CORROSION Uniform Corrosion

CORROSION
Uniform Corrosion
What is uniform corrosion? Uniform corrosion refers to the corrosion that proceeds at
approximately the same rate over the exposed metal surface. Cast irons and steels
corrode uniformly when exposed to open atmospheres, soils and natural waters,
leading to the rusty appearance and silver tarnishes due to exposure to air.
The photo on the right showed uniform corrosion (rusting) of a pair of steel nuts used
to fasten a galvanized steel clamp on a street lamppost. In sharp contrast, the
galvanized steel clamp did not show any signs of corrosion but its surface was
discolored by the rust.
The photo (above, left) shows a steel coupon corroded (rusted) uniformly over its
entire surface after immersion in oxygen aerated water while the same batch of
coupons exposed to deaerated water (above, right) retained their metallic appearance
with no visible corrosion (rust).
In natural environment, oxygen is the primary cause of uniform corrosion of steels and other metals and
alloys.
What causes uniform corrosion? The anodic reaction in the corrosion process is always the oxidation
reaction:
M = M+ + e (1)
In acidic environments, i.e., pH<7, the cathodic process is mainly the reduction of hydrogen ions:
2H+ + 2e = H2 (2)
In alkaline or neutral environment, i.e., pH=7 or pH>7, reduction of dissolved oxygen is the predominant
cathodic process that causes uniform corrosion:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e = 4OH- (3)
With uniform distribution of cathodic reactants over the entire exposed metal surface, reactions (2) and/or (3)
take place in a "uniform" manner and there is no preferential site or location for cathodic or anodic reaction.
The cathodes and anodes are located randomly and alternating with time. The end result is a more or less
uniform loss of dimension.
How to prevent uniform corrosion? Uniform corrosion or general corrosion can be prevented through a
number of methods:
• Use thicker materials for corrosion allowance

• Use paints or metallic coatings such as plating, galvanizing or anodizing
• Use Corrosion inhibitors or modifying the environment
• Cathodic protection (SA/ICCP) and Anodic Protection
Uniform Attack
Generalized Corrosion - This 40 year old sample of 8 in. schedule 80 pipe, while clearly containing deposits
of iron oxide, shows very even wall loss and long remaining service life. The pipe was cleaned
using high-pressure water jet and returned to service.
Galvanic Corrosion
What is galvanic corrosion? Galvanic corrosion or Bimetallic

Corrosion or Dissimilar Metal Corrosion, as sometimes called, is
defined as the accelerated corrosion of a metal because of an
electrical contact (including physical contact) with a more noble
metal or nonmetallic conductor (the cathode) in a corrosive
electrolyte.
In this photo, a 5-mm thick aluminum alloy plate is physically (and

hence, electrically) connected to a 10-mm thick mild steel structural
support. Galvanic corrosion occurred on the aluminium plate along
the joint with the mild steel. Perforation of aluminum plate occurred
within 2 years due to the huge acceleration factor in galvanic
corrosion.
What causes galvanic corrosion? Different metals and alloys have different electrochemical potentials (or
corrosion potentials) in the same electrolyte and same environment. Galvanic corrosion occurs when two
metals having different composition are electrically coupled in the presence of an electrolyte. The more
reactive metal will experience severe corrosion while the more noble metal will be quite well protected.
Perhaps the most infamous examples of this type of corrosion are combinations such as
Steel and brass - Typically the steel will corrode the area near the brass or copper, even in a water
environment and especially in a seawater environment.
Copper and steel.

How to prevent galvanic corrosion? Galvanic corrosion can be prevented through a number of methods:
• Select metals/alloys as close together as possible in the galvanic series.

• Avoid unfavorable area effect of a small anode and large cathode. Stainless-steel bolts in an
aluminum block won't cause corrosion, but aluminum rivets on stainless steel sheet would rapidly
corrode
• Insulate dissimilar metals wherever practical by using rubber or plastic sleeves or washers, keeping
the parts dry so there is no electrolyte to form the cell.
• Apply coatings with caution. Paint the cathode (or both) and keep the coatings in good repair on the
anode.
• Avoid threaded joints for materials far apart in the galvanic series.
• If these options are not available to protect from galvanic corrosion, a sacrificial anode can be used to
protect the less noble metal. For example,
If a system is composed of 316 SS, a very noble alloy with a low galvanic potential, and a mild steel,
a very active metal with high galvanic potential, the mild steel will corrode in the presence of an
electrolyte such as salt water. If a sacrificial anode is used such as a Mil-Spec A-18001K zinc alloy,
Mil-Spec A-24779(SH) aluminum alloy, or magnesium, these anodes will corrode instead, protecting
the other metals in the system. The anode must be electrically connected to the protected metal(s) in
order to be able to preserve them. This is common practice in the marine industry to protect ship
equipment. Boats and vessels that are in salt water use either zinc alloy or aluminum alloy. If the
boats are only in fresh water, a magnesium alloy is used. Magnesium has one of the highest galvanic
potential of any metal. If it is used in a saltwater application on a steel or aluminum hull boat,
hydrogen bubbles will form under the paint, causing blistering and peeling.
Galvanic Corrosion- Photo Gallery
Notice below that simply adding a screw of the wrong material can have severe consequences.
Galvanic Corrosion - An extremely common problem area due to the failure to install galvanic insulators
between carbon steel pipe and either brass valves or copper pipe. At moderate corrosion rate,
galvanic corrosion will often produce premature failures with 6-10 years.
Galvanic Corrosion - A combination of water penetration Galvanic Corrosion - Another example of the higher
through the roof level pipe insulation and galvanic corrosion activity usually existing at direct
activity completely dissolved this pipe hanger. Severe brass to black iron connections.
wall thickness loss is obvious in the immediate area of
the pipe hanger and resulted in the need to replace this
pipe.
Galvanic Corrosion - An extremely common problem for areas where brass or copper is joined to steel.
Under certain conditions, as shown here, it may also exist at steel to steel contact points - where new pipe
meets old, and where different ground potential exists.
Insulation / Galvanic - Moisture penetrating through the insulation at this chill pipe provided an initiation to
an outer corrosion problem at the steel take-off line. Exterior moisture also assisted in the heavier
attack at the threads due to galvanic activity between brass valve and steel pipe.
Galvanic Corrosion - Galvanic attack of the brass valve upon the carbon steel, it is often the 60% loss of pipe
upon threading which will cause a premature leak.
Dealloying/ Selective Leaching
What is dealloying? Dealloying is the selective corrosion of one or more components of a solid solution
alloy. It is also called parting, selective leaching or selective attack. Common dealloying examples are:
Decarburization is the selective loss of carbon from the surface layer of a carbon-containing alloy due to
reaction with one or more chemical substances in a medium that contacts the surface.
Decobaltification is selective leaching of cobalt from cobalt-base alloys, such as Stellite, or from cemented
carbides.
Denickelification is the selective leaching of nickel from nickel-containing alloys. Most commonly observed
in copper-nickel alloys after extended service in fresh water. On the right, nickel has corroded out of a
copper-nickel alloy exposed to stagnant seawater.
Dezincification is the selective leaching of zinc from zinc-

containing alloys. Most commonly found in copper-zinc alloys
containing less than 85% copper after extended service in water
containing dissolved oxygen.
Dezincification - Typical surface deposit resulting from the

dezincification of brass pipe due to old age and/or an aggressive water condition.
Over many years, the zinc component of the metal is leached out to leave copper. Deep pitting is
initiated and the pipe (rich in copper) becomes porous prior & brittle producing an actual leak, and
leaving a corrosion product behind.
Graphitic corrosion is the deterioration of gray cast iron in which the metallic constituents are selectively
leached or converted to corrosion products leaving the graphite intact. It is sometimes also referred to as
graphitization.
Graphitic corrosion of a gray cast iron valve
What causes dealloying? Different metals and alloys have different electrochemical potentials (or corrosion
potentials) in the same electrolyte.
How to prevent dealloying? Dealloying, selective leaching and graphitic corrosion can be prevented
through the following methods:
• Select metals/alloys that are more resistant to dealloying. For example, inhibited brass is more
resistant to dezincification than alpha brass, ductile iron is more resistant to graphitic corrosion than
gray cast iron.
• Control the environment to minimize the selective leaching
Crevice Corrosion
What is crevice corrosion? Crevice Corrosion refers to the localized attack on a metal surface at, or
immediately adjacent to, the gap or crevice between two joining surfaces. The gap or crevice can be formed
between two metals or a metal and non-metallic material. Outside the gap or without the gap, both metals are
resistant to corrosion.
The damage is normally confined to one metal at localized area

within or close to the joining surfaces.
In this photo, a 316 stainless steel tube and tube sheet from a heat
exchanger in desalination plant suffered crevice corrosion due to
the presence of crevice (gap) between the tube and tube sheet.
What causes crevice corrosion? Crevice corrosion is initiated by a

difference in concentration of some chemical constituents, usually
oxygen, which set up an electrochemical concentration cell
(differential aeration cell in the case of oxygen).
Outside of the crevice (the cathode), the oxygen content and the pH are higher - but chlorides are lower.
Chlorides concentrate inside the crevice (the anode), worsening the situation. The pH and the oxygen content
are lower in the crevice than in the bulk water solution, just as they are inside a pit. Once a crevice has
formed, the propagation mechanism for crevice corrosion is the same as for pitting corrosion.
Ferrous ions form ferric chloride and attack the stainless steel rapidly.
How to prevent crevice corrosion? Crevice corrosion can be designed out of the system
• Use welded butt joints instead of riveted or bolted joints in new equipment
• Eliminate crevices in existing lap joints by continuous welding or soldering
• Use solid, non-absorbent gaskets such as Teflon.
• Use higher alloys (ASTM G48) for increased resistance to crevice corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a consequence of concentration

differences of ions or dissolved gases in an electrolytic
solution. A solution became trapped between a pipe and the
flange on the left. The stagnant liquid in the crevice eventually
had a lowered dissolved oxygen concentration and crevice
corrosion took over and destroyed the flange. In the absence of
oxygen, the metal and/or it's passive layer begin to oxidize. To
prevent crevice corrosion, one should use welds rather than
rivets or bolted joints whenever possible. Also consider
nonabsorbing gaskets. Remove accumulated deposits
frequently and design containment vessels to avoid stagnant
areas as much as possible.
Filiform Corrosion
What is filiform corrosion? Filiform corrosion is a special form of corrosion that occurs under some thin
coatings in the form of randomly distributed threadlike filaments. Filiform corrosion is also known as
Underfilm Corrosion or "filamentary corrosion".
Filiform corrosion of tin-coated steel

It occurs on metallic surfaces coated with a thin organic film that is typically 0.1 mm thick. The pattern of
attack is characterized by the appearance of fine filaments emanating from one or more sources in semi-
random directions. The filaments are fine tunnels composed of corrosion products underneath the bulged and
cracked coating. It can be visually recognized without using a microscopy. Filiform corrosion has been
observed on surfaces of coated steel, magnesium, and aluminum with thin coatings of tin, silver, gold,
phosphate, enamel, and lacquer. It has also been observed on paper-backed aluminum foil.
What causes filiform corrosion? Filiform corrosion is a special case of crevice corrosion.
During propagation, water is supplied to the head of the filament from the surrounding atmosphere by
osmotic action due to the high concentration of dissolved ferrous ions on the surface of steel substrate.
Osmosis tends to remove water from the inactive tail, because of the low concentration of soluble salts (iron
has precipitated as ferric hydroxide).
How to prevent filiform corrosion? Filiform corrosion or underfilm corrosion can be prevented with the
following methods:
• Control the relative huminidy

• Use brittle coatings
Filliform Corrosion
Filliform corrosion is a unique form of oxygen concentration cell corrosion. This form of attack
occurs on metallic surfaces having an organic coating as its protective basis. It is characterized by a
snakelike pattern of corrosive deterioration that forms beneath painted surfaces. Filliform attack tends
to occur when relative humidity is high (78 to 90%) and surface conditions are slightly acidic. Figure
1 shows filliform corrosion on an exposed aileron fastener and one under paint.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1 - Filliform corrosion on an aileron fastner: (a) exposed; (b) underpaint.
The corrosion finds its way to the metal through breaks in the outer surface of the coating or paint
and works its way underneath. The corrosion continues to propagate due to the diffusion of water
vapor and oxygen as air passes through painted surfaces that are in a compromised condition.
Filliform corrosion does a good job of attacking both steel and aluminum; however, its effect on the
latter is more severe. The tracks left by the attack never cross one another on steel products, but they
will intersect on aluminum, making the damage deeper and more insidious. Worse yet, if the
condition is left untreated, or is improperly dealt with, it often develops into intergranular corrosion.
On aircraft, the areas around fasteners and seams are the most vulnerable.
The standard methods of treating filliform corrosion involve the use of glass bead blast and
mechanical buffing with abrasive materials. A coating system is then applied to unpainted surfaces to
protect them from the diffusion of oxygen and water vapors.
Pitting Corrosion
What is pitting corrosion? Pitting Corrosion is the localized corrosion of a metal surface confined to a point
or small area that takes the form of cavities. Pitting is one of the most damaging forms of corrosion. Pitting
factor is the ratio of the depth of the deepest pit resulting from corrosion divided by the average penetration
as calculated from weight loss. This following photo show pitting corrosion of SAF2304 duplex stainless
steel exposed to 3.5% NaCl solution.
Pitting corrosion forms on passive metals and alloys like stainless steel when the ultra-thin passive film
(oxide film) is chemically or mechanically damaged and does not immediately re-passivate. The resulting
pits can become wide and shallow or narrow and deep which can rapidly perforate the wall thickness of a
metal.
ASTM-G46 has a standard visual chart for rating of pitting corrosion.
The shape of pitting corrosion can only be identified through metallography where a pitted sample is cross-
sectioned and the shape the size and the depth of penetration can be determined.
What causes pitting corrosion?
Pitting is suspected to occur in much the same way crevice corrosion

does, but on a flat surface. A small imperfection in the metal is
thought to begin the process, then a "snowball" effect takes place.
Pitting can go on undetected for extended periods of time, until a
failure occurs. Pitting would overrun the stainless steel in a matter
of weeks due to its very poor resistance to chlorides, which are
notorious for their ability to initiate pitting corrosion.
Alloy blends with more than 2% Molybdenum show better

resistance to pitting attack. Titanium is usually the material of
choice if chlorides are the main corrosion concern. (Pd stabilized
forms of Ti are also used for more extreme cases).
The environment may also set up a differential aeration cell (a water droplet on the surface of a steel, for
example) and pitting can initiate at the anodic site (centre of the water droplet).
For a homogeneous environment, pitting is caused by the MATERIAL that may contain inclusions (MnS is
the major culprit for the initiation of pitting in steels) or defects. In most cases, both the environment and the
material contribute to pit initiation.
The ENVIRONMENT (chemistry) and the MATERIAL (metallurgy) factors determine whether an
existing pit can be repassivated or not. Sufficient aeration (supply of oxygen to the reaction site) may
enhance the formation of oxide at the pitting site and thus repassivate or heal the damaged passive film
(oxide) - the pit is repassivated and no pitting occurs. An existing pit can also be repassivated if the material
contains sufficient amount of alloying elements such as Cr, Mo, Ti, W, N, etc.. These elements, particularly
Mo, can significantly enhance the enrichment of Cr in the oxide and thus heals or repassivates the pit.
Mechanism
Lets look at figure below, oxygen rich fluid in contact with metal surface (at the top of the pit) will becomes
the cathode. At the bottom of the pit, low in oxygen level becomes the anode. this will form a complete
circuit where metal at the pit (FE) will be ionized to release electron (e) and form ion Ferum (FE2+), this
electron will travel to the top of pit to react with Oxygen (O2) (and water, H2O) to form ion hydroxides
(OH-). Ion Ferum (FE2+) will react with ion hydroxides (OH-) to form Ferum Oxide (Fe2O3) which
typically a brown rust. Deeper the pit leeser the oxygen content and higher the potential and pitting corrosion
rate.
How to prevent pitting corrosion? Pitting corrosion can be prevented through:
• Proper selection of materials with known resistance to the service environment

• Control pH, chloride concentration and temperature
• Cathodic protection and/or Anodic Protection
• Use higher alloys (ASTM G48) for increased resistance to pitting corrosion
• Proper material selection e.g. SS316 with molydenum having higher pitting resistance compare to
SS304
• Control oxygen level by injecting oxygen scavenger in boiler water system
• Control pH, chloride concentration and temperature
• Proper monitoring of oxygen & chloride contents by routine sampling
• Agitation of stagnant fluid
Pitting corrosion can occur when stainless steel is subjected to high concentration of chloride ions (for
example, sea water) and moderately high temperatures. A textbook example for this was a replica of the Jet
d'Eau fountain in Geneva, ordered by an Arab Sheikh for installation in the Red Sea. The replica did not last
long, because the engineers responsible failed to take into account the difference between the freshwater of
Lake Geneva and the saltwater of the sea.
Localized Pitting - Partially water filled systems
produce widely varying wall loss typically along the bottom. For this dry fire sprinkler system,
testing showed virtually new pipe after 25 years at the top, shown at the left. The wet pipe bottom
however, shown at the right, was totally deteriorated to the point of failure.
Pitting Corrosion - The presence of one repair clamp

and five nearby pinhole leaks confirms that a severe corrosion problem exists at this fire sprinkler piping
location.
Co2 Pitting corrosion on internal pipe surface Pitting Corrosion on Metal Surface
Pitting corrosion on external pipe surface H2S Pitting corrosion on internal pipe surface
Schedule 10 / Pitting - At least 15 pipe clamps over a Pitting Corrosion - Deep pitting typically shows itself
single 21 ft. section of this 2-1/2 in. pipe first at the smaller diameter piping simply due
suggested a major corrosion problem. to the lower wall thickness present. Such
Ultrasonic testing, however, identified thin wall evidence should be taken as an advance
schedule 10 sprinkler pipe used in some areas indication that a system wide problem likely
of this condenser water system. exists, rather than assumed a localized event.
In reality, the pipe had provided excellent A failure at the midpoint of a pipe section
service over its 18 year history, and had simply suggests a much greater corrosion problem
reached the end of its useful service life. than one at the threads.
Intergranular Corrosion
What is intergranular corrosion? Intergranular corrosion is sometimes also called "intercrystalline

corrosion" or "interdendritic corrosion". In the presence of tensile stress, cracking may occur along grain
boundaries and this type of corrosion is frequently called "interranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC)"
or simply "intergranular corrosion cracking". "Intergranular" or 'intercrystalline" means between grains or
crystals. Identification of this type of corrosion usually requires microstructure examination under a
microscopy although sometimes it is visually recognizable as in the case of weld decay.
The photos above show the microstructure of a type 304 stainless steel. The figure on
the left is the normalized microstructure and the one on the right is the "sensitized"
structure and is susceptible to intergranular corrosion or intergranular stress corrosion
cracking.
Prevention
How to prevent intergranular corrosion? Intergranular corrosion can be prevented through:
• Use low carbon (e.g. 304L, 316L) grade of stainless steels

• Use stabilized grades alloyed with titanium (for example type 321) or niobium (for example type
347). Titanium and niobium are strong carbide- formers. They react with the carbon to form the
corresponding carbides thereby preventing chromium depletion.
• Use post-weld heat treatment.
What is weld decay? Weld decay is a form of intergranular corrosion, usually of stainless steels or certain
nickel-base alloys, that occurs as the result of sensitization in the heat-affected zone during the welding
operation. The corrosive attack is restricted to the heat affected zone (HAZ). Positive identification of this
type of corrosion usually requires microstructure examination under a microscopy although sometimes it is
possible to visually recognize weld decay if parallel lines are already formed in the heat affected zone along
the weld.
What causes weld decay? In this case, the precipitation of chromium carbides is induced by the welding
operation when the heat affected zone (HAZ) experiences a particular temperature range (550oC~850oC).
The precipitation of chromium carbides consumed the alloying element - chromium from a narrow band
along the grain boundary and this makes the zone anodic to the unaffected grains. The chromium depleted
zone becomes the preferential path for corrosion attack or crack propagation if under tensile stress. This type
of steel is known as sensitized steel. Steels with carbon content 0.06% undergo sensitization in about 2
minutes, while steels with carbon content under 0.02% are not sensitive to it.
On the left, a piece of stainless steel (especially suspectible to

intergranular corrosion) has seen severe corrosion just an inch
from a weld
What is knife-line attack? Knife-Line Attack (KLA) is a form

of intergranular corrosion of an alloy, usually stabilized
stainless steel, along a line adjoining or in contact with a weld
after heating into the sensitization temperature range. The
corrosive attack is restricted to extremely narrow line adjoining
the fusion line. Attack appears razor-sharp (and hence the
name of "knife-line" attack). It is possible to visually recognize
knife-line attack if the lines are already formed in the along the
weld.
What causes knife-line attack? For stabilized stainless steels and alloys, carbon is bonded with stabilizers (Ti
or Nb) and no weld decay occurs in the heat affected zone during welding. In the event of a subsequent heat
treatment or welding, however, precipitation of chromium carbide is possible and this leaves the narrow band
adjacent to the fusion line susceptible to intergranular corrosion.
How to prevent knife-line attack? Knife-Line Attack/ Weld Decay can be prevented through:
• Heat treatment - heating the weld to 1065oC to re-stabilize the material. followed by quenching it in
water. This process dissolves the carbide particles, then keeps them in solution.
• Low carbon materials can also be used to minimize the formation of chromium carbide. Finally, the
material can be alloyed with another material such as Titanium, which forms carbides more readily so
that the chromium remains in place.
What is exfoliation? Exfoliation is yet another special form of intergranular corrosion that proceeds laterally
from the sites of initiation along planes parallel to the surface, generally at grain boundaries, forming
corrosion products that force metal away from the body of the material, giving rise to a layered appearance.
Exfoliation is sometimes described as lamellar, layer, or stratified corrosion. In this type of corrosion,
attack proceeds along selective subsurface paths parallel to the surface. It is possible to visually recognize
this type of corrosion if the grain boundary attack is severe otherwise microstructure examination under a
microscope is needed.
Exfoliation corrosion in an aluminum alloy exposed to tropical marine environment. Also note the paint
failures caused by corrosion of aluminium at the coating/aluminium interface.
What causes exfoliation? Exfoliation is a special type of intergranular corrosion that occurs on the elongated
grain boundaries. The corrosion product that forms has a greater volume than the volume of the parent metal.
The increased volume forces the layers apart, and causes the metal to exfoliate or delaminate. Aluminum
alloys are particularly susceptible to this type of corrosion.
How to prevent exfoliation corrosion? Exfoliation corrosion can be prevented through:
• The use of coatings

• Selecting a more exfoliation resistant aluminium alloy
• Using heat treatment to control precipitate distribution.
What is MIC? Microbiologically-Influenced Corrosion (MIC), also known as microbial corrosion or

biological corrosion, is the deterioration of metals as a result of the metabolic activity of microorganisms.
There are about a dozen of bacteria known to cause microbiologically influenced corrosion of carbon steels,
stainless steels, aluminum alloys and copper alloys in waters and soils with pH 4~9 and temperature
10oC~50oC. These bacteria can be broadly classified as aerobic (requires oxygen to become active) or
anaerobic (oxygen is toxic to the bacteria). Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) is anaerobic and is responsible
for most instances of accelerated corrosion damages to ships and offshore steel structures. Iron and
manganese oxidizing bacteria are aerobic and are frequently associated with accelerated pitting attacks on
stainless steels at welds.
Microbiologically influenced corrosion in a 316 stainless steel weld
Many industries are affected by MIC:
• Chemical processing industries: stainless steel tanks, pipelines and flanged joints, particularly in
welded areas after hydrotesting with natural river or well waters.
• Nuclear power generation: carbon and stainless steel piping and tanks; copper-nickel, stainless, brass
and aluminum bronze cooling water pipes and tubes, especially during construction, hydrotest, and
outage periods.
• Onshore and offshore oil and gas industries: mothballed and waterflood systems; oil and gas handling
systems, particularly in those environments soured by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB)-produced
sulfides
• Underground pipeline industry: water-saturated clay-type soils of near-neutral pH with decaying
organic matter and a source of SRB.
• Water treatment industry: heat exchangers and piping
• Sewage handling and treatment industry: concrete and reinforced concrete structures
• Highway maintenance industry: culvert piping
• Aviation industry: aluminum integral wing tanks and fuel storage tanks
• Metal working industry: increased wear from breakdown of machining oils and emulsions
• Marine and shipping industry: accelerated damage to ships and barges
Positive identification of microbiologically influenced corrosion requires chemical, biological and

metallurgical analysis of the waters, soils and the metal samples.
What causes MIC? MIC is caused by specific genera of bacteria which feed on nutrients and other elements
found in waters and soils. Sea water is a primary source of sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB). The biological
activities modify the local chemistry (acid-producing) and render it more corrosive to the metals. For
example, iron-oxidizing bacteria can perforate a 5mm thick 316 stainless steel tank in just over a month!
How to prevent MIC? Microbiologically influenced corrosion, or microbial corrosion or biological

corrosion can be prevented through a number of methods:
• Regular mechanical cleaning if possible

• Chemical treatment with biocides to control the population of bacteria
• Complete drainage and dry-storage
Erosion-Corrosion
Erosion-corrosion arises from a

combination of chemical attack and the
physical abrasion as a consequence of the
fluid motion. Materials that rely on a
passive layer are especially sensitive to
erosion-corrosion. Once the passive layer
has been removed, the bare metal surface is
exposed to the corrosive material. If the
passive layer cannot be regenerated quickly
enough, significant damage can be seen.
Fluids that contain suspended solids are
often times responsible for erosion-
corrosion. The best way to limit erosion-
corrosion is to design systems that will
maintain a low fluid velocity and to
minimize sudden line size changes and elbows. The photo above shows erosion-corrosion of a copper-nickel
tube in a seawater surface. An imperfection on the tube surface probably cause an eddy current which
provided a perfect location for erosion-corrosion.
Stress Corrosion
Stess corrosion can result from the combination of an applied

tensile stress and a corrosive environment. Once the stress cracks
begin, they easily propagate throughout the material, which in
turn allows additional corrosion and cracking to take place. The
best defense against stress corrosion is to limit the magnitude
and/or frequency of the tensile stress.
The stresses can be a result of service loads, or can be caused by

the type of assembly or residual stresses from fabrication (eg.
cold working); the result of expansions and contractions that are
caused by violent temperature changes or thermal cycles,
residual stresses can be relieved by annealing. This limits the
usefulness of stainless steels of the 300 series (304, 316) for
containing water with higher than few ppm content of chlorides at temperatures above 50 °C. In more
aggressive conditions, higher alloyed austenitic stainless steels (6% Mo grades) or Mo containing duplex
stainless steels may be selected.
Stress corrosion cracking depends on the nickel content. High nickel content austenitic (non-magnetic)
steels, which are the most resistant to other forms of corrosion, tend to be the most susceptible to stress
corrosion.
Chlorine catalyzes the formation of hydrogen which hardens and embrittles the metal locally, causing
concentration of the stress and a microscopic crack. The chlorine moves into the crack, continuing the
process.
Sulphide stress cracking
Sulphide stress cracking is an important failure mode in the oil industry, where the steel comes into contact
with liquids or gases with considerable hydrogen sulfide content, e.g., sour gas. It is influenced by the tensile
stress and is worsened in the presence of chloride ions. Very high levels of hydrogen sulfide apparently
inhibit the corrosion. Rising temperature increases the influence of chloride ions, but decreases the effect of
sulfide, due to its increased mobility through the lattice; the most critical temperature range for sulphide
stress cracking is between 60-100 °C.
Contact corrosion
Contact corrosion is a combination of galvanic corrosion and crevice corrosion, occurring where small
particles of suitable foreign material are embedded to the stainless steel. Carbon steel is a very common
contaminant here, coming from nearby grinding of carbon steel or use of tools contaminated with carbon
steel particles. The particle forms a galvanic cell, and quickly corrodes away, but may leave a pit in the
stainless steel from which pitting corrosion may rapidly progress. Some workshops therefore have separate
areas and separate sets of tools for handling carbon steel and stainless steel, and care has to be exercised to
prevent direct contact between stainless steel parts and carbon steel storage racks.
Particles of carbon steel can be removed from a contaminated part by passivation with dilute nitric acid, or
by pickling with a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and nitric acid.
The following are some images of metal experienced Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking.
Inter granular SCC of an Inconel heat exchanger tube
Trans granular SCC of 316 stainless steel chemical processing piping system
CSCC occured on insulated vessel
CSCC occurred on Condenser tube
CSCC on pipe
Inter granular SCC of a pipe
CUI- Corrosion Under Insulation
MIC- Microbiological Influenced Corrosion

Corrosion prevention is an ongoing task that is
never completed.
THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF CORROSION

Before corrosion can take place, four conditions must be satisfied:
the presence of a corrodible metal or alloy (anode)
the presence of a dissimilar conductive material that has a lesser tendency to corrode (cathode)
the presence of an electrolyte
electrical contact between the anode and the cathode.
The elimination of any of the above conditions will halt the corrosion process.
Electrolytes
An electrolyte is any solution that conducts electrical current and contains positive and
negative ions. For example, fresh water, salt water, acid and alkaline solutions in any
concentration will act as an electrolyte. Acidic gas deposits, dirt, salt and engine exhaust
gasses can dissolve on wet or damp surfaces, increasing the conductivity of the electrolytic
solution; this increases the corrosive reaction of the electrolyte.
pH
A measure of the acidity/alkalinity (basicity) of a solution. The pH scale extends from 0 to 14 (in
aqueous solutions at room temperature). A pH value of 7 indicates a neutral (neither acidic nor basic)
solution. A pH value of less than 7 indicates an acidic solution, the acidity increases with decreasing
pH value. A pH value of more than 7 indicates a basic solution, the basicity or alkalinity increases
with increasing pH value.
The pH of a solution is equal to the negative, ten-based logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ions
in the solution. Neutral water dissociates into equal amounts of hydrogen (H+) cations and hydroxyl
(OH-) anions. As the product of the concentrations (activities) of the two ions is always a constant 10-
14
, water has a pH of 7. In acidic solutions the hydrogen ions are in excess, while in basic solutions
the hydroxyl ions are in excess.
How Corrosion Forms

Corrosion always begins at the surface. For example, take the corrosion of iron. The iron atom
gives up two electrons and becomes a ferrous ion with two positive charges. It goes into
solution as a metallic ion via the electrolyte, which starts the corrosive reaction. Liberated
electrons from the positive metallic ions flow to the cathode. Without this electron flow, no
metal ions can detach from the anode. This establishes the electrical circuit of the corrosion
process. The constant loss of positive metallic ions from the anode represents the eating away
of the anodic material. The ongoing flow of electrons creates greater positive ionization and
so the cycle continues.
The electrons reach the surface of the cathode material and neutralize positively charged
hydrogen ions that become attached to the cathode. Some of these hydrogen ions become
neutral atoms and will be released in the form of hydrogen gas. The release of positively
charged hydrogen ions produces an accumulation of OH negative ions (an atom of hydrogen
and an atom of oxygen with one extra electron). This process increases the alkalinity at the
cathode and promotes the formation of tiny bubbles of hydrogen.
When cathodes and anodes are formed on a single piece of metal, the exact locations are
determined by the imperfections in the material. For example, the lack of homogeneity in the
metal, inclusions, internal stresses, surface imperfections, lapping of the material or any
condition that can form a crevice, will set up a cathode/anode relationship. The only thing
needed now is an unprotected surface and a suitable electrolyte.
Concentration Cell Corrosion

Concentration cell corrosion often focuses on metal to metal joints, even if the joined metals
are identical alloys. Foreign material that masks metallic surfaces can often establish a
corrosion cell condition, leading to corrosive attack. There are three general types of
concentration cell corrosion: oxygen concentration cells, ion concentration cells and
active/passive concentration cells.
Oxygen Concentration Cell Corrosion

This form of corrosion can be initiated anytime a deposit of sand, solution or other material
produces localized low oxygen/high oxygen differentials across a metallic surface. Lapped
metal on riveted or bolted joints is especially vulnerable to this form of attack.
Oxygen cells can develop at any point where the oxygen in the air is not able to diffuse into
the solution. Cells can also develop under gasket material, washers, wood, rubber and other
materials that come in contact with metal.
Should corrosion resistant stainless steel become oxygen starved in any given area, the
passivity of the steel can break down. The area of stainless steel that is freely exposed to
dissolved oxygen becomes the cathode. Corrosion will now proceed in any adjacent areas
where the oxygen source becomes depleted.
Cathodes are formed at areas of high oxygen concentration and anodes at areas of low
concentrations. This can best be illustrated by observing a drop of saltwater placed on a
polished steel surface. Within an hour or so, a ring of rust will form inside the drop (anode)
while the outer edges (cathode) remain clear. The outer edges of the droplet absorb the
highest concentrations of oxygen from atmospheric sources.
Metal Ion Concentration Cells

Ion cells usually begin as a solution of water and ions of the parent metal with which the
water is in contact. A high concentration of ions usually exists beneath faying surfaces where
the solution is stagnant. Low metal ion levels are normally found adjacent to the crevice that
is created by the faying surface. An electrical potential is established between the two points.
The area with the lowest concentration of metal ions will become anodic and corrode. The
area with the highest level of metallic ions will act in a cathodic manner.
Active/Passive Corrosion Cells

This type of corrosive attack affects metals that depend upon tightly bonded passive films,
such as oxides, for corrosion resistance. Stainless steels, for example, are prone to attack by
active/passive cells.
The corrosion usually begins as an oxygen concentration cell. Salt water deposits on a metal
surface in the presence of ample oxygen will form an oxygen concentration cell beneath
particles of dirt, for example. The passive film becomes corrupted. Once the film is broken,
the active metal beneath becomes exposed to corrosive attack. An electrical potential develops
between the large area of passive film (cathode) and a small area of active metal (anode). A
severe rapid pitting will be the result.
Intergranular Corrosion
This type of corrosion is most insidious and can represent a real hazard to aircraft aluminums.
Intergranular attack originates along the grain boundaries of the material. This is chemically
different from the metal within the grain center. Many alloying constituents migrate toward
the grain boundaries during the metals solidification process. The grain boundary and grain
center can react with one another as cathode and anode when in the presence of an electrolyte.
As the grain boundaries break down, delamination and exfoliation can occur (Figure 2). Left
unchecked, this could lead to catastrophic structural failure. High strength aluminum alloys,
such as 2014 and 7075, have a higher susceptibility to this form of corrosion if improperly
heat treated.
Many stainless steels are prone to this kind of attack where chromium carbides precipitate to
the grain boundaries. This lessens the chromium content adjacent to the grain boundaries,
creating galvanic potential. Rapidly cooled austenitic stainless steels are especially prone to
this kind of corrosion.
Exfoliation Corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion is an advanced stage of intergranular attack. The surface grains of the
material are lifted up by the coercive force of expanding oxidation products at grain
boundaries located just beneath the surface. This blistering effect is quite noticeable in aircraft
aluminums and is most prevalent in wrought products such as plate, thick sheet and
extrusions, where the grain structure of metal tends to be elongated (Figure 3).
Metallic Mercury
When metallic mercury comes in contact with aluminum alloys, rapid corrosion develops,
causing severe pitting and intergranular attack that is exceedingly difficult to arrest. The
aluminum becomes embrittled due to the formation of compounds that move rapidly across
grain boundaries. If the aluminum is under load, the surface may exfoliate or split, creating a
hazardous condition.
X-ray testing is a good method of locating small trace amounts of spilled mercury. Being
much denser than the surrounding aluminum, it is easily detected on radiographic film.
Corrosive Agents
The most prevalent corrosive agents on aircraft materials are acids, alkalis and salts. Water
and the atmosphere act as the two most common media for these agents.
By and large, moderately strong acids will severely corrode most of the alloys used in
airframe structures. The most destructive of these acids are sulfuric, hydrochloric,
hydrofluoric, hydrobromic and nitrous oxide compounds. Organic acids found in human and
animal waste products are also detrimental.
Alkalis are not generally thought of as being as harmful as acids, but numerous magnesium
and aluminum alloys are susceptible to corrosive attack by many alkali solutions. Washing
sodas, potash and lime solutions can be highly detrimental to aluminum and magnesium
alloys.
Salts are well known for their ability to promote corrosion on a wide variety of materials. The
property that makes them so destructive is their ability to serve as an outstanding electrolyte.
While some stainless steels may hold up in a salt environment, mild steels, aluminum and
magnesium alloys corrode rapidly. A variety of other alloys are sorely affected by exposure to
a salt environment as well.
The effects of the atmosphere on aircraft materials can be quite profound. The atmosphere
contains ample supplies of oxygen and moisture, both of which are corrosive. Corrosion often
results from the direct action of these two elements. Additional moisture alone, especially on
ferrous alloys, can accelerate corrosive attack. Our atmosphere also contains a variety of other
corrosive gases and contaminants that can hasten the development of corrosion products.
Possibly the most common are oxidized sulfur compounds. When combined with moisture,
they produce sulfur based acids that can induce severe chemical attack on a number of
common aircraft alloys.
Marine atmospheres are highly injurious to most aviation related alloys. Marine air contains
chlorides in the form of salt or droplets of salt saturated water. As a reminder, fresh water can
be just as harmful as its marine counterpart. Fresh water often contains fluorides and chlorine,
both of which promote corrosion. Dissolved minerals, gases and organic impurities determine
the extent of its corrosive and electrolytic properties.
CORROSION AND THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL INFLUENCE

When a corrosive condition is aided by cyclic service loading, the corrosive attack becomes
accelerated at a rate considerably beyond the normal progression of the corrosion itself.
Environmental conditions, as well as alloy composition, greatly influence the corrosion's
ability to react. Corrosive attack is often exacerbated by mechanical erosion of surface
finishes caused by sand, rain or mechanical wear. This can lead to stress corrosion cracking,
corrosion fatigue and fretting corrosion.
Stress corrosion cracking is a form of intergranular attack where localized stresses may be
caused by internal or external loading. Internal stresses are usually the result of some
manufacturing process or procedure that more often than not involves cold working of the
material. Normally, stress levels in the material vary from zone to zone. In the areas where the
stress level approaches the yield strength of the alloy, corrosion cracking is most likely to
occur.
Interaction with compounds in the environment will induce stress corrosion cracking as well.
Contact with sea water can also provoke stress corrosion fracture in high strength steels and
heat treated aluminum alloys. Magnesium has a proven hypersensitivity to moisture and will
stress corrode under high humidity conditions if not properly protected.
Corrosion fatigue failure is the result of cyclic loading combined with corrosive attack. It
generally occurs in two distinct phases. Initially, the combination of corrosion and cyclic
loading induces pitting in the material that ultimately leads to fracture. In the second step of
the process, the material essentially becomes so fatigued that fracture propagation becomes a
certainty.
Fretting is a condition that occurs when two surfaces under load that are not designed to come
into contact with one another do so as a result of vibration or some other factor. When this
occurs, damage to the protective film or finish on the metal's surface will result. The constant
mechanical interaction leaves surfaces free from protection and open to the atmosphere or
other corrosive influences. Deep corrosive pitting is likely to result if the condition is left
unchecked.
AIRCRAFT TROUBLE ZONES

Aircraft can develop corrosion virtually anywhere, depending on its overall condition and
geographic location. However, there are known trouble spots on any aircraft where corrosion
has a much higher statistical probability of occurrence and routine testing and maintenance
are a must.
Engine exhaust streams are a prime target for both jet and reciprocating engines. Exhaust gas
residues are highly corrosive. Exhaust deposits can become trapped under seams, hinges and
fairings where normal cleaning is ineffective. Mixed with rain, moisture or a high humidity
atmosphere, exhaust residues become highly electrolytic, leading to conditions conducive to
corrosion.
Without question, one of the best known trouble spots on any aircraft is the battery
compartment. This is in spite of extensive venting, sealing and painting of the battery box
area. Fumes that emanate from an overheated battery condition are extremely difficult to
contain. Often, the fumes will disseminate to internal structures where unprotected surfaces
become vulnerable to corrosive attack.
Lavatories and galleys present a problem as well. Behind lavatories, sinks and ranges, waste
products, food and moisture tend to accumulate, causing corrosive conditions to prevail. Bilge
areas under lavatories and galleys are particularly troublesome and regular maintenance in
these areas is highly critical.
In fact, any aircraft bilge area is a trouble zone. A bilge area can be defined as a natural
collection point for waste oils, hydraulic fluid, water, dirt or debris. Oil often hides water that
has settled to the bottom of the bilge area, masking a potential corrosion cell.
Along with bilge areas, water entrapment or drain areas can be problematic. Drain holes are
located at low points on the aircraft to facilitate drainage of collected fluids and moisture.
They normally do not present a problem, except when they become clogged with debris or
sealants or if the aircraft is in an unleveled condition.
Landing gear and wheel well areas take a real pounding. These areas of the aircraft are
constantly exposed to mud, water, salts and flying debris from runways that inflict mechanical
damage to protective coatings and surfaces. Areas of particular susceptibility are:
high strength steels

the interiors of axles
any exposed indicator switch or other electrical equipment
crevices
magnesium wheels, bolt heads, lugs and web areas
exposed rigid tubing.
Graphite composite materials can pose another set of corrosion complications when they
come into contact with many of the alloys used in aircraft manufacturing. Graphite/epoxy
materials make an excellent cathode, creating the potential for galvanic corrosion. When
conditions are suitable, such as in a high humidity or saltwater environment, epoxy/graphite
composites may become highly reactive. Sealant must be applied between the
metal/composite interface to prevent moisture from initiating galvanic attack.
The frontal areas of aircraft engines often pose a corrosion problem as well. With the constant
onslaught of abrasion caused by airborne dirt, flying debris, dust and gravel from runways,
protective coatings and finishes take a real beating, exposing metal to the elements. Radiator
cores and cooling fins on reciprocating engines are also vulnerable.
Spotwelded skins and assemblies are another area of high susceptibility. Moisture and other
corrosive agents can become trapped between layers of sheet metal. This can occur at the time
of manufacture, but that tends to be restricted to older aircraft. Corrosion eventually causes
the skin to buckle or the spotweld to bulge outward, ultimately leading to fracture.
Rear pressure bulkheads are an area of real concern. The accumulation of fluids below the
floor can result in severe corrosion damage. A good visual test may entail extensive
disassembly of the aircraft fore and aft of the bulkhead area. Nondestructive testing methods
such as ultrasonic, eddy current and radiographic testing are commonly used to detect
corrosion. Severe corrosion conditions in the bulkhead periphery can lead to cabin pressure
loss or worse.
THE ROLE OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

In addition to visual testing, other NDT methods play a major role in the detection and
analysis of aircraft corrosion. Fluorescent penetrant, eddy current, ultrasonic, radiographic
and magnetic particle testing have all been used in the detection of aircraft corrosion. As in
other industries, the FAA mandates that only fully trained and qualified personnel perform
these tests.
Fluorescent Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent penetrant testing is best suited for finding large stress corrosion or fatigue cracks
open to the surface on nonporous metal alloys.
Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle testing is used for the detection of stress corrosion cracking on or near the
surface of ferromagnetic alloys only.
Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing (low frequency application) is often used to detect material thinning due
to corrosion, as well as cracking in multilayered airframe structures. Higher frequencies are
used for the detection of cracks that can penetrate the surface of the airframe. High frequency
techniques are also sometimes employed to detect the formation of corrosion that may lie
beneath organic coatings.
Radiographic Testing
X-ray testing is another tool used for the detection of corrosion on aircraft structures, but its
effectiveness can be rather marginal in detecting light corrosive conditions. This is largely due
to the difficulty in obtaining the radiographic sensitivity necessary to detect corrosion in the
early stages. The technical acumen of the test personnel involved becomes a consideration:
the more experienced, the better. Moderate to severe corrosion conditions, as well as cracking,
can be successfully detected using the radiographic method, provided geometric factors are
not an overriding issue.
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing provides one of the most sensitive and accurate means of corrosion
assessment available for a continuous thickness of material. Ultrasonic testing is commonly
used to detect exfoliation, stress corrosion cracks and general thinning of material. For the
most part, ultrasonic digital thickness meters are not considered reliable for the analysis of
moderate to severe corrosion damage prior to removal of the corrosion products. There is little
doubt that ultrasound is one of the most effective and commonly used methods to detect
corrosion in the aviation industry. Its cost effectiveness, combined with versatility and
portability, make it one of the most efficient tools in the NDT arsenal in the fight against
corrosion.
CONCLUSION
Corrosion prevention is an ongoing task that is never completed. It is a constant sequence of
cleaning, testing, preservation and lubrication. Corrosion must be detected and removed in the
earliest possible stages to minimize damage to the aircraft and its component parts. Proper
maintenance requires personnel who are professionally trained in the recognition of corrosion,
its detection, identification and treatment.
Aircraft Corrosion
Figure 1-3
[ Back to October 2003 ]

Figure 2 - Intergranular
corrosion/exfoliation on a wing
spar.
[ Back to October 2003 ]
Figure 3 - Blisters and corrosion

pitting
Aircraft Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
This example of corrosion damage observed at the CP-140 Aurora maintenance contractor and was kindly
supplied by Capt Sylvain Giguère, Research Branch, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada.
CP140 Aurora
Popped rivets were found on an external section of that maritime patrol aircraft fuselage. Subsequent
inspection revealed corrosion in the bonded area of the skin plates. The cause was believed to be water
ingress from a global positioning system (GPS) antenna. It was believed that water penetrated through cracks
in the seal surrounding the GPS antenna. Once the water was in, crevice corrosion began and it ultimately
led to the loss of the bond between the two portions of the structure. The loss of this bond allowed more
water to seep in the structure and generalized the corrosion problem.
Crevice corrosion at rivets
Popped rivets were recently found on an external section of a maritime patrol aircraft fuselage.
View of fuselage showing damage to protective coating
Electrical Connectors
This particularly vivid example of how a minuscule corrosion problem can have a gigantic impact on the life
of a complex system was reported by David H. Horne, who is a NACE Corrosion Specialist and F-16 Fuel
System Engineer at the F-16 Structures Branch, Hill AFB, Utah.
The F-16 Fighting Falcon, the first of the United States Air Force multirole fighter aircraft, is the world's
most prolific fighter with more than 3,925 delivered. The F-16 aircraft and the F-15 Eagle were the world's
first aircraft able to withstand higher G forces than the pilots. The Fighting Falcon entered service in 1979
and is operational with 19 air forces from 76 bases in 20 countries. The F-16 Fighter is a spectacular combat
aircraft that has proven its value, but corrosion problems plague its maintainability, safety, and reliability.
One problem discovered by a Kelly AFB Engineer trained in corrosion control was corrosion of tin-plated
electrical connector pins mated with gold-plated sockets. Fretting corrosion between these contacts (so subtle
that it's not even visible) appears to have been implicated in at least five F-16 crashes (5 x $20,000,000 =
ONE HUNDRED MILLIONS) when their main fuel shutoff valves closed uncommanded.
Crevice corrosion on aircraft

Underside of panel where severe corrosion was found
Close-up picture showing the severity of corrosion
The main fuel shutoff valve (MFSOV) is the main fuel line shutoff valve just upstream of the single engine.
It is necessary to shutoff and make a sure seal so that the strainer two feet down stream can be removed and
cleaned and that the engine connection can be disconnected for certain services. It has a cockpit actuating
switch so that the pilot could close the valve if some terrible thing happens with the engine.
In addition, the corrosion products of the corroded tin and steel pins provides a potential conductivity path
between pins A to B and C to B that may be adequate to drive the MFSOV to close. A corrosion inhibiting
lubricant spray, MIL-L-87177A Grade B, has been identified and is used annually as an interim fix.
Treatment of electrical connectors with the MIL-L-87177A Grade B was so effective in restoring the
conductivity of the tin plated pins and preventing continued corrosion that in a test at one Base the aircraft so
treated demonstrated a 16% improved mission capable (MC) rate. In addition, millions of dollars saved by
cost avoidances were documented by treating the aircraft and aircraft ground equipment (AGE) connectors.
(top)
Galvanic Corrosion of Mounting Bracket

This example of corrosion damage observed at CFB Greenwood was kindly supplied by Capt Tom Spence,
Quality Manager, 434 Squadron< CFB Greenwood, Nova Scotia.
Support frame corrosion damage was noticed on a Challenger engine mount. A stainless steel mounting
bracket adapter is bolted to this mount pad, allowing the engine to be mounted onto the airframe. The
corrosion damage shown below is an example of "hidden corrosion" - it was not visible until the adapter was
removed for other maintenance.
The corroded material is a magnesium/nickel alloy that contains radioactive thorium. Galvanic corrosion is
to be expected between this alloy and stainless steel, if these materials are in electrical contact and operate in
a corrosive environment. Corrosive micro-environments, characterized by acidification of the electrolyte and
chloride ion enrichment, can be established in geometries of this nature.
F-16 Fighting Falcon
F-16 Aircraft Main Fuel Shutoff Valve
Corrosion of failsafe module

Gold Corrosion
Gold is the most non-reactive of all metals and is benign in all natural and industrial environments. Gold
never reacts with oxygen (one of the most active elements), which means it will not rust or tarnish. Gold is
among the most electrically conductive of all metals. Since electricity is basically the flow of charged
particles in a current, metals that are conductive allow this current to flow unimpeded. Gold is able to convey
even a tiny electrical current in temperatures varying from -55° to +200° centigrade.
F-16 Cockpit
Support frame galvanic corrosion damage

Challenger aircraft
Nickel Corrosion
While nickel makes up 0.007 per cent of the earth's crust and is today one of our most useful metals, it was
virtually unknown until the 1600s and was not isolated as an element until 1751. Early chemists called it
Kupfer-Nickel (kupfer for copper), because nickel was originally found in association with copper ores, and
nickel, after the German "Old Nick" or Satan, because it was initially so difficult to extract from those ores.
Nickel is malleable, resists corrosion, and maintains its mechanical and physical characteristics under
extreme temperatures. Once it was isolated and these valuable properties were recognized, nickel assumed a
growing role in commerce and industry. By the early 1800s, nickel was being used to make a nickel-copper-
zinc alloy, which could be silver plated. The technique of nickel plating was developed in about 1870.
Moreover, the first pure nickel coin was struck in 1881. Each of these uses continues today.
Nickel is electrodeposited (plated) for many reasons. First and foremost nickel provides a decorative
appearance because of its ability to cover imperfections in the base metal (leveling). This deposit can be
made brilliant and when covered by a thin layer of decorative chrome will maintain its brilliance even under
severe conditions. When nickel is applied in "duplex" form, excellent corrosion protection can also be
achieved. This requires plating two different kinds of nickel (semi-bright and bright nickel). Nickel deposits
also offer more wearability than softer metals such as copper or zinc and thus can be used when wear
resistance is needed. Because nickel is magnetic, nickel can sometimes be plated where the ability to be
magnetized is needed. Finally, nickel can be made to plate with little or no stress and is therefore used for
electroforming or for aerospace applications where stress needs to be held to a minimum. In many
applications, many of these requirements are required simultaneously so nickel is often not plated for just
one reason.
To find much more on nickel based alloys consult the plentiful Nickel Development Institute site.
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion (also called dissimilar metal corrosion) refers to

corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte. The driving
force for corrosion is a potential difference between the different materials. The bimetallic driving force was
discovered in the late part of the eighteenth century by Luigi Galvani in a series of experiments with the
exposed muscles and nerves of a frog that contracted when connected to a bimetallic conductor. The
principle was later put into a practical application by Alessandro Volta who built, in 1800, the first electrical
cell, or battery: a series of metal disks of two kinds, separated by cardboard disks soaked with acid or salt
solutions. This is the basis of all modern wet-cell batteries, and it was a tremendously important scientific
discovery, because it was the first method found for the generation of a sustained electrical current.
The principle was also engineered into the useful protection of metallic structures by Sir Humphry Davy and
Michael Faraday in the early part of the nineteenth century. The sacrificial corrosion of one metal such as
zinc, magnesium or aluminum is a widespread method of cathodically protecting metallic structures.
In a bimetallic couple, the less noble material will become the anode of this corrosion cell and tend to
corrode at an accelerated rate, compared with the uncoupled condition. The more noble material will act as
the cathode in the corrosion cell. Galvanic corrosion can be one of the most common forms of corrosion as
well as one of the most destructive.
Galvanic corrosion: stainless screw v cadmium plated steel washer

Galvanic corrosion inside horizontal stabilizer
Cadmium plated locknut
The relative nobility of a material can be predicted by measuring its corrosion potential. The well known
galvanic series lists the relative nobility of certain materials in sea water. A small anode/cathode area ratio is
highly undesirable. In this case, the galvanic current is concentrated onto a small anodic area. Rapid
thickness loss of the dissolving anode tends to occur under these conditions. Galvanic corrosion problems
should be solved by designing to avoid these problems in the first place. Galvanic corrosion cells can be set
up on the macroscopic level or on the microscopic level. On the microstructural level, different phases or
other microstructural features can be subject to galvanic currents.
Galvanic corrosion: stainless screw v cadmium plated steel washer

This is one of the most common forms of corrosion as well as one of the most destructive. Here’s a classic
example of galvanic corrosion; a stainless screw in contact with a cadmium plated steel washer. (courtesy
Mike Dahlager)
Galvanic corrosion inside horizontal stabilizer
Here’s another example of galvanic corrosion. This one’s inside an ES-3B Viking’s horizontal stabilizer.
(courtesy Mike Dahlager)
Galvanic corrosion of cadmium plated locknut

And another example, this time on a Super Cub tail. Notice the corrosion on the cadmium plated locknut.
(courtesy Mike Dahlager)
Galvanic Series in Seawater
A galvanic series has been drawn up for metals and alloys in seawater, which shows their relative
nobility. The series is based on corrosion potential measurements in seawater. The relative position of the
materials can change in other environments. The further apart the materials are in this series, the higher the
risk of galvanic corrosion.
Most cathodic or resistant to corrosion
Platinum
Gold
Graphite
Titanium
Silver
 Chlorimet 3
 Hastelloy C
 18-8 Mo stainless steel (passive)
 18-8 stainless steel (passive)
 Chromium steel >11 % Cr (passive)
 Inconel (passive)
 Nickel (passive)
 Silver solder
 Monel
 Bronzes
 Copper
 Brasses
 Chlorimet 2
 Hastelloy B
 Inconel (active)
 Nickel (active)
Tin
Lead
Lead-tin solders
 18-8 Mo stainless steel (active)
 18-8 stainless steel (active)
Ni-resist
Chromium steel >11 % Cr (active)
 Cast iron
 Steel or iron
2024 aluminum
Cadmium
Commercially pure aluminium
Zinc
Magnesium and its alloys
Most anodic or easy to corrode
Galvanic Table
The following Galvanic Table lists metals in the order of their relative activity in seawater environment. The
list begins with the more active (anodic) metal and proceeds down the to the least active (cathodic) metal of
the galvanic series. A "galvanic series" applies to a particular electrolyte solution, hence for each specific
solution which is expected to be encountered for actual use, a different order or series will ensue. In a
galvanic couple, the metal higher in the series (or the smaller) represents the anode, and will corrode
preferentially in the environment.
Listed below is the latest galvanic table from MIL-STD-889 where the materials have been numbered for
discussion of characteristics. However, for any combination of dissimilar metals, the metal with the lower
number will act as an anode and will corrode preferentially. The table is the galvanic series of metals in sea
water from Army Missile Command Report RS-TR-67-11, "Practical Galvanic Series."
Active (Anodic)
1. Magnesium
2. Mg alloy AZ-31B
3. Mg alloy HK-31A
4. Zinc (hot-dip, die cast, or plated)
5. Beryllium (hot pressed)
6. Al 7072 clad on 7075
7. Al 2014-T3
8. Al 1160-H14
9. Al 7079-T6
10. Cadmium (plated)
11. Uranium
12. Al 218 (die cast)
13. Al 5052-0
14. Al 5052-H12
15. Al 5456-0, H353
16. Al 5052-H32
17. Al 1100-0
18. Al 3003-H25
19. Al 6061-T6
20. Al A360 (die cast)
21. Al 7075-T6
22. Al 6061-0
23. Indium
24. Al 2014-0
25. Al 2024-T4
26. Al 5052-H16
27. Tin (plated)
28. Stainless steel 430 (active)
29. Lead
30. Steel 1010
31. Iron (cast)
33. Copper (plated, cast, or wrought)
34. Nickel (plated)
35. Chromium (Plated)
36. Tantalum
37. AM350 (active)
43. Stainless steel 17-7PH (active)
44. Tungsten
45. Niobium (columbium) 1% Zr
46. Brass, Yellow, 268
47. Uranium 8% Mo
48. Brass, Naval, 464
49. Yellow Brass
50. Muntz Metal 280
51. Brass (plated)
52. Nickel-silver (18% Ni)
53. Stainless steel 316L (active)
54. Bronze 220
55. Copper 110
56. Red Brass
58. Molybdenum, Commercial pure
59. Copper-nickel 715
60. Admiralty brass
62. Bronze, Phosphor 534 (B-1)
63. Monel 400
65. Carpenter 20 (active)
69. Stainless steel 17-7PH (passive)
70. Silicone Bronze 655
71. Stainless steel 304 (passive)
76. Stainless steel 316L (passive)
77. AM355 (active)
79. Carpenter 20 (passive)
80. AM355 (passive)
81. A286 (passive)
82. Titanium 5A1, 2.5 Sn
83. Titanium 13V, 11Cr, 3Al (annealed)
84. Titanium 6Al, 4V (solution treated and aged)
85. Titanium 6Al, 4V (anneal)
86. Titanium 8Mn
87. Titanium 13V, 11Cr 3Al (solution heat treated and aged)
88. Titanium 75A
89. AM350 (passive)
90. Silver
91. Gold
92. Graphite
End - Noble (Less Active, Cathodic)
Galvanic Compatibility
Often when design requires that dissimilar metals come in contact, the galvanic compatibility is managed by
finishes and plating. The finishing and plating selected facilitate the dissimilar materials being in contact and
protect the base materials from corrosion.
For harsh environments, such as outdoors, high humidity, and salt environments fall into this category.
Typically there should be not more than 0.15 V difference in the "Anodic Index". For example; gold -
silver would have a difference of 0.15V being acceptable.
For normal environments, such as storage in warehouses or non-temperature and humidity controlled
environments. Typically there should not be more than 0.25 V difference in the "Anodic Index".
For controlled environments, such that are temperature and humidity controlled, 0.50 V can be tolerated.
Caution should be maintained when deciding for this application as humidity and temperature do vary
from regions.
Anodic Index
Metallurgy Index (V)

Gold, solid and plated, Gold-platinum alloy 0.00
Rhodium plated on silver-plated copper 0.05
Silver, solid or plated; monel metal. High nickel-copper alloys 0.15
Nickel, solid or plated, titanium an s alloys, Monel 0.30
Copper, solid or plated; low brasses or bronzes; silver solder; German silvery high copper-nickel
0.35
alloys; nickel-chromium alloys
Brass and bronzes 0.40
High brasses and bronzes 0.45
18% chromium type corrosion-resistant steels 0.50
Chromium plated; tin plated; 12% chromium type corrosion-resistant steels 0.60
Tin-plate; tin-lead solder 0.65

Lead, solid or plated; high lead alloys 0.70
Aluminum, wrought alloys of the 2000 Series 0.75
Iron, wrought, gray or malleable, plain carbon and low alloy steels 0.85
Aluminum, wrought alloys other than 2000 Series aluminum, cast alloys of the silicon type 0.90
Aluminum, cast alloys other than silicon type, cadmium, plated and chromate 0.95
Hot-dip-zinc plate; galvanized steel 1.20

Zinc, wrought; zinc-base die-casting alloys; zinc plated 1.25
Magnesium & magnesium-base alloys, cast or wrought 1.75
Beryllium 1.85
Potential of Metals in Soils
Differences in the energy potential of various metals have been documented in the galvanic series of metals
used in soils. Non-uniform conditions along the surface of a metal can also cause different energy potentials.
For example, the portion of an anchor embedded in concrete typically has lower energy potential than the
portion exposed to soil.
Metal Potential (V Cu/CuSO4)
Pure magnesium -1.75
Magnesium Alloy -1.60
Zinc -1.10
Alluminum Alloy -1.05
Pure aluminum -0.8
Mild Steel (Clean & Shiny) -0.50 to -0.80
Mild Steel (Rusted) -0.20 to -0.50
Cast Iron -0.50
Lead -0.50
Mild Steel in concrete -0.20
Copper, Brass, Bronze -0.20
Mill Scale on steel -0.20
High silicon cast iron -0.20
Carbon, Graphite, Coke +0.30
Cu/CuSO4 stands for Copper sulfate electrode
Corrosion Potentials in Flowing Seawater

Alloys are listed in order of the potential they exhibit in flowing seawater. Many of these alloys marked have
dual surface behavior and can become active after a passive behavior, particularly in low-velocity or poorly
aerated water and at shielded areas.
SCE stands for Standard Calomel Electrode
SS stands for stainless steel
Ideal Corrosion Surveillance Strategy
The creation of a link between environmental corrosivity and certain maintenance and inspection schedules
was a major recommendation of a 1991 study commissioned to examine the practicality of developing a
corrosion modeling program in the Canadian Forces [1]. Similar recommendations have been made
elsewhere [2]. Such linkages were previously explored for the USAF in the form of simple practical
algorithms [3], related to aircraft washing schedules for example. A study is underway at RMC to
characterize the environmental corrosivity prevailing at CFB Greenwood. The significant time-dependence
of the corrosivity on a seasonal scale is an important finding of this study to date.
Many corrosion prone areas of CF aircraft are difficult and hence costly to inspect. These inaccessible areas
presently require periodic inspection, regardless of whether corrosion damage has taken place or not.
Significant maintenance and inspection efforts and costs could be saved, if the severity of corrosion could be
determined (independently), by on-board corrosion surveillance sensors. The aircraft instrumented with the
sensors would essentially represent a smart structure, which would diagnose where and when attention
should be directed at corrosion problems.
Various aircraft corrosion sensing systems are under development, including thin film electrochemical
sensors and fiber optic probes. Some of these sensors have been installed on board aircraft for evaluation
purposes in several countries. In the CF, an on-board Corrosion Diagnostic System was installed in 1994 on
a CP-140 Aurora on a trial basis.
The Main Variables

'Click' on any variable to obtain more information. They are fully equipped with 'hot spots'. Alternatively
you can see actual weather data related to:
A marine environment
A rural environment
Rouging of Stainless Steel
You have just installed an all clean and shiny stainless steel water system. You start up your process,
confident that your contamination problems are over. But, after a few months, a water sample has a red,
gelatinous substance in the sample flask. You open the system and the tank has a reddish deposit all over the
inside. You open a pump and the impeller is red, the volute is red and the discharge is red. You look in the
heat exchanger and see more red. The spray balls have red streaks around the orifices. What went wrong?
Why is good stainless turning red? (reference 43)
What is it?
Rouging of stainless steel is the result of the

formation of iron oxide, hydroxide or carbonate
either from external sources or from destruction of
the passive layer. Color variation is a result of the
oxide/hydroxide/carbonate type and variations in
the water of hydration associated with the
corrosion products. These colors range from
orange to red to black.
Bright red streaks on the surface of stainless steel

usually are the result of iron contamination from
dragging carbon steel over the surface, from
welding carbon steel to the stainless steel, from
iron contaminated grinding wheels or steel wire
brushes.
In untreated water the discoloration may be the

result of oxidation of ferrous bicarbonate in the
water forming a brownish red deposit. This
oxidation may be from added chlorine or dissolved
oxygen.
In high purity water systems the rouge may be of three types: Class I Rouge originating from external
sources, usually by erosion or cavitation of pump surfaces. Class II Rouge originating from chloride induced
corrosion of the stainless steel surfaces. Class III Rouge, either blue or black, found in high temperature
steam systems.
Where Rouging Occurs
Rouging can take place in pure water, ultra-pure water, steam, treated potable water or untreated process
water. To date, five mechanisms have been identified:
Iron Contamination
Dragging stainless steel over carbon steel will smear iron onto the surface that will rust when placed in
service. Welding temporary carbon steel braces to stainless steel, then grinding off the welds results in a low
chromium area that will rust in service. Using carbon steel wire brushes or grinding wheels contaminated
with carbon steel will result in rust. The mechanism for the red rust formation is simple:
Iron + Water = Rust
The best prevention of rust formation is common sense:
• Always cover all carbon steel surfaces with wood, plastic or cardboard to prevent contact with the
stainless steel;
• Never weld carbon steel to stainless steel;
• Always use stainless steel brushes and “stainless only” dedicated grinding wheels; and
• Always chemically passivate with nitric or citric acid before placing in service.
Rust can cause crevice corrosion or pitting of the stainless steel under the red oxide, therefore it must be
removed. This is why passivation is necessary, not only to increase the chromium to iron ratio on the surface,
but also to remove any iron contamination.
Treated and Untreated Waters
Both treated and untreated waters can rouge, even softened water. The culprit is what is in the water,
primarily ferrous bicarbonate. Softening does not remove anions like carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfates,
chlorides, etc., but only exchanges the cations like calcium and magnesium with sodium or potassium.
Unlike ferric carbonate, ferrous bicarbonate is completely soluble, but is easily oxidized to ferric carbonate.
Ferric carbonate is insoluble and reddish brown in color. It can be dissolved in strong acids.
Treated or potable (drinking) water normally is clarified to remove suspended solids, filtered to remove fines
and disinfected with chlorine or chlorine dioxide to destroy most bacteria. This process has little or no effect
on the bicarbonate ion as long as it is in equilibrium with the carbon steel piping and the oxygen content is
low. Once the water is in an inert environment, like stainless steel or porcelain, the bicarbonate begins to
oxidize:
2Fe(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 +Cl2 --> 2Fe(OH)3 + CaCl2 + 6CO2
2Fe(OH)3 --> Fe2O3 .H2O + 2H2O
Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 .H2O, is red and when it occurs in nature it is called hematite. In untreated water the
chemical reaction is similar, except no chlorine is present and oxygen, dissolved in the water, is the active
agent:
6Fe(HCO3)2 + O2 --> 2Fe2(CO3)3 + 2Fe(OH)2 + 4H2O + 6CO2
4Fe(OH)2 + O2 --> 2Fe2O3 .H2O + 2H2O
Ferric carbonate will precipitate and the ferrous hydroxide forms a gelatinous compound that precipitates as
ferric oxide. There is a slight difference in color because the ferrous hydroxide is yellow. In large tanks the
reddest deposits are usually at the top and decrease toward the bottom. It is not unusual for the bottom of a
large tank to be relatively clean.
Pure and High Purity Water
Pure water and high purity water are typically used in industries where impurities can have a detrimental
effect, such as pharmaceutical or semiconductor manufacturing. In the pharmaceutical industry it is called
water for injection (WFI). Typical treatments include filtration, softening, anion and cation ion exchange,
reverse osmosis, ultraviolet and occasionally ozonation. Distillation may be used as final purification. The
result is water with extremely low conductivity.
Type 316L stainless steel is the usual material of construction. Some of these systems remain clean, but
others begin to rouge. Even electropolished systems with an average surface roughness less than 10
microinches (<10 m-in Ra) can rouge. In the presence of hot high purity steam these systems turn black,
sometime glossy black, sometimes powdery black.
Sections of rouged stainless steel piping were obtained from a number of different pure water and steam
systems. The rouge layers were examined using X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Energy
Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The SEM allows visual
examination of the surface, EDS allows spot analyses of surface anomalies, and XPS allows layer-by-layer
analyses of the rouge deposits and identification of the molecular species. Comprehensive reports of the
findings are given elsewhere 1,2. This work allowed rouge in pure and high purity water and steam to be
classified as Class I, Class II and Class III rouge depending on the mechanism of formation.
Class I Rouge
Class I rouge comes from an external source. Rouge particles are deposited on stainless steel
surfaces, and in the early stages of deposition can be easily wiped clean. Surface composition
of the stainless steel passive layer under the rouge is unchanged from that of the originally
installed system. The rouge particles usually have the same composition as the material from
which the particles came, certainly not that of corroding stainless steel. Rouge concentration
is heaviest near the source and decreases with distance from the source. Color of the rouge
may change with distance from the source, being orange to red-orange near the source and
changing to magenta some distance away. The color comes from the presence of the various
iron oxides and hydroxides. The orange oxide is the lowest valence state for iron hydroxide
and forms when both oxygen and water are present:
2Fe0 + 2H2O --> 2FeO(OH) + H2
2FeO(OH) --> Fe2O3.H2O
External rouge can come from a number of sources. The most obvious is carbon steel in the
system including tie rods, bolts, nuts, wrenches, staples, etc. The larger the source the more
rouging that will occur.
Pumps are prime suspects in an otherwise clean system. Two mechanisms appear to be the
cause of pump induced rouging: cavitation and erosion because of impeller velocity.
Cavitation usually results from inadequate water supply to the pump, improper pump
selection, operation or excessive throttling during operation. Bubbles impact on a pump
surface and implode, resulting in a shock wave that removes a small particle of stainless steel.
Once the particle is free in the water stream it eventually is attached to the stainless steel
piping by electrostatic attraction. Because the particle surface is not passivated, it immediately
begins to oxidize and turn red.
Erosion of the impeller is another possible mechanism. Every material has a critical velocity
above which erosion accelerates3. For low alloy austenitic stainless steels this critical velocity
appears to be around 100 fps. Erosion rate will vary with temperature. Type 304 Stainless
Steel appears to have a constant erosion rate up to 600° F (300° C) then increases rapidly.
Specific data in high purity water for the different alloys are not available.
The metallurgical condition of the impeller seems to have an influence on the rate of metal
removal. When the austenitic family of stainless steel solidifies from the melt two
metallurgical phases are present, austenite and delta ferrite. Delta ferrite formation is
dependent on the composition of the alloy and if it is less than 8% it can be dissolved by heat
treatment. Cast impellers generally have high delta ferrite because of higher silicon added to
promote fluidity of the steel during casting. This means heat treatment may not dissolve all
the delta ferrite. The reason delta ferrite is a problem is because it erodes more easily than the
austenite and is higher in iron. An eroded surface of a cast impeller is illustrated in Figure 3
and rouged pump parts are illustrated in Figure 4.
Class II Rouge
This class of rouge occurs when chlorides or other halides are present. It is corrosion driven
and forms on the surface of the stainless steel at the place where the passive layer is breached.
Figure 5 illustrates this type of rouge which is integral with the surface. It appears more often
on unpassivated and mechanically polished surfaces and may display tubercles. The stainless
steel under these tubercles will be very shiny and may be pitted. When material from this
rouge is analyzed, chlorides or other halides usually are present. The rouge cannot be
removed by mechanically except by grinding or polishing, but most often using an acid
solution. Citric acid is a good cleaning agent and will repassivate the stainless steel, but if
chlorides are present the surface will rouge again.
Class II Rouge forms in a two stage reaction, the first is the dissolution of the chromium oxide
passive layer, the second the oxidation of the iron in the substrate:
Cr2O3 + 6Cl- + 6H2O --> 2CrCl3(aq) + 6OH-
2Fe + 4H2O --> 2FeO(OH) + 3H2
This reaction is self-perpetuating by the chloride reacting with the chromium to form
hypochlorous acid as a byproduct, and the hypochlorous acid oxidizing the iron and forming
more chloride.
Increasing the molybdenum content of the stainless steel increases the resistance to chloride
attack. Likewise, replacing the iron in stainless steel with nickel improves the corrosion
resistance. This is the progression of alloys with increasing resistance to chloride attack: Type
304L (least), Type 316L, Type 317L, Type 317LM, Alloy 625, Alloys C-276 and C 22
(highest). Whenever a stainless steel system comes in contact with an acid chloride there is a
potential for rouging. A pH > 7 solution will have less potential for rouging than pH < 7. Even
momentary exposure to an acid chloride solution may set the stage for this type rouging
reaction especially if the stainless steel surface is rough. Mechanically polished surfaces are
worse than electropolished surfaces because of the microscopic crevices resulting from
smeared metal from the polishing operation. Electropolishing removes these microscopic
crevices and produces a passive layer with a higher Cr: Fe ratio. The crevices create
concentration cells where the acid chloride solutions may be retained and continue to react,
even if the system is given a high pH rinse. Use of a strong surfactant in the rinse will aid in
removing the chloride.
Class III Rouge
This rouge is black, not red, and forms in the presence of high temperature steam. When it
first forms it is blue, then turns black as it grows to a limiting thickness that prevents further
diffusion of oxygen. It may be found in high purity steam systems that operate at elevated
temperatures. On electropolished stainless steel the appearance is glossy black, and on
unpassivated mechanically polished surfaces it may be powdery black. Figure 6 illustrates this
class of rouge on an electropolished surface forming octahedral crystals that completely cover
the surface. Analysis, using XPS, shows this film is iron sesquioxide, commonly called
magnetite. It cannot be removed by simple cleaning but must be removed chemically or by
grinding. If the rouge is glossy black, then it may be left alone as it is quite stable. The
powdery black film may slough-off and may need cleaning. After chemically cleaning,
usually with hot oxalic acid, the surface must be chemically passivated. Once the system is
back in service it will turn black once again, but hopefully not forming the powdery black
film.
This type of rouge is the high temperature reaction product of steam with the iron in the
stainless steel forming magnetite. The reaction appears to take place in two steps:
3Fe0 + H2O --> FeO + Fe2O3 + H2

FeO + Fe2O3 --> Fe3O4
Some of the iron oxide may be replaced with nickel oxide, but the iron sesquioxide will
control the color of the film.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF CORROSION
Ulick R. Evans, the British scientist who is considered the "Father of Corrosion Science", has said that
"Corrosion is largely an electrochemical phenomenon, [which] may be defined as destruction by
electrochemical or chemical agencies...". Corrosion in an aqueous environment and in an atmospheric
environment (which also involves thin aqueous layers) is an electrochemical process because corrosion
involves the transfer of electrons between a metal surface and an aqueous electrolyte solution. It results from
the overwhelming tendency of metals to react electrochemically with oxygen, water, and other substances in
the aqueous environment. Fortunately, most useful metals react with the environment to form more or less
protective films of corrosion reaction products that prevent the metals from going into solution as ions.
While the term corrosion has in recent years been applied to all kinds of materials in all kinds of
environments, this article will only consider the electrochemistry of corrosion of metals and alloys in
aqueous solutions at ambient temperatures. Electrochemical corrosion occurring under such conditions is a
major destructive process that results in such costly, unsightly, and destructive effects as the formation of
rust and other corrosion products, the creation of the gaping holes or cracks in aircraft, automobiles, boats,
gutters, screens, plumbing, and many other items constructed of every metal except gold.
Systems such as boiling water nuclear reactors involving aqueous solutions are also examples of
electrochemical corrosion but will not be covered. This article will also not cover the non-electrochemical
process termed high temperature oxidation, a destructive process which is the exposure of a metal or alloy to
high temperatures in a gaseous environment (usually including oxygen or gases with sulfur containing
compounds) where much thicker layers of corrosion products are formed. However, it must be pointed out
that if the high temperature oxidation process results in the formation of salt layers that melt at the high
temperatures used, a difference in electrode potential between phases or heterogeneities in an alloy can lead
to hot corrosion which has electrochemical features similar to that of the condensed aqueous films involved
in atmospheric corrosion. This technologically important corrosion process leads to the failure of such
applications as gas turbines, heat exchangers, and many others that operate at high temperatures.
Consequences of corrosion
Corrosion has many serious economic, health, safety, technological, and cultural consequences to our
society.
Economic effects
Studies in a number of countries have attempted to determine the national cost of corrosion. The most
extensive of these studies was the one carried out in the United States in 1976 which found that the overall
annual cost of metallic corrosion to the U.S. economy was $70 billion, or 4.2% of the gross national product.
To get a feeling for the seriousness of this loss, we may compare it to another economic impact everyone is
worried about – the importation of foreign crude oil, which cost $45 billion in 1977.
Health effects
Recent years have seen an increasing use of metal prosthetic devices in the body, such as pins, plates, hip
joints, pacemakers, and other implants. New alloys and better techniques of implantation have been
developed, but corrosion continues to create problems. Examples include failures through broken
connections in pacemakers, inflammation caused by corrosion products in the tissue around implants, and
fracture of weight-bearing prosthetic devices. An example of the latter is the use of metallic hip joints, which
can alleviate some of the problems of arthritic hips. The situation has improved in recent years, so that hip
joints which were was at first limited to persons over 60 are now being used in younger persons, because
they will last longer.
Safety effects
An even more significant problem is corrosion of structures, which can result in severe injuries or even loss
of life. Safety is compromised by corrosion contributing to failures of bridges, aircraft, automobiles, gas
pipelines etc. – the whole complex of metal structures and devices that make up the modern world.
Technological effects
The economic consequences of corrosion affect technology. A great deal of the development of new
technology is held back by corrosion problems because materials are required to withstand, in many cases
simultaneously, higher temperatures, higher pressures, and more highly corrosive environments. Corrosion
problems that are less difficult to solve affect solar energy systems, which require alloys to withstand hot
circulating heat transfer fluids for long periods of time, and geothermal systems, which require materials to
withstand highly concentrated solutions of corrosive salts at high temperatures and pressures. Another
example, the drilling for oil in the sea and on land, involves overcoming such corrosion problems as sulfide
stress corrosion, microbiological corrosion, and the vast array of difficulties involved in working in the
highly corrosive marine environment. In many of these instances, corrosion is a limiting factor preventing
the development of economically or even technologically workable systems.
Cultural effects
International concern was aroused by the disclosure of the serious deterioration of the artistically and
culturally significant gilded bronze statues in Venice, Italy. Corrosive processes will accelerate the
deterioration of precious artifacts such as those in Venice by the highly polluted environments that now are
prevalent in most of the countries of the world. Likewise, inside the world's museums conservators and
restorers labor to protect cultural treasures against the ravages of corrosion or to remove its traces from
artistically or culturally important artifacts.
Electrochemistry of corrosion
The same metallic surface exposed to an aqueous electrolyte usually possesses sites for an oxidation (or
anodic chemical reaction) that produces electrons in the metal, and a reduction (or cathodic reaction) that
consumes the electrons produced by the anodic reaction. These "sites" together make up a "corrosion cell".
The anodic reaction is the dissolution of the metal to form
either soluble ionic products or an insoluble compound of
the metal, usually an oxide. Several cathodic reactions are
possible depending on what reducible species are present in
the solution. Typical reactions are the reduction of dissolved
oxygen gas, or the reduction of the solvent (water) to
produce hydrogen gas. Examples of these reactions are
given in the Appendix. Because these anodic and cathodic
reactions occur simultaneously on a metal surface, they
create an electrochemical cell of the type shown in Figure 1.
The sites where the anodic and cathodic reactions take
place, the anodes and the cathodes of the corrosion cell, are
Fig. 1. The electrochemical cell set up between determined by many factors: (i) they are not necessarily
anodic and cathodic sites on an iron surface
undergoing corrosion.
fixed in location; (ii) they can be adjacent or widely separated so that, for example, if two metals are in
contact, one metal can be the anode and the other the cathode, leading to galvanic corrosion of the more
anodic metal; (iii) there can exist variations over the surface of oxygen concentration in the environment that
result in the establishment of an anode at those sites exposed to the environment containing the lower oxygen
content – differential aeration corrosion; (iv) or similarly, variations in the concentration of metal ions or
other species in the environment, arising because of the spatial orientation of the corroding metal and
gravity; or finally, (v) variations in the homogeneity of the metal surface, due to the presence of inclusions,
different phases, grain boundaries, disturbed metal, and other causes, can lead to the establishment of anodic
and cathodic sites.
The process occurring at the anodic sites is the dissolution of metal as metallic ions in the electrolyte or the
conversion of these ions to insoluble corrosion products such as rust. This is the destructive process called
corrosion. The flow of electrons between the corroding anodes and the non-corroding cathodes forms the
corrosion current, the value of which is determined by the rate of production of electrons by the anodic
reaction and their consumption by the cathodic reaction. The rates of electron production and consumption,
of course, must be equal or a buildup of charge would occur.
Driving force, corrosion tendencies
A driving force is necessary for electrons to flow between the anodes and the cathodes. This driving force is
the difference in potential between the anodic and cathodic sites. This difference exists because each
oxidation or reduction reaction has associated with it a potential determined by the tendency for the reaction
to take place spontaneously. The potential is a measure of this tendency.
Electrochemical equilibria: oxidation and reduction
Since most corrosion reactions occurring in the presence of a liquid, such as water, are not chemical but are
electrochemical, the use of chemical equilibria is of minimal use for studying aqueous corrosion. A useful
way to study the relation of potential to corrosion is through the use of an electrochemical equilibrium
diagram – called the "Pourbaix Diagram" – developed by M. Pourbaix, it plots potential against pH, a
parameter also of great importance to corrosion processes.
The simplified Pourbaix diagram for iron is shown in Figure
2. The potential plotted is that of iron as measured against a
standard hydrogen reference electrode. The Pourbaix
diagram enables the determination, by means of potential
and pH measurements, whether (i) a metal surface is in a
region of immunity where the tendency for corrosion is nil,
(ii) in a region where the tendency for corrosion is high, or
(iii) in a region where the tendency for corrosion may still
exist but where there is also a tendency for a protective or
passive film to exist. Such a film can drastically affect the
rate of corrosion, and, in some cases, practically stop it (see
Passivity and breakdown). Lines (a) and (b) on Figure 2
represent oxygen reduction (Appendix, Equations [2] or [3])
and hydrogen evolution (Appendix, Equation [4]),
respectively. They are a measure of the concentration of
Fig. 2. The potential – pH (Pourbaix ) oxygen or hydrogen in solution and show the variation of
equilibrium diagram for iron. potential with pH for solutions in equilibrium with one
atmosphere of either oxygen or hydrogen. Lines drawn
parallel to (a), but lower, would give the variation of potential with pH for a solution containing less oxygen
than that represented by (a). Thus, the potential of a specimen can give some indication of the oxygen
concentration in the environment. The differences in oxygen concentration between different sites on a metal
lead to the differential aeration corrosion mentioned above. By means of the Pourbaix diagram, through
potential and pH measurements, some idea can be gained about the tendency of a metal to be in an immune,
passive, or corroding regime and also to estimate the influence of limited or ready access of oxygen on the
corrosion process.
Kinetics, corrosion rates
While it is necessary to determine corrosion tendencies by measuring potentials, it will not be sufficient to
ascertain whether a given metal or alloy will suffer corrosion under a given set of environmental conditions.
Because even though the tendency for corrosion may be high, the rate of corrosion may be very low, and
thus corrosion may not be a problem.
Corrosion rates are determined by applying
a current to produce a polarization curve
(the degree of potential change as a function
of the amount of current applied) for the
metal surface whose corrosion rate is being
determined. When the potential of the metal
surface is polarized by the application of the
current in a positive direction, it is said to be
anodically polarized; a negative direction
signifies that it is cathodically polarized.
The degree of polarization is a measure of
how the rates of the anodic and the cathodic
reactions are retarded by various
environmental (concentration of metal ions,
dissolved oxygen, etc. in solution) and/or
surface process (adsorption, film formation,
ease of release of electrons, etc.) factors.
The former is called concentration
polarization the latter activation
polarization. The variation of potential as a
function of current (a polarization curve)
allows one to study the effect of
Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of plots of potential "E" against the concentration and activation processes on
logarithm of the current density "i" (polarization curves) the rate at which anodic or cathodic
produced by making the investigated metal surface an anode reactions can give up or accept electrons.
and then a cathode. Two cathodic reactions are shown, the one Hence, polarization measurements can
with the higher cathodic exchange density "i2o,c" giving the thereby determine the rate of the reactions
higher corrosion current "i2corr". The extrapolations of the that are involved in the corrosion process –
anodic and cathodic curves produce the Evans diagrams (see the corrosion rate.
Figure 4). Figure 3 shows anodic and cathodic
polarization curves that represent anodic
reactions (like metal dissolution) or cathodic reactions (for example, oxygen reduction or hydrogen
evolution). In Figure 3 the potential "E" is plotted as a function of the logarithm of the current density "i".
When the corrosion reactions are controlled by activation polarization, as is frequently observed, polarization
behavior will be a straight line on this plot following the Tafel equation (see also the Appendix). On this
figure, "Eo,a" and "Eo,c" are the equilibrium potentials for the reactions under consideration (anodic or
cathodic). The "Tafel lines" are characterized by the "slope" of the linear part of the polarization curve and
by their "intercept" when extrapolated to the equilibrium potential. The "intercept" is proportional to the
logarithm of the exchange current density "io" (that is expressing the inherent rate of the electrode reaction).
The values of these characteristic constants in the Tafel equation depend on the metal and the environment
under consideration. It is possible to extrapolate the anodic and cathodic linear portions of the polarization
curves to the corrosion potential "Ecorr", where, under ideal conditions, they should intersect. The value of the
current at their intersection will be the rate of corrosion "icorr" expressed in current density. The values of the
exchange current densities for the cathodic and anodic reactions have a profound effect on the corrosion rate.
This is illustrated with an example of using two values of "io,c" (but assuming, for sake of simplicity, that
"Eo,c" is constant): the larger the "io,c" – the larger the corrosion rate, "icorr" (see Figure 3).
Parts of the extrapolations shown in Figure 3 produce the
diagrams (Evans diagrams) shown in Figure 4. The relative
values of the "slopes" of the anodic or cathodic polarization
curves, determine whether the anodic, cathodic, or both
reactions control the rate of the corrosion process. Evans
diagrams are used extensively by corrosion scientists and
engineers to evaluate the effect of various factors on
corrosion rates.
Passivity and the breakdown of passivity
Since both driving force (corrosion-tendency) and kinetic

(corrosion-rate) considerations are crucial in determining
the extent of corrosion of a metal surface, a crucial factor
controlling the rate is the existence of the phenomenon of
passivity for certain metals and alloys, such as stainless
steels and titanium. Considerable controversy still exists
about what process is responsible for the existence of the
Fig. 4. Evans diagrams (produced from the phenomenon of passivity, even though many studies were
extrapolation shown in Figure 3, illustrating carried out to develop a better understanding of it. For the
three main ways in which the corrosion rate can purposes of this discussion, it is sufficient to characterize
be mainly controlled: (a) control by the passivity as the conditions existing on a metal surface,
reactions on the anode; (b) control by the because of the presence of a protective film whose nature is
reactions on the cathode; and (c) control by a the source of the controversy, that markedly lower the rate
mixture of both. of corrosion, even though active corrosion would be
expected from driving force (corrosion-tendency)
considerations.
To be effective, a passive film must provide a protective barrier that keeps the corrosion current on a metallic
surface at a low enough value so that the extent of corrosion damage is minimized. An effective film is one
that resists the breaching (called the breakdown) of the passive film. Breakdown processes lead to the forms
of localized corrosion that are some of the major sources of corrosion failures, pitting, crevice, intergranular,
and stress corrosion (see below). They cause the disruption of the passive film and thus expose discrete bare
sites on the metal surface to an environment where the tendency for attack is very high. The many
mechanisms proposed for chemical breakdown are based on two models, each having many variations. They
are (i) Adsorbed Ion Displacement Models and (ii) Ion Migration or Penetration Models. Two types of
breakdown processes exist: electrochemical breakdown where many studies have found that breakdown
takes place at a potential above a specific "breakdown potential," and mechanical breakdown which occurs
when the passive film is ruptured as a result of stress or abrasive wear. It should be noted that all breakdown
mechanisms involve a damaging species. Unfortunately, one of the major species causing breakdown of
passivity is the chloride ion, a damaging species abundantly available in nature.
Competing with the passive film breakdown process is the passive film repassivation process. Thus, an
effective alloy for resisting localized corrosion would be one whose surface not only forms a passive film
that resists the process leading to breakdown but also is capable of repassivating at a rate sufficiently high so
that, once breakdown has occurred, exposure to a corrosive environment is minimal.
Types of corrosion
The breakdown and repair of passivity process just described is involved in many but not all of the various
types of corrosion.
Pitting corrosion
The initiation of a pit occurs when electrochemical or chemical breakdown exposes a small local site on a
metal surface to damaging species such as chloride ions. The sites where pits initiate are not completely
understood, but some possibilities are at scratches, surface compositional heterogeneities (inclusions), or
places where environmental variations exist. The pit grows if the high current density – the area of
breakdown initiation is exceedingly small – involved in the repassivation process does not prevent the
formation of a large local concentration of metal ions produced by dissolution at the point of initiation. If the
rate of repassivation is not sufficient to choke off the pit growth, two new conditions develop. First, the metal
ions produced by the breakdown process are precipitated as solid corrosion products (such as the Fe(OH)2,
Appendix, Equation [7]) which usually cover the mouth of the pit. This covering traps the solution in the pit
and allows the buildup of positive hydrogen ions through a hydrolysis reaction (Appendix, Equation [5]).
Then, chloride or another damaging negative ions diffuse into the pit to maintain charge neutrality.
Consequently, the repassivation becomes considerably difficult because the solution in the pit is highly
acidic, contains a large concentration of damaging ions and metallic ions, and contains a low oxygen
concentration. Thereby the rate of pit growth accelerates.
The pit is the anode of an electrochemical corrosion cell, and the cathode of the cell is the non-pitted surface.
Since the surface area of the pit is a very small fraction of the cathodic surface area, all of the anodic
corrosion current flows to the extremely small surface area of the breakdown initiation site. Thus, the anodic
current density becomes very high, and penetration of a metal structure bearing only a few pits can be rapid.
Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion results when a portion of a metal surface

is shielded in such a way that the shielded portion has
limited access to the surrounding environment. Such
surrounding environments contain damaging corrosion
species, usually chloride ions. A typical example of crevice
corrosion is the crevice formed at the area between two
metal surfaces in close contact with a gasket or another
metal surface. The environment that eventually forms in the
crevice is similar to that formed under the precipitated
corrosion product that covers a pit (Figure 5). Similarly, an
electrochemical corrosion cell is formed from the couple
between the unshielded surface and the crevice interior
exposed to an environment with a lower oxygen
concentration compared with the surrounding medium. This
Fig. 5. An idealized picture of the environment combination of being the anode of a corrosion cell and
that develops in a crevice by the corrosion cell existing in an acidic, high-chloride environment where
produced on iron by an anode in a crevice and a repassivation is difficult makes the crevice interior subject
cathode outside of the crevice. to corrosive attack.
Stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen damage, and corrosion fatigue
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of localized corrosion which produces cracks in metals by the
simultaneous action of a corrodent and tensile stress. The electrochemical cell between the exterior and the
interior environments of a crack is similar to that described above for a crevice. Because of the necessity for
the application of stress, the breakdown of the passive layer on a metal surface in SCC is generally ascribed
to mechanical causes but many suggest that electrochemistry is a significant factor because it controls the
rate of repair of the passive layer ruptured by mechanical stress.
Corrosion fatigue has a somewhat similar mode of failure to SCC. It mainly differs from SCC in that it
involves situations where the stress is applied cyclically rather than as a static sustained tensile stress. With
both corrosion fatigue and SCC, the issues of film mechanical breakdown, repassivation, adsorption of
damaging species, hydrogen embrittlement, and electrochemical dissolution are to greater or lesser extents
involved in determining susceptibility.
Intergranular corrosion
With the exception of metallic glasses, the metals used in practical devices are made up of small crystals
(grains) whose surfaces join the surfaces of other grains to form grain boundaries. Such boundaries or the
small regions adjacent to these boundaries can under certain conditions be considerably more reactive (by
being more anodic) than the interior of the grains. The resulting corrosion is called intergranular corrosion. It
can result in a loss of strength of metal part or the production of debris (grains that have fallen out).
Uniform corrosion
Uniform corrosion results from the sites, not necessarily fixed in location, that are distributed over a metal
surface where the anodic and cathodic reactions take place. Uniform corrosion damage, sometimes called
wastage, is usually manifested in the progressive thinning of a metal part until it virtually dissolves away or
becomes a delicate lace-like structure.
Galvanic (and thermogalvanic) corrosion
Two metals having different potentials in a conducting electrolyte result in the more anodic metal usually
being attacked by galvanic corrosion. Because of electrical contact between two different metals, galvanic
corrosion differs from the other forms of corrosion described previously in that the anodic and cathodic sites
of the corrosion cell reside separately on the two coupled different metals comprising the corrosion cell,
while for the other forms of corrosion, the cathodes and anodes exist on the surface of the same metal.
The value for the differences in potential between two dissimilar metals is usually obtained from a listing of
the standard equilibrium potentials for the various metals (for reactions of the type given in Appendix,
Equation [1]). However, since the standard potentials assume bare metal surfaces in a standard solution
containing their ions at unit concentration (strictly speaking, activity), while in practice metals invariably
have films on their surfaces and are exposed to nonstandard environments, these potentials are not always
reliable guides to the corrosion tendencies of the anodic member of a corrosion cell produced by two coupled
dissimilar metals. Another factor besides the coupling of two different metals that can lead to galvanic
corrosion is a difference in temperature at separated sites on the same metal surface. Such a situation leads to
thermogalvanic corrosion. This kind of corrosion can be encountered in heat exchanger systems where
temperature differences are common.
Selective leaching
When one component of an alloy is removed selectively by corrosion because there exist differences in
potential between different constituents of an alloy – a situation analogous to that of the galvanic corrosion
of coupled dissimilar metals. This results in an increase in the concentration of the remaining components
and selective leaching occurs. This type of corrosion is also called parting and, after the most common
example, the selective leaching out of zinc from brass, dezincification.
Erosion corrosion
Erosion corrosion result from the disruption of protective passive films by erosive or abrasive processes.
Once the protective or passive film is removed in an aqueous electrolyte, the electrochemical processes for
the types of corrosion described above take place.
Corrosion prevention
The types of electrochemical corrosion just described can be prevented or controlled by utilizing the current
understanding of the principles underlying corrosion processes. This understanding has been the basis for the
development of a number of corrosion prevention measures.
Three corrosion control measures are based on
electrochemical driving force as shown in the Pourbaix
diagram given in Figure 6: (i) Cathodic protection –
proposed to the British Admiralty for corrosion protection
of copper-sheathed ships by Sir Humphry Davy in 1824 –
provides corrosion control by making the structure to be
protected the cathode of a corrosion cell by bringing the
potential of the structure into or near the immunity region of
the Pourbaix diagram; (ii) Anodic protection makes the
structure to be protected an anode and an applied current
brings the structure's potential into the passivity region of
the Pourbaix diagram; and (iii) Environment modification
by changing the pH to bring the structure to be protected
into either the immunity or passivation regions.
Other measures used to control electrochemical corrosion
Fig. 6. Pourbaix diagram for iron showing how
processes are the following: (i) Corrosion resistant alloys
corrosion protection can be achieved by using
are developed to be corrosion resistant and contain
measures that bring a corroding system into
constituents such as chromium, which produce more
either the immunity or the passivity region.
effective protective films that resist breakdown and
repassivate rapidly. (ii) Coatings are an artificial barrier to the corrosive environment on a metal surface as
contrasted to the naturally formed barrier that a corrosion resistant alloy provides. The most widely used
organic coatings are paints. Other organic coatings include lacquers, waxes, and greases. Some metallic
coatings such as chrome plate provide a protective barrier because they are more corrosion resistant than the
metals they protect. Zinc coatings, however, act in the opposite manner. This coating, because it has a greater
tendency to corrode than the metal to which it is applied, cathodically protects it. Finally, ceramic coatings
such as porcelain enamels and glasses are used to protect metal surfaces by providing chemically resistant
barriers, usually oxides, which are more stable than metals. (iii) Corrosion inhibitors are added to the
environment in which a given metal must be used to make the environment less corrosive. The inhibitors act
either by adsorbing on metal surfaces by providing barriers to the environment or by keeping the
environment from becoming more corrosive by providing a buffering action.
Appendix
Corrosion rections
Some examples of the anodic and cathodic reactions that occur simultaneously on a metal surface in a
"corrosion cell" are as follows.
A typical anodic oxidation that produces dissolved ionic product, for example for iron metal is:
[1] Fe ==> Fe2+ + 2e-
Examples of cathodic reductions involved in corrosion process are:
[2] O2 + 2H2O + 4e- ==> 4OH-
[3] O2 + 4H+ + 4e- ==> 2H2O
[4] 2H+ + 2e- ==> H2
The cathodic reaction represented by Equation [2] exemplifies corrosion in natural environments where
corrosion occurs at nearly neutral pH values. Equations [3] and [4] represent corrosion processes taking
place in the acidic environments encountered in industrial processes or for the confined volumes (pits,
crevices) where the pH can reach acidic values because of hydrolysis reactions such as:
[5] Fe2+ + 2H2O ==> Fe(OH)2 + 2H+
This reaction produces H+ ions, the concentration of which can, uder certain conditions, become large if the
H+ ions cannot readily move out from a confined volume. The overall corrosion reaction is, of course, the
sum of the cathodic and anodic partial reactions. For example, for a reaction producing dissolved ions (sum
of reactions [1] and [4]):
[6] Fe + 2H+ ==> Fe2+ + H2
or, for a reaction producing insoluble hydroxide (sum of reactions [1] and [2]):
[7] 2Fe + O2 + 2H2O ==> 2Fe(OH)2
Tafel equation
The Tafel equation is an early (1905) empirical relation between the overpotential of the electrode and the
current density passing through the electrode:
"a" and "b" are characteristic constants of the electrode system. A plot of electrode potential against the
logarithm of the current density is called the "Tafel plot" and the resulting straight line the "Tafel line". "b" is
the "Tafel slope" that provides information about the mechanism of the reaction, and "a" the intercept,
provides information about the rate constant (and the exchange current density) of the reaction.
ROUGING
A DISCOLORATION OF STAINLESS STEEL SURFACES
Rouging is a thin film, usually reddish-brown or golden in color, of iron oxide

or hydroxide, typically on stainless steels. The contrast between this film and
shiny metal accentuates this aesthetics problem. The rouge film typically
wipes off easily with a light cloth (Figure 1), but it reforms while the process
fluid is in contact with the stainless steel. This problem is most chronic in the
pharmaceutical industry on the interior surfaces of high purity water (i.e.,
water for injection, WFI) distillation units, storage tanks, distribution systems
(piping, valves, pump housings, fittings, etc.) and process vessels.
As stated, rouge is ferric oxide (i.e., rust), but the film may contain not only
iron but also chromium and nickel compounds in various forms, and hence the
film may vary in color and tenacity (Figure 2). Rouging is experienced more
on Type 304/304L stainless steel than on Type 316/316L, and less on
electropolished surfaces than mechanically polished surfaces. Particles of rust
can become dislodged and be dispersed throughout a piping distribution
system, often collecting on in-line filters.
Stainless steel is "stainless" owing to the fact that the alloy forms a thin,
protective, tenacious, transparent oxide film that protects it against
destructive corrosive species in aqueous solutions. This film is composed of
chromium oxide, and is said to make the steel "passive" against corrosion.
The exact nature of this film is a continuing subject of debate, and in fact its
exact structure and nature may vary, depending on a number of variables. It
is known that the film forms very rapidly in most environments that are not
actively reducing. Exposure to moist air will provide this passivation within a
matter of minutes, and the film will thicken with time. Exposure to oxidizing
acids, particularly nitric acid, only speeds up that which will occur naturally.
Therefore, the treatments that are described as "passivation" are in reality
cleaning procedures since passivation of clean, uncontaminated stainless
steel occurs spontaneously, and no further chemical treatment is needed to
facilitate it.
The passive layer on the surface of stainless steels can breakdown by the
interaction of ultra pure water, which is devoid of ionic species, leading to
rouging, or rust blooms. The ionic pull of the water is strong enough to strip
the protective chromium oxide off the steel surface. This results in the
stainless steel having to re-passivate by reforming another layer of chromium
oxide film, which incorporates the rouge causing discoloration. During the
brief time it takes to repassivate, a thin layer of the stainless steel dissolves,
or corrodes. The major elements composing stainless steel are iron, chromium
and nickel. The chromium and nickel ions are soluble and go into the bulk
solution. The iron, however, precipitates above a pH of 3 as iron hydroxide
that readily oxidizes to ferric oxide, which is red in color (i.e., rouge). If this
progresses uniformly across the surface of the steel, and the depassivation /
repassivation process is cycled many times, then the surface of the stainless
steel takes on a light golden to dark brown appearance depending on the
ionic state of the various oxide layers and their depth (Figure 3).
Another process, which is more damaging, is the creation and propagation of
pits. Non-metallic inclusions, such as sulfides, oxides, etc., are an inherent
result of alloy production. They are dispersed throughout the metal and are
highly susceptible to attack by aggressive environments. Typically these
inclusions are dissolved in a particular solution or environment and leave a
micro-void behind. This void becomes an occluded cell where solution
chemistry can be different from the bulk solution. If the stainless steel does
not readily re-passivate, then corrosion attack within the void can propagate.
The corrosion products within the now formed pit spill out onto the bulk metal
surface producing localized rouging or rust blooms (Figure 4). After a pit
initiates, propagation of the pit may occur and progresses until a through-wall
penetration occurs. Alternately, if the pit heals, the activity ceases and no
propagation occurs. However, the red rouge product remains as a telltale
indication that something has occurred.
Regarding pitting of stainless steels in chloride-containing environments, as
are frequently encountered in pharmaceutical and chemical process
industries, it has been found that for a particular stainless steel in a particular
chloride environment, there is a specific temperature above which certain
stainless steels begin to immediately corrode and below which corrosion does
not begin in an indefinitely long time. This temperature is called the Critical
Pitting Temperature (CPT). Although corrosion begins immediately when the
stainless steel is exposed above the CPT, as measured by potentiostatic
monitoring (ASTM G 150), it generally takes as much as 24 to 720 hours of
exposure for pitting to develop to the extent that permits observation of pit
sites, as typified by localized rouging, even at 20X magnification aided by
surface scratching techniques. Therefore, there are many instances in cyclic
service or batch production where stainless steels are briefly, perhaps for one
to a few hours, exposed to conditions above the CPT. Although corrosion
damage is accumulated, intense maintenance and cleaning practices may
permit such equipment to be used for extended service life. However,
anything that extends the period of exposure above the CPT, whether in
larger equipment or an unrelated deviation in process schedule, can lead to
severe corrosion damage during a single cycle of a batch operation.
Figure 1. Rouge wipes

Figure 2. Rouging
easily off the stainless
comes in many colors
steel substrate, but will
and degrees of tenacity.
reform
Figure 3. After repeated Figure 4. Rouge or rust
cycles, a clean stainless blooms identify pit sites.
steel surface can take on
a multi- colored
appearance.
HOW TO STOP AIRCRAFT

CORROSION
Now available at TFC - 2,500 Baht (can)
Corrosion can be a big problem for aircraft in Thailand due to the humid climate and
the salty air near the sea. WD-40 will coat the metal with a oily film, but it does not
stop the corrosion. ACF-50 and this Corrosion-X are simply sprayed into your wing
through inspection panels. The fog then penetrates the wing and fuselage and seeps
into all fittings and joints. You can see it is working, because the next day, you will
notice little wet areas around any lose rivets on the top of your wing. This chemical
penetrates moisture and removes the moisture from where it is contacting the metal.
It is a very cheap and effective way to prevent and stop corrosion. "I have used it for
12 years in many tropical and ocean climates, and it has stopped and prevented any
corrosion I have found on my plane. It is one of the most important 'tools' that I carry
with me." (Tom Claytor). If you would like to learn more about this product in Thailand
or to order a can of ACF-50 (same stuff as Corrosion-X), then please email below. The
Thai Flying Club now has Corrosion X in stock. Order a can of Corrosion-X.
FACTS ABOUT ACF-50 / Corrosion-X

- kills corrosion on contact
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- One treatment protects for 24 months!
- will not stain or etch any component on your aircraft
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Lear Chemical Research Corporation. 1-800-256 2548. info@learchem.com webpage:
http://www.learchem.com/
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) is a problem in many commercial and industrial properties simply
due to the fact that microbiological communities are such common inhabitants in our environment. MIC is
most commonly found in open condenser water and process cooling loops, although its presence has been
identified in most piping systems - from domestic water and fire sprinkler lines, to those serving hot water
heating systems.
For open systems, the main entry point for MIC is via the cooling tower - which acts similar to a giant air
scrubber by washing large quantities of particulates, organic material, and microbes into the water. For
closed systems, the microbes present in the make-up water usually provide the initial source of the problem.
Under favorable conditions, even a small initial contamination can produce significant end result.
MIC based corrosion is extremely aggressive, and in its worst form, will lead to piping failures within a
short period of time. Once established, MIC is extremely difficult to eliminate, and may elevate into a chronic
maintenance and operating problem for years following. The failure to totally remove MIC from deep pits
and the furthermost branches and dead legs of a piping system generally results in reinfection by the same
microorganisms within a short period of time.
Most alloys including steel, cast iron, copper, and even stainless steel are known to be susceptible to MIC
corrosion - meaning that MIC can attack any piping system given the proper conditions. Of the many
potential corrosion problems which can plague any building or plant property, MIC is unquestionably the
most feared, as well as the most difficult to identify and correct.
When a metal surface is exposed to water, the microorganisms typically resident in the water quickly attach
themselves to the surface to form a biofilm - which is a living biological mass composed of bacteria, algae and
other microorganisms. Those microorganisms grow, break free, and distribute throughout the piping system.
Chemical biocides are generally applied to prevent the growth of such microorganisms, although they are not
always effective. Even under well controlled conditions, MIC can develop within a short period of time due to
a variety of factors. Once MIC has gained a solid presence in the system, the reliance on biocides alone as a
corrective measure becomes worthless.
Many forms of MIC types exist to present different levels of threat. Some microorganisms are capable of
producing metal dissolving metabolic by-products such as sulfuric acid, and are often identified within a
classification termed sulfur reducing bacteria, or SRB. Whereas normal condenser water corrosion rates
may range between 1 to 5 mils per year (MPY), MIC attack often results in accelerated corrosion rates
exceeding 20 MPY and more - causing penetration of some metal surfaces in as little as one or two years.
The below close-up photographs well illustrate the deep penetration typical of an MIC infection. In many
examples, the surrounding area suffers only moderate deterioration, or little metal loss at all. We offer a
number of excellent resources with additional information regarding MIC in our reprints section.
Microbiological activity should be assumed to exist to some degree in anything but a steam piping system - an
excellent indicator of which is always plate count monitoring. Whether a microbiological presence turns into
a severe corrosion loss, however, depends upon a number of special factors related to the piping system and
service involved.
MIC can be found in domestic cold water systems comprised of copper pipe, and will similarly produce
pinhole leaks in short periods of time. Due to the optimal temperatures maintained in hot domestic water
systems, the possibility of encountering MIC is slightly higher - though still not a common occurrence. While
MIC is a concern due to its potential for damaging domestic water piping, it is still of secondary importance
to other pathogenic microorganisms such as Legionella Pneumophila - which can cause acute sickness to
humans, and in isolated cases, even death.
An understanding of any corrosion problem is an extremely important first step prior to attempting any cleanout
procedure. This requires a thorough assessment of remaining pipe condition, and most importantly - the
identification of any weak areas of the piping system.
For most MIC problems, the greatest threat always exists at the threaded joints, at fixtures such as
temperature wells and pressure gauges, and at lower floors where higher pressures exist. Installing sufficient
shut-off valves to isolate critically weakened areas is well recommended in the event a chemical cleanout
produces further leaks - an always present danger. Initiating a chemical cleanout program that results in
producing an overhead lawn sprinkler system is a nightmare no building owner or operator wants to ever be
responsible.
Corrosion coupons, ultrasound and other nondestructive testing methods are generally ineffective at
showing an MIC condition. Therefore, a full metallurgical and biological analysis of multiple representative
samples of pipe becomes another prerequisite step. Viable cell culture tests can determine both the types and
approximate volume of microbes present in the system. This is an extremely important tool since the
presence of specific microbes and their metabolic by-products are indicative of MIC. For example, the
presence of ferrous iron, sulfide, and low pH at the corrosion site would support a diagnosis of SRB or sulfur
reducing MIC.
New advances in DNA technology now allow the identification of the specific types of bacteria within a
MIC tubercular deposit and provide unquestionable proof of exactly what is causing the problem. See
Technical Bulletin # C-8 about new DNA identification methods for microbiological growths.
Prevention of MIC depends on constant vigilance and awareness of the many conditions that contribute to its
formation. Deposit covered metal surfaces, low flow conditions, interior surface pitting, high bacterial
counts, the absence of (or improperly applied) water treatment, as well as various other conditions contribute
to the growth of bacteria - thereby placing the entire system at risk. A measured corrosion rate exceeding 10
MPY always suggests the possibility of MIC, while a rate of over 25 MPY almost confirms it.
A fully automated chemical feed and bleed station is absolutely mandatory for any condenser water or
open process water system today. In addition, regular monitoring for correct inhibitor level, biological
characterization, testing for microbiological cell count, frequent visual inspection of any pipe access points,
and the use of multiple CorrView ® corrosion monitors are all highly recommended as a guard against MIC.
Once it has been positively determined that a system is infected with MIC, the first decision that must be
made relates to the method of cleaning. This is an often difficult decision which must take into account the
remaining condition of the pipe wall, physical layout of the piping system, deposit buildup, the relative level
of MIC infection, and system operating conditions, among other factors.
Resolving an MIC problem is a matter of repeated cleanings and sterilization, followed by testing. Generally,
microbiological growths exist hidden within other deposits in a stratification of layers. Removing only the
surface deposits, therefore, will not provide an effective solution, and it is necessary to clean the pipe down to
the bare metal if any success is expected. See Technical Bulletin # C-15 about an effective but rarely
employed solution to many MIC problems.
Establishing a spool piece at a section of larger 3 in. to 6 in. pipe is well advised in order to periodically
evaluate cleanout effectiveness. Due to the high volume of rust and particulates typically associated with an
MIC problem, and the physical volume of material returned into solution through any cleanout procedure,
an effective filtration system is always recommended.
Following the elimination or control of an MIC condition, added attention to the system is mandatory
since under deposit corrosion and pits will have provided the ideal environment for new microorganisms to
collect and grow. For any system which has undergone a vigorous cleaning down to the base metal, it is
imperative to increase the inhibitor level in order to discourage new corrosion activity while the surface
metal is being passivated. Biocides should be added regularly.
Because the microbiological agents causing MIC are generally found at the boundary layer between the pipe and
interior deposits, it is often difficult to physically solve the problem with sterilizing chemicals alone.
Increased biocide use alone is generally useless, as they are only designed to suppress microbiological
growths, not kill and eradicate them. And the extended use of high concentrations of strongly oxidizing
chemicals such as chlorine leads to further metal damage.
Often, a multi-stage program of repeated heavy duty chemical cleanings and high dosage level
sterilizations must be established. The use of chemical dispersants and chelating agents are some additional
methods which may be employed to remove the attached deposits. Mechanical cleaning using a high pressure
water jet may be applicable in some specific examples. See Technical Bulletin # M-3 about high pressure
water jet pipe cleaning.
The benefits of any proposed aggressive cleaning program must always be weighed against the potential
damage caused to the piping itself. Yet, it is important to realize that the failure to aggressively address an
established MIC problem will lead to advanced pipe failure anyway! Due to the fact that MIC produces
intensive corrosion rates at localized sites, it is critically important to first establish the extent throughout the
piping system and the depth of surface pitting prior to any cleaning program.
While the elimination of an MIC problem is always preferred, it may not be possible for a variety of reasons. In
many cases, a severe MIC problem cannot be solved and will be recognized as such - therefore requiring
some consideration of alternative options. Different authorities hold differing viewpoints in addressing an
MIC problem - with five generalizations presented below:
The preferred view, obviously, is to prevent an MIC infection from even beginning.
Attention to a strict water treatment program is critical, as well as is a totally automated
chemical feed and bleed system. Regularly performing laboratory cultures of the water is
important to verify biocide or chlorination effectiveness. Testing for anaerobic microbes,
while technically difficult, is strongly advised in dead or low flow areas.
Periodic cleaning and sterilization of the tower is recommended at least twice annually.
Filtration is also a plus, as it greatly reduces the particulate volume known to contribute to
any MIC growth problem.
While an indication of biological activity can be easily determined by simple dip slides,
they can not show what may be attached and growing at the interior pipe wall surface. In
such cases, electronic biofilm monitors may offer added information.
Also quite valuable, 3 in. or 4 in. spool pieces offer an inside look into the piping system
and provide opportunity to sample any interior deposits for microbiological and
specifically MIC analysis.
Once established, eliminating the MIC problem altogether is the preferred choice. Aside
from being an extremely difficult task, this is often not feasible due to the damage already
caused to the piping system, and due to the potential for any cleaning action to cause
further leaks and piping failures. Some of the largest piping failures we are aware have
been caused by acid cleanout procedures performed on weakened pipe.
In many cases, extensive repairs must be made to the system before any cleanout is even
attempted - especially to the most vulnerable threaded pipe. This delays greatly any
remedial measures and allows even further damage to occur.
Once any vulnerable pipe is replaced, eliminating an MIC problem becomes an expensive
exercise of repeated chemical cleaning, sterilizing and draining the system. High pressure
water jet cleaning is an excellent option in many cases, and will remove both
microbiological growths and the deposits in one quick action.
The use of ozone to sterilize the system is another excellent option. Although much more
difficult to apply since it requires on-site generation, ozone will effectively sterilize an MIC
condition assuming any existing deposits have been removed.
Another view is to identify the corrosion mechanism involved and inhibit the corrosion
process to the best degree possible. Identifying a specific MIC organism responsible is
often difficult, although new developments in DNA analysis will provide most answers.
Identifying the corrosion mechanism is more difficult, though necessary in order to plan
its remediation. By many authoritative opinions, however, removing an MIC infection
completely, once it has been firmly established, is nearly an impossible task.
Of all sterilizing agents, ozone likely offers the highest probability of providing a cure for
any piping system having a severe MIC condition.
The fourth view assumes the impossibility of eliminating MIC once present, and instead
focuses on minimizing its corrosive damage. In many cases, the higher 15-20 MPY
corrosion rates can be significantly reduced to extend system life, though random pockets
of microbiological growths may produce periodic pipe failures.
Many corrosion and water treatment authorities consider that a piping system cannot be
returned to normal conditions once MIC has established itself system wide. Multiple
chemical sterilizations and high expense can be assumed necessary in any such cleaning
effort.
In many cases, a piping system seriously infected with MIC will require replacement. This
occurs usually only after MIC damage has resulted in multiple failures and the cost of
another major failure is deemed to be an unacceptable risk.
Replacing less then the entire piping system, without good reason to believe that any MIC
infection in those remaining areas has been eradicated, will generally reintroduce the
microbiological agent into the new piping and begin the problem all over. Intense
chemical treatment and monitoring may reduce such a threat to any new piping installed.
In short, our obvious recommendation is to take the necessary precautions now to ensure that an MIC condition
does not begin in the first place. Aside from operating problems and equipment damage, an MIC infection is
an extremely costly - producing expenses from pipe testing, lab tests, maintenance overtime, chemicals
cleanings, and monitoring and services, etc. in the hundreds of thousands of dollars.
We offer below an assortment of photographs taken from years of archived ultrasonic
pipe testing and remote visual inspection work. These graphically illustrate the
various forms of corrosion commonly found at HVAC cooling water and process
piping systems.
It can be virtually guaranteed that some degree of certain corrosion types exist
at every water circulating system. But while corrosion itself cannot be totally
prevented, it can be controlled in order that problems do not reach the level of
severity as shown below.
Generalized Corrosion - This 40 year Galvanic Corrosion - An extremely

old sample of 8 in. schedule common problem area due
80 pipe, while clearly to the failure to install
containing deposits of iron galvanic insulators between
oxide, shows very even wall carbon steel pipe and either
loss and long remaining brass valves or copper pipe.
service life.
Combined with schedule 40
The pipe was cleaned using pipe and a moderate
high pressure water jet and corrosion rate, galvanic
returned to service with corrosion will often produce
approximately schedule 40 premature failures with 6-
thickness remaining. 10 years.
Under Deposit Corrosion - A Total Thread Failure - A potentially
condition often indicated worst case scenario, this 1
ultrasonically by some areas in. take-off line from a 24 in.
showing at near original main condenser water riser
specification, and adjacent corroded completely
areas of high wall loss. through and separated.
It is more prevalent at the Remarkably, corrosion

bottom of horizontal lines, product within the failed
on lower floors, and where nipple held back 12 floors of
flow rates are slowest. water.
Galvanic Corrosion - A combination Galvanic Corrosion - Another

of water penetration example of the higher
through the roof level pipe corrosion activity usually
insulation and galvanic existing at direct brass to
activity completely dissolved black iron connections.
this pipe hanger.
At low corrosion rates,
Severe wall thickness loss is galvanic corrosion may be
obvious in the immediate negligible, but usually
area of the pipe hanger and increases greatly once
resulted in the need to corrosion rates exceed 5
replace this pipe. MPY.
Under Deposit Corrosion - Created by Insulation / Galvanic - Moisture
either a corrosion cell or an penetrating through the
MIC condition, high wall insulation at this chill pipe
loss is typically found under provided an initiation to an
interior rust deposits - more outer corrosion problem at
commonly called tubercles. the steel take-off line.
Such localized and deep Exterior moisture also

corrosion can easily reach assisted in the heavier
rates of 25 MPY or more, attack at the threads due to
and destroy even larger galvanic activity between
diameter pipe in 5 years or brass valve and steel pipe.
less.
Under Insulation Failure - The CUI Corrosion - Often identified only

general failure of this after the removal of pipe
fiberglass chill water pipe insulation for another
insulation allowed moisture purpose, water from rain
to penetrate and produce and snow typically
severe pipe deterioration in penetrates most exterior
localized areas. installations to cause wide
ranging wall loss.
Often seen as exempt from
corrosion problems, this This creates a corrosion
copper pipe was severely problem on two fronts, and
pitted at its exterior and in can produce severe damage
need of replacement. over time.
Localized Pitting - Partially water Under Deposit Corrosion - The degree
filled systems produce of wall loss occurring under
widely varying wall loss tubercular deposits is
typically along the bottom. generally proportional to
the volume or size of the
For this dry fire sprinkler internal deposit. A 0.100 in.
system, testing showed wall loss can translate into a
virtually new pipe after 25 2 in. internal iron oxide
years at the top, shown at deposit.
the left. The wet pipe
bottom however, shown at This photo illustrates the
the right, was totally greater threat of high wall
deteriorated to the point of loss over the restriction in
failure. water flow.
CUI Corrosion - Roof level pipe often Localized Corrosion - A good example
suffers even higher exterior showing particulate deposits
metal loss due to the settling along the pipe
combined effects of bottom to produce deep
moisture condensation, under deposit pitting.
direct water infiltration,
and insulation damage. Testing showed the side
walls of the pipe near
Such heavy deterioration is factory specification, but
usually only discovered total penetration of the pipe
after a leak occurs. at the bottom and lower
sides.
Galvanic Corrosion - An extremely CUI Corrosion - An extremely
common problem for areas common problem area in
where brass or copper is examples where very cold
joined to steel. Under pipe temperatures and high
certain conditions, as shown humidity combine under
here, it may also exist at insufficient insulation
steel to steel contact points - protection.
where new pipe meets old,
and where different ground CUI is a greater threat to
potential exists. chill water supply pipe than
normal internal corrosion
activity.
Coating Thickness Measurement: The Fundamentals Ensuring High Quality Car
Finishes
A review of available test methods, common applications and innovative instrumentation... To manufacture automobiles
with high-quality, attractive
finishes, it is essential to check
By Paul Lomax the
Fischer Technology Inc. paint thickness of the many
coats deposited on the car
Windsor, CT
body.
Visit Fischer Technology

Inc.'s PF Online Showroom,
call 860-683-0781, or select
the Product icon on the right.
Coating thickness measurement is a concern for both finishers and for companies receiving finished components.
Defective coatings lead to rust. As a result, product liability requires quality control of coatings, and in many cases
documentation of measurements in an electronic format. Conflicts can occur if a manufacturer and a customer of a
finished good use different methods or types of instruments to determine coating thickness. This article will discuss the
test methods available for determining coating thickness, common applications, and innovations in coating thickness
instrumentation.
Test Methods
The magnetic induction method measures non-magnetic coatings over ferrous substrates and magnetic coatings over
non-magnetic substrates. The process is direct, in that a probe is placed on the part to be measured. When the probe is
positioned, the linear distance between the probe tip that contacts the surface and the base substrate is measured.
Inside the measurement probe is a coil that generates a changing magnetic field. When the probe is placed on the
substrate, the magnetic flux density of this field is altered. The change in magnetic inductance is measured by a
secondary coil. The output of the secondary coil is transferred to a microprocessor where it is viewed as a coating
thickness measurement on a digital display.
The magnetic induction method is quick and can be used with either a bench-top or hand-held coating thickness gage. It’s
also non-destructive, relatively low-cost, easy to operate, accurate and repeatable, and measurements are instantaneous
with a digital display.
Common applications for this test method include liquid or powder coatings, as well as plated
finishes such as chrome, zinc, cadmium or phosphate over steel or iron substrates.
The eddy-current method of coating thickness measurement measures non-conductive coatings on

non-ferrous conductive substrates, non-ferrous conductive coatings on non-conductive substrates
and some non-ferrous metal coatings on non-ferrous metals. It is very similar to the magnetic
The Magnetic induction method and can even use many of the same probe designs. Advantages of the eddy-
Induction Method current method are also very similar to those of magnetic induction, including low cost, ease of
operation, accuracy and repeatability and instantaneous measurement with a digital display.
Eddy-current coating thickness measurement uses a probe that also contains a coil. This probe/coil is driven by a high-
frequency oscillator to generate an alternating high-frequency field. When this field is brought near a metallic conductor,
eddy currents are generated in that conductive material, which results in the impedance change of the probe coil.
The distance between the probe coil and the conductive substrate material determines the amount of impedance change.
Therefore, coating thickness is determined by the impedance change in the form of a digital reading.
Common applications for eddy-current coating thickness measurement include liquid or

powder coating over aluminum and non-magnetic stainless steel as well as anodize over
aluminum.
Selecting A Gage
Many instruments available today combine both magnetic induction and eddy-current
methods. This allows the user to perform multiple measurement tasks without switching
gages. Users also can choose between basic gages that just provide a value on the digital
display or gages that store measurements and provide statistical information such as average, A unit measuring powder
coating using the magnetic
standard deviation and high/low values. induction method
Another important selection criterion is based on the shape of the part to be measured. Not all parts can be measured
using a gage with a built-in probe. Units that offer a probe on a cable provide more flexibility when it comes to multiple
part configurations. Many units with separate probes also offer the ability to exchange probes should the application
change; for example, measuring coating thickness on the inner diameter of a tube may require a 90-degree probe, while
measurements on a flat surface are best performed with a zero-degree probe. Factors such as curvature, edge effect,
surface roughness, substrate thickness, permeability and conductivity all influence coating thickness measurement but
can be accounted for through proper calibration.
As previously mentioned, the ability to store measurements for later documentation and report generation is often very
important. These types of reports can help to determine spray patterns, for example, or may also be used for incoming
inspection of parts. Some gages feature an on-board radio transmitter that allows users to send readings in real time to a
computer up to 60 ft away from where the measurements are being taken. Data can be input
directly into a statistical process control program, eliminating the need to key in data to save time
and eliminate input errors.
Another option for coating thickness measurement and data documentation is a bench-top system.
Bench-top systems provide a large digital display with full statistical evaluation of measurements.
This includes mean value, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, maximum and minimum,
number of measurements, statistics of single readings or groups; calculation of process capability
factors; histograms; probability charts with test for normal distribution; automatic grouping after N
measurements and/or automatic final evaluation after N groups; and group evaluation according to
group numbers or group identifications. Some bench-top systems even provide customer-specific
print form templates. The Eddy Current
Method
In addition to documentation benefits, some bench-top systems can combine multiple test methods into one measuring
system. A single unit combining multiple test methods benefits companies that perhaps might be plating parts as well as
painting in another department, for example. Such systems also use separate probes, meaning they have wider
application than built-in coating thickness gages.
Special Applications
Not all coating thickness applications are as straight-forward as measuring paint over steel. Coatings consisting of a paint
applied to galvanized sheet steel are sometimes called duplex coatings, and are frequently used in the automotive
industry. Thickness of the individual layers of both the paint and galvanize are important. In automotive vehicle body
manufacturing zinc thicknesses are between zero and 10 μm. Paint thicknesses are usually up to 150 μm.
The galvanize coating is applied by the sheet metal supplier either by hot-dip galvanizing or by electrogalvanizing. If the
zinc coating thickness were uniform, the thickness of the subsequently applied paint coating could be measured using a
conventional magnetic induction coating thickness measurement instrument. One would simply have to deduct a constant
value from the actual reading.
However, zinc thickness changes when the sheet is formed. During forming, flowing or even scraping off of the zinc
coating may occur in areas of severe bending. This may vary its thickness by between 3 and 9 μm, and occasionally
remove the coating altogether.
Similar situations may be encountered when repairing a body area that has coating defects due to sanding and
subsequent re-painting of the defective area. In this case, the zinc coating may be sanded away as well, leading to an
apparent reduction in the paint thickness if a conventional coating thickness
measurement system is used. This is not only problematic for inspection, but also
critical to the quality of a cataphoretic paint, because that thickness is typically only
about 20 μm. An error of 5-6 μm in the thickness measurement through a reduced
zinc coating will exceed the tolerance limits.
Our company’s Phascope PMP10 Duplex instrument, for example, can measure paint
thickness independent of zinc thickness. Repeatability precision of the zinc thickness
measurement is as low as a few tens of nanometers; that of the paint thickness
measurement is below 0.5 μm.
To reduce vehicle weight, some automakers are using increasing amounts of The Coulometric Method
aluminum sheet in non-safety-relevant body components. Measuring coating
thickness over an aluminum alloy substrate can be accomplished using a conventional eddy current channel to measure
the paint thickness according to a standard. With no human intervention (the operator may not even know whether parts
are made of steel or aluminum), the instrument automatically selects duplex or eddy-current method immediately after
the probe touches down and stores that paint thickness data in such a way that a simple evaluation of paint distribution is
possible regardless of the type of sheet metal.
Other Thickness Measurement Techniques

There are other methods for measuring coating thickness, especially in automotive applications. These include the
Coulometric, beta backscatter, and X-ray fluorescence techniques.
The Coulometric method has many important functions, such as measuring duplex nickel coatings in automotive
applications. The technique involves determining the weight of an area of a metallic coating through localized anodic
stripping of the coating, the calculating thickness based on mass per unit area.
Thickness measurement is made using an electrolysis cell, which is filled with an electrolyte specifically selected for
stripping the particular coating. Constant current runs through the test cell to deplate the coating material, which serves
as the anode. With current density and surface area being constant, coating thickness is proportional to the time it takes
to strip the coating.
This method is particularly useful for measuring electrically conductive coatings on a conductive substrate.
The beta backscatter method begins when a test sample is exposed to beta particles from a beta-emitting isotope. A
beam of beta particles is directed through an aperture onto the coated component, and a portion of these particles is
backscattered from the coating through the aperture to penetrate a very thin window of a Geiger Muller (GM) tube. The
gas of the GM tube ionizes, causing a momentary discharge across the tube electrodes. The discharge in the form of a
pulse is counted by an electronic counter, which is then translated into coating thickness.
Materials of relatively low atomic number backscatter the beta particles at a significantly lower rate than materials of high
atomic number. For example, a component with copper as a substrate and a gold coating 40 micro-inches thick, beta
particles are scattered by both the substrate and the coating material. If coating thickness increases, the backscatter rate
increases. The change in the rate of particles scattered is therefore a measure of coating thickness.
The technique is applicable when the atomic number of the coating and substrate differ by 20%. Applications include
thickness measurement of gold, silver, and tin on electronic components, coatings on cutting tools, decorative plating on
plumbing fixtures, and vapor-deposited coatings on electronic components, ceramics and glass. Other applications could
include organic coatings such as oil or lubricant coatings over metals.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is a versatile, non-contact, coating thickness measurement method for very thin multi-layer
alloy coatings on small parts.
Measurement is performed by exposing the part to X-radiation. A collimator focuses the X-rays onto an exactly defined
area of the test specimen. This X-radiation causes characteristic X-ray emission (fluorescence) from both the coating and
the substrate materials. This emission is detected with an energy-dispersive detector.
Using the appropriate electronics, it is possible to register only the emission from the coating material or from the
substrate. It is also possible to selectively detect a specific coating when intermediate layers are present. Common
applications include printed circuit boards, electronic components, jewelry, and optical components.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to acknowledge the work of a colleague, Peter Neumaier of Helmut-Fischer GmbH & Co. KG
(Sindelfingen, Germany) on the portion of this article that covers measurement of paint thickness over galvanized
coatings and over aluminum substrates.
Throughout the history of most building properties and plant operations, some degree of
corrosion at the outside surface of the chill and cold water piping will occur. Surface pipe
corrosion can range from cosmetic and mild, to severe and system debilitating. Corrosion
under insulation, CUI as it is known, is generally a long term problem taking decades to
develop. This partially explains its low priority in most building and plant maintenance
plans and procedures.
The presence of condensation at the outer pipe wall produces much the same corrosive
effects typically associated with interior pipe corrosion, except that microbiological attack
rarely occurs. In extreme cases, condensation will build up to the point where the
insulation becomes completely saturated with water. Generalized corrosion, excess
surface pitting, as well as the deterioration and failure of the insulation itself, usually
results. Although presumed to be a long term problem, under certain conditions, exterior
corrosion can produce noticeable effect within 10 years.
While fiberglass, foam, and other forms of insulation serve to provide important protection
against unwanted heat transfer, their equal or more important function for cold water
systems is to prevent the migration and condensation of moisture onto the outer pipe
surface. Such function is rarely considered, however, in the selection of cold water piping
insulation, and standard insulation tables provide recommended thickness values
dependent mostly upon pipe diameter.
The thinner the insulation, the greater the transfer of both heat and moisture to the
pipe surface, and therefore the greater the resulting corrosion problem. Even installing 2
in. or thicker fiberglass insulation, although excellent at reducing heat transfer losses, is
often not itself sufficient to prevent the infiltration of moisture and condensation at a cold
pipe surface.
Moisture easily migrates to the surface of the smaller diameter piping - where multiple
turns, connections, and fixtures such as valves, strainers, and gauges make an effective
insulation job difficult, if not impossible. Any crack or sealing failure then becomes an
entry point for moisture to permeate under the insulation and travel along the pipe
surface for significant distance.
In many examples, therefore, the larger diameter main piping will show little or no
surface deterioration, whereas the smaller distribution and run-out lines will rest near the
point of failure. Identifying small diameter pipe where corrosion has completely worn
away the exterior threads is not at all unusual.
The previous use of hard formed insulation, decades ago, was extremely effective at
isolating the cold pipe surface from outside moisture. Commonly used fiberglass
insulation of today, which offers a semi-permeable cloth or paper outer covering, provides
no real moisture barrier, however, and requires additional steps such as coating or
painting over the insulation in order to stop a corrosion problem. Other preventative
steps are also often necessary.
For inside locations, exterior corrosion is dependent upon a combination of the thickness and
condition of the insulation, the water temperature, and the relative humidity in the area.
Generally, corrosion will be much more severe at the supply side piping simply due to the
presence of lower pipe surface temperatures - typically lower by a factor of 10 º F.
Depending upon the humidity level present, it is not unusual to find a 55 º F. chill water
return line free of any surface corrosion while the 45 º F. supply side pipe has been
severely pitted and deteriorated. Likewise, the same chill water supply line may show high
pitting in a more humid mechanical room or steam room area, and none at all once it
passes into an air conditioned tenant space having less relative humidity.
Brine and ammonia refrigeration systems, or those operating at 35 º F. and below, are
most susceptible to outer surface corrosion. Heavy insulation to limit the travel of
moisture, and a strong preventative coating at the pipe itself to serve as a moisture
barrier, are necessary to counter the threat from such low temperatures.
The humidity level is often the most critical factor, and we have documented
condensation and the complete destruction of condenser water pipe at 95 º F. where it has
traveled through a heavily moisture saturated steam station area. The higher the moisture
content, the less cold is needed to create an exterior corrosion problem.
Unlike interior pipe corrosion which can never be stopped, and which exists due to a complex
variety of physical and chemical causes, piping failures due to the extreme outer corrosion
of chill and cold water systems are almost totally preventable. Such failures are generally
attributed to inadequate or neglected maintenance, and/or the failure to inspect for and
recognize such corrosion problems.
Chill water pipes are not the only victims of such outer surface corrosion. A common
occurrence in steel domestic house tank evaluations is to find extreme outer corrosion at
the bottom or underside surfaces. Here, inaccessibility often prevents adequate coating or
painting. For the same reason that it is out of sight and therefore out of mind, normal
maintenance to the side walls is rarely performed at the bottom surface. See Technical
Bulletin C-6 for more information about corrosion at domestic water tanks.
The below photo gallery dramatically illustrates the ultimate consequence of

inadequate pipe insulation and/or maintenance.
Exterior Wall Loss - This 1-1/2 in. Slow Deterioration - 25 years of high
Schedule 80 black pipe chill humidity conditions
water supply line was effectively penetrated the
identified as having an insulation to slowly cause a
outer corrosion rate of severe external corrosion
approximately 4 times that condition. Extensive rust
of the water side, and an removal, painting, and re-
existing wall thickness well insulation was required.
below minimum acceptable
standards - at Surprisingly, sufficient
approximately 0.089 in. remaining wall thickness
yielded an acceptable
All evidence of threads, remaining service life of 25
0.073 in. deep for this size more years at this 8 in. chill
pipe, have been completely pipe.
corroded away.
Generalized Corrosion - Severe Condensation - This shows the very
external corrosion actually early stages of a future
produced a uniform layer of external corrosion problem.
rust product of Here, the use of 1 in. of
approximately 1/2 in. thick. fiberglass insulation over a
In this case, a general 12 in. chill supply pipe at 44
ultrasonic piping evaluation º F. almost totally saturated
discovered this condition, as the insulation with water in
well as showed it was a only 5 years.
uniform loss and not a
pitting condition. Random areas of mild
corrosion were found and
Acceptable wall thickness re-insulation with heavier
remained and the pipe was material was performed.
coated and re-insulated.
Deep Pitting - Corrosion from Small Fixtures - Small pipe fixtures

exterior sources can take such as pressure and
the route of general temperature gauges, and
corrosion to deep localized instrument transmitters, are
pitting - similar to interior at special risk. This is due to
pipe problems. 10 years of the difficulty of insulating
service at this Ammonia them, their inherently thin
plant produce random and pipe wall, and to losses
deep 0.150 in. pits along the suffered when threaded.
top of this pipe.
Failed Insulation - Cold water piping Waterlogged - Opening chill water
will attract area moisture insulation, where the
through any paper or cloth insulation has failed, will
covered insulation to often reveal a saturaged
condense on its surface. interior. This water content
Once saturating the represents an untrested
insulation itself, the water condition to the pipe
moisture will often produce exterior, and wil inevitably
droplets at its exterior. cause failure.
Insulation Failure - Under insulation Tank Corrosion - Most cold domestic

corrosion is often due to a water tanks suffer a similar
combination of insulation condensation problem at
failure itself and cold pipe their outer surface, and
temperatures. It may also especially at the lower areas
be due to insulation failure and bottom of the tank
alone - which is an where the cold water
important distinction. stratifies.
A greater threat exists for Protection of the tank is

cold water pipe since entirely dependant on
insulation damage is not coating effectiveness, and
necessary, nor is the severe pitting can occur of
corrosion limited to any not addressed
local area as shown above. appropriately.
Random Deep Pitting - Pitting offers Foam Insulation - Severe corrosion
much greater threat since activity is well known to
the corrosion activity is occur under closed cell foam
focused against specific piping insulation. Such is
areas like a drill bit - rather often used to protect the
than the entire surface. smallest runout piping and
small fixtures.
Whereas a generalized
exterior corrosion rate of 2- No clear reason is
3 MPY can often be understood, but under
tolerated, a pitting rate of certain conditions, foam
10-15 MPY will certainly insulation seems to react
produce a piping failure if with steel and copper to
undetected or ignored. produce the above result.
Return Side Corrosion - This set of Supply Side Corrosion - The supply
photographs offers a good side pipe of the chill water
side by side comparison of loop shows severe pitting,
the much greater damage to with an estimated depth of
supply side chill water penetration into the pipe of
piping which normally about 0.150 in.
occurs when the insulation
is inadequate, and surface Given that this is only 2 in.
temperatures sufficiently extra heavy pipe having a
cold. measurable remaining wall
thickness in other areas of
This set of supply and under 0.200 in., no possible
return pipes existed parallel service life remains.
to each other and are Ultrasonic testing cannot be
identically insulated, yet the performed due to its rough
return side pipe shows surface conditions.
much less exterior
corrosion.
General Neglect - This chill water Imminent Failure - Such small pipe
main supply pipe, located in sections are always at the
a steam station area, greatest threat. They are the
showed a severe most difficult to insulate,
deterioration due to a have gaps for air to easily
complete lack of insulation infiltrate, and are usually
in many areas. insulated with very thin
materials.
Building management
contracted ultrasonic testing In addition, more than 60%
in order to determine its of the original pipe is
condition, and when found usually cut away while
to still have an acceptable threading, which is usually
wall thickness, rust for the purpose of attaching
removal, painting and a brass valve - a source of
insulation plans were galvanic activity.
abandoned.
Waterlogged Insulation - A good view Rust Layering - Like interior rust
of water saturated deposits, corrosion created
fiberglass insulation. This by a water condition at the
recently installed chill water exterior of a pipe often
piping was found to have results in a buildup of
the beginning of a serious multiple layers of rust.
exterior rusting problem
after only one year in In most cases this represents
service. a general or milder wall loss
- which is actually
Found at its beginning preferable to pitting type
stages, mostly in the more exterior corrosion which
humid mechanical areas, produces deep and localized
painting and re-insulation deterioration.
was the only option.
Waterlogged - Very severe exterior Missing Insulation - A not uncommon

corrosion was found under problem often caused by the
previously installed difficulty in insulating
fiberglass insulation after 25 certain piping areas. Here,
years. The pipe was re- straight runs of pipe were
insulated with foam insulated while elbows, tees,
insulation as a suggestion to and valves were not.
better prevent moisture
condensation. Relatively minor rust was
found under the insulated
Following two weeks of pipe, but bare sections
operation, the foam showed high corrosion and
insulation was opened and moderate pitting.
found to be completely
flooded with water.
External Leak - A slow leak over Deep Cratering - Severe pitting of this
years at the packing gland water storage tank was
for a top mounted valve revealed during a general
produced devastating losses ultrasonic examination.
at this domestic hot water Produced due to an external
tank. The insulation leak which was not
provided some concealment addressed for many years,
for the problem, but this tank showed up to 80%
eventually deteriorated deterioration in this
completely. localized area.
A failure to address this Welding a secondary

corrosion problem resulted containment plate over this
in significantly greater wall localized area was
loss. recommended.
Insulation Failure - A combination of Inside vs. Outside - These chill water

thin 1 in. fiberglass pipe cutouts provide an
insulation, high humidity, ideal comparison of interior
no vapor barrier, and cold and exterior corrosion. At
chill water supply the left we can see the
temperatures produced exterior surface having been
severe pitting at this pipe pitted due to a failure of the
surface. fiberglass insulation.
Removal of the exterior rust At the right shows the

revealed heavy overall wall interior surface covered
loss with deep pitting of up with a light coating of iron
to 0.050 in. Such conditions oxide. Overall wall
can only be addressed by thickness is acceptable, and
thoroughly removing the a comparison of inside and
rust and applying an outside surface conditions
effective coating prior to re- shows that the effect of
insulation. exterior corrosion has been
the major deteriorating
factor.
Deep Pitting - Exterior corrosion is Minor Wall Loss - Looks can always
often at random, and will be deceiving where external
heavily attack steel pipe in pipe rust is concerned.
one area, to the exclusion of While it does strongly
the rest. Typically, there is suggest a threat, a covering
no clear reason for the of rust may, in fact, only
localized attack, as present a cosmetic concern.
demonstrated by the Actual loss is often related
vertical pipe example. to the inherent corrosion
resistance of the steel.
The removal of the exterior
rust in this sample showed At the above example,
generally mild corrosion removing the rust coating
attack except along one only produced a very minor
vertical plane. In the area degree of pitting and no
shown above, surface significant wall loss.
micrometer measurements Nevertheless, all exterior
found deep channels of wall rust should be addressed as
loss of up to 0.075 in. a serious potential threat.
The first step toward protecting against outer pipe wall corrosion is to find out if it exists, and
to what extent - a step requiring some investigative effort. Recommended prime locations
to remove samples of insulation for inspection are high humidity areas such as steam
rooms, shaftways, mechanical rooms, open areas, and rooftop or other locations exposed
to the elements. In many examples, water will migrate through the insulation to produce a
noticeable watermark stain or crystallization at the surface.
Supply side piping should be checked first. Hard shell older style insulation, or
insulation which is hand formed of plaster or similar materials is usually very effective at
holding back any moisture from penetrating, and is especially effective for small diameter
pipe. Standard unpainted paper or cloth covered fiberglass, on the other hand, provides
virtually no barrier to moisture, and is always a high priority location to check. When
painted, fiberglass insulation can be effective at retarding moisture penetration - this
depending upon the composition of the coating and its mil thickness. A single coat of paint
is generally not sufficient.
Old style cork insulation, still in use from years ago at the oldest building properties,
actually attracts moisture, and has been shown to cause the most severe cases of outer
pipe corrosion we have seen.
While foam type piping insulation is convenient to apply, it too has been shown to fail
in preventing the migration of moisture to the pipe surface. Painting foam insulation is
generally not an option. In addition, a recognized chemical reaction between the
components of the foam and the pipe itself has been cited in the literature as greatly
accelerating pipe surface corrosion.
Broken, missing, crushed and other damaged sections of insulation will obviously lead
to outer pipe corrosion problems, and should be repaired or replaced as soon as it is
discovered. Missing insulation can be frequently found at transitions through walls and
floors, or in areas of heavy traffic.
A high amount of outer corrosion can be typically found at smaller diameter pipe simply due to
the inherent difficulty of insulating its many elbows, tees, valves, strainers, and other
small piping components. Unfortunately, it is also that smaller diameter piping which has
a thinner initial wall, and which is substantially weakened by the amount of metal cut
away during the threading process. Small diameter pipe requires little outer corrosion,
therefore, to create a failure condition. See Technical Bulletin # P-1 about the effect of
wall loss in threaded applications.
Our standard recommendation to ensure against moisture caused outer pipe corrosion
is to install 2 in. or heavier fiberglass pipe insulation on all cold water pipe of 50 º F. and
below. In addition, a high solids paint, epoxy coating, or hard shell outer covering, sealed
thoroughly at all seams, is critically important in order to resist moisture penetration.
Since the surface of the pipe which is insulated is never seen, it is almost never painted.
As a result, any moisture which may accumulate at the pipe surface is able to attack
completely unprotected steel. As a precaution against such possibility, CVI recommends
painting all cold water piping with a strong rust preventative coating prior to being
insulated. This is a very worthwhile precaution to specify in any new piping construction
if long term and trouble free operation is desired.
The following list offers some worthwhile recommendations for providing the maximum heat
transfer efficiency and condensation protection of any insulated chill or cold water piping
system:
• Install heavier installation. Piping specifications generally require 1”

thick insulation for 12 inch black pipe chill/cold water systems at 70% relative
humidity. At 80% relative humidity, 2” thick insulation is specified. Consult
your insulation supplier or contractor. Consider the humidity conditions of the
area the pipe will travel through.
• Maintain a good moisture barrier at the outer pipe surface. Require

smooth seals and joints throughout the entire installation in order to prevent
moisture penetration. Stapled insulation, without being sealed, is a prime cause
of insulation failure.
• Install a secondary metal, PVC, or other hard vinyl outer jacketing over
the existing insulation. Overlap and seal the adjoining sections using a bead of
silicone or other waterproof adhesive.
• Protect all insulation from physical damage. Provide steps and bridges
over insulation in high traffic areas. Caution staff against standing on
insulated pipe. Repair all cuts and rips in the insulation immediately.
• Apply an isolating seal of mastic or other waterproofing material at

regular intervals between sections of insulation. This is especially important for
outdoor locations. Should a breakdown at a particular area of insulation occur
for any reason, the resulting condensation and water will be prevented from
migrating throughout the adjoining insulation and piping.
• Apply a good quality rust preventative coating to the base piping as soon
as it is in place, and prior to insulating. Paint around the entire pipe
circumference.
• Migrating Vapor Corrosion Inhibitors (VCI) may be applicable to retard

corrosion at already insulated piping which is known to have a corrosion
problem, and cannot be immediately addressed.
• Paint the insulation immediately after it is installed as a moisture

barrier. A initial heavy coating of paint will penetrate the semi-permeable cloth
or paper covering of the insulation to further protect against moisture
migration. Require that the entire circumference of all piping is covered in
order to seal the entire surface.
• Insulated piping located outside exists under even greater threat from
insulation failure due to varying environmental conditions. This places even
more importance upon the above recommendations.
Some latest nondestructive testing technology does exist that can scan through piping insulation
quickly and effectively to identify any hidden corrosion problem. This is best to contract
as a service, and is an extremely cost effective means to safeguard against the above
problems. Other sensing devices can detect waterlogged insulation and rust deposits at
both the inside and outside of the pipe.
CorrView International recommends these and any other preventative measures as a

means to avoid this devastating but very avoidable operating problem.
Numerous causes will result in the failure of a threaded pipe connection - a moderate to high corrosion
rate being often responsible. One fundamental and very obvious reason, of course, is the threading
process itself - which removes 50% or more of the pipe wall beginning day one. See Technical
Bulletin # P-1 about the effect of wall loss in threaded applications.
Other less common reasons include the failure of the thread sealant, poor machining of the
threads, poor quality of the pipe or fittings, vibration, stress, improper assembly, or excessive
operating pressures beyond design. In many cases, a metallurgical analysis may be required to
identify the exact failure mechanism.
A major cause of thread failure within a building or process plant environment is galvanic corrosion -
where the carbon steel pipe directly meets a brass valve, or is transitioned to copper pipe. Here,
the microvolt difference in electrical potential of the metals will produce a small current between
them - the result of which is to greatly accelerate the deterioration of the more reactive and often
termed "less noble" carbon steel pipe.
In effect, an extremely small DC electrical circuit is created, with the steel pipe serving as the
anode, the brass fitting or copper pipe acting as the cathode, and the water serving as a weak wire
connection completing the circuit. In simplest terms, a very weak battery is created.
"Galvanic" corrosion occurs between any two dissimilar metals in contact with each other and
water, and typically attacks the steel pipe to a degree somewhat dependent upon existing
corrosion conditions. Galvanic corrosion is, in fact, defined as an electrochemical reaction of two
dissimilar metals in the presence of an electrolyte, typically water, and where a conductive path
exists. It is visually recognizable in its latter stages by some degree of deposit buildup where the
dissimilar metals meet at the threads - creating a microfine leak. At that point, however, most of
the damage has already occurred and replacement is required.
The presence of chemical water treatment, since it works by inhibiting the electrical pathway of the
corrosion process itself, can be very effective at slowing down a galvanic condition. Substantial
differences in the effectiveness to slow a galvanic corrosion condition may exist between different
chemical treatment programs, and even the most well maintained program can still result in
threaded joint failures.
Galvanic corrosion is, however, far less likely to cause problems where chemical corrosion
control is very well maintained, and where uniform corrosion rates of 1 MPY or less exist. A
piping system having a low general corrosion rate will often show no evidence of any galvanic
condition at the hundreds of carbon steel to brass valves normally in service. CVI has documented
hundreds of examples where no greater wall loss could be found at direct steel to brass valve
connections even after many decades. Closed piping systems, almost by definition as having
corrosion rates of 1 MPY or less, rarely show problems attributable to galvanic activity - moving
the greatest concern always to open cooling tower systems and process plants.
In contrast, a problem condition at the pipe threads caused primarily by a high corrosion rate
will be substantially accelerated due to galvanic activity - thereby turning an already bad situation
even worse. In many cases, blame is incorrectly placed upon the direct steel to brass connection as
the source of problems, when a high corrosion environment is fundamentally at fault.
The cause of a thread leak can often be identified by a close look at the threads themselves. The
failure of multiple sections of threaded pipe at steel to steel joints such as at elbows, tees, and
reducing bushings, without a significant increase of failures at the steel to brass or copper joints,
always suggests a moderate to high corrosion condition as the fundamental cause. This is
especially common for cooling tower or open process water piping.
Conversely, observing multiple examples of corrosion products at only the brass valved side of
a thread nipple would indicate that galvanic activity is the major force involved. In many cases,
however, a leak condition will involve some combination of both galvanic activity and normal
corrosion losses.
Pipe schedule is very important wherever threaded piping is involved, and heavier schedule 80 pipe is
always recommended where a higher corrosion rate might be expected - such as at a steam
condensate or condenser water system. Schedule 80 should be specified exclusively for any
threaded pipe serving a cooling tower or open process water system due to the higher corrosion
rates commonly found today - this regardless of system operating pressure. Should a galvanic
condition exist, heavier pipe will offer longer service life to a degree again greatly dependent upon
corrosion activity.
Age is also an important factor - since even a moderate corrosion rate will not protect a
decades old piping system from thread failure. A section of 2 in. schedule 40 pipe having an initial
wall thickness of 0.154 in., less its thread cut of 0.085 in., leaves only 0.069 in. of available pipe
wall for service over its entire lifetime. At a moderate corrosion rate of 3 MPY, such pipe will last
roughly 20 years before completely wearing through. Yet, the first signs of leakage can be
expected years earlier - normally as the interior wall wears roughly to within 15-25 mils of the
threads.
Internal pressure is still another factor. While plant process piping may vary greatly in
pressure, cooling water systems usually operate at low to moderate pressures. Higher operating
pressures exceeding 300 PSI rarely exist except at many high rise commercial office properties -
but add greatly to the leak potential of any threaded connection in such applications. Therefore,
failures of any lower level threaded piping should not be assumed an isolated event, but rather a
preview of a system wide weakness that will extend to the upper floor areas given sufficient time.
The below gallery of threaded pipe failures are due primarily to the galvanic action of the brass
or copper attacking the carbon steel pipe. Brass to steel problems far outweigh that of copper to
steel. For the overwhelming majority of examples shown, a high corrosion condition exceeding 5
MPY was also found - greatly accelerating the galvanic effect.
A general rule to follow is that the worse a leak site looks, the worse it probably is. Once a
pinhole leak is produced at the threads as shown below, the leak often temporarily seals itself.
High corrosion is still proceeding its course, however, and should not be assumed to have stopped
or slowed. The consequences of a 2 in. line failure operating at 200 PSI can be devastating to any
building property or plant operation in terms of water damage, and dictates the need to
immediately address any such problems found.
Galvanic activity is well recognized as a serious potential threat to any piping system. Generally, the use
of electrically isolating fittings, called dielectrics, are specified in the design and construction plans
for all connections between dissimilar metals at most piping systems. In reality, however,
dielectric fittings are rarely found - a fact only revealed years after construction when a decade or
more of advanced wall loss has taken place.
CorrView International recommends establishing a strict specification for the use of dielectric fittings,
as well as a close review of all construction work to ensure their proper installation. (The bottom
right side photo represents an inproper installation of the dielectric installed between the brass
valve and copper pipe, rather than between brass and black steel. Attack is always from the brass
or copper metal against the steel, and this is where electrical isolation must exist.
Direct connections of dissimilar metals should be upgraded wherever possible to include

dielectric fittings even though no external indication of a galvanic problem may exist.

CORROSION Uniform Corrosion

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CORROSION Uniform Corrosion

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CORROSION

O2 + 2H2O + 4e = 4OH- (3)

• Use thicker materials for corrosion allowance

What is galvanic corrosion? Galvanic corrosion or Bimetallic

In this photo, a 5-mm thick aluminum alloy plate is physically (and

Copper and steel.

• Select metals/alloys as close together as possible in the galvanic series.

Dezincification is the selective leaching of zinc from zinc-

Dezincification - Typical surface deposit resulting from the

The damage is normally confined to one metal at localized area

What causes crevice corrosion? Crevice corrosion is initiated by a

Crevice corrosion is a consequence of concentration

Filiform corrosion of tin-coated steel

• Control the relative huminidy

ASTM-G46 has a standard visual chart for rating of pitting corrosion.

Pitting is suspected to occur in much the same way crevice corrosion

Alloy blends with more than 2% Molybdenum show better

• Proper selection of materials with known resistance to the service environment

Pitting Corrosion - The presence of one repair clamp

What is intergranular corrosion? Intergranular corrosion is sometimes also called "intercrystalline

• Use low carbon (e.g. 304L, 316L) grade of stainless steels

On the left, a piece of stainless steel (especially suspectible to

What is knife-line attack? Knife-Line Attack (KLA) is a form

How to prevent exfoliation corrosion? Exfoliation corrosion can be prevented through:

• The use of coatings

What is MIC? Microbiologically-Influenced Corrosion (MIC), also known as microbial corrosion or

Microbiologically influenced corrosion in a 316 stainless steel weld

Many industries are affected by MIC:

Positive identification of microbiologically influenced corrosion requires chemical, biological and

How to prevent MIC? Microbiologically influenced corrosion, or microbial corrosion or biological

• Regular mechanical cleaning if possible

Erosion-corrosion arises from a

Stess corrosion can result from the combination of an applied

The stresses can be a result of service loads, or can be caused by

Sulphide stress cracking

Inter granular SCC of an Inconel heat exchanger tube

CSCC occurred on Condenser tube

Inter granular SCC of a pipe

CUI- Corrosion Under Insulation

MIC- Microbiological Influenced Corrosion

THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF CORROSION

How Corrosion Forms

Concentration Cell Corrosion

Oxygen Concentration Cell Corrosion

Metal Ion Concentration Cells

Active/Passive Corrosion Cells

CORROSION AND THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL INFLUENCE

AIRCRAFT TROUBLE ZONES

high strength steels

THE ROLE OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Magnetic Particle Testing

Eddy Current Testing

[ Back to October 2003 ]

[ Back to October 2003 ]

Figure 3 - Blisters and corrosion

Crevice corrosion at rivets

Crevice corrosion on aircraft

Close-up picture showing the severity of corrosion

Galvanic Corrosion of Mounting Bracket

F-16 Aircraft Main Fuel Shutoff Valve

Corrosion of failsafe module

Support frame galvanic corrosion damage

Galvanic corrosion (also called dissimilar metal corrosion) refers to