maximum
is | f|.
Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = . F
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Page 27
F=f +
div.F= . f = .
=
Mathematics
/ .( f +
. f is scalar
. =
is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl:
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is
defined by the equation.
Curl F =
f =|
|
f
F is vector function
1.4.11 Solenoidal Vector Function
If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function.
1.4.12 Irrotational Vector Function
If
f=
curl grad f =
f=0
div curl F = .
F =0
curl curl F =
(
f) = ( . f) grad div F = ( . f)=
(
F) +
F
F
Page 28
(F
9.
G) = F(
G)
G(
Mathematics
F)
Also note:
1. (f/g)= (g f f g)/g
2. (F.G) = F.G F . G
3. (F G) = F G + F G
4.
(fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f
= (C
.A
)B
.B
- (C
)A
(A
B)
C
(B
) = (A
.C
)B
.B
C
- (A
)C
A
(A B ) C A (B C )
1.4.16 Line Integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral
Line integral = F( )d
If F( )= f(x,y,z) (x,y,z) + (x,y,z)
d = dx dy dz
dy dz )
F( )d = ( f dx
ds, Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
Surface integral: F .
ds or F . N
Volume integral : F dv
If F(R ) = f(x,y,z) +
(x,y,z)
F dv = fdxdydz
dxdydz + dxdydz
dy) = .
/ dxdy
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Page 29
Mathematics
F .N ds
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Page 30
Mathematics
Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.5.2
Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
1.5.3
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
f(x)dx
2. Homogenous Equation:
( ,
( ,
)
)
y=Y+k
=
=
=
(say)
(
(
)
)
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Page 31
Mathematics
d y
dx
P(x)
dy
dx
(x)y = (x)
= . (I. F)dx
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Ex:
x . /
= 0.
.1 Bernoullis Equation:
+Py=Qy
Divide by y
y
Substitute, y
Py
=Q
=z
(1
n)Pz = Q (1-n)
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Page 32
Mathematics
M dx
= d [log (
4.
=-d( )
5.
= d [tan (
)-
6.
=d[
)-
log(
)]
1.5.4
0 then I.F. =
0 then I.F. =
( )
( )
y=X
D
-----
)y = X {Where, D =
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Page 33
(D
m ) (D
m ) - - - - - - (D
m )y=0
Mathematics
C e
-- - - - -+ C e
C x)e
Similarly, if m = m = m
y = (C
Case III:
C x +C x ) e
m =
i , m =
y = e (C cos x
Case IV:
i
C sin x)
1.5.5
i ,
C ) cos x
,(C x
i
(C x
C ) sin x ]
X=
( )
.X
Case I:
When X =
P.I. =
( )
P.I. = x
( )
P.I. =
( )
put D = a
[ ( )
0]
put D = a
[ ( )
0, ( ) = 0]
put D = a
[ ( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( )
0]
Case II:
When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax +b)
P.I. =
=x
=
)
(
put
)
=-
, (-
0]
put
=-
, (-
, (-
) = 0]
) put
=-
, (-
, (-
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Page 34
= , (-
Mathematics
) = 0]
Case III:
When X =
= [ ( )-
( )
(D) ,1
(D) [1
( )
( )
( )
( )
Case IV:
When X =
V where V is function of x
P. I. =
( )
V then evaluate
Case V:
When X = x V(x)
P.I. =
( )
( )
x V(x) = 0
( )
( )
V(x)
Case VI:
When X is any other function of x
P.I. =
Factorize f(D) = (D
( )
) (D
) - - - - - - - (D
X=
) and resolve
( )
on each terms.
Substitute
------ -
=X
x=e
x
= Dy
= D (D-1) y
= D (D-1)(D-2) y
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Page 35
Mathematics
After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy Euler equation results in a linear equation
with constant coefficients.
1.5.7
ax + b =
- - - - -- -
=X
t = ln (ax + b)
(ax + b)
=aDy
D(D-1)y
D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendres equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
1.5.8
1.5.9
=q,
= r,
= s,
= f( x, y)
-------
) = f(x, y)
{ where D =
and D =
f (D, D) = f(x,y)
Step I: Finding the C.F.
1. Write A.E.
Where m =
2. CF = (y +
CF = (y +
CF =
(y +
----= 0,
and the roots are
,
---- x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
are distinct
x) + x (y +
x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
x) + x
(y +
x) +
(y +
x) + - - - -
,
,
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Page 36
Mathematics
( ,
f (x, y)
1. when F( ax +by ) =
, put [ D = a, = b]
2. when F( x, y) = sin (mx +ny), put ( =
,
3. when F(x, y) =
, P. = ( , )
=[ ( ,
4. when F(x, y) is any function of x and y. P. =
( ,
=
))
f (x, y) , resolve
( ,
into partial
y + mx after integration.
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Page 37
Mathematics
is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z.
, Argument of
( )=
. /
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers w for every value of z in a certain domain D, then w = f (z)
Where z = x + iy,
w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
1.6.2
Continuity of f (z):
( ) = ( ).
A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at = if
Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at
every point of that region.
Also if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at = , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also
continuous at x= & y = .
1.6.3
Theorem on Differentiability:
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all
values of in a region R.
i)
ii)
1.6.4
A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is
said to be analytic in that domain.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
Thus if u and v are real Single valued functions of x and y such that
, ,
,
are
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations
=
=-
are both necessary and sufficient condition for the function f(z) = u
iv to be analytic in .
Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function.
An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.
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Page 38
1.6.5
Mathematics
Harmonic Functions:
If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z plane then the C R equations are
satisfied.
=
=0
(Laplace Equation)
Note:
(1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
continuous in addition to CR equations.
(2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
the centre.
1.6.6
( , )
dz + c
( , )
dz + i . /
( , )
dz + c
dx +
dy
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Page 39
Mathematics
( )
=(
( )
= f( )
( ), i.e.
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
() = 0
Note: In other words, by Cauchys theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ( ) =
D
C
( )=
( ) =
( ) =
( )
( )
(
)
( )
.
( )=
( )
(
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Page 40
Mathematics
( )
= 0 around every
1.6.10 Taylors Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
f(z) = f(a)
f(z) =
where
( )
f(a) (z-a) +
(
=
(z-a) + - - - - - - -
( )
)
( ) + - - - - - - -
1.6.11 Laurents Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and (
) and with centre at a then for all z in R
(
f(z) =
where,
( )
)
where
if
f(z) =
=
=
( )
=------
Page 41
Mathematics
f(z) =
(
)
singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a
( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Example: f(z) =
, then z = 0 is a removable singularity.
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity.
( ) does not exist in this case
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series after
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a simple pole.
( )
( )
,(
( )-3
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Page 42
Network Theory
Circuit
element
Resistance, R
Symbol in
electric circuit
Inductance, L
Capacitance, C
Units
Voltage
current
relation
Instantaneous
power , P = Vi
V= i R
( ohms law)
Energy stored /
dissipated
in [
]
i
(t
t )
Ohm
()
Henry
(H)
V=L
Li
L( i
i )
Farad
(F)
i=C
Cv
C( v
v )
i
V
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Page 43
Network Theory
L =L
L
L
L
C
=
C
C
C
Network Theory
the reference node. At each of these other principal nodes, a voltage is assigned, where it is
understood that this voltage is with respect to the reference node. These voltage are the
unknowns and are determined by nodal Analysis. When the node voltages to be found by nodal
analysis are more than one, the node voltages can be found from simultaneous equations by
matrix inversion method or Cramers rule
Nodal analysis (including super node)
When two of the nodes have a common element as a voltage source, nodal analysis is not applied
to both the nodes separately. Instead both the nodes are merged and a super node is formed.
Now KCL is applied to super node.
Voltage /Current Source
Ideal vs. Practical voltage source
Network Theory
Superposition theorem
In a linear bilateral network, the current through or voltage across any element is equal to
algebraic sum of currents through (or voltages across) the elements when each of the
independent sources are acting alone, provided each of the independent sources are replaced by
corresponding internal resistances.
Source conversion theorem
Source conversion theorem states that a voltage source, E in series with resistance,
as seen
from terminals a and b is equivalent to a current source, I = E/ in parallel with resistance, .
A
E
b
B
Any linear/bilateral network as viewed from terminals A and B can be replaced by a voltage
source in series with resistance. The theorem is mainly helpful to draw the load characteristics
(output voltage v/s output current as load resistance is varied).
A
A
N /W
B
is
Nortons Theorem
Any linear / bilateral network, as viewed from terminals A and B, can be replaced by a current
source in parallel with resistance When source conversion theorem is applied for a Thevenins
equivalent circuit, Norton equivalent circuit is obtained and vice versa.
Let I = Norton current as between terminals A & B and
= Norton Resistance as viewed from terminals A & B
A
N/W
B
Fig Demonstration of Nortons Theorem
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Page 46
Network Theory
Where V
V
I
A
N/W
AI
E
B
and I =
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Page 47
Network Theory
Star-Delta transformation
A
A
)
)
McMillan Theorem
McMillan theorem can be applied to the circuits of the form shown and is based on nodal
analysis.
V= ( E
I ) ( )
V
I
I
E
E
Fig. Mcmillan Theorem
Substitution theorem
Substitution theorem can be used to get incremental change in voltage/current of any circuit
element when a resistance R is changed by R and the same can be found by inserting a voltage
source I
in series with R.
I
N/W
N/W
-I
R
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Page 48
Network Theory
Reciprocity theorem
Reciprocity theorem states that in a linear bilateral network, voltage source and current sink can
be interchanged.
I
V
KI
N/W
N/W
KV
V
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Page 49
Network Theory
2
S
V (
) =V ; V (
V (
V (
) = V and I (
) and I (
I (
) =
; I (
) =
(t)
(t)
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Page 50
Network Theory
and V =
i (t)dt = i (t)dt
V (
The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously unless infinite current (impulse)
is passed through it Hence capacitor doesnt allow abrupt change in voltage across it Also at
steady state, capacitor acts as open.
v (t ) v (t ) at every instant t
Transient response of a R-L circuit
Consider the R- L circuit shown below, in which switch S is moved from position 1 to 2 at t= 0.
1
t =0
S
+
+
()
V
()
) = (
)=
;V (
) = 0; V (
) = V (
()
+
Resistive
Network
()
R eq
)
i ( )
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Page 51
i (t) = I
(I
and V (t)
I )e
(I
I)
Network Theory
, where
+
-
V
V (t)
V (t)
) = V(
) = V ; (
) = 0; (
)=
(V
V )
i (t)
t=0
Resistive
Network
+
C
V (t)
R eq
(V
V)e
and i (t)
where
)
V ( )
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Page 52
Network Theory
V(t)
C
L
V(
i(
)=
= R/2L,
S. No
1.
Condition
and a, b = -
Table. Different cases of series R-L-C circuit
Nature
of General form of i(t)
Graph
response of i (t)
Over-damped
A e
A e (a and b are
i(t)
negative, real and unequal)
t
2.
Critically
damped
(A
A t) e
(a is negative and real)
i(t)
t
3.
Under-damped
e (A cos t
where
A sin
t)
i(t)
I
R
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Page 53
Let =
S. No
1.
2.
and a ,b = -
Network Theory
(A
A t) e
(a is negative and real)
Graph
v(t)
t
v(t)
t
3.
Under-damped
(A cos
where
A sin
t)
V(t)
f (t)
Here, f (t) is called natural response and is found based on initial conditions assuming no source
is present and f (t) is called forced response which is derived based on source of excitation.
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Page 54
Network Theory
Reference
Fig. Phasor representation of sinusoidal signal V(t) of angular frequency
For phasor analysis of V (t) and V (t), following conditions should be satisfied,
(a) V (t) and V (t) should have same sign for V and V .
(b) Both V (t) and V (t) should be written as sine/cosine waves.
(c) Both V (t) and V (t) should have same frequency.
Impedance
S. No
1.
Z=J L
2.
L
`
3.
Z=
C
`
4.
R
`
5.
R
`
C
`
6.
R
`
J L
L
`
L
`
Z
C
`
J
C
J C
J L
J C
J( L
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Page 55
Network Theory
R
I
V
Fig.
Excitation to Inductor
L
Z
j L
Fig. V
Fig.
R
V
tan
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Page 56
Network Theory
tan
= V
sin
sin
---------
V(t) dt
a . c.
Network
cos ( - ) V
sin(- ) V
Cos (- ) J V
in(
)= P + JQ
cos ( - )
I
sin(
Active power is the power supplied to resistive part of the network and is measured in watt.
Reactive power is the power supplied to inductive or capacitive part of the network and is
measured in var. Power factor (PF) of circuit as seen from source is given as cos ( - ) Pf gives
an idea about part of VA supplied to resistive part of network.
Resonance
At resonance, voltage and current as seen from supply are in phase. Also at resonance,
impedance as seen from supply is completely resistive.
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Page 57
Network Theory
a.c
network
B
Depending nature of Z and Z , following are the possible cases and corresponding conditions
for maximum power transfer,
(1) If Z
(2) If Z
(3) If Z
(4) If Z
(5) If Z
(6) If Z
Z |.
(7) For any arbitrary nature of Z and Z , appropriate value of Z can be found using Lagranges
optimization.
Star-delta transformation
A
ZA
Z1
Z2
B
Z3
ZC
ZB
B
Fig. Star-Delta equivalent transformation
Z
Z
(
(
; Z
;Z
; Z
;Z
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Page 58
Network Theory
~
n
~
b
=I
= 2V
~
c
|V |
|V |
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Page 59
rms
Network Theory
rms
rms } Positive phase sequence
rms
rms
ZA
Z
N
supply)
Z
C
; I
Let V , I , V
;I
and I
stand for line voltage, line current, load voltage and load current.
If load is balanced, Z
I
and |I |
|I | = I =
|I |
and I
Z
Power consumed by load =
I
V
I
I
; I
is zero.
supply)
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Page 60
Network Theory
ZA
ZB
ZC
Fig. Y- Connection
Z
Z
Z
V I Cos
cos
i (t)
V (t)
-
V (t)
-
V (t)=m
m
i (t)
V (t)=L
V (t)
V (t)
V (t)
L
V (t)
m
+
V (t)
V (t)
L
V (t)
V (t)
i (t)
m
+
V (t)
-
V (t)
V (t)
L
i (t)
V (t)
Network Theory
As the flux linkage in coil 1 due to the coil 2 is same as flux linkage in coil 2 due to coil 1,
m
m =m
Also coefficient of coupling, K = m / L L ; Here K
m L L
Co efficient of coupling is in [0 , 1] as flux linkage in one coil due to current in other coil will
always be less than the flux produced by the same.
m
+
+
V (t)
i (t)
V (t)
-
i (t)
In frequency domain V
& V (t)
+m
( J L )I
(J m )I & V
L I
L i (t)
(J m)I
(J L )I
m i (t)i (t)
mI I
m
+
i (t)
+
V (t)
V (t)
i (t)
L I
-m
(J m )I & V
L i (t)
L I
L i (t)
(J m)I
(J L )I
m i (t)i (t)
mI I
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Page 62
Network Theory
h(t)
f(t)
g(t)=f(t)*h(t)
G( )
F( )
Ae
Ae
L (F( ) G( ))
Here constant A can be found based on initial conditions. Above analysis can be used in R-L-C
circuits to get voltage/current response at any time t.
Locus of phasors
Given any response G( ) substitute J to get generalized phasor of G( ) Locus of G(S) can
be obtained by varying and
Thus the locus gives an idea about the phasor at different
frequencies.
Circuit analysis at a generalized frequency
Any circuit can be generalized to operate at a frequency
J For dc signals
and
and for ac signals
Let V(t) V e cos( t ) be the input to a network shown
below and let the response be i(t) I e cos( t ). We see that V and I have a frequency of
J In phasor form the circuit can be represented as below,
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Page 63
Network Theory
a.c
at S=(
N
)
at
S=(
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Page 64
Network Theory
+
N/W
Y
V
][ ]
Y
V
V = YI; Also [
Z
Z
Z
]
Z
Y
Y
Y
]
Y
( Y
h
I
][ ]
V
h
2 port
N/W
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Page 65
Network Theory
G-Parameters
g
*g
I
[ ]
V
g
V
g + [I ] G
Parameter
Y =Y
Y =Y
ABCD
A B
|
|=1
C D
A=D
= -h
h
h
h
|=1
h
For converting one type of parameters to any other type, write equations to express relation
between V I V & I in terms of given parameters and convert the same into the required form
to get the target parameters.
Inter-connection of two port networks:
If two 2-port networks A and B are connected in parallel, then Y-parameters of cumulative
network is equal to sum of individual Y-parameters. If two 2-port networks A and B are
connected in series, then Z parameters get added. If two 2-port networks A and B are connected
in cascade, then ABCD parameters of cumulative network are equal to product of individual
ABCD parameters.
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Page 66
Network Theory
ii)
Sub-graph: A sub graph is a subset of the original set of graph branches along with their
corresponding nodes.
Tree: A connected sub-graph containing all nodes of a graph but no closed path. The branches of
tree are called Twigs.
Co-tree: Complement of Tree is called as Co-tree. The branches of co-tree are called as Links.
Formula: L = B-N+1, where
L = No. of links of co-tree,
B = No. of branches of graph,
N = Total no of nodes in graph
Nodal Incidence Matrix
Definition
It is defined as a matrix which completely defines which branches are incident at which nodes
and the corresponding orientation.
i) Anxb= {ahk} is a matrix of dimension n
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Page 67
Network Theory
(3)
2
(2) ( (4)
1
(1)
(5)
(3)
3
(6)
(2)
(1)
(4)
(5)
(6)
+
- V
4
4
(A)
(B)
At]
Where A is a square matrix of order (n-1) (n- 1) and A is a matrix of order (n-1) (b n + 1)
whose columns correspond to the links.
Loop Incidence Matrix (Fundamental Tie-set Matrix)
Definition
It is defined as the matrix representation in which the loop orientation is to be the same as the
corresponding link direction.
Rank of B is b-n+1;
Steps to get this Matrix
1. Draw the oriented graph of network. Choose a tree.
2. Each link forms an independent loop & the direction of this loop is same as that of the
corresponding link. Choose each link in turn.
3. Prepare the tie-set matrix Blxb = {bhk}, l = no of loops, b = no of branches, defined as follows.
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Page 68
Network Theory
To write a Tie Set Matrix for Fig 1, steps have been stated schematically.
b
, where
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Page 69
)
(
and
)
t ;T R {0}
The smallest positive value of T that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of
x(t).
A discrete-time signal is periodic if there exists N such that
x[n] = x[n+N],
n ; N Z {0}
The smallest positive N that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of x[n]. If
x t and x t are periodic signals with periods T and T respectively, then x(t) = x t +
x t is periodic iff (if and only if)
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Page 70
2.
Continuous-time,
periodic signal
with period T
Discrete-time, nonperiodic
Discrete-time,
periodic signal
with period (2N +
1)
3.
4.
|x t |
t P=
lim
|x n |
lim
|x n |
|x t |
lim
|x n |
|x n |
Characteristics of systems
Linearity
A system is linear if it satisfies superposition principle; i.e, weighted sum of inputs when given to
a system should give a weighted sum of outputs. In general, for continuous time systems,
T {
}=
where
= T{
Time-Invariance
A system is time-invariant if delayed version of input leads to a delayed version of output by the
same amount. For continuous time system to be time-invariant, y(t .
Causality
A system is said to be causal if output at any instant depends upon past and present inputs only.
A system is called anti-causal, if output at any instant depends on future inputs only. A system is
called non-causal, if output at any instant depends upon future inputs also. From above anticausality implies non-causality, but the converse is not true.
Memoryless Property
A system is said to be memoryless if output at any instant depends on input at that instant,
otherwise the system is said to have memory.
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Page 71
Stability
A system is said to be stable in bounded input bounded output sense if for any bounded input
the system gives bounded output, otherwise system is unstable.
For continuous time signals, |x t |
stability
Invertibility
A system is said to have inverse, if there exists another system so as to recover the original input
from the output of first system.
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Page 72
Convolution Sum
Discrete Time
LTI System
x[n]
y[n]
n where CR
Causal System
If system is causal, y[n] depends on past and present inputs, x m m n
h n
for n
, if system is c us l.
Stable System
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Page 73
Impulse response
Impulse response uniquely represents a LTI system
LCCDE (Linear Constant Coefficient Difference Equation)
LCCDE represents the output at instant n, in terms of output and inputs.
; Where
R.
/H(z))
.
.
where F h n
where
hn
For a continuous-time LTI system, if y t is unit step response, h(t) is given as,
x[n] =
h[n]
y[n] = A |H(
|.
( (
)))
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Page 74
Continuous-time, Periodic
Fourier series
Nature of Frequency
Representation
Discrete, non-periodic
Discrete-time, Periodic
Discrete, periodic
Continuous-time, Non
periodic
Discrete-time, Non
periodic
From the above table, we see that continuous-time signals have non-periodic frequency
representation and discrete-time signals have periodic frequency representation. Also periodic
signals have discrete frequency representation and non-periodic signals have frequency
representation which is continuous in nature.
Fourier series (FS) for Continuous Time Periodic Signals
Complex FS representation
Let x(t) be continuous time periodic signal with period T,
X(k) =
x(t) =
F S,
x(t)
X(k)
Alternate Fourier Series Representation
If f(x) is a signal of period 2T,
cos
Here
sin
where
. cos
and
If f(x) is even,
cos
If f(x) is odd,
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Page 75
where
k =
x n
k is also periodic with period N and is discrete in nature.
Fourier Transform (FT) for Continuous Time Non-Periodic Signals
Let x(t) be a continuous-time non-periodic signal,
F.T.
x(t)
j
j is continuous with respect to
n is non-periodic
j
x t
x(t) =
The Fourier Transform X(j m y not exist for ll functions x t . For the Fourier tr nsform to
exist, x(t) must satisfy the Dirchlet conditions given below,
The signal x(t) must be absolutely integrable, i.e | x t |
.
The signal x(t) must have finite number of local maxima and minima and discontinuities in
any finite interval.
The size of each discontinuity must be finite.
Discrete Time Non Periodic Signals: Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT)
Let x[n] be a discrete-time non-periodic signal,
DTFT
x[n]
X(
)=
x[n] =
X(
FT is conjugate symmetric
magnitude spectrum is symmetric.
If x(t) is imaginary,
FT is re l
(
If x(t) is conjugate anti-symmetric
x
t
x t
FT is im gin ry (
SL. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Scaling Property
x(a t)
CTFT
| |
y t
x t
y t
|
|
|
|
,
|
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Page 77
3.4: Z-Transform
Introduction
ZT is a generalization of frequency response for discrete-time signals.
polynomial
Values of z for which P(z)=0 are called the zeroes of X(z).Values of z for which Q(z) = 0 are
called the poles of X(z). Location of poles of X(z) is related to the ROC and ROC is bounded by
poles. To uniquely specify a discrete time signal, one needs to specify both X(z) and ROC.
x [n] = an u[n]
Z.T
(z) =
(z) =
From above we see that two different signals x n and x [n] have same Z-transform but
different ROCs.
Properties of ROC
(1) ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in the z-plane centered about the origin.
(2) ROC does not contain any poles, but is bounded by poles.
(3) If x[n] is a finite duration sequence, then ROC is the entire z plane except possibly z = 0 or
z
.
(4) If x1[n] is a right sided sequence, then ROC extends outward from the outermost pole to
possi ly inclu ing z
. As c us l sequences re right si e , RO of those sequences is
outside a circle.
(5) If x2[n] is a left sided sequence, the ROC extends inward, from the innermost non-zero pole
to possibly including z = 0. As anti-causal sequences are left sided, ROC of those sequences is
inside a circle.
(6) If x3[n] is two sided sequence, the ROC will consist of a ring in the z plane bounded on the
interior and exterior by a pole.
(7) If
is a finite duration sequence, ROC is entire z-pl ne except possi ly z
or z
.
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Page 78
Properties of Z Transform
Linearity
Z.T a X1(z) + b X2(z); ROC (R1 R2)
a x1[n] + b x2[n]
ROC in the current case is at least ( R
R ). If there is no poles zero cancellation, ROC will be
(R
R ). If there is a pole-zero cancellation, ROC may be more than R
R . If R
R
,
then Z{ax n
x n
oesnt exist.
Time Shifting
.
X[n no]
. (z)
Modulation
.
an x[n]
X(
r.e
Differentiation in Z- domain
.
nx n
z
z
RO
Conjugate property
x
RO
( ) RO
z
Convolution property
x n
x n
RO
If X(z) is expressed as ratio of polynomials P(z) and Q(z), order of P(z) should be less than that
of Q(z) for initial value theorem to be applied to X(z).
Final Value Theorem
lim
x n = x[ ] = lim
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Page 79
Necessary condition for applying final value theorem is that poles of (1-z
strictly inside the unit cycle.
X(z) should be
x[n]
ZT
h[n]
y[n]
H(z) ; ROC
solutely summ
le n
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Page 80
F s
f t
F s =
Time shift
[f(t to)] = e
. F(s)
If initial conditions are zero (i.e, f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Similarly,
f t ] at t = 0
and
f t t-
f t t
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
[ t f(t) ] =
and
t f t
(F(s))
+ = F s
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Page 81
lim
f t
lim
sF s
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial.
Final Value Theorem
If f(t) and its derivative f (t) are Laplace transformable,
lim
f t
lim
then
sF s
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of
plane (strictly) i.e. poles on
axis also not allowed.
Convolution theorem
.
.
Laplace transform of the periodic function
If f(t) is periodic function with period T, then
f t
f t t
Function, f(t)
1.
2.
u(t)
3.
4.
u(t)
5.
e .u t
6.
t.u(t)
7.
t .u t
8.
f(t).e u t
F(s-a)
9.
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Page 82
10.
s
s
11.
sinhat. u(t)
12.
coshat. u(t)
s
s
13.
f (t)
s.F(s)-f(o )
14.
f (t)
s .F s
15.
16.
s. f o ) f (o )
s F(s)
.
17.
f(t-a).u(t-a)
18.
t .F t
19.
f(t )
20.
f(at)
.F s
.
f t
f t =
22
. cos
23
sin t
24
25
26
.f t
| |. F s
| |
21.
F s
s
F s s
Applications
1. LT is generalization of CTFT for continuous-time signals and hence signal can be
characterized at any generalized frequency.
2. LT is helpful to perform transient and steady state analysis of any LTI system for any
arbitrary input and initial conditions.
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Page 83
x[n]
y[n]
Amplitude Response
Plot of
| e | with respect to is c lle the mplitu e response. It gives n i e
frequency content of the signal and can be used to characterize the system.
out
Phase Response
Plot of
(e ) with respect to
Plot of
with respect to
(e )
. Also
group delay is constant for linear phase system. For a linear phase system with real impulse
response, zeroes form complex conjug te reciproc l p irs. So if there is zero t for line r
phase system, then other zeroes are at
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Page 84
For a all-pass system, poles and zeroes form a conjugate reciprocal pairs. Therefore for a all-pass
system with complex impulse response, if there is zero t , then there is pole t
and vice
versa. For an all-pass system with real impulse response, if there is a zero at a, then there is a
zero at and there are poles at and .
Magnitude transfer function
A system function
( )
Therefore, for magnitude transfer function, poles form conjugate reciprocal pairs. Hence if there
.
T .
After sampling, signal obtained above is still in time-domain. To get FT in discrete time domain,
put
T, which is c lle time norm liz tion
X(e
( (
))
theorem)
As X(e
where
is signal BW
. To voi
To get x t from x[n], use low pass filter of impulse response h t = sin c(t/T) as in figure
below.
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Page 85
x k sin c
= X(e
t
where
where
where
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Page 86
(e ). e
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Page 87
Control System
Controller
Output
Process
The reference input controls the output through a control action process. Here output has no
effect on the control action, as the output is not fed-back for comparison with the input.
Due to the absence of feedback path, the systems are generally stable
Closed-Loop Control System (Feedback Control Systems):
Closed-Loop control systems can be classified as positive and negative feedback (f/b) control
systems. In a closed-loop control system, the output has an effect on control action through a
feedback.
G(s)
Controller
Process
Output c(t)
Feedback, H(s)
Network
Block diagram of closed loop control system
Let T(s) be the overall transfer function of the closed-loop control system, then
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Page 88
T(s) =
Control System
Here negative sign in denominator is considered for positive feedback and vice versa.
S
S Op n loop tr ns r function
S =
=
=
Negative feedback makes the system less sensitive to the parameter variation.
Negative feedback improves the dynamic response of the system
Negative feedback reduces the effect of disturbance signal or noise.
Negative feedback improves the bandwidth of the system.
in Formula
Control System
..
= 1 (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non- touching loops) (sum of the gain products of all possible
combinations of three non- tou hing loops
.
= gain product of the mth possibl
= that part of the signal flow graph which is non-touching with the kth forward path
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Page 90
Control System
This part of the time response which goes to zero after a large interval of time.
It reveals the nature of response (e.g. oscillatory or over damped)
It gives an indication about the speed of response.
It does not depend on the input signal, rather depends on nature of the system.
Following are the salient properties of steady state response of a control system.
The part of the time response that remains even after the transients have died out is
said to be steady state response.
The steady state part of time response reveals the accuracy of a control system.
Steady state error is observed if the actual output does not exactly match with the input.
It depends on the input signal applied.
c(t) = (1
) u(t)
. u(t)
= im e(t) = im
. u(t) = 0
Time Response of a First Order Control System Subjected to Unit Ramp Input Function
As the input is a unit ramp function, r(t) = t.u(t) and R(s) = 1 / s
Output is given as c(t) = ( t
) u(t)
c(t) = ( T
) u(t)
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Page 91
= im ( T
Control System
) u(t) = T
From above we see that the output velocity matches with the input velocity but lags behind the
input by time T and a positional error of T units exists in the system.
Time Response of A First Order Control System Subjected to Unit Impulse Input Function
As R(s) = 1, C(s) =
c(t) = (
c(t)
= im s E(s) = 0
s
j
=0
==
Here
is called natural frequency of oscillations,
=
is called damped frequency of oscillations,
axis).
Nature
response
1.
Undamped
Sustained/undamped
Purly imaginary
2.
0< <
Underdamped
Oscillatory
Complex
Critically
damped
Non-oscillatory
Overdamped
Non-oscillatory
3.
4.
>
of
system Nature
of
characteristic
equation
roots
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Page 92
Control System
Time Response of a Second Order Control System Subjected to Unit Step Input Function
c(t) = (
sin
) u t where
= im
sin [(
nd
)t
[t n
t n
]] u(t) = 0
Max. overshoot
2%
1
0.5
100%
td
tr
tp
ts
; wh r
t n-1 (
Control System
where n
The local overshoots occur for n =1, 3, . . . . . . . and local undershoots occur for n =2, 4, . . . . .
Hence the first undershoot occurs at the instant,
.
100 =
% Mp = exp (-
100%
) 100
= im
= im
= im
E(s) =
= im
The type indicates the number of poles at the origin and the order indicates the total
number of poles.
The type of the system determines steady state response and the order of the system
determines transient response.
Let
= im
Let
= im
Let
= im
0
A(
k )
A/
A/
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Page 94
Control System
Depending on the location of poles for a control system, stability of the system can be
characterized in following ways.
Stability of any system depends only on the location of poles but not on the location of zeros.
If the poles are located in left side of s-plane, then the system is stable.
If any of the poles is located in right half of s-plane, then the system is unstable.
If the repeated roots are located on imaginary axis including the origin, the system is
unstable.
When non-repeated roots are located on imaginary axis, then the system is marginally
stable.
As a pole approaches origin, stability decreases.
The pole which is closest to the origin is called dominant pole.
If the variable parameter is varied from 0 to
and the poles are always located on left side
of s-plane, then the system is absolutely stable.
When variable parameter is varied from 0 to , if some point onwards, there is a pole in
right half of S-plane. Then system is called conditionally stable and typically stability is
conditioned on variable parameter.
Absolute Stability Analysis
Absolute stability analysis is by the qualitative analysis of stability and is determined by location
of roots of characteristic equation in s-plane.
Relative Stability Analysis
The relative stability can be specified by requiring that all the roots of the characteristic
equation be more negative than a certain value, i.e. all the roots must lie to the left of the line;
s = - 1, ( 1 > 0). The characteristic equation of the system under study is modified by shifting
the origin of the s plane to s = - 1, i.e. by substitution s = z 1. If the new characteristic
equation in z satisfies the Routh criterion, it implies that all the roots of the original
characteristic equation are more negative than 1.
Also if it is required to find out number of roots of characteristic equation between the lines
S
and S
, perform Routh analysis by putting S z 1, and find out number of roots
to right of S
. Similarly find out number of roots to the right of S
. The difference
between above two numbers gives the number of roots of characteristic equation between
and
.
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Page 95
Control System
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion represents a method of determining the location of poles of
polynomial with constant real coefficient with respect to the left half and the right half of the splane. Routh Hurwitz criterion mainly gives a flexibility to determine the stability of the closed
loop control system without actually solving for poles.
s
..
b =
b =
S
S
1
=
=
d =
=
If any power of s is missing in the characteristic equation, it indicates that there is at least one
root with positive real part, hence the system is unstable. If the characteristic equation contains
only odd or even powers of s, then roots are purely imaginary. Thus, the system will have
sustained oscillations in output response. Also when Routh Hurwitz criterion is applied,
following difficulties can be faced.
Difficulty 1: When the first term in any row of the Routh array is zero while rest of the row has at
least one non-zero term.
Th di i ulty is solv d i z ro o th irst olumn is r pl d by sm ll positiv numb r
and Routh array is formed as usual. Then as 0 from positive side, elements in the first
column of Routh array are found out and stability analysis is done as usual.
Difficulty 2: When all the elements in any one row of the Routh array are zero.
This situation is overcome by replacing the row of zeros in the Routh array by a row of
coefficients of the polynomial generated by taking the first derivative of the auxiliary
polynomi l nd Rouths t st is p r orm d s usu l.
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Page 96
Control System
(K is varied from 0 to
)
(K is varied from 0 to
)
(K is varied from
to
)
(Multiple parameter variation )
Characteristic equation of above system is 1 + G(S) H(S) = 0. Usually while plotting root locus, a
forward path gain, K which is inherently present in G(S) is considered as independent variable
and roots of characteristic equation are considered as dependent variables. Any root of
0 satisfies following two conditions,
|
a) |
b)
0 wh r K 0, , ,
Rules for the Construction of Root Locus (RL)
Let P be the number of open-loop poles and Z be the number of open loop zeroes of a control
system. Then the following are the salient features for construction of root locus plot.
1. The root locus is always symmetrical about the real axis.
2. The root locus always starts from open-loop poles for K=0 and ends at either finite open
loop zeroes or infinity for K .
3. The number of branches of root locus terminating at infinity is equal to (P-Z) .
4. The number of separate branches of the root locus equals either the number of open
loop poles or the number of open-loop zeroes, whichever is greater.
N = max(P, Z)
5. A section of root locus lies on the real axis, if the total number of open-loop poles and
zeroes to the right of the section is odd and is helpful in determining presence of root
locus at any point on real axis.
6. If P >Z, (Pbr n h s will t rmin t t long str ight lin symptot s whose
angles are
as given below,
; q
0, , , ..P-Z-1
symptot s whos
ngl s r
as given below
8. Break away point is calculated when root locus lies between two poles and break in
point is calculated when root locus lies between two zeros. Break away / Break in
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Page 97
Control System
9. Angle of departure is calculated when there are complex poles. Also, angle of departure
from an open loop pole is given as below
0
; q= 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . .
Where is the net contribution at the pole of all other open loop poles and zeros. Also,
angle of departure is tangent to root locus at complex pole.
10. Angle of arrival is calculated when there are complex zeroes. Also, angle of arrival at the
open loop zero is given as below
0
, q= 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . .
Also, angle of arrival is tangent to root locus of complex zero.
11. Th v lu o K nd th point t whi h root lo us br n h ross s th im gin ry xis is
determined by applying Routh criterion to the characteristic equation. The roots at the
intersection point are imaginary. Also the points of intersection are conjugate, if all the
coefficients of S are real in the characteristic equation.
12. Th v lu o op n loop g in K t ny point on the root locus can be calculated by
using the magnitude criteria,
Produ t o ph sor l ngth rom s to op n loop pol s
K
Produ t o ph sor l ngth rom s to op n loop z ros
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Page 98
Control System
.
| M(J
|=|
|
|
| with respect to
|
3db
0
BANDWIDTH
M j
=
|M j
M =
Polar Plot
onsid r
ontrol syst m o tr ns r un tion
complex function which is given as,
s . Th sinusoid l tr ns r un tion
is
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Page 99
j
| nd
R [
j m[
or
Control System
=M
Where M =
tr ns r un tion do snt ont in pol s t origin, th n th pol r plot st rts rom 0 with
non-zero magnitude and terminates at 90
P
with zero magnitude.
If the transfer function consists of poles at origin, then the polar plot starts from
0 with
m gnitud nd nds t
0
P
with zero magnitude.
| = K;
where K is a constant.
with r sp t to
is lin r.
where K is a constant.
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Page 100
Where
Control System
is M(
varies from
Gain Margin
The gain margin is a factor by which the gain of a stable system can be increased to bring the
system on the verge of instability. If the phase cross-over frequency is denoted by , and the
m gnitud o
j
j
t
is |G(j
G.M = 20 log
Phase Margin:
The phase margin of a stable system is the amount of additional phase lag required to bring the
system to the point of instability. Phase margin is given as,
PM =
where
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Page 101
Control System
Bode Plots of
:
M
-20Ndb/decade
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Control System
log
-20NdB/decade
T
log
-40 dB/dec
Fig. Bode magnitude plot of II order control system
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Page 103
Control System
Bode magnitude plot of any open-loop transfer function G(s) H(s) can be found out by
superimposing individual magnitude plots of basic pole and zero terms. However phase
response can be found out as usual by substituting S = J .
M & N Circles
Constant Magnitude Loci: M-Circles
The constant magnitude contours are known as M-circles. M-circles are used to determine the
magnitude response of a close-loop system using open-loop transfer function. It is applicable
only for unity feedback systems.
[x
y =[
, 0 and radius as |
| . On a
particular circle the value of M (magnitude of close-loop transfer function) is constant, therefore
these circles are called M-circles.
Constant Phase Angles Loci: N-Circles
The constant phase angle contours are known as N-circles. N-circles are used to determine the
phase response of a close-loop system using open-loop transfer function.
[x
[y
For different values of N, above equation represents a family of circles with center at x = - , y =
1/2N and radius as
the closed-loop transfer function is constant; therefore, these circles are called N-circles.
Ni hols h rt
The transformation of constant M and constant N circles to log-magnitude and phase angle
coordinates is known as the Nichols chart.
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Page 104
Control System
Results in a large improvement in steady sate response (i.e. steady state error is reduced).
Results in a sluggish response due to reduced bandwidth.
It is low pass filter and so high frequency noise signals are attenuated.
Acts as an Integrator.
Settling time increases.
Gain of the system decreases.
+
1/ sC
_
_
Fig. Electric lag compensator
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Page 105
Control System
s =
Approximate
magnitude plot
|
j |
in dB
-20 dB/decade
Phase plot
log
=
[
] = sin
T .
Control System
1/ sC
+
_
Fig. Electrical lead network
j
s =
20
20
)
1/T
log
+ = sin
=
+
T .
T =
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Page 107
Control System
Phase-Lag
Integrator
n r s s
D r s s
n r s s
Decreases
R du
D r s s
|P|>|Z|
|Z|>|P|
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
>
15. sin m)
16. Time constant
s =
; wh r
> ,0<
nd
j
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Page 108
0
|
j |
in dB
0 log
+ 20 dB/dec
- 20 dB/dec
Control System
00
j
log
T
Feedback Compensation
In this method, the compensating element is introduced in feedback path of a control system as
shown.
G(S)
r(t)
G(s)
c(t)
e(t)
Fig. Usage of controller in a closed loop control system
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Page 109
Control System
Proportional Controller
Transfer function of a proportional controller is given as,
s = K . Proportional controller is
usually an amplifier with gain K . It is used to vary the transient response of the control system.
One cannot determine the steady state response by changing K . Steady state response depends
on the type of the system. However, maximum overshoot is increased in this case.
Integral Controller
Transfer function of a Integral controller is given as,
s = K / s. It is used to decrease the
steady state error by increasing the type of the system. However, stability decreases in this case.
Derivative Controller
Transfer function of a derivative controller is given as,
s = K . s. It is used to increase the
stability of the system by adding zeros. steady state error increases, as type of the system
decreases in this case.
Proportional + Integral (PI) Controller
Transfer function of PI controller is given as,
s = (K + K / s). It is used to decrease the
steady state error without effecting stability, as a pole at origin and a zero are added. In P+I
controller, order of a system increases, i.e. it converts a second order system to third order.
Proportional + Derivative (PD) Controller
Transfer function of a PD controller is given as,
s = (K . s + K ). It is used to increase the
stability without effecting the steady state error. Here type of the system is not changed and a
zero is added.
Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID) Controller
Transfer function of a PID controller is given as,
s = (K + K / s + K . s) = (
).
It is used to decrease the steady state error and to increase the stability as one pole at origin and
two zeros are added. One zero compensates the pole and other zero will increase the stability.
Hence response is faster and highly accurate.
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Page 110
Control System
System
and
and x
In matrix form,
0
x
[ ] [
]* +
0
]
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Page 111
Control System
Here x t and x t are called state variables. The n dimensional state variables are elements of
n dimensional space called state space.
State Variable: The smallest set of variables, which determine the state of the dynamic system,
are called the state variables.
State: It is the smallest set of state variables, the knowledge of these variable at t =
with the input completely determines the behavior of the system for any time t > .
together
State Equation
Consider a system described as below,
(x t ) = x t =
x t
x t
b u t
b u t
(x t ) = x
x t
x t
b u t
b u t
t =
State space model can be described as below based on above state equation.
x t
[
] =[
][
x t
x t
] + [
b
u t
] [
u t
x t
x t
x t
x t
d u t
d u t
d u t
d u t
y t
x t
] =[
][
x t
d
] + [
d
d
u t
] [
u t
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Page 112
Control System
[
, ,
..
0
]
.
are eigen values of A, eigen vector matrix, P can be represented as.
0
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Cascade Decomposition
Here given system is converted into multiple systems in cascade and direct decomposition is
performed to each of these sub-systems.
Parallel Decomposition
Here the given system transfer function is split into partial fractions first and by considering
direct decomposition of each of the sub-system (partial fraction terms) in parallel, parallel
decomposition can be performed.
State Transition Matrix
The transition matrix is defined as a matrix that satisfies the linear homogeneous state equation.
A t
For t
0,
X(t) =
[ Sl
t
Here
t =
] (0)
s .
0 =
t .
0 where
s = S
0
th id ntity m trix
t
-t)
[ t ]
nt
t -t t -t
t -t
or any t , t , t
t
t
t t
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Page 113
Control System
Time Response
Given a state space representation of a control system, the time response for any generic input
and initial conditions contains the following.
Zero Input Response
Only initial conditions are considered and input is considered to be zero.
t
B U(s)]
Total Response
Total response can be described as,
t
t x 0
( S . U S )
Transfer Matrix of System
Consider a MIMO described by,
B]
0.
...... A
].
0.
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Page 114
Digital Circuits
Dont care values or unused states in BCD code are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111.
Dont care values or unused state in excess 3 codes are 0000, 0001, 0010, 1101, 1110,
1111.
The binary equivalent of a given decimal number is not equivalent to its BCD value. Eg.
Binary equivalent of 2510 is equal to 110012 while BCD equivalent is 00100101.
In signed binary numbers,MSB is always sign bit and the remaining bits are used for
magnitude.
A7
A6
Sign Bit
A5
A4
A3 A2
A1
A0
Magnitude
For positive and negative binary number, the sign is respectively 0 and 1.
Negative numbers can be represented in one of three possible ways.
1. Signed magnitude representation.
2. Signed 1s complement representation.
3. Signed 2s complement representation.
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Page 115
Example:
Signed magnitude
+9
0 0001001
Digital Circuits
-9
(a) 1 000 1001 signed magnitude
(b) 1 111 0110 signed 1s complement
(c) 1 111 0111 signed 2s complement
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Page 116
Digital Circuits
2. 0 . X = 0
4 .1.X = X
b) Properties of OR function
5. X + 0 = X
6. 0 + X = X
7. X + 1 = 1
8. 1 + X = 1
10. X . X = X
11. X + X = X
12. X + X = 1
13. (X) = X
d)
e)
f)
g)
Commutative laws:
Distributive laws:
Associative laws:
Absorption laws:
h) Demorgans laws:
14.
16.
18.
20.
x. y = y. x
x(y +z) = x.y + x.z
x(y.z) = (x. y) z
x + xy= x
15.
17.
19.
21.
x+y=y+x
x + y. z = ( x+y) (x + z)
x + ( y + z) = (x + y) +z
x(x + y) = x
22. x + xy = x+ y
23. x(x + y) = xy
24. (x + y) = x .y
25. (x . y) = x + y
Duality principle: It states that every algebraic expression deducible from theorems of
Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identify elements are interchanged.
To get dual of an algebraic function, we simply exchange AND with OR and exchange 1
with 0.
The dual of the exclusive OR is equal to its complement.
To find the complement of a function is take the dual of the function and complement
each literal.
Maxterm is the compliment of its corresponding minterm and vice versa.
Sum of all the minterms of a given Boolean function is equal to 1.
Product of all the maxterms of a given Boolean function is equal to 0
Boolean Algebraic Theorems
Theorem No.
Theorem
) =
( + B). ( + B
1.
2.
B + C = ( + C)( + B)
( + B)( + C) = C + B
3.
4.
B + C + BC = B + C
+ C +
6.
. B. C. = + B
. C
7.
+ B + C + = . B
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Digital Circuits
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Digital Circuits
+VCC
Symbol
A
Y=
AND gate:
Truth Table
A
B
Y
0
0 0
0
1 0
1
0 0
1
1 1
VCC
A
B
Y = AB
A
B
OR gate:
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Y
0
1
1
1
Y=
A
Y = A+B
A
Y
B
NAND gate:
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Y
1
1
1
0
A
B
Y =
B
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Digital Circuits
NOR gate:
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Y
1
0
0
0
A
Y =
+B
The circuit, which is working as AND gate with positive level logic system, will work as OR
gate with negative level logic system and vice-versa.
The circuit which is behaving as NAND gate with positive level logic system will behave as
NOR gate with negative level logic system and vice versa.
Exclusive
inputs.
A
0
0
1
1
OR gate (X OR): The output of an X OR gate is high for odd number of high
B
0
1
0
1
Y
0
1
1
0
A
Y = AB= B + B
Exclusive NOR gate (XNOR): The output is high for odd number of low inputs. (OR) The
output is high for even number of high inputs.
A
B
Y A
0
0
1
Y = AB= B + B
0
1
0
B
1
0
0
1
1
1
Realization of Basic gates using NAND and NOR gates:
1. NOT gate
A
NAND
Y=
A
A
1
NOR
Y = ( . ) A
=
Y = ( .1) A
0
=
( + ) =
Y = ( + 0)
=
2. AND gate
A
A
B
A
Y =AB
Y =AB
Y =AB
3. OR gate:
A
A
B
A
Y =A+B
B
Y = A+B B
Y = A+ B
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Digital Circuits
A
B
Y = ( B)
Y = ( B)
B
A
Y = ( + B)
Y = ( + B)
B
A
Y = B + B
B
A
`
Y = B +
B
The minimum number of NAND gates required to realize X OR gate is four.
The minimum number of NOR gates required to realize X OR gate is five.
Equivalence Properties:
1. (X Y) = XY + XY = X
2. X 0 = X
3. X 1 = X
4. X X = 1
5. X X= 0
6. X Y = Y X
7. (X Y) = X Y
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Digital Circuits
A
Y=( B)
B
`
=A+B
Y = A+B
A
`
+ B ) =AB
B
`
Y= B
A
Y=
B = ( + B)
Y = ( + B)
Y=
+ B =( B)
A
`
B
`
Y = ( B)
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Digital Circuits
Active Pull-up: In a bipolar logic circuit, a BJT and diode circuit used in the collector circuit of
the output transistor instead of
is known as active pull-up. This facility is available is TTL
family.
The advantages of active pull- up over passive- pull up are increased speed of operation and
reduced power dissipation.
In TTL logic gate family, three different types of output type configurations are available:
they are open collector output type, Totem-pole output type and tri-state output type.
The advantages of open-collector output are wired-logic can be performed and loads other
than the normal gates can be used.
The tri- state logic devices are used in bus oriented systems.
If any input of TTL circuit is left floating, it will function as if it is connected to logic 1 level.
If any unused input terminal of a MOS gate is left unconnected, a large voltage may get
induced at the unconnected input which may damage the gate.
Comparison of Different Logic Gate families
DTL
TTL
ECL
CMOS
PMOS
Fan-out
10
25
50
20
Propagation Delay
30n sec
10nsec.
4nsec.
70 nsec.
300 sec
Power Dissipation
8mW
10mW
40mW
0.01mW
0.2 -10mW
Noise Margin(min.)
700mV
400mV
200mV
300mV
150mV
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Digital Circuits
AND operation
. =
+
B
C
D
Open emitter output is available in ECL. Wired OR operation is possible with ECL circuits.
A
B
(
)=(
+ )( + )
C
D
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Digital Circuits
Carry = XY
Half Subtractor: It is a Combinational circuit that subtracts two bits and produces their
difference.
Diff. = X Y = XY + XY Borrow = X Y
Half adder can be converted into half subtractor with an additional inverter.
Full Adder: It performs sum of three bits (two significant bits and a previous carry) and
generates sum and carry.
Sum=X Z
Carry = XY + YZ + ZX
Full adder can be implemented by using two half adders and an OR gate.
X
Y
H.A.
H.A.
Sum
Carry
Full subtractor: It subtracts one bit from the other by taking pervious borrow into account
and generates difference and borrow.
Diff.=X Z
Borrow = XY + YZ + ZX
Full subtractor can be implemented by using two half- subtractors and an OR gate.
X
Y
Z
H.S.
H.S.
Diff.
Borr.
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Digital Circuits
Multiplexers (MUX)
It selects binary information from one of many input lines and directs it to a single output
line
The selection of a particular input line is controlled by a set of selection lines
There are 2 input lines where n is the select lines i/p then n = log M
2 : 1 MUX
I
2:1
MUX
Y=SI + SI
S
4 : 1 MUX
I
I
I
I
4:1
MUX
S1
S1
0
0
1
1
S0
0
1
0
1
Y
I
I
I
I
S0
Y=S S I + S S I + S S I + S S I
Decoder:
Decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n input lines to a
maximum of 2 unique output lines.
Truth table of active high output type of decoder.
X
2
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Digital Circuits
Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which has many inputs and many outputs
It is used to convert other codes to binary such as octal to binary, hexadecimal to binary
etc.
Clocked S-R Flip-flop: It is called set reset flip-flop.
No change
Reset set
Forbidden
Pr
S
Clk
R
Cr
Q
= S +R Q
PRESET
S
Clk
R
CLEAR
S and R inputs are called synchronous inputs. Preset (pr) and Clear (Cr) inputs are called
direct inputs or asynchronous inputs.
The output of the flip-flop changes only during the clock pulse. In between clock pulses the
output of the flip flop does not change.
During normal operation of the flip flop, preset and clear inputs must be always high.
The disadvantage of S-R flip-flop is S=1, R=1 output cannotbe determined. This can be
eliminated in J-K flip-flop.
S-R flip flop can be converted to J-K flip-flop by using the two equation S=JQ and R= KQ.
Pr
J
Q
Clk
Clk
Q
R
Cr
Q
K
Q
= JQ + K Q
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Digital Circuits
Truth table
Race around problem is present in the J-K flip flop, when both J=K=1.
Toggling the output more than one time during the clock pulse is called Race around
Problem.
The race around problem in J-K flip-flop can be eliminated by using edge triggered flip-flop
or master slave J-K flip flop or by the clock signal whose pulse width is less than or equal to
the propagation delay of flip-flop.
Master-slave flip-flop is a cascading of two J-K flip-flops Positive or direct clock pulses are
applied to master and these are inverted and applied to the slave flip-flop.
D-Flip-Flop: It is also called a Delay flip-flop. By connecting an inverter in between J and K input
terminals. D flip-flop is obtained.
Truth table
Q
Clk
T Flip-flop: J K flip-flop can be converted into T- Flip-flop by connecting J and K input terminals
to a common point. If T=1, then Q n+1 = Q . This unit changes state of the output with each clock
pulse and hence it acts as a toggle switch.
Truth table
T
0
1
Q
Q
Q
Q
Clk
Ring Counter: Shift register can be used as ring counter when Q0 output terminal is
connected to serial input terminal.
An n-bit ring counter can have n different output states. It can count n-clock pulses.
Twisted Ring counter: It is also called Johnsons Ring counter. It is formed when Q output
terminal is connected to the serial input terminal of the shift register.
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Digital Circuits
An n-bit twisted ring counter can have maximum of 2n different output states.
Counters: The counter is driven by a clock signal and can be used to count the number of clock
cycles counter is nothing but a frequency divider circuit.
Two types of counters are there:
(i) Synchronous
(ii) Asynchronous
Synchronous counters are also called parallel counters. In this type clock pulses are
applied simultaneously to all the flip flops
Asynchronous counters are also called ripple or serial counter. In this type of counters
the output of one flip flop is connected to the clock input of next flip flop and soon.
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Digital Circuits
100
The resolution of an n bit DAC with a range of output from 0 to V volts is given by
Volts
Different types of DCs are available:
Simultaneous ADC or parallel comparator of Flash type of ADC
Counter type ADC or pulse width type of ADC
Integrator type of ADC or single slope of ADC
Dual slope integrator ADC
Successive approximation type ADC etc.
Flash type of ADC is the faster type of ADC, An n bit Flash type ADC requires 2 1
comparators.
Dual slope ADC is more accurate.
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Digital Circuits
Memories
Semiconductor Memories
Magnetic Memories
Drum
Disk
Bubble
Core
PROM
Static RAM
Tape
EPROM
EEPROM
Dynamic RAM
Volatile Memory: The stores information is dependent on power supply i.e., the stored
information will remain as long as power is applied. Eg. RAM
Non- Volatile Memory: The stored information is independent of power supply i.e., the stored
information will present even if the power fails. Eg: ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM etc.
Static RAM (SRAM): The binary information is stored in terms of voltage. SRAMs stores ones
and zeros using conventional Flip-flops.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): The binary information is stored in terms of charge on the capacitor.
The memory cells of DRAMs are basically charge storage capacitors with driver transistors.
Because of the leakage property of the capacitor, DRAMs require periodic charge refreshing
to maintain data storage.
The package density is more in the case of DRAMs. But additional hardware is required for
memory refresh operation.
SRAMs consume more power when compared to DRAMs. SRAMS are faster than DRAMs.
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Digital Circuits
Operation
IO/M
RD
R
0
0
1
MEMR
0
1
0
MEM
1
0
1
IOR
1
1
1
IO
DMA is having highest priority over all the interrupts
Interrupts
Type
Instruction
Hardware
Trigger
Vector
TRAP
Nonmaskable
Maskable
No external
Hardware
No external
Hardware
0024
RST 7.5
RST 6.5
Maskable
Independent
of EI & DI
Controlled by
EI & DI;
Unmasked by
SIM
Controlled by
EI & DI;
Unmasked by
SIM
No external
Hardware
Level
sensitive
0034
003C
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RST 5.5
Maskable
INTR
Maskable
Controlled by
EI & DI;
Unmasked by
SIM
Controlled by
EI & DI
No external
Hardware
Digital Circuits
Level
sensitive
002C
RST Code
Level
0000 to 0038
from external sensitive
Hardware
Accumulator register content and status register content together is called PSW (Program
Status Word or Processor Status Word) with Accumulator as Upper byte.
Data Transfer Instructions: These instructions are used to transfer data from register to
register, register to memory or from memory to register. No flags will be affected for these
instructions. r1, r2 r can be any one out of B, C, D, E, H, L, A and rp can be any one of 3 register
pairs BC, DE & HL.
MOV r1, r2
( r1 ) ( r2 )
( r ) (M) or ( r ) ((HL))
MOV r, M
( M ) ( r ) or ((HL)) ( r)
MOV M, r
( r/M ) ( 8 bit data ) d8
MVI ( r/M ), d8
Rp 16 bit rp = BC, DE,
L XI rp, 16 bit
HL or SP
LDA 16 bit address
STA 16 bit address
LHLD 16 bit address
SHLD 16 bit address
LD Xr
} rp can be either BC or DE pair
ST Xr
XCHG
PCHL
(HL) (DE)
(PC) (HL)
(A)(A)+(A)
ADD M
(A)(A)+(M)
ADI d8
(A)(A)+d8
ADC r
(A)(A)+(r)+Cy
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Digital Circuits
ADC M
(A)(A)+(M)+Cy
ACI d8
(A)(A)+d8+Cy
SUB r
(A)(A)-(r)
SUB M
(A)(A)-(M)
SUI d8
(A)(A)-d8
SBB r
(A)(A)-(r)-Cy
SBB M
(A)(A)-(M)-Cy
SBI d8
(A)(A)-d8-Cy
INR r
(r)(r)+1
INR M
(M)(M)+1
INX rP
DCR r
(r)(r)-1
DCR M
(M)(M)-1
DCX rp
(rp)(rp)-1
DAD rP
DAA
In 8085, the service of AC flag is used by only one instruction. It is DAA.
For INX and DCX instructions, no flags is affected
Following table shows the list of flags affected for different instructions
Instruction
S
Z
Ac
P
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
INR, DCR
No
No
No
No
DAD
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ADD, ADC, SUB, SBB, DAA
Cy
No
Yes
Yes
Logical Instructions: This group consists of AND, OR, NOT, XOR, Compare and Rotate
operations
ORA r
(A)(A) V (r)
ORA M
(A)(A) V (M)
ORI d8
(A)(A) V d8
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Digital Circuits
ANA r
(A)( ) (r)
ANA M
(A)( ) (M)
ANI d8
(A)( ) (d8)
XRA r
(A)( ) (r)
XRA M
(A)( ) (M)
XRI d8
(A)( ) d8
CMP r
( ) (r)
CMP M
( ) (M)
CPI d8
( ) d8
CMA
(A)( )
CMC
Cy
STC
Cy1
RLC
RAL
RRC
RAR
Following table shows how flags affected for different logical instructions
Instruction
Ac
Cy
ANA
Yes
Yes
Yes
ORA, XRA
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
CMP, CPI
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Branch Instructions: These are also called program control transfer instruction. These are
two types: Un conditional branch and Conditional branch instructions
No flags will be affected for branch instructions
Unconditional Branch Instructions
JMP
16-bit address
CALL
16-bit address
RET
RST n
(n=0 to 7)
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Digital Circuits
Call Instructions
Return Instruction
Condition
J Z 16 Bit addr
CZ 16 bit addr
RZ
If Z =1
RNZ
If Z = 0
JC 16 bit addr
CC 16 bit addr
RC
If Cy = 1
RNC
If Cy = 0
JP 16 bit addr
Cp 16 - bit addr
RP
If S = 0
JM 16 bit addr
CM 16 bit addr
RM
If S = 1
RPO
If P = 0
RPE
If P = 1
Machine Control, Stack and IO related Instructions: No Flags affected for these instructions.
Machine Control: EI, DI, SIM, RIM , NOP, HLT
Stack related : PUSH rp (rp = BC<DE<HL )
PUSH PSW
POP rp
POP PSW
LXI SP, 16 bit addr
SPHL
IO Related: IN 8 IN 8 bit Port address
OUT 8 bit Port address
Whenever PUSH instruction is executed SP register content is decremented by 2.
Whenever POP instruction is executed SP register content is incremented by 2.
When CALL instruction (conditional or unconditional) or RST instruction is executed, SP
register content is decremented by 2,
When RET instruction (Conditional or Unconditional ) is executed, SP register content is
incremented by 2, because it retrieves top two locations of the stack and load into PC
Addressing Modes: The way in which the operand information is specified in the instruction code
is called addressing mode. The 8085 microprocessor supports five addressing modes.
1. Implied or Implicit or Inherent Addressing Mode: There are certain instructions which
operate on the content of the accumulator. Such instructions do not require the address of
the operand. Eg: CMA, STC, RLC, RRC, RAL, RAR etc.
2. Direct Addressing Mode: In this mode the address of the operand (data) is given in the
instruction itself. Eg: STA, LDA, SHLD, LHLD, IN, OUT etc.
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Digital Circuits
3. Register Addressing Mode: In this mode the operands are in the general purpose registers.
The operation code specifies the address of the register in addition to the operation to the
performed. Eg: MOV A,B; ADDB; SUB C; ORA B ; etc.
4. Register Indirect Addressing Mode: In this mode the address of the operand is specified by a
register pair. Eg: LXI, STAZ, LDAX etc.
5. Immediate Addressing Mode: In this mode the operand is specified in the instructions itself.
Eg: MVI, ADI, LXI, ORI, SUI, SBI, ACI, XRI,ANI etc
Each instruction cycle of the 8085 microprocessor can be divided into a few basic operations
called machine cycles, and each machine cycle can be divided into T-states.
Machine Cycle: It is defined as the time required completing the operation of accessing either
memory or I/O. In the 8085, the machine cycle may consist of three to six T-states.
T-state is defined as one sub-division of the operation performed in one clock-period.
The time required to complete the execution of an instruction is called instruction cycle.
The first machine cycle of 8085 consists of four to six T-states and all other subsequent
machine cycles consist of three T-states only.
Types of machine cycle of 8085: Op code fetch cycle, memory read cycle, memory write
cycle, I/O read cycle, I/O write cycle, Interrupt acknowledge machine cycle and Bus idle
machine cycle.
The first machine cycle of each instruction cycle is always Op Code fetch machine cycle.
In 8085, CALL instruction is the lengthy instruction which takes 18-T states and the shortest
instruction takes only 4-T states (Ex: MOV A,B)
Memory Mapping: Assigning address to memory locations is called memory mapping.
Absolute Decoding: In this decoding all the address lines which are not used for memory
chip to identify a memory register must be decoded.
Linear Decoding: In this decoding technique there is one address line for CS. This technique
reduces hardware, but generates multiple addresses resulting in fold memory space.
I/O Devices Can be Connected to Microprocessor in Two Different Techniques.
1 Memory mapped I/O technique and
2 I/O mapped or peripheral mapped I/O technique
Memory Mapped I/O Technique
In memory mapped I/O, the I/O devices are also treated as memory locations , under that
assumption they will be given 16- bit address.
In memory mapped I/O, microprocessor uses memory related instructions to communicate
with I/O devices Eg: STA, LDA , MOV A,M; MOV B, M etc,
In memory mapped I/O , MEMR and MEM control signals are used to activate I/O devices.
In memory mapped I/O the entire memory map is shared by memory locations and I/O
devices one address can be used only once. This technique is used in a system where the
number of I/O devices are less.
The maximum numbers of I/O devices that can be connected to microprocessor in this
technique are 65536.
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Digital Circuits
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Page 138
Analog Circuits
+
R
Vi
Vo
( )
()
)e
here Vf = 0, Vi = V, Vo(t) = Ve
Where
0
()
()
2)
[ ()
)]
e
(
(a)
Average voltage
Zero voltage
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Analog Circuits
(b)
V0
A1
Zero voltage
A2
T1
T2
T1
Fig: (a) Square wave input; (b) Output voltage if the time constant is very large (compared with
T). The dc component V d c of the output is always zero. Area A1 equals area A2.
Case 2:
he e
ei
V0
Input
t
V
T1
T2
T
Fig: Peaking of a square wave resulting from a time constant small compared with T.
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Page 140
Analog Circuits
e
e
T1 = T2 = T/2
Output
V1 = -V2, V1
in figure (b)
Pe ce
figInput
( )
ge i P i defi ed y
P=
100
100 %
100 %
Where f1 =
and = 1 / T
fig ( )
Signal
(1 e
Input =
Output
0
Fig (a)
T
Fig (b)
Fig. (a) Response of a high pass RC circuit to a ramp voltage for RC / T >> 1;
(b)Response to a ramp voltage for RC / T << 1.
For t<< departure from linearity, transmission error, et is e
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Page 141
Analog Circuits
()
()
()
(
),
)e
(
(A)
)e
T
T1
T2
V
0
Average voltage
Vd-c
t
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Page 142
(B)
Analog Circuits
0.9V
0.1V
Vd-c
Tr
t
(C)
V2
V01
V2
V02
V1
Vd-c
V1
(D)
V2
V2
V1
Vd-c
V1
Fig. (a) Square wave input; (b - d) output of the low pass RC circuit. The time constant is
smallest for (b) and largest for (d).
(d) Ramp Input
Vi =
Vi
RC
Vo
Vo
(a)
(b)
t
T
Fig. Response of a low pass RC circuit to a ramp voltage (a) RC /T < < 1; (b) RC / T > > 1.
(
)e
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Page 143
Analog Circuits
Clamping Networks:
V0
vi
V
+
T
C
R
V0
t
2V
-V
-2V
+
V0
C
R
Vi
V0
2V
0
Vi
V0
V0
V0
Vi
t
2V
V
10
0
-Vi
2V
V0
+
Vi
-
C
V1
V0
-
2V
0
-V1
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Page 144
Analog Circuits
Parameter
Ripple frequency
(f )
Half-Wave
fs
Full-Wave
2fs
Bridge
2fs
PIV
Vm
2Vm
Vm
Im
Vm/(Rf +RL)
Vm/(Rf +RL)
Vm/(2Rf +RL)
Average
current(Idc)
Im
2Im
2Im
Im/2
Im/
Im/
Vm
Form factor(F)
1.57
1.11
1.11
Ripple factor(r)
1.21
0.482
0.482
RL
RL
RL
Pdc
- Idc Rf
Pi
2Vm
(Rf + RL)
Efficiency( r)
- Idc Rf
2Vm
(Rf + RL)
(
-2 Idc Rf
(Rf + RL)
Regulation
fs = a.c input supply frequency, PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)=the maximum voltage to which the
diode is subjected in a rectifier circuit
(
d
(
d )
ef c
)0.5
rms / Idc
rms / Vdc =
= Efficiency of Rectification = P
/ Pi, Regulation =
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Analog Circuits
6.2: DC Biasing-BJTs
VBE: decreases about 7.5 mV per degree Celsius (0C) increase temperature.
ICO (reverse saturation current): doubles in value for every 100C increase in temperature.
IC = f (ICO, VBE )
Biasing Type
Operating Point
Stability
Factor
( + )
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Page 146
Type
Analog Circuits
Symbol
Basic Relationships
Input Resistance
and Capacitance
JFET
(n-channel)
>
M
Ci: (1-10)
D
G
S
(
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Page 147
MOSFET
Depletion-type
(n-channel)
Analog Circuits
D
R>
Ci: (1-10)
G
S
(
MOSFET
Enhancement-type
(n-channel)
R>
M
Ci: (1-10)
G
S
(
K=
Type
JFET
Fixed-bias
(
(
Configuration
))
)
(
))
Pertinent Equations
JFET
Self-bias
(
JFET
Voltage-divider bias
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Analog Circuits
JFET
Common-gate
(
JFET
(
JFET
(
(
(
)
)
Depletion-type
MOSFET
*(All configurations above
plus cases where
+voltage) Fixed-bias
Depletion-type
MOSFET
Voltage-divider Bias
(
Enhancement-type
MOSFET
Feedback
configuration
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Analog Circuits
Enhancement-type
MOSFET
Voltage-divider bias
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Page 150
Analog Circuits
=
High (
M)
Medi m ( k)
=
Medium (-10)
g (
g
(
Port
System
Self-bias bypassed
(JFET or D-MOSFET)
High(
M)
Medi m ( k)
=
Medium (-10)
= g (
)
= g
(
)
=
(
Port
g (
System
High(
=
M)
Medi m ( k)
Low(-2)
g
=
(
High (
M)
=
(
))
Medi m ( k)
))
Medium (-10)
g (
)
(
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Page 151
High(
=
M)
L
=
=
(
Analog Circuits
M)
g
g
)
Low (<1)
g (
g (
)
)
=
(
Common Gate
Medi m ( k)
Medium (+10)
g
= g
Medi m ( M)
g (
Medi m ( k)
=
Medium (-10)
g (
g
(
)
(
Medi m ( M)
Medi m ( M)
=
Medium (-10)
g (
g
(
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Page 152
Configuration
=
(
h
(
h
Including
+
Analog Circuits
Including
(
1
1
Including
( +
(
(h h
+
-
( +
h
h
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Page 153
Analog Circuits
+
~
-
Including
(
( +
)
+
-
(h +
h
Including
(
( +
)
+
-
( +
(h +
)
~
Including
(
( +
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Page 154
Analog Circuits
Including
(
)
(
~
-
Including
(
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Page 155
Analog Circuits
~
=
Above equation for gain is valid only if open loop gain is infinity, if gain is not infinite always use
exact equation. Above equation is valid only if output is feedback to negative terminal at the
input.
If output is feedback to positive terminal, then output will go to saturation and above equation
f g i d e
y
The fact that io
e d
he c ce
h
he m ifie i
he e exi
i
h
circuit or virtual ground. The concept of a virtual short implies that although the voltage is
nearly 0V, there is no current through that amplifier input to ground. Current only goes through
resistors and
io
io
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out of phase
components, the resulting output can be expressed as
=
+
Where
= different voltage
= common voltage
= differential gain of the amplifier
= common-mode gain of the amplifier
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Analog Circuits
Inverting Amplifier
Feedback
circuit
The output is obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by the input
resistor( ) and feedback resistor ( ) this output also being inverted from the input.
=
Non-Inverting Amplifier
=
=1+
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Analog Circuits
Feedback
circuit
and
>
Gain Band Width: Because of the compensation circuits included in an op amp, the voltage gain
drops off as frequency increases. A frequency of interest is where the gain drops by 3dB, this
being the cutoff frequency of the op-amp, f . The unity gain frequency f and cutoff frequency are
related by
f =
f = gain x BW
where
It should be noted that gain bandwidth product of op-amp remains constant whether it is open
loop or feedback amplifier. If gain is decreased, bandwidth increases and vice-versa.
e cy ( g c e)
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Analog Circuits
SR
rad/sec
Slew Rate, SR is maximum rate at which amplifier output can change in volts per s.
SR =
V/s
Differential Inputs: when separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, resulting difference signal is
the difference between the two points.
=
Common Inputs: When both input signals are the same a common signal element due to the two
inputs can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.
= (
Output Voltage: Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out of
phase components, the resulting output can be expressed as
=
, CMRR(log) = 20 log10
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Page 159
Analog Circuits
Parameter
Type of Feedback
Voltage Series
Current Series
Current Shunt
Voltage Shunt
Voltage
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
Current
Voltage
Current
Voltage Shunt
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
Voltage
amplifier
Transconductance
amplifier
Current amplifier
Transresistance
amplifier
Bandwidth
Increases
Increases
Increases
Increases
Nonlinear
distortion
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Improve
characteristics of.
Desensitizes
Parameter
Current Shunt
Voltage Shunt
Current Series
1.Output signal
Voltage
Series
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
2.Input signal
Voltage
Current
Current
Voltage
3.Basic amplifier
Voltage
Current
AI =I0/Ii
Rm=V0/Ii
Gm=I0/VI
5.
Vf/V0
If / I0
If / V 0
Vf/I0
6.D=1+A
1+AV
1+AI
1+Rm
1+Gm
7.Af
AV/D
AI/D
Rm/D
Gm/D
8.Rif
RiD
Ri/D
Ri/D
RiD
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Page 160
Analog Circuits
9.Rof
RO/D
RO.D
RO/D
ROD
10.f1f
f1/D
f1/D
f1/D
f1/D
11.f2f
f2.D
f2.D
f2.D
f2.D
13.df(distortion)
=d/D
=d/D
=d/D
=d/D
14.Noise
Decreases Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
12.BWf
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Page 161
Analog Circuits
Parameter
Amplifier Type
Current
Trans
Conductance
0
Voltage
Trans resistance
0
0
Transfer characteristic
Class A: The output signal varies for a full 3600 of the cycle this requires the Q- point to be
biased at a level so that at least half the signal swing of the output may vary up and swing down
without going to a high enough voltage to be approach the lower supply level.
Class B: A class B circuit provides an output signal varying over one-half the output signal cycle,
or for 1800. Here the dc bias is at cut off (zero current) so, the output is not a faithful
reproduction of the input as only half cycle is present. Two class B operations, one to provide
output on the positive-output half cycle and another output to provide operation on the
negative-output half cycle are necessary. This type of connection is referred to as push-pull
operation.
Class AB: An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base current level of class B and
above one half the supply voltage level of class. This bias condition is class AB. For class AB
operation the output signal swing occurs between 1800 and 3600 and is neither class A nor class
B operation.
Class C: The output of a class C amplifier is biased for operation at less than 180 0 of the cycle and
will operate only with a tuned (resonant) circuit which provides a full cycle of operation for the
tuned or resonant frequency
Class D: This operating class is a form of amplifier operation using pulse signals which are on for
a short interval and off for a longer interval. The major advantage of class D operation is that
amplifier is on only for short intervals and the overall efficiency can practically be very high.
Amplifier Efficiency: defined as the ratio of o/p power to i/p power , improves (gets higher)
going from class A to class D.
P (
P(
P
Where
)
)
(rms) (rms) =
(rms) =
(rms)
(rms)/
(peak)/
Peak to Peak Signals : The ac power delivered to the load may be expressed using
P
The maximum efficiency of a class A circuit, occurring for the largest output voltage and current
swings, is only 25% with a direct or series fed load connection and 50% with a transformer
connection to the load. Class B operation, with no dc bias power for no input signal, reaches
78.5%. Class D operation can achieve power efficiency over 90% and provide the most efficient
operation of all the operating classes. Since class AB falls between class A and class B in bias, it
also falls between their efficiency rating between 25% (or 50%) and 78.5%
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Page 162
Analog Circuits
Amplifier Distortion
%THD = D =
. . . . . . . . 100%
. . . . . . .)
= (1 +
) P1
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Page 163
Analog Circuits
At low frequencies we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors can no longer be
replaced by the short circuit approximation because of the increase in reactance of these
elements. The frequency dependent parameters of the small signal equivalent circuits and the
stray capacitive elements associated with the active device and the network will limit the high
frequency response of the system.
Miller Effect Capacitance
A V= /
(1-
=
(
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Page 164
C
+
+
G
Analog Circuits
)
L
f =
where:
i
=
Ring oscillator
i Oscillator
)
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Page 165
Analog Circuits
>
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Page 166
Analog Circuits
Sinusoidal Oscillators
Amplifier A
Frequency
selective
network
( )
( ) ( )
( )
An Oscillator should have finite output for zero input signal at a particular frequency.
So condition for feedback loop to provide sinusoidal oscillations of frequency
is
(
) (
)
L(j )
Here, L is Loop gain =
So at , the phase of the loop gain should be zero and magnitude of loop gain should be
unity. This is shown as Bakhausen Criterion
Ph e f
g i
g i
d e ze
+
i y
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Page 167
Analog Circuits
C
k
LC Tuned Oscillators
(a) Colpitts
(b) Hartley
(L
g
>
L
L
ci
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Analog Circuits
Crystal Oscillator
Series capacitance
Parallel capacitance
Bistable Multivibrators
(A) Inverting
L
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Page 169
Analog Circuits
Transfer Characteristics
From transfer characteristics, we see that for input voltage in
either be L or L depending on state the circuit is already in.
, o/p can
L ( )
L ( )
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Page 170
EDC
The emitted radiation by its wavelength in Angstroms , when electron transition from one
state to the other state is
,
Insulator: For a diamond (Carbon) crystal the region containing no quantum states is several
electron volts high ( 6eV). The energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be easily excited
from the valence band to the conduction band by any external stimuli (Electrical, thermal or
optical).
Metal: This refers to a situation where the conduction and valence bands are overlapping. This is
the case of a metal where
= 0. This situation makes a large number of electrons available for
electrical conduction and, therefore the resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is
high.
Semiconductor: A substance for which the width of the forbidden energy region is relatively
small (~1eV) is called a semiconductor.
The energy gap EG for silicon decreases with temperature at the rate of 3.60 10-4 eV / K.
Hence, for silicon,
T
T and at room temperature (300 K), EG
= 1.1 eV.
Current Density: If N electrons are contained in a length L of conductor (fig) and if it takes an
electron a time T sec to travel a distance of L meter in the conductor, the total number of
electrons passing through any cross section of wire in unit time is N/T.
N electrons
A
L
Thus the total charge per second passing any point, which by definition is the current in
amperes, is I = Nq / T 1) Where q = 1.602 x 10-19 C
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By definition, the current density, denoted by the symbol J, is the current per unit area of the
conducting medium, i.e., assuming a uniform current distribution J = I /A 2)
J
n qv
Where
nq is the charge density, in coulombs per cubic meter, and v is in meters per second.
The drift velocity v is in the direction opposite to that of the electric field, and its magnitude
is proportional to . Thus
v
electric field
where
If the concentration of free electrons is n (electrons per cubic meter), the current density J
(amperes per square meter) is J
nqv
nq
-19
where q = electron charge = 1.602 x 10 C and
V
nq
is the conductivity of the substance in (ohm meter)-1
The parameter varies as T-m over a temperature range of 100 to 400 K. For silicon, m = 2.5
(2.7) for electrons (holes), and for germanium, m = 1.66 (2.33) for electrons (holes).
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the two most important semiconductors used in
electronic devices.
The energy EG required to break such a covalent bond is about 0.72 eV for germanium and
1.1 eV for silicon at room temperature.
Conductivity of a Semiconductor
p p q
n n
p p
EDC
With increasing temperature, the density of hole electron pair increases and
correspondingly, the conductivity increases.
n
A T e
The intrinsic concentration ni varies with temperature in accordance with the above
relationship.
Where A0 = material constant. T = temperature in degree Kelvin, EGO = energy gap at 0 K in
eV, K = Boltzmann constant in eV/ K
exp
KT
The Fermi level can be defined as that level which has a 50% probability of occupation by an
electron at any temperature.
ce
For Intrinsic Semiconductor: Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor is called Intrinsic Fermi level
So n
p
e
e
n
n
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EDC
So n
n
n p
Also n
p
KT ln (
KT ln ( )
KT ln (
Here m
Where ni is no. of carriers (or) no. of covalent bonds that are broken for the given
temperature.
Fermi Potential
N type Semiconductor
KT
n
KT
ln ( )
ln ( )
q
n
q
n
Where
P type semiconductor
KT
p
KT
ln ( )
ln ( )
q
n
q
n
Where
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EDC
Hence the Fermi level lies in the center of the forbidden energy band.
For intrinsic material n = p = ni, we have the important relationship (called the mass
action law) np
n
Note that, regardless of the individual magnitudes of n and p, the product is always constant
at a fixed temperature.
Since the semiconductor is electrically neutral, the magnitude of the positive charge density
must equal to that of the negative concentration, or
ND + p =NA +n
--- (1)
Consider an n type material having NA = 0. Since the number of electrons is much greater
than the number of holes in an n type semiconductor (n >> p) then equation (1) reduces
to
n
or nn
In a n- type material the free electron concentration nn is approximately equal to the density
of donor atoms.
According to the law of mass action, the product of the number of electrons in the
conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band must be constant.
For material doped with both acceptor and donor impurity and if
then
or
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Page 175
np
n and
p=
And n =
EDC
n
)
P type
EF goes down
EF goes up
conduction
Increases
Decreases
The hole current in any point x may be written as the sum of two contributions, one from the
field and one from the diffusion process:
Jp
p q
dp
n q
+q
dn
=VT
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EDC
vd
Jd
VHw
Aq
If conduction is due to primary charges of one sign, the conductivity is related to the
mobility by
If the conductivity is measured together with the Hall coefficient RH, the mobility can be
determined from
H
The Hall coefficient RH of an intrinsic semiconductor is negative under all conditions.
In an extrinsic semiconductor, the Hall coefficient RH increases with increase of temperature.
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EDC
,
1
,
2
x
0
x distance
v built in potential
p hole concentration
n electron concentration
v
v ln
V ln
n e
n p
n p
n type
v
x
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EDC
The type of doping where doping density changes abruptly from p-type to n-type is called Step
grading.
v
V ln
V ln
V ln
n- region
Space charge
region
Conduction band
ECP
EG
E0
Conduction band
ECN
EF
E1
E0
EG
E2
EF EG
EVP
Valence band
EG
Eo
EVN
Valence band
E0 = kT ln
kT ln
EDC
= kT ln
Forward Currents
I = I0(eV/VT -1)
2 for silicon,
for germanium
I0 depends on material and it is fixed for a given device. But varies with temperature
|
I02 = I01x
I=I0
Accordingly except for a small range in the neighborhood of the origin, the current increases
exponentially with voltage.
(b) When the diode is reverse-biased and |V| is several times VT,I-I0. The reverse current is
therefore constant, independent of the applied reverse bias. Consequently, I0 is referred to
as the reverse saturation current
Transition or Space Charge (or Depletion Region) Capacitance (Ct)
The parallel layers of oppositely charged immobile ions on the two sides of the junction form the
transition capacitance, CT, which is given by CT
A W, where
0 r) is the permittivity of
the material, A is the cross-sectional area of the junction and W is the width of the depletion
layer over which the ions are uncovered.
The net charge must be zero across the depletion region will satisfy the condition
NAWP=NDWn
Where NA=acceptor concentration; ND=donor concentration; Wp=width of the depletion region
in p-side; Wn=width of the depletion region in n-side;
if NA<<ND, then Wp>>Wn.
+]
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EDC
Where, VB= (V0-V), V is the applied voltage and V0 is the barrier potential, or the contact
potential.
When forward bias +V is applied, the effective barrier potential, VB= [V0-(+V)], is lowered
and hence the width of the depletion region W decreases and CT increases. Under reverse bias
condition, the majority carriers move away from the junction, thereby uncovering more
immobile charges. Now the effective barrier potential, VB= [V0-(-V)], is increased and hence,
W increase with reverse voltage and CT decreases correspondingly.
Diffusion (or Storage) Capacitance (Cd)
The capacitance that exists in a forward biased junction is called a diffusion or storage
capacitance (CD), whose value is usually much larger than CT, which exists in a reverse-biased
junction. This is also represented as, CD I VT), where is the mean life time for holes and
electrons.
Diode Applications
The same PN junction with different doping concentration finds special applications as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Breakdown Diodes
The upper limit on diode current is determined by the power dissipation rating of the diode. The
thermally generated electrons and holes acquire sufficient energy from the applied potential to
produce new carriers by removing valence electrons from their bonds. These new carriers, in
turn, produce additional carriers again through the process of disrupting bonds. This cumulative
process is referred to as "avalanche multiplication". It results in the flow of large reverse
currents, and the diode finds itself in the region of "avalanche breakdown". This avalanche effect
is now known to play with breakdown voltages below or about 6V.
Even if the initially available carriers do not acquire sufficient energy to disrupt bonds, it is
possible to initiate breakdown through a direct rupture of the bonds because of the existing of
the strong electric field. Under these circumstances the break down is referred to as the "zener
breakdown". This zener effect is now known to play with breakdown voltages below or about
6V.
Tunnel Diode
Tunneling phenomenon: The width of the junction barrier varies inversely as the square root of
impurity concentration (1 in
) and therefore is reduced from 5 microns to less than
100A(
cm).
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EDC
The barrier is very thin to allow the carriers to tunnel through it. The tunnel diode exhibits a
negative resistance characteristic between the peak current Ip and the minimum value Iv, called
the valley current. The tunnel diode useful in pulse and digital circuitry.
Forward
current
I
IP
RS
LS
IV
VP
Reverse
current
Reverse voltage
VF
Vv
Forward voltage
Rn
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EDC
2. Common-emitter (CE),
3. Common-collector (CC).
CB Configuration
In this configuration, emitter current IE is the input current and collector IC is the output current.
The input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas output is taken out from the
collector and base as shown in below figure.
The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called dc alpha bc or just of a
transistor
bc IC/IE
It is also called forward current transfer ratio (hFB). In hFB, subscript F stands for forward and B
for common-base.
C
(a)
(b)
(c)
The of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a transistor higher the value of , better the
transistor in the sense that collector current more closely equals the emitter current.
Its value ranges from 0.95 to 0.999. Obviously, it applies only to CB configuration of a transistor.
IC IE Now, IB= =IE IE=(1- IE I
Incidentally, there is also an a c for a transistor It refers to the ratio of change in collector
current to the change in emitter current.
ac IC IE
It is also, known as short-circuit gain of a transistor and is written as hfb.
It may be noted that uppercase subscript indicates dc value whereas lowercase subscript fb
indicates ac value or all practical purposes, dc ac
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CE Configuration
Here, input signal is applied between the base and emitter and output signal is taken out from
the collector and emitter circuit. As seen from above figure. (b)IB is the input current and IC is the
output current.
The ratio of the d.c. collector current to d c base current is called dc beta dc or just of the
transistor.
IC/IB or IC IB
It is also called common-emitter d.c. forward transfer ratio and is written as hFE. It is possible for
to have as high a value as
While analyzing ac operation of a transistor, we use a c which is given by
ac IC IB.
It is also written as hfe.
elation etween and
IC/IB and IC/IE
IE/IB
(1-
CC Configuration
In this case, input signal is applied between base and collector and output signal is taken out
from emitter-collector circuit. Conventionally speaking, here IB is the input current and IE is the
output current as shown in above figure (c). The current gain of the circuit is
I
I
I
I
I
I
IC/IE),
(IC/IB),
(i)
IC =IB IE=
(ii)
IB=IC/=
(iii) IE=IC/ =
and
IE
IE
I
(iv) The three transistor d.c. currents always bear the following relation
IE : IB : IC : : 1: (1- :
Incidentally, it may be noted that for ac currents, small letters ie, ib and ic are used.
CB Configuration
The leakage current ICBO where the subscripts C O stand for Collector to ase with emitter
Open Very often, it is simply written as ICO. It should be noted that
(i) ICBO is exactly like the reverse saturation current IS or I0 of a reverse-biased diode.
(ii) ICBO is extremely temperature-dependent because it is made up of thermally-generated
minority carriers.
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EDC
ICBO doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature for Ge and 6oC for Si.
Total collector current is actually the sum of two components:
(i) Current produced by normal transistor action i.e. component controlled by emitter
current. Its value is I and is due to majority carriers.
(ii) temperature-dependent leakage current ICO due to minority carriers.
IC IE + ICO
Since ICO << IC hence IC/IE
IC I B
ICO
Operating Regions
A BJT has two junctions i.e. base-emitter and base-collector junctions either of which could be
forward-biased or reverse-biased. With two junctions, there are four possible combinations of
bias condition.
(i) both junctions reverse-biased.
(ii) both junctions forward-biased.
(iii)
BE (Base-Emitter) junction forward-biased, BC (Base-Collector) junction reverse-biased.
(iv)BE junction reverse-biased, BC junction forward-biased.
Since condition (iv) is generally not used, we will tabulate the remaining three conditions below.
Transistor Operation Regions
BE Junction
BC Junction
Region
RB*
RB
Cut-Off
FB**
FB
Saturation
FB
RB
Active
*Reverse-biased, **forward-biased
(a) Cut-off
This condition corresponds to reverse-bias for both base-emitter and base-collector
junctions. In fact, both diodes act like open circuits under theses conditions, which is true for
an ideal transistor. In cut-off, VCE=VCC
(b) Saturation
This condition corresponds to forward-bias for both base-emitter and base-collector
junctions. The transistor becomes saturated i.e. there is perfect short-circuit for both baseemitter and base-collector diodes. In this case, VCE=0.
(c) Active Region
This condition corresponds to forward-bias for base-emitter junction and reverse bias for
base-collector junction. In this case, VCE > 0.
Reach-through
The second mechanism by which a transistors usefulness may be terminated as the collector
voltage is increased is called punch-through, or reach-through, and results from the increased
width of the collector-junction transition region with increased collector-junction voltage (the
Early effect).
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EDC
As the voltage applied across the collector junction increases, the transition region penetrates
deeper into the collector and base. Because neutrality of charge must be maintained, the number
of uncovered charges on each side remains equal. Since the doping in the base is ordinarily
substantially smaller than that of the collector, the penetration of the transition region into the
base is much larger than into the collector. This process is known as Early Effect, or Base-width
Modulation.
Field Effect Transistors
The acronym 'FET' stands for field effect transistor. It is a three-terminal unipolar solid-state
device in which current is controlled by an electric field as is done in vacuum tubes.
Broadly speaking, there are two types of FETs
a. Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
b. metal-oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
It is also called insulated-gate FET (IGFET). It may be further subdivided into
(i) depletion-enhancement MOSFET i.e. DE-MOSFET
(ii) enhancement-only MOSFET i.e. E-only MOSFET
Both of these can be either P-channel or N-channel devices.
The FET family tree is shown below
FET
DE-MOSFET
N-Channel
D
P-Channel
D
+VD
D G
N-Channel
D
-VDD
G
N-Channel
P-Channel
D
+VD
D
E-only MOSFET
-VDD
G
P-Channel
+VD
D
D -VDD
G
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EDC
IG
p+ type gate
Drain
IS
S
2b(x)
2a
Source
VGG
n-type
channel
W(x)
Gate
p+ type gate
ID
+
VDD
Fig. shows, the basic structure of a n-channel field-effect transistor. The normal polarities of
the drain-to-source and gate-to-source supply voltages are shown. In a p-channel FET the
voltages would be reversed.
1. Source: It is the terminal through which majority carriers enter the bar. Since carriers
come from it, it is called the source.
2. Drain: It is the terminal through which majority carriers leave the bar i.e. they are
drained out from this terminal. The drain-to-source voltage VDS drives the drain current
ID.
3. Gate: These are two internally-connected heavily-doped impurity regions which form
two P-N junctions. The gate-source voltage VGS reverse-biases the gates.
4. Channel: It is the space between two gates through which majority carriers pass from
source-to- drain when VDS is applied.
Schematic symbols for N-channel and P-channel JFET are shown in the above Figures. It
must be kept in mind that gate arrow always points to N-type material (channel).
(b) Theory of Operation
While discussing the theory of operation of a JFET, it should be kept in mind that
1. Gates are always reversed-biased. Hence, gate current IG is practically zero.
2. The sourced terminal is always connected to that end of the drain supply which provides
the necessary charge carriers.
In a N-channel JFET, source terminal S is connected to the negative end of the drain voltage
supply (for obtaining electrons).In a P-channel JFET, S is connected to the positive end of
the drain voltage supply for getting holes which flow through the channel.
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EDC
Drain
+
ID
VGG
Gate G
+
IG
VGS
-
+
VDD
-
VDS
IS
-
Figure shows Circuit symbol for a n-channel FET. (For a p-channel FET the arrow at the gate
junction points in the opposite direction.) For a n-channel FET, ID and VDS are positive and
VGS is negative. For a p-channel FET, ID and VDS are negative and VGS is positive.
(i) Keeping VGS at a fixed value (either zero or negative), as VDS is increased, ID initially
increases till channel pinch-off when it becomes almost constant and finally increases
excessively when JFET breaks down under high value of VDS . As VGS is kept fixed at
progressively higher negative values, the values of VP as well as breakdown voltage
decrease.
(ii) Keeping VDS at a fixed value, as VGS is made more and more negative, ID decreases till it is
reduced to zero for a certain value of VGS called VGS(off).
Since gate voltage controls the drain current, JFET is called a voltage-controlled device.
A P-channel JFET operates exactly in the same manner as an N-channel JFET except that
current carriers are holes and polarities of both VDD and VGS are reversed.
Since only one type of majority carrier (either electrons or holes) is used in JFETs, they
are called unipolar devices unlike bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) which use both
electrons and holes as carriers.
Static Characteristics of a JFET
We will consider the following two characteristics:
(i) Drain characteristics
It gives relation between ID and VDS for different values of VGS (which is called running
variable).
(ii) Transfer characteristics
It gives relation between ID and VGS for different values of VDS.
JFET Drain Characteristics with VGS = 0
Ohmic
region
IDSS
Pinch off
(Saturation)
region
B
VGS=0
Breakdown
region
ID
VP
VDS
VA
VDS
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EDC
Such a characteristic is shown in Fig. It can be sub-divided into following four regions:
1. Ohmic Region OA
This part of the characteristic is linear indicating that for low-values of VDS, current varies
directly with voltage following Ohm's Law. It means that JFET behaves like an ordinary
resistor till point A (called knee) is reached.
2. Curve AB
In this region, ID increases at reverse square-law rate upto point B which is called pinch-off
point. The drain-to-source voltage VDS corresponding to point B is called pinch-off-voltage Vp.
But it is essential to remember that pinch-off does not mean current-off.
3. Pinch off Region BC
It is also known as saturation region or amplified region. Here, JFET operates as constant
current device because ID is relatively independent of VDS.It is due to the fact that as VDS
increases, channel resistance also increases proportionally thereby keeping ID practically
constant at IDSS.
Drain current in this region is given by Shockleys equation
ID = IDSS *
+ = IDSS *
- 4V
ID
-2V
VGS
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Page 189
ID = IDSS *
+ = IDSS [
EDC
=[
(i) Transconductance, gm
It is simply the slope of transfer characteristics.
change in I
I
r
at V
constant or rd
at V
constant
change in V
V
Its unit is Siemens (S) earlier called mho. It is also called forward transconductance (gfs) or
forward transadmittance yfs.
The transconductance measured at IDSS is written as gmo.
Mathematical Expression for gm
The Shockely equation is ID = I
g =
at ID constant or
]=gmo
at ID = constant
EDC
Enhancement
Depletion
ID(on)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
6
5
4
3
2
1
4
2
-3 -2 -1 0
VGS(OFF)
VGS = +3V
ID, mA
(a)
VGS, V
1
0
(b)
1
5
Enhancement
Depletion
VDS, V
Fig. (a) The transfer curve (for VDS = 10 V) & (b) The drain characteristics for a n-channel
MOSFET which may be used in either the enhancement or the depletion mode.
MOSFET Current & threshold voltage
The MOS transistor is a symmetric device. This means that the drain and source terminals are
interchangeable. For a conducting nMOS transistor, VDS > 0V; for the pMOS transistor, VDS < 0V
(or VSD > 0V).
Basic MOS Device Equations
Drain
Gate
Bulk(or substrate for nMOS device in n well
technology)
Source
The nMOS device is a four terminal device: Gate, Drain, Source, and Bulk.
Bulk (substrate) terminal is normally ignored at schematic level, usually tied to ground for the
nMOS case. In analog applications, however, the bulk terminal may not be ignored.
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EDC
Gate controls channel formation for conduction between Drain and Source. Drain is at higher
potential than source. Source usually tied to GND to act as pull - down (nMOS).
Three regions of operations first order (ideal) equations:
Cutoff region
ID = 0A VGS
Linear region
ID ,
only when
is small.
Saturation region
ID =
Where
Co
VT-MOS ideal threshold voltage for a MOS capacitor the capacitor formed between the gate and
substrate)
VFB Flatband Voltage
VT-MOS = 2b +
b =
In *
Bulk potential potential difference between Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor and Fermi
level in doped semiconductor
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Page 192
EDC
hc
meters
= 1.242/1.1
Photodiodes
Photodiode is a special type of photo-detector. The general principle of all semiconductor-based
photo detectors is the electron-excitation from the valence band to the conduction band by
photons.
Suppose an optical photon of frequency V is incident on a semiconductor, such that its energy is
greater than the band gap of the semiconductor ( i.e., hv >Eg).
Applications
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Responsivity R = Ip/P0
> EG of PIN
hf A/watt
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EDC
max(A0) =
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Communication System
Typical frequency range for audio and video signals are given below:
Voice -----------
300 3.5KHz
Audio -----------
20Hz 20KHz
Video -----------
0 4.5 MHz
Modulation:
Modulation is defined as the process in which some characteristic parameter of a high
frequency carrier is varied linearly with the amplitude of the message signal.
Modulator converts (1) low frequency signal to a high frequency signal, (2) a wide band signal
into narrowband signal, (3) a baseband signal into band pass signal
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Page 195
Communication System
0< 1
Ac
Ac[1-]
0
-Ac[1-]
-Ac
-Ac[1+]
S(t)=
cos(2f t)+
m(t) cos(2f t) =
where
=Amplitude Sensitivity
[1+
m(t)]cos2f t,
[M(f-f )+M(f+f )]
S(f)
( )
M(f)
/2
f
-W
USB
LSB
-fc-w
-fc
-fc+w
where
cos 2f t +
Carrier
fc
fc+w
2w
S(t) =
fc-w
cos 2(f +f ) t +
USB
= = modulation index
[1+] and
[1-] respectively.
cos 2(f -f ) t
LSB
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Page 196
Communication System
Power Calculations of AM
Power of carrier
=* + =
Power of USB
Total Power
=
=
Power of LSB
Modulation Efficiency
2+
(1 + )
2
=
(1 + 2) 2 +
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Page 197
Communication System
[M(f
M(f)
S(f
)
-W
+fc fc+
W
Power required to transmit a DSB wave is very less compared to AM, but the bandwidth is same
as AM.
0
-fc
fc-W
PLSB=PUSB=
Pt=
=1
100 =
=1
()
cos
()
=0
(t) =
= 0
Synchronization circuits are necessary are to overcome the Quadrature null effect. So the
complexity of the receiver is increased.
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Page 198
Communication System
SSB-USB
USB
-fc-w
SSB-LSB
USB
-fc
LSB
fc
fc+w
-fc
LSB
-fc-w
S(t) =
cos 2 (f + f )t
S(t) =
cos 2 (f
f )t
fc-w
fc
S(t) =
m
(t) sin 2f t] -ve sign means USB, +ve sign means LSB
=
(
)
)
(
(
)
)
[m(t). cos
= 0 , V2(t) =
=
0 , V2(t) =
m
(t). sin ]
m
(t)
m
(t)
[ So no Quadrature null effect in the case of SSB, which is a major advantage over DSB].
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Page 199
Communication System
VSB
Product
Modulator
DSBSC
v(t)
BPF
H(f)
s(t)
VSB Signal
Ac cos 2fct
S(f + f ) =
[M(f + 2f ) + M(f)] (f + f )
To get the exact message signal at receiver H(f-fc) + H(f + fc) should be a constant (K).
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Communication System
cos[2f t +
(t) =
m(t)]
m(t) ,
Instantaneous Frequency f =
(t) = 2 f (t) dt
cos 2f t
sin 2f t f
Frequency Modulation: Changing the frequency of the carrier according to the message signal is
called Frequency Modulation.
S(t) = AC cos [2fc t +2
Instantaneous frequency f (t) = f +
hase of FM wave
(t) = 2f t + 2
m(t)dt ]
m(t) where
m(t) dt
f=
f,
=f +
f,
=f
cos 2f t
=Frequency deviation
[cos(2f t +
Modulation index of FM =
sin 2f t)]
1, Narrow band FM
1, Wide band FM
Narrow Band FM: S(t) =
=
cos(2f t + sin 2f t)
[cos 2f t. cos( sin 2f t)
cos 2f t
cos 2f t
f )t
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Page 201
Communication System
Ac/2
Ac
fc-fm
fm
-Ac
Spectrum of NBFM
fc+fm
The spectrum of AM and FM are identical except that the spectral component at f
180o out of phase.
=
Wideband FM: S(t) =
2)
is
2)
cos[2f t + sin 2f t]
( ) = ( )e (
(1 +
( ) = ( 1)
( )
( )=1
( ) cos[2(f + nf )t]
S(t) =
( ) cos 2f t +
( ) cos 2(f + f )t +
( ) cos 2(f
+
2f ) t +
S(t) =
( ) cos 2f t +
( )[cos 2(f + f )t cos 2(f
f ) t]
( )[cos 2(f + 2f ) t + cos 2(f
+
2f ) t]
S(f)
( ) cos 2(f
n = 0, 1, 2,
f )+
( ) cos 2(f + 2f ) t
( )
( )
( )
( )
fc-fm
0
fc-2fm
fc
fc+fm
fc+2fm
( )
Fig. Spectrum of WBFM
Characteristics of a WBFM Signal
(1) WBFM spectrum consists of carrier and infinite number of sidebands, each separated by f
(2) The amplitudes of the spectral components depend on the Bessel function coefficients ( )
which decease as n increases. So the amplitudes of the spectral components also decrease
on both sides of the carrier.
(3) In WBFM spectrum amplitude of carrier component depends on
( ) and hence on
modulation index .
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Page 202
Communication System
J0( )
8.6
2.4
5.5
( ) = 0, when
11.8
= 2.4, . , . , 11. ,
For these values of , the amplitude of the carrier component in the spectrum is zero and the
modulation efficiency is 1.
( )
=
,
order sideband =
order sideband =
order sideband =
Total Power =
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )+
( )+
( )=
( )+
( )+
The total power is independent of modulation index. AM takes more power compared to FM for
the same message and carrier.
ractical B.W of WBFM using Carsons Rule: Carson has proved that the number of sidebands
having significant amplitudes containing % of the total power is +1. So Bandwidth of FM is,
B. W = 2( + 1)f
= 2*
+ 1+ f = 2 f + 2f
NBFM
Modulator
NBFM
S1(t)
Frequency
multiplier
WBFM
S(t)
Ac cos2fct
BFM S(t) =
cos[2f t +
sin 2f t]
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Page 203
Communication System
cos[n2f t + n
cos[2f t +
sin 2f t]
sin 2f t] where f
= nf
=n
PM
modulator
INT
Differentiator
dm(t)
dt
FM
Modulator
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Page 204
Communication System
IRR =
By increasing the Intermediate frequency, IRR can be increased. By increasing the bandwidth,
the gain at fSi can be decreased so that IRR increases.
IRR
IRR Q
IRR = 1 +
Where =
IRR should be as high as possible. If two tuned circuits are cascaded then the overall IRR is
= 1 +
2
1
. 1 +
2
2
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Page 205
Communication System
P =K Te B
KT=PSD
Te =(F-1)T0
F=Noise figure
KTe=
of
thermal
noise,
Te=Noise
equivalent
fX(x) dX
( )
Figure of Merit:
So
Si
Receiver
Ni
(Si
i) =
No
Figure of Merit =
)
( )
(So
o) =
=1
=1
=
=
= [modulation efficiency]
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Page 206
Communication System
More rugged because it can withstand channel noise and distortion much better,
Viability of regenerative repeaters
Digital signals can be coded to yield extremely low error rates and high fidelity,
It is easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital signals.
More efficient than analog in realizing the exchange of SNR for bandwidth.
Sampling Theorem: It sates that if the highest frequency in the signal spectrum is B, the signal
can e reconstructed from its samples, ta en at a rate not less than 2B samples per second.
Ts
fs 2 W
2. DPCM
3. DM
4. ADM
n=
=
=
f(qe)
1/
Signal Power =
Quantization Noise Power =
SNR=
/2
x f(x)dx =
/2
-/2
q .(1 e) dqe
=(3/2)L2=(3/2)22n , where =
SNRdB =1.8 + 6n
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Page 207
Communication System
Differential Encoding
1-previous state
0-previous level is complemented
T
Input
Output
For NRZ signaling, the probability of error is minimum. Thus for PCM, NRZ signaling is generally
used.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
Number of signals transmitted simultaneously = N
If n-bit PCM is used, Number of bits in frame
= nN
For each frame some extra bits are added for synchronization purpose.
In Ts duration, we get n N + a bits, where a = No. of bits used for synchronization
Bit duration Tb =
without multiplexing
with multiplexing
= m(t)
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Communication System
Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM): ADM involves additional hardware designed to provide
variable step size, thereby reducing slope-overload effects without increasing the granular noise.
Digital Carrier Modulation
Bandwidth required for ASK = PSK < FSK
ASK and FSK can be demodulated non-coherently but not PSK.
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
Binary data
On-off
Amplitude level
shifter
NRZ
DPSK signal
Multiplier
Delay Tb
1800
1800
00
00
00
1800
Probability of Error
ASK signal: Pe = 0.5 Q[ ]
FSK signal: Pe = 0.5 Q[ ]
PSK signal:
= 0.5 Q [
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Page 209
EMT
= dxdy
dv =
dz
Spherical Coordinates
dl = dr r + rd
+ r sin d
ds = r sin
= r sin r
= r dr d
dv = r sin
Operators
a)
V gradient
.V divergence
V curl
V laplacian
(Cartesian)
(Cylindrical)
(Spherical)
r r
V=
=
=
.A =
x x
V
y y
V
z
V
z
z
V
r
x
=
=
(r
A=|
sin
|
x
= |
|
z
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Page 210
r
=
EMT
r sin
|
r
r sin
Physical Constants
Permittivity of free space,
0 = 4 10-7 H/m
Charge of an Electron,
q = 1.602
0-9 F/m
10-19 C
Mass of electron,
m = 9.107
10 -31 kg
Pl n ks onst nt
e = 2.718
Q Q
R
4 R
Electric Field Intensity: It is defined as force per unit charge, and its unit is newton/coulomb (or)
volt/meter. The electric field starts at a positive charge and ends at a negative charge.
Electric Dipole
Two equal and opposite electric charges, separated by a very short distance is called electric
dipole.
The electric dipole moment is Qd. The electric field intensity of a dipole varies as 1/R 3;
where as the electric field intensity of a point charge varies as. 1/R2.
Electric flux density D = E
This ve tor h s the s me ire tion s E, ut it is in epen ent of n therefore of m teri l
properties. The unit of D is Coulom /meter2
G usss l w:
Divergen e of ele tri flux ensity is equ l to volume h rge ensity v mathematically,
.D =
Electric Potential
The potential at any point is the work per unit charge required to bring a unit charge from
infinity to a point. Due to a point charge, Q
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Page 211
EMT
The potenti l only epen s on the ist n e etween points n n the point h rge,
reg r less of p th etween n .
The lines of constant potential are always perpendicular to the electric field intensity. E = -
V.
BiotSavart law: The BiotSavart law is used to compute the magnetic field generated by a
steady current, i.e. a continual flow of charges, The equation is as follows:
B=
, or B =
(in SI units),
= J . S Or equivalently, B
= I
Jf is the free current density through the surface S enclosed by the curve C
Ien is the net free current that penetrates through the surface S.
B=
mperes l w is
H=J
B = J
Since, B =
= J
( .
-
i.e.,
The
= J
Taking .
=0
= J
= J
ove equ tion is ve tor Poissons equ tion
U=
B ,
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Page 212
EMT
Type
Capacitance
Comment
Parallel-plate capacitor
A/d
A: Area
d: Distance
: Inner radius
: Outer radius
: length
: Inner radius
: Outer radius
a : Radius
a : Radius
2l
n( /
Coaxial cable
Concentric spheres
Sphere
Circular disc
4
8
= LI
where L =
where denotes the magnetic flux through the area spanned by the loop, and N is the number of
wire turns. The flux linkage thus is N = Li.
Inductance of a Solenoid L = N
/l.
.J =
. J = 0, if
= constant
M xwells Equations
Static
H= J
E= 0
.D =
.B = 0
H= J
E=
Time Varying
H= J
J
E=
B t
.D =
.B = 0
J
B t
is mo ifie
is F r
mperes l w
ys l w
.D =
.B = 0
D = E,
B = H,
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Page 213
Jc = E
JD = D t
EMT
The ratio of conduction current density of displacement current density is referred to as loss
tangent. i.e. loss tangent = (Jc / JD = ( /
)
If ( / ) > > 1, the medium is referred to as high loss medium
If ( / ) < < 1, the medium is referred to as low loss medium
If = 0, lose less medium
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Page 214
EMT
( E t
(1)
( B t
.D = 0
(2)
.E = 0
.B = 0
(3)
.H = 0
(4)
= j (
Attenuation constant =
When = 0 (lossless : = 0, =
==
Intrinsi impe
n e, =
n low loss me ium (/ < <
: =
: =
45
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Page 215
EMT
=0
Lossy Dielectric
Good Conductor
P = E
H
watt/m2.
The direction of Poynting vector indicates the direction of wave propagation. Poynting vector
in i tes the power ensity sso i te with n ele trom gneti w ve. The Poyntings theorem
gives the net flow of power out of a given volume thorough its surface.
General expression for Poynting vector
P(z, t) =
| |
os
os (2 t
2z
Watt/m2
(z =
P(z, t t =
| |
os
. S
In a losses or low loss medium phase velocity is constant; where as in a high loss medium, phase
velocity is proportional to frequency, non linearly.
In high loss me ium =
V =
n skin epth, = / = /
W ve length, = 2 / = 2
Phase velocity in good conductors is very small, when compared to the phase velocity in
iele tri s or free sp e, e use is sm ll.
Depth of Penetr tion or Skin Depth ( : It is defined as the distance to which the electromagnetic
wave propagates, when the field strength decreases to 1/e times of its initial field strength.
=
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Page 216
EMT
The skin depth is useful in calculating the ac resistance due to skin effect.
R
Surface or skin resistance (unit width and unit length) is the real part of the for a good
conductor
R =
=
= 2 , so
=
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Page 217
EMT
ln( /
( /
L=
=
F/m
ln( /
H/m
C=
ln ( ) H/m
Z0 = L/C
Where is r
F/m
( /
ln(
=
Transmission line wave equations
=
Series impe
n e
Z=R
= ZY = (R
j L (G
j C =
j C mho/m
v=
/=
S = VSWR = |
| |
| |
=
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Page 218
EMT
and Zin = Z0
S
S
S
]* +
S
and S
and S
]=[
S
S
ln
.
.
Ohm
33 ps/cm
( ) ohms
The quality factor of the wide microstrip line is expressed as Qc = 39.5 ( ) (f) 109
Where h is in m n Rs =
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Page 219
EMT
Cut-off Frequency fc =
( )
( )
( )
Cut-off Wavelength c =
( )
( )
This expression shows that the velocity of wave propagation in the guide is greater than the
phase velocity in free space:
Velocity of wave propagation v = =
Hx =
Asin Bx cos Ay
Hy =
Bcos Bx sinAy
Ex =
Ey =
f > fc or < c
where , B =
, A=
Bcos Bx sinAy
Asin Bx cos Ay
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Page 220
EMT
CAcos Bx sinAy
Ey =
CB sin Bx cos Ay
Hx =
Hy =
where , B =
, A=
CB sinBx cos Ay
CAcos Bx sin Ay
( )
( )
( )
( )
Lowest order TE wave in rectangular guides is therefore the TE 10 wave. This wave which has the
lowest cut-off frequency is called the dominant wave.
Characteristic Impedance or Wave Impedance:
It is the ratio of transverse component of to the transverse component of
TE Mode
( )
>
TM Mode
= f
( )
< f
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Page 221
EMT
Circular Waveguide
Assume r
f =
v h
2
=h
(lowest) = 1.841
f =
c ==
2
.84
TE11 mode is
dominant mode
= 3.41a
, h01(lowest) = 2.405
f =
TM01 mode
c =
Cavity Resonators:
Frequency of oscillation for TEmnp
f =
( ) ( )
( )
=1.841
( )
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Page 222
EMT
9.5: Antennas
Hertzian Dipole
The Hertzian dipole is an elemental antenna consisting of an infinitesimally long piece of wire
carrying an alternating current I(t).
The ele tri fiel strength E n H is given y
E0 =
Er =
) and
H =
where t1 = t r/c
Consider the expression for H . It consists of two terms, one of which varies inversely as r and
the other inversely as r2. The two fields will have equal amplitudes at that value of r, which
makes
I / r2 = / rc
r = c / = / 2 / 6
The total power radiated is = 80 2 ( l/ 2 I
The radiation resistance of the current element is: Rrad = 80 2 (dl / )2 ohms
Field Regions
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions.
(i) Reactive near field (or) oscillating near field, R R1
(ii) Radiating near field (or) Fresnel field (or) inductive field, R1 R R2
(iii) Far field (or) Fraunhofer field (or) radiating field, R2 R
Regions are as shown below:
R1 = 0.62 (
R2 = 2d2 /
i l ist n e
Radiation Intensity
R i tion Intensity in
unit soli ngle.
s the power r
U = r2 Wrad
Where U = radiation intensity w / unit solid angle; Wrad = radiation power density W/m2.
The radiation intensity of an isotropic source is U0 = Prad / 4
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EMT
U( , )
Total radiated power is related to the total input power by Prad = et. pin where et is the tot l
antenna efficiency
Directivity:
It is the v lue of the ire tive g in in the ire tion of its m ximum v lue. The ire tivity of
non-isotropic source is equal to the ratio of its maximum radiation intensity over that of an
isotropic source.
Gd = U / U0 = 4U / Prad
D = (Umax) / U0 = 4 Umax / Prad = G max.
Where Gd = directive gain, D = directivity, U = radiation intensity, U max = maximum radiation
intensity, U0 = radiation intensity of isotropic source, Prad = total radiation power.
For n isotropi sour e Gd n D will e unity.
The values of directive gain will be equal to or greater than zero and equal to or less than the
directivity (0 Gd D)
EMT
The quarter wave monopole is essentially half of wave dipole placed on a perfect ground
conducting plane.
Antenna Arrays
In general, the far field due to a two-element array is given by
E(total) = (E due to single element at origin)
(array factor)
os
os
0
0, = [ so th t = [
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Page 225
Reference Books
Reference Books
Mathematics:
Control Systems:
Networks:
Electronic Devices:
Analog Circuits:
Integrated Electronics : Analog & Digital circuits and system Millman & Halkias
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Page 226
Reference Books
Digital circuits:
Electromagnetics:
Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems E.C. Jordan and K.G. Balsain
Communications:
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Page 227