Year

Idea/Innovation/Theory/Event

19752014

Since Ronald Regan, both Republican and

Democratic presidents have endorsed American
schools as part of a business strategy, directing
federal education officials to support it as such

People
Involved

Publication

Citation

Larry
Cuban

Class
notes,
09/25/14

Ken
Goodman

Class
notes,
10/09/14

Among the civic, academic, and moral goals

that have historically guided tax-supported
public schools, one became primary: preparing
students for the ever-changing workplace.
Fearing foreign competition for their share of
the global market, they turned to schools to
develop an efficient workforce that would give
American international trade an edge and
ultimately fuel prosperity. In both cases, these
reformers believed that schools should be
modeled after the corporation and the
marketplace.
Progressive measures became common in the
1980s and 90s, but have since faded again
1970s- Tensions between supporters for whole
1980
language v. phonics-dominant skillsmanagement pedagogies reignite reading wars
debate over appropriate approaches to reading
instruction

Dewitz, et.
al., 2014, p.
214

Again, echoes progressive v. scientific approach

1970s- Increasing role of multiculturalism in books,
1980s although most publications excluded
representation of disabled persons and did not
contain meaningful cultural themes or author
perspective until the following decade

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
25

1976

IDEAseparate is not equal

Class
notes,
10/09/14

1977

Prichert & Anderson publish a study concerning

prior knowledge and its connection to

Prichert
and

Sears,
2006, p. 29

19781981

individuals perceptions of what is read and

heard

Anderson

Comprehension instruction component of basal

readers is closely examined by Durkin, who
determines through her studies of classrooms
that a large discrepancy exists between
instruction and practice

Dolores
Durkin

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
22

1980s- Literature-based era; two revolutions influenced

1990s content and methods:
1) Rise of cognitive/psycholinguistics
becomes conversation about rich
interactive language process v. sequence
of skills
2) Equality/civil rightsconcern for
individual and authenticity

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
25
Sears,
2006, p. 33

Integration of reading and writing becomes

standard practice
Compared to 1980s, programs in mid-1990s had
more diversity in genre, format and vocabulary
o Addition of leveled and
decodable text to supplement
literature-based anthology
o Instructional design replaced
directed reading with shared
reading
1982

The Ginn Reading Program demonstrates

transition between skills-based era and soon-tocome literature based programs
Basal programs become more explicit
about reading skills instruction, but
struggle to integrate skills component
with guided reading portion

1984

The Becoming a Nation of Readers mandate

took aim at disseminating information about
reading to the public--parents, school board
members, textbook publishers, test makers, and
legislators--as well as to teachers and school
personnel, covering a wide range of reading
issues

Ginn and
Company

The Ginn
Reading
Program

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
23

The Report
of the
Commission
on Reading

Class
notes,
10/09/14

Although earlier reports were aimed at

influencing teachers and school officers, they
were written in forms that only primarily
reached the academic community
1985

Clay creates Reading Recovery, a program that

offered one-on-one tutoring sessions for those
struggling to read after one year of formal
instruction

1987

The state of California releases guidelines which

codified desired content for basal readers, which
demonstrated influence of language-based
strategies, reader-response theory and whole
language

19891993

Dominant program: World of Reading

Quality literature, strong marketing
campaign, striking covers
Comprehension skills instructions with
direct explanations than previous
program
Use of model: expert and novice
instructional guides
Use of reader-selected texts supported
evidence from Atwells 1987 study
showing a positive relationship between
reader success and personal interest
Researchers found fault with lack of
opportunity for practice
o Didnt facilitate application at
high cognitive level
o Lack of recommended
explicitness

Marie Clay

Sears,
2006, p. 33

California
Reading
Language
Arts
Framework

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
26

Silver
Burdett
Ginn

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
26

Nancy
Atwell

Sear, 2006,
p. 33

1990s- Curricula incorporate both skills and strategies,

2014
but not clear in distinguishing between the two
Different labeling for same mental
activity
Piecemeal, overly complex, confusing
structure
1990s- Examination of four commercial reading
Adams
2000
programs from mid-1990s
(1990)
o Explicit instruction of
strategies for identifying main Hoffman,

Dewtiz, et.
al., 2014, p.
214

Beginning
to Read
(1990)

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
22

ideas
o Flawed sequence of
instruction: complex version
of idea to identification of
main idea
Insufficient practice of
strategies
o Texts above students reading
level
Long series of studies on phonemic awareness
and beginning reading instruction become
influential
Use of texts studied in first grade
Attempts to achieve balance between
literature-based programs and phonics
emphasis
Vocabulary is a hot topic in highstakes testing environment
NRP issues the five pillars of reading
education in 2000, based on its own highlycontrolled experimental evidence
Stressed phonemic awareness, phonics,
fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension
o Research-based instructional
strategies for each
o Did not address oral language
development, motivation, or
effective classroom
management
processes/differentiation
2000s

et. al.,
(1994,
1998)
Snow,
Burns and
Griffin
(1998)
National
Reading
Panel
(2000)

Preventing
Reading
Difficulties
(1998)

Sears,
2006, p. 40

Five pillars
of effective
reading
instruction
(2000)

HoughtonMifflin
Macmillan/
McGrawHill
Scott
Foresman
Silver
Burdett
Ginn

Issues surrounding digital literacies in focus

RAND report (reader, text, task and content)

Class
notes,
10/09/14

20002014

Transition from term basal to core reading

program demonstrates modern shift toward
one-in-all teaching curricula

Dewtiz, et.
al., 2014, p.
214

2001

The No Child Left Behind Act passes in

Congress, requiring all federally-funded schools
to administer standardized tests, among other
provisions

George W.
Bush

NCLB

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
32

Aimed at reducing achievement gap for lowSES students, but did not take into account the
populations unique challenges
2009

There are just five major core reading programs,

published by just three companies

2014

UW is at the forefront of brain research that is

discovering what happens inside the brain as
young children learn to speak, listen, read and
write and, in particular, how to help older
children who struggle with those skills
Prior research showed that after dyslexic
children received specialized reading/writing
instruction, those brain differences often
disappeared and reading and writing improved

Journeys

University
of
Washingto
n, Ginger
Berninger,
Patricia
Kuhl and
Todd
Richards

Up next: explore changes in more detail to see if

computerized reading/writing instruction can
normalize activity of different parts of the
brain and connections between them

Analysis: Individuals OR Group: Create an analysis of trends that you see (and
dont see). What does this mean? Stahl has stated that he sees a 100-year cycle in
instruction. What do you see? Why do you think this occurs? What should our
response be? Finally, how might knowing the foundations of literacy impact your
thinking, instruction, and research? Add this to the bottom of your page.
Caitlin's Analysis: 1975-2014
Looking across the entire timeline of literacy instruction history in the
United States, the reoccurring tension between progressivism and
scientific thinking impresses me the most. Based on the re-ignition of
Horace Mann's "reading wars" throughout the 19th, 20th and now 21st
centuries, it becomes obvious that, excluding the damages done to entire
populations suffering from exclusionary treatment based on race, religion
or gender, the method itself of instruction does not seem to drastically
affect the outcome of a successfully literate citizenry.
I analyzed in particular the most recent period, from 1975-2014 and found

Dewitz, et.
al., 2010, p.
21
The Seattle
Times,
09/21/14

that understanding the historical foundations of literacy impacts my

thinking in a modern context, particularly in instruction and research in
profound ways. First of all, I find the cyclical nature of determining the
best approach to instruction very telling; as we see in the National
Reading Panels five pillars (stressed phonemic awareness, phonics,
fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension), the value placed on researchbased models for instruction are still valued. Furthermore, after No Child
Left Behind solidified the presence of a high-stakes testing environment,
quantifiably results-driven instruction has become the norm.

If reading instruction does indeed follow a 100-year cycle as Stahl asserts,

I would infer that we have simply just entered a new era of recycled issues,
those that bare the consequences of Cubans American public education.
This leaves educators with the difficult task of addressing competing
issues once again; in other words, it seems as though the common vision
of what reading instruction should look like in the next decade has
struggled to ascertain what balance between a more holistic approach
and meeting the demands of a competitive, business-oriented workplace
really looks like, much as previous periods have. Although the social
issues and context surrounding education have evolved and changed, the
core issue remains similar.
According to Larry Cuban, both Republican and Democratic presidents
have endorsed United States schools as part of a business strategy since
the time of Ronald Reagans presidency, even going so far as to direct
federal education officials to support it in tangible measures as such.
Cuban points out that tax-supported public schools have been historically
guided by the values meant to prepare citizens to be functional in the everchanging landscape of the American workplace, and that the pressure to
view education from this perspective has been exacerbated by a growing
fear of foreign competition in a rapidly globalizing market. Modeling
schools after the marketplace would imply that certain tenets of business
were/are already present and influential in public education, as Cuban
asserts (Class notes, 09/25/14).

A response to this particular dominant educational approach came in the

form of mainstream progressive measures common in the 1980s and 90s,

which have since faded again. For example, vocational courses,

associated almost exclusively with progressivism, were offered in this
decade but are now virtually non-existent in todays schools (Class notes,
09/25/14). Again, the tension between progressivism and the scientific
approach to literacy is applied to the new era.

As of 2014, forty-three states have begun to implement the reading

instruction standards of the Common Core, a nation-wide initiative for
national academic achievement (www.commoncore.org). The
reverberations of Horace Manns reading wars have not ceased, and yet
it almost seems as though the business model of education struggles to
make a case as brain research reveals the highly unique ways that
individuals acquire literacy. While researchers and educators may name
the highly complex nature of teaching literacy in our diverse society today,
operationalizing effective pedagogy to suit its demands is still challenging
in many ways that have hardly changed over the course of our entire
timeline, and our response might be to look further beneath the
foundations of our history to look with fresh eyes at the same issues,
instead of ever-relying on new understanding to bring us there.

Araldi 1

EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture

Comparison of Teaching Guides
Caitlin Araldi
November 20, 2014

Araldi 2

Introduction
As we have studied throughout this course, literacy instruction in the Untied States has been
significantly influenced by an evolution of theoretical and pedagogical approaches over time,
indicative of response to the socio-historical/socio-political/socio-cultural contexts in which their
educational goals were shaped. With exactly thirty years between their publication dates, this
comparison of teaching guides speaks to the evolution of these educational goals and values as
transmitted by two (of only five) publishing companies dominant at the end of twentieth century.
There are two guides being examined here, Ginn and Companys Barefoot Island (1982) and
Houghton Mifflin Harcourts Journeys (2012), which are reviewed in light of three main sections
of comparison: historical context; the roles of research, assessment, teacher and student in the
curriculum; and a concluding critical reflection, which focuses on the changes observed, as well
as the possible implications for the creation of future teaching guides in literacy instruction.

Program and Teaching Guide Overview

Ginn and Companys Barefoot Island (1982)
This reading program is written for instructing Grade 4, Level 11, and is described by the
publishers as composed of compact, clearly focused, four-step lesson plans that link
successful teaching to successful learning (Barefoot Island, p. T21). These four steps include:

Preparing for reading with specific strategies for decoding vocabulary and through
discussion of concepts critical to comprehension

Reading for comprehension, guided by purpose, strategies, questions and post-reading

activities and discussion

Developing reading skills through vocabulary, comprehension, decoding, life and study
skills

Extending reading skills, which suggests activities that are interdisciplinary and expand
upon selection comprehension/appreciation

Houghton Mifflin Harcourts Journeys (2012)

Journeys Common Core [2011-2012, Grade 4] is a literacy program designed around the
Common Core State Standards. By integrating the Standards into every lesson, the program

Araldi 3

enables educators to engage and educate students effectively and efficiently and ensures learner
success. With cutting-edge digital tools and a proven, results-driven core curriculum, the
Journeys Common Core reading and literacy program helps students soar like never before.
(http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/reading/core-readingprograms/journeys/features)
The Journeys reading program appears to implement the close reading approach to reading
comprehension favored by the creators of the Common Core Standards, offering controlled
vocabulary instruction integrated with targeted phonics instruction (rather than in opposition to
it). The following is the comprehension scope and sequence for Grade 4, Unit 1:

Lesson 1
o Skill: Theme
o Strategy: Analyze/Evaluate
o Authors Craft: Elements of Drama

Lesson 2
o Skill: Authors Purpose
o Strategy: Monitor/Clarify
o Authors Craft: Point of View

Lesson 3
o Skill: Cause and Effect
o Strategy: Visualize
o Authors Craft: Metaphor

Lesson 4
o Skill: Theme
o Strategy: Analyze/Evaluate
o Authors Craft: Elements of Drama

Lesson 5
o Skill: Understanding Characters
o Strategy: Infer/Predict
o Authors Craft: Hyperbole

Extending the Common Core

Araldi 4
o Comprehension

Compare and Contrast

Theme and Point of View

Compare Structural Elements

(http://www.hmhco.com/~/media/sites/home/education/global/pdf/scope-andsequence/reading/journeys-common-core/ScopeSequence-2011_Journeys-Level4.pdf)
It also outlines explicit Comprehension Skills and Strategy Instruction in the following ways:

Target Skills
o Authors Purpose
o Cause and Effect
o Character(s)
o Compare and Contrast
o Conclusions
o Details
o Main Idea and Details
o Sequence of Events
o Story Structure
o Text and Graphic Features

Target Strategies
o Analyze/Evaluate
o Infer/Predict
o Monitor/Clarify
o Question
o Summarize
o Visualize

Historical Context
The following chart shows a comparison of notable historical ideas, innovations, events, theories,
etc. that we can infer might have informed the content choices made by both reading programs at

Araldi 5

the time of their publication (what is italicized indicates a possible overlap or shift that affects
both):
Ginn and Company
Barefoot Island (1982)

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Journeys (2012)

Period/Year

Idea/Innovation/Event

Theorist Idea/Innovation/Event

1975-2014

Since Ronald Regan, both

Republican and
Democratic presidents
have endorsed American
schools as part of a
business strategy,
directing federal
education officials to
support it as such

Since Ronald Regan, both

Republican and
Democratic presidents
have endorsed American
schools as part of a
business strategy,
directing federal
education officials to
support it as such

Focus on preparing
students for the workplace,
fueled by fear of foreign
competition in a
globalizing economy (A
Nation At Risk)

Focus on preparing
students for the
workplace, fueled by fear
of foreign competition in a
globalizing economy
(A Nation At Risk)

1970s-1980

Tensions between
supporters for whole
language v. phonicsdominant skillsmanagement pedagogies
reignite Reading Wars
debate

1970s-1980s

Increasing role of
multiculturalism in books,
although most publications
excluded representation of
disabled persons and did
not contain meaningful
cultural themes or author
perspective until the
following decade

1978

Reading comprehension
becomes a central issue,

Ken
Goodman

Dolores
Durkin

Theorist

Araldi 6
seen as previously
neglected in instruction
Question of equating
comprehension with
assessment
1980s-1990s

1984

1987

Quality literature becomes

focal point of instruction

Donald
Graves

Quality literature becomes

focal point of instruction

Results from rise of

cognitive
study/psycholinguistics
(rich interactive language
process v. sequence of
skills)

Results from rise of

cognitive
study/psycholinguistics
(rich interactive language
process v. sequence of
skills)

Integration of reading and

writing becomes standard
practice

Integration of reading and

writing becomes standard
practice

Compared to 1980s,
programs in mid-1990s
had more diversity in
genre, format and
vocabulary

Compared to 1980s,
programs in mid-1990s
had more diversity in
genre, format and
vocabulary

Becoming A Nation of
Readers reports that
conclusive evidence from
leading experts suggests
that learning to read is not
accomplished through the
practice of isolated skills,
among other claims
The California Reading
Language Arts Framework
codifies desired content
for basal readers:
influences of languagebased strategies, readerresponse theory and whole
language
Long series of studies on

Adams,

Araldi 7
phonemic awareness and
beginning reading
instruction become
influential
1990s-2014

Reading guides focus on

incorporating both skills
and strategies, but are
often not clear in
distinguishing between the
two

2000s

Issues surrounding digital

literacies in focus
RAND report (reader,
text, task and content)

2000-2014

Transition from term

basal to core reading
program demonstrates
modern shift toward onein-all teaching curricula

2000

The National Reading

Panel issues the five
pillars of reading
education, based on its
own highly-controlled
experimental evidence
Stressed phonemic
awareness, phonics,
fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension

2001

The No Child Left Behind

Act passes in Congress,
requiring all federallyfunded schools to
administer standardized
tests, among other
provisions
Aimed at reducing
achievement gap for

Hoffman
et. al.,
Snow et.
al.

Araldi 8
low-SES students, but did
not take into account the
populations unique
challenges

Ginn and Companys Barefoot Island (1982)

While basal reading guides attempt to become more explicit about reading-skills instruction in
the 1980s in response to the push for a focus on reading comprehension initiated by Durkins
findings, they struggle to integrate these skills components successfully with quality guided
reading selections.
The Ginn Reading Program most clearly represents this transition from the almost exclusively
skills-based era of the previous decade and the soon-to-come literature-based programs of the
later 1980s-1990s (Dewitz, et. al., 2010, p. 23). Hot topics of the time are represented in their
goals for instruction, with an emphasis on supporting early independence in the construction of
meaning, primarily in a sequential way through skills acquisition and continued engagement with
the reading selections.
The roles of practical life and real world meaning are also important, with some reference to
the importance of content-specific reading. Some pictures of children from ethnic/racial
backgrounds, as well as the inclusion of some texts that take up multicultural contexts speak to
the push for greater representation seen in this period. While some of these measures are
progressive for its time, a continued reliance on leading experts, teacher-directed instruction,
continued emphasis on the acquisition of specific, sequentially-built skills and a lack of
meaningful differentiation or inclusion of contextualized multicultural elements prevents me
from categorizing the program completely as such.
In an introductory note to teachers, Robert Baker, President of Ginn and Company writes, By
utilizing techniques to determine teachers concerns towards a change in curriculum, we are now
prepared to offer continued service for an effective and rapid transition to a new program. By
delivering services that focus upon the individual first, and then the materials, we will insure
quality instruction for children while increasing your satisfaction in the teaching process

Araldi 9

(Barefoot Island, p. T4). Ginn and Company goes on to (re)define reading according to
standards as:

Decoding: offers methods for understanding vocabulary, also indicating that an emphasis
on phonics is important for early independence in reading
Comprehending the authors message: describes a planned sequence of skills
activities (Barefoot Island, p. T7) in which comprehension is emphasized in conjunction
with high quality reading selections

Evaluating ideas: values teaching to comprehend meaning, infer meaning from context,
and draw on personal experience

Using ideas: goal of transfer of skills to a wide variety of materials

Enjoyment: goal for students to learn to enjoy reading

The programs emphasis on developing decoding skills in the individual is the primary focus of
its instruction, along with vocabulary-for-meaning and advanced comprehension
development (Barefoot Island, p. T7). It claims to contain six critical characteristics:

Literary merit coupled with practical information

Promotion of thinking and reasoning skills

Maintaining interest through sixteen available levels of instructional rigor

Frequent informal assessment combined with a formal testing program

Level by level acquisition of skills

Highly specific, compact and predictable suggestions for implementing the program
(saves time and effort)

The Ginn Reading Program: everything you need to guide pupils through the basics and
beyond (Barefoot Island, 1982, p. T13)
Houghton Mifflin Harcourts Journeys (2012)
Not dissimilar to the challenges inherent in the transition from skills-based to literature-based
reading instruction experienced by Barefoot Island thirty years before, Journeys also attempts a
form of balanced literacy instruction in its program, but instead by primarily boasting a strong
research base (which does not actually manifest explicitly in the material). Additionally, the

Araldi 10

influence of the National Reading Panels recommendation for the inclusion of five components
of reading (phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension) is reflected
more explicitly in the publishers choices. Lastly, it is also shallowly socio-cultural in that it does
offer small sections for differentiated instruction for students of diverse representation, such as
English Language Learners (ELLs), as well as for students of varying levels of ability.
The role of assessment continues to take the greatest toll, however, as I noticed that while on one
hand, the program emphasizes its alignment with assessments corresponding to the Common
Core Standards; on the other, it attempts to push students to develop and engage in critical
thinking. While the latter effort might have the earmarks of a progressive paradigm, the
operationalization of the program does not necessarily afford all students the opportunity for
authentic and meaningful engagement with the material, ultimately equating assessment with
comprehension and placing the teacher in a transmission-of-information role.

Role of Research
Ginn and Companys Barefoot Island (1982)
This program offers a two page section entitled, Ginn Reading: The People and the Process
(Barefoot Island, pp. T8-T9) that outlines its content development process, involving various
authors, consultants, advisors, teacher reviewers and a national panel of supervisors. It is implied
that it is research-based in this way, but does not explicitly outline supporting evidence for its
decisions, nor does it list the specific contributions of those involved. The overall content does
seem to draw upon research such as Durkins, supporting comprehension and more balanced
literacy instruction, albeit indirectly.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourts Journeys (2012)
Cited from The Journeys Program: A Research-Based Approach written by Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt Publishers: The components of the program and the activities and strategies presented
throughout are based on current research and best instructional practice advocated by classroom
teachers, administrators, teacher educators, and policymakers alike. The Journeys program
provides students with the skills they need to succeed, preparing them ultimately for the high

Araldi 11

literacy demands of college and the workplace.

(http://www.doe.in.gov/sites/default/files/curriculum/research-based-approach.pdf)

Strand 1: Building Vocabulary

Strand 2: Supporting Comprehension

Strand 3: Using Effective Instructional Approaches

Strand 4: Teaching with Effective Texts

Strand 5: Connecting Writing and Reading

Strand 6: Meeting All Students Needs through Differentiation and Strategic

Intervention

It boasts research-base through the integration of the following categories: scaffolding, graphic
organizers, predictable routines, collaborative learning, whole-group and small-group instruction,
varied forms of communication, engagement and motivation
(http://www.doe.in.gov/sites/default/files/curriculum/research-based-approach.pdf)
Based on the fact that Houghton Mifflin Harcourt tightly controls the only openly accessible
research about the Journeys reading programs, it is difficult to have complete faith in the
representation of their research base, which is vague/incoherent overall:
o The Journeys Program: A Research-Based Approach frequently references
research studies (such as findings of the National Reading Panel in 2000) but they
seem to be used in a convenient sampling fashion, such that the actual proven
application of the evidence is not explicitly demonstrated; much of this material
appears watered-down and is not referenced directly
o The teachers edition of the program has an extensive Research Bibliography
(pp. R34-R38), which references scholarly articles on a wide range of supporting
topics. It does not, however, make any direct connections between its sources and
its rationale for practicethere is no explanation for how the material is
implemented in the program, or when and why its instructional design is
appropriately justified.
o It includes A Word from our authors at the start of the unit, which references
generalizations supposedly demonstrated by research, but does not cite any

Araldi 12
explicit evidence. The list of contributing authors lists information such as title,
affiliated institution and Research Contributions, which only names general
areas of research, not actual findings/publications (p. iv)

Role of Assessment and Testing

Ginn and Companys Barefoot Island (1982)
Assessment varies by level, and is broken down into informal Checkpoints throughout the unit,
in which immediate feedback is intended to assist all students meet and build upon instructional
goals. There are also Unit Tests, with optional pre- and post-testing, as well as re-testing. In
order to first place students at an appropriate level for comprehending the material, a Placement
Test is also available. The questions provided for these assessment pieces are not open-ended,
and are targeted toward specific, correct answers in order to sequence instruction. Additional
materials, such as Thinking Skills Worksheets are designed to reinforce and assess
understanding more informally.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourts Journeys (2012)
This program explicitly outlines the ways in which all of it assessments align with the Common
Core State Standards. It also includes a section called Test Preparation and Assessment that
outlines the programs 5 Steps for Success (Journeys, pp. xiv-xv):

Where Do I Start?: includes resources for a Comprehensive Screening Assessment and

Diagnostic Assessment, which are administered in both group and individual contexts

Every Day: assessment happens through monitoring progress, differentiating instruction

and providing immediate and helpful feedback

Every Week: group-administered assessment of target vocabulary, comprehension,

decoding, vocabulary strategies and language arts

Every Unit: benchmark and unit tests

Twice a Year: Units 3 and 5 benchmark tests and diagnostic assessment

Role of the Teacher

Ginn and Companys Barefoot Island (1982)

Araldi 13

This reading program describes itself as simple, easy-to-use no matter how you teach; flexible,
effective and efficient no matter whom you teach (Barefoot Island, p. T20), implying that the
role of the teacher is primarily to make instructional choices based upon the many resources it
provides. This includes placing students in correct levels, planning instruction based on
suggestions made by the material and according to the progress of students.
The company claims that the lesson plans are flexible enough to be adapted for different uses
(Barefoot Island, p. T20), which seems to imply that the teacher is not expected to fulfill any
particular course of action, but instead to serve as a guide and organizer. The interaction between
teacher and student throughout the lessons is predominantly teacher-directed; for example, have
students turn to page 42 and ask a volunteer to read. While I would not say that is entirely
scripted (there are activities which are independent), question prompts have a correct answer
that is often related to specific codes for comprehension (e.g., MI = Main Idea), and discussion is
not particularly open-ended.
Careful sequences, frequent application, and timely assignment characterize the instructional
approach, with meaningful context emphasized over isolated units (Barefoot Island, p. T11)
Houghton Mifflin Harcourts Journeys (2012)
It is important to note that the program itself asserts, All Journeys assessments are correlated to
the Common Core State Standards (Journeys, 2012, p. xv), which leads to the assumption that
transmission of testing content is an expectation for instruction. They are therefore also likely
limited in their capacity to adapt the curriculum beyond what is recommended in the program,
and although not quite scripted, the discussions, lessons and goals are highly targeted/scaffolded
by the manual.
For example, The Whole Group tab of Lesson 1 further addresses the type of instruction
expected to fulfill the Common Core State Standards, labeling Explicit, Systematic Instruction
as the means by which it supports the successful implementation of the Standards content by
providing ample practice and application of these skills [reading, fluency, writing, speaking and

Araldi 14

listening], using a variety of meaningful resources and activities suited to different types of
learners to reinforce instruction and learning.
Modeling and monitoring are heavily emphasized practices, which makes me question how far
the role of the teacher nurtures a meaningful interaction with students. Furthermore, the authors
note that because in many ways, comprehension instruction is literally instruction in thinking,
all a teacher can do is model for students various techniques to help them use the information in
the text to draw valid inferences and to seriously grapple with ideas (Journeys, 2012, p. xx).

Role of the Student

Ginn and Companys Barefoot Island (1982)
Students seem to be expected to acquire skills and implement them in targeting specific answers
in a passive role in this program. Some activities are designated as independent, but are
structured so that student input is fairly limited. For example: Have students write stories in
which two children dredge an old teapot from the bottom of a river. The teapot should then lead
to an unusual adventure (Barefoot Island, p. 9).
As mentioned in the Role of the Teacher section above, this program claims to provide lesson
plans that are designed to accommodate a flexible pacing and meet individual needs, but it is also
expected that children will be placed at an appropriate level of instruction at which they will
complete work with proficiency. While incorporating life and study skills is part of this
instruction, the teacher-directed nature of interaction does not seem to address a wide range of
prior knowledge or allow for unbridled forms of student expression. The small exceptions to this
are seen in small supplemental sections with activities such as the Preparing for
Comprehension portion, in which teachers ask students about their prior knowledge. For
example: Ask pupils if they know any blind people, and if so, to describe how the people
manage to do all their daily activities and tasks (Barefoot Island, p. 9).
Houghton Mifflin Harcourts Journeys (2012)
Students seem to have a more interactive role in this program than is seen in the Barefoot Island
series, although teacher direction is still present. For example, students are asked to make

Araldi 15

predictions about how the selections expand upon concepts related to the Big Idea, although
the teacher is expected to prompt discussion by asking specific questions about the theme and
text details (Journeys, p. xvii).
Since Journeys claims to support the Common Core by implementing explicit, systematic
instruction of specific skills (Journeys, Lesson 1 Whole Group Tab), I question the extent to
which students are allowed to explore topics, particularly with the pressure of a content-specific
timeline and looming assessment. It does, however, promote ample practice and application of
these skills, using a variety of meaningful resources and activities suited to different types of
learners (Journeys, Lesson 1 Whole Group Tab). Again, I question the meaningfulness aspect,
but group activities such as Think and Write and Turn and Talk do seem to encourage
students to use prior knowledge to practice what they know through individual reflection and
peer interaction opportunities.

Reflection
These two teaching guides do appear to represent major changes that occurred surrounding
literacy instruction after the 1970s, in which concerns for the individual, for comprehension, for
quality literature, and for diversity came to the forefront after the whole-language v. skills-based
Reading Wars were reignited. While both programs attempt to address the importance of
content-specific comprehension and other aspects of a more progressive paradigm, both seem to
fall victim to the dominant pressures of their respective educational climates on the larger scale,
especially what is evidence-based or valued by experts who may or may not be explicit about
their rationale for particular approaches. Assessment continues to be a difficult piece of the
puzzle, as does defining the nature and scope of comprehension, although there seems to be more
movement toward recognizing the need for differentiation and diverse representation. Emphases
on targeted vocabulary, comprehension, decoding and literary content are present in both in
varying capacities.
Published by the United States Department of Education in 1986, Barbara Walkers Diagnostic
Lessons as Assessment piece attempts to address the systemic problems reflected by the
countrys growing reverence for standardized testing, in which teacher accountability becomes

Araldi 16

a focal concern of the public, rather than does the concern for the quality of instructional context.
(http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED277976.pdf, p. 3).
According to the same document, reading cannot be fractionated into a set of separate skills (p.
4). Although we see a pushback once more against literacy instruction as teaching
decontextualized skills, and instead a call for engagement in meaningful literature, a trend that
directly calls assessment into question repeatedly as the 80s and 90s progress. Talk of
educational reformations and the impact of advances in neuroscience and cognitive development
hint at more progressive measures of reading assessment, but ultimately, as we see in 2001 with
the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act, the presence of those measures gives way to an era
of high-stakes testing dominance and concerns for accountability in an era of educational
crisis. This era privileges the role of business and funding in re-establishing the United States
as a leading world intellectual power.
At the end of the day, an ideal guide is very hard to imagine given the many facets of the everchanging landscape that education is expected to draw upon and be responsible for. I will say
that in viewing public education as in the throes of crisis (as it seems many cycles of our
history have), there appears to be a mysterious end goal that no one seems to agree on how to
work towardso does the method really matter when the goal cant possibly be to just scrap
everything and start over?
I like the idea of having many resources, as well as the room for flexibility, available to
accommodate individual learning and engage both teacher and student in meaningful learning
and interaction. Creating an environment that values all learning is powerful, and while I do
believe that education has the potential to function as a foundational element for a thriving
democratic society, I most tend to agree with you in emphasizing that the relationship between
students and teachers is the key to making truly balanced literacy instruction effective. While
comprehension, skills/strategies, quality literature and standards are all important elements for
reading success, deciding on the value of education through our experiences takes a lot of
reflection and openness that I hope we as educators continue to work toward regardless of
explicit national or global pressures.

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

1. Title of Program and Publisher

Journeys, published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company (2012)

2. Publisher information
Corporate headquarters: Boston
222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116
(617) 351-5000
Other locations: a total of 13 offices across the United States (Austin, Denver,
Elkridge, Evanston, Geneva, Indianapolis, New York City, Orlando, Portsmouth,
Puerto Rico, Rolling Meadows, Troy, and Wilmington), and 6 locations
internationally (South Korea, Singapore, Ireland, Dubai, China and Canada)
Founded in 1832
3,113 Employees
Publishes pre-K12 education solutions, and offers novels, non-fiction, children's
books and reference works, educational software and adventure
Formerly known as Houghton Mifflin Companychanged its name to Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company in December of 2007 after acquiring Harcourt
Publishing
Operates as a subsidiary of HMH Holdings (Delaware), Inc.
Became public in November of 2013
Key executives:
o Ms. Linda K. Zecher: President, Chief Executive Officer and Director
o Mr. Eric L. Shuman: Chief Financial Officer
o Mr. Gary L. Gentel: President of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade &
Reference Publishers
o Mr. Brook Colangelo: Chief Information Officer and Senior Vice President
o Mr. William F. Bayers: Executive Vice President and General Counsel
(http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=2793
74)

Other publications
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt has produced a wide array of other publications and
multimedia products, which are available for purchase from the publishers website under
the following categories:

General interest books: categories such as Fiction, Non-fiction, Cooking, Kids and
Teens, Education, Mystery
o Pay Any Price: Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative reporter James Risen
examines the War on Terror (http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/13/arts/in-payany-price-james-risen-examines-the-war-on-terror.html?_r=3)

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

For educators: categories such as Adult Education, Common Core, Digital and
Mobile Learning, Early Childhood/Pre-K, English Language Learners, Literature &
Language Arts, Intervention, Math, Reading, Science, Social Studies, Summer
School, World Languages
o Collections: English language arts (ELA) program for Grades 612
(http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/literature-and-languagearts/literature/collections/features)

For homeschool: Math, Reading, Language Arts, Science, Social Studies, World
Languages, Supplemental Products
o Saxon Phonics Homeschool: Our reading curricula provide key reading and
literary skills for struggling, on-level, and advanced students. Its important for
children to be successful, independent readers and spellersand who better to
teach them than you? (http://www.hmhco.com/homeschool/reading)

For assessment professionals: Solutions, Training & Assistance, Common Core

Assessment Solutions
o Common Core Assessment Solutions: offers a unique destination and versatile
solution that combines everything you need Progress Monitoring, Formative
Assessments, Benchmark Assessments, and Summative Assessmentsall from a
single, trusted provider. That means wraparound services, a single point of
contact, and so much more to benefit your district.
(http://www.hmhco.com/assessment-professionals/common-core-assessmentsolutions)

For parents & kids: Digital and Mobile Learning, Go Math! Academy, The Learning
Company, Leveled and Guided Reading, Homework Help, Worktexts, CliffsNotes,
Books for Kids & Teens, Favorite Characters, Popular Authors & Series, Curious
George and HMH Cooks
o Little Book apps (http://www.hmhco.com/parents-and-kids/the-learningcompany/little-book-apps)

Total political contributions

Made by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt from 1990-2014, including contributions made to
President Barack Obama (D) in the 2012 election cycle:

Cycle

Total

Democ
rats

Republi
cans

% to
Dems

% to
Repubs

Individ
uals

PACs

Soft
(Indivs)

Soft
(Orgs)

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

2014

$3,000

$2,750

$0

92%

0%

$2,750

$0

$250

$0

2012

$7,900

$7,600

$300

96%

4%

$7,900

$0

$0

$0

2010

$1,400

$1,400

$0

100%

0%

$1,400

$0

$0

$0

2008

$2,200

$2,200

$0

100%

0%

$2,200

$0

$0

$0

2006

$7,390

$6,450

$500

87%

7%

$7,390

$0

$0

$0

2004

$20,400

$20,150

$250

99%

1%

$20,400

$0

$0

$0

2002

$29,524

$28,324

$1,000

96%

3%

$29,524

$0

$0

$0

2000

$38,940

$34,050

$4,250

87%

11%

$38,940

$0

$0

$0

1998

$11,454

$11,454

$0

100%

0%

$11,454

$0

$0

$0

1996

$30,250

$29,250

$1,000

97%

3%

$15,250

$0

$0

$15,000

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

1994

$16,750

$16,750

$0

100%

0%

$1,750

$0

$0

$15,000

1992

$12,250

$11,500

$750

94%

6%

$12,250

$0

$0

$0

1990

$4,250

$4,250

$0

100%

0%

$4,250

$0

N/A

N/A

TOTAL
$

185,708

176,128

8,050

95%

4%

155,458

250

30,000

(https://www.opensecrets.org/orgs/totals.php?id=D000018389&cycle=2014)

Examples of state-level contributions

o Made to candidates Janet H. Adkins (R) (http://followthemoney.org/entitydetails?eid=16307416) and Ed Hooper (R) (http://followthemoney.org/entitydetails?eid=12514516) in the 2012 Florida House District election
o Previously donated to a total of 16 other candidates, predominantly belonging
to the Republican party, for various offices sought in the 2010 Florida election
(http://followthemoney.org/entity-details?eid=56095):
Bill McCollum (R), Curtis Richardson (D), Adelaide (Alex) Sink and Rod
Smith (D), Jeff Atwater (R), Jeremy S. Ring (D), Nan H. Rich (D), Marti
Coley (R), Christ Dorworth (R), Dean R. Cannon, Jr. (R), Shawn Harrison
(R), Will Weatherford (R), Kelli Stargel (R), John Thrasher (R), Ellyn
Bogdanoff (R), Joe Negron (R) and Anitere Flores (R)

3. Sample lessons from YouTube and the publishers website

The lesson materials seem to be tightly controlled, so the only available sampling was
in the form of these videos, supposedly filming the products being used in the
classroomor at least staged commercials that offered some general, unsupported
explanation of the programs benefits:

Journeys Common Core Digital Resources for the Classroom

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyQE3b1AOoc
o Attempts to address differentiation and teacher perspective

Journeys Common Core K-6 Curriculum

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmFge1ei30M
o Opens with teacher who acknowledges importance of teachers as readers
o Helps teachers focus on what the reading skills are that students need in order to
be successful in society
o Its about depth of knowledge and its about critical thinking
o Supports 21st-century learning; use of technology
o I know theyre research-based and put together by great authors

4. Theoretical links
Journeys appears to use a close reading approach to reading comprehension, and
although it makes claims to following a cognitive approach (Stop and Think), the
program seems to support the one correct answer, teacher-directed track of behavioral
theory due to its assessment measures being closely aligned to Common Core Standards.
The vocabulary is controlled, but integrated with targeted phonics instruction, rather than
in opposition to it. It is shallowly socio-cultural in that it does not explicitly address
diverse representation, but does promote moments of social learning through group
discussions and small group opportunities.

5. Publisher beliefs about

It was hard to pin down general beliefs of the publisher overall, but these generalizations
were made on the Houghton Mifflin Harcourt website about the following various
educational products:
a) Language development: Whether a student wants to be the next great writer or
simply communicate more effectively, understanding the intricacies of the
English language is essential. Our Language Arts curriculum helps students hone
those skills through a focus on grammar, usage, spelling, handwriting and
mechanics. (http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/literature-andlanguage-arts)
b) Literacy development: Students have diverse reading needs. We have diverse
reading programs designed to inspire a love of reading. From integrated ELL
instruction, to targeted intervention, concise lesson plans and assessment tools,
our programs are proven effective, efficient and engaging.
c) Culture: Many of the companys educational products listed online are
advertised with the inclusion frequent multicultural references in the
description, like the Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Handwriting program. When you
click learn more, it does not describe in what ways multicultural references are
used, or indicate why they are meaningful.

6. Choose one level

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

Grade 4, Unit 1
Comprehension scope and sequence
Lesson 1
o Skill: Theme
o Strategy: Analyze/Evaluate
o Authors Craft: Elements of Drama
Lesson 2
o Skill: Authors Purpose
o Strategy: Monitor/Clarify
o Authors Craft: Point of View
Lesson 3
o Skill: Cause and Effect
o Strategy: Visualize
o Authors Craft: Metaphor
Lesson 4
o Skill: Theme
o Strategy: Analyze/Evaluate
o Authors Craft: Elements of Drama
Lesson 5
o Skill: Understanding Characters
o Strategy: Infer/Predict
o Authors Craft: Hyperbole
Extending the Common Core
o Comprehension
Compare and Contrast
Theme and Point of View
Compare Structural Elements
(http://www.hmhco.com/~/media/sites/home/education/global/pdf/scope-andsequence/reading/journeys-common-core/ScopeSequence-2011_Journeys-Level4.pdf)
Use of the terms skill and strategy
Developing students comprehension skills and strategies is a primary focus of the
Journeys program. (http://www.doe.in.gov/sites/default/files/curriculum/research-basedapproach.pdf)
While it names the following skills and strategies separately, the program does not
explicitly differentiate between the two categories or delve deeply into how they might
(or might not?) be connected:
Explicit Comprehension Skills and Strategy Instruction in Journeys
Target Skills
o Authors Purpose

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

o Cause and Effect

o Character(s)
o Compare and Contrast
o Conclusions
o Details
o Main Idea and Details
o Sequence of Events
o Story Structure
o Text and Graphic Features
Target Strategies
o Analyze/Evaluate
o Infer/Predict
o Monitor/Clarify
o Question
o Summarize
o Visualize

7. Claims from the program website

Statement of purpose/philosophy/values
According to the publishers official website, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is a global
leader in lifelong learningdelivering interactive, results-driven education solutions to
more than 50 million students in more than 150 countries (2014). The following are
listed on the site as the companys values:
Curiosity: We value enabling and promoting the curiosity of others, resulting in
remarkable discoveries and new ideas.
Commitment: We must always mean what we say and deliver on our commitments
to each other and our customers.
Effectiveness and Reliability: Our content and our solutions must be more than just
innovative they must be effective and reliable.
Learning: We are passionate learners. We are driven by the promise of
understanding new ideas. We are committed to improving teaching and learning
around the world.
Performance: We are driven to overcome obstacles and succeed. We recognize our
role in ensuring the success of others, and we are committed to achieving our goals.
Best in Class: We are committed to providing our partners, our customers and our
communities with services and solutions representing the best our industry can offer.
(http://www.hmhco.com/about-hmh)
Merits of recent educational publications

Collections (2014-2015): Collections is a Grades 612 English Language Arts

program built from the ground up to address the Common Core State Standards. Like

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

no other ELA program, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Collections helps you to

transcend the traditional anthology with a multi-faceted, digital and print approach
designed to resonate with your students. (http://www.hmhco.com/shop/educationcurriculum/literature-and-language-arts/literature/collections/features)

Journeys (2013-2014): claims to provide the following Comprehensive Instruction

o Effective Instruction
Explicit instruction of Foundational Skills ensures mastery of basic
reading and decoding skills.
Exemplar Texts provided throughout each level offer rich, highquality literature and give students the opportunity for close reading
and analysis using full-length trade books.
A strong stepped-out instructional plan ensures close reading of
complex text.
Daily Classroom Conversations help students clearly express their
ideas in a variety of settings.
o The Journeys Difference
Digging deeper into complex text with text-based questions worth
thinking about and answering engage students in classroom
discussions.
Differentiating instruction to help every child succeed with
multiple opportunities to differentiation, including Write-In Readers
that offer personalized intervention for emergent, reluctant, or
struggling readers.
Raising the bar with apps, Interactive Whiteboard Lessons,
eTextbooks, online student and teacher collaboration, and research and
assessment, allows users to teach, practice, and apply the CCSS
through student and teacher collaboration.
(http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/reading/core-readingprograms/journeys/features/comprehensive-instruction)

Journeys (2011-2012*): Journeys Common Core is a literacy program designed

around the Common Core State Standards. By integrating the Standards into every
lesson, the program enables educators to engage and educate students effectively and
efficiently and ensures learner success. With cutting-edge digital tools and a proven,
results-driven core curriculum, the Journeys Common Core reading and literacy
program helps students soar like never before.
(http://www.hmhco.com/shop/education-curriculum/reading/core-readingprograms/journeys/features)

Corporate Social Responsibility

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

HMH re-launched its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) program in 2010 to

maximize our social impact as a global leader in lifelong learning. In addition to
improving student and teacher outcomes with best-in-class education solutions, we
recognize the importance of supporting our employees and local communities,
prioritizing sustainable business processes, and addressing the social challenges that
face our customers around the world. To help drive the success of these activities, we
align our CSR work to three guiding pillarsGiving Voice to a variety of education
stakeholders, Promoting Access to Ideas and nourishing curiosity, and Removing
Barriers to learning.
(http://www.hmhco.com/about-hmh/corporate-and-social-responsibility)

8. Research base
Cited from The Journeys Program: A Research-Based Approach written by Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt Publishers
Introduction
The components of the program and the activities and strategies presented throughout
are based on current research and best instructional practice advocated by classroom
teachers, administrators, teacher educators, and policymakers alike. The Journeys
program provides students with the skills they need to succeed, preparing them ultimately
for the high literacy demands of college and the workplace.
(http://www.doe.in.gov/sites/default/files/curriculum/research-based-approach.pdf)

Strand 1: Building Vocabulary

Strand 2: Supporting Comprehension
Strand 3: Using Effective Instructional Approaches
Strand 4: Teaching with Effective Texts
Strand 5: Connecting Writing and Reading
Strand 6: Meeting All Students Needs through Differentiation and Strategic
Intervention

From Research to Practice

Boasts research-base through the integration of the following categories: scaffolding,
graphic organizers, predictable routines, collaborative learning, whole-group and smallgroup instruction, varied forms of communication, engagement and motivation
(http://www.doe.in.gov/sites/default/files/curriculum/research-based-approach.pdf)
Critique of research
Based on the fact that Houghton Mifflin Harcourt tightly controls the only openly
accessible research about the Journeys reading programs, it is difficult to have complete
faith in the representation of their research base, which is vague/incoherent overall:

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

10

o The Journeys Program: A Research-Based Approach frequently references

research studies (such as findings of the National Reading Panel in 2000) but they
seem to be used in a convenient sampling fashion, such that the actual proven
application of the evidence is not explicitly demonstrated; much of this material
appears watered-down and is not referenced directly
o The teachers edition of the program has an extensive Research Bibliography
(pp. R34-R38), which references scholarly articles on a wide range of supporting
topics. It does not, however, make any direct connections between its sources and
its rationale for practicethere is no explanation for how the material is
implemented in the program, or when and why its instructional design is
appropriately justified.
o It includes A Word from our authors at the start of the unit, which references
generalizations supposedly demonstrated by research, but does not cite any
explicit evidence. The list of contributing authors lists information such as title,
affiliated institution and Research Contributions, which only names general
areas of research, not actual findings/publications (p. iv)

9. Library database search results

I did not find any articles about research in a library database search with the University
of Washington Libraries system (or really anywhere but the official website), but did find
a press release on the publishers website that claimed the following limited information
as the result of an independent study:
Global education leader Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (HMH) today announced the
results of a gold standard study highlighting the effectiveness of its popular Journeys
Common Core 2012 reading program. In the fall of 2011, PRES Associates, Inc., an
independent research firm, conducted a two-year, randomized control trial (RCT) of
Journeys in grades K-2. An RCT, considered a gold standard study, is the only
research design that meets the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) standards for
demonstrating a programs effectiveness. First year results showed significant gains
in word recognition, reading comprehension, spelling, and vocabulary.
Student performance was measured by administering a comprehensive skills
assessment prior to the start of the study and again at the end of the school
year. Several increases in average test scores for Journeys classrooms were recorded,
including significant gains in word recognition (15 percentiles), reading
comprehension (8 percentiles), spelling (6 percent), and vocabulary (6 percentiles) as
compared to control groups. In all analyses performed, Journeys students outperformed students in the control groups.
(http://www.hmhco.com/media-center-old/press-releases/2012/october/Journeys-BoostsAcheivement)

10. Role of the teacher

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

11

It is important to note that the program itself asserts, All Journeys assessments are
correlated to the Common Core State Standards (Journeys, 2012, p. xv), which leads to
the assumption that transmission of testing content is an expectation for instruction. They
are therefore also likely limited in their capacity to adapt the curriculum beyond what is
recommended in the program, and although not quite scripted, the discussions, lessons
and goals are highly targeted/scaffolded by the manual.

The Whole Group tab of Lesson 1 further addresses the type of instruction expected
to fulfill the Common Core State Standards, labeling Explicit, Systematic
Instruction as the means by which it supports the successful implementation of the
Standards content by providing ample practice and application of these skills
[reading, fluency, writing, speaking and listening], using a variety of meaningful
resources and activities suited to different types of learners to reinforce instruction
and learning.

Modeling and monitoring are heavily emphasized practices, which do not seem to nurture
a meaningful interaction between the teacher and students.
The authors note that because in many ways, comprehension instruction is literally
instruction in thinking, all a teacher can do is model for students various techniques
to help them use the information in the text to draw valid inferences and to seriously
grapple with ideas (Journeys, 2012, p. xx).

11. Critique
Perceived strengths
I would consider the fact that the authors at least attempted to differentiate instruction as
a strength, because it allowed for a nominal amount of flexibility on the part of the
teacher to accommodate the needs of a range of students in aspects of comprehension.
As mentioned in A Word from our authors, the (supposed) intended purpose of this
program is not teaching skills or isolated strategies but are rather using these tools to
help students reflect on what they are reading (p. xx). In and of itself, that might seem
like a strengtha program that is paying attention to comprehension at the level at which
students can seriously grapple with ideas (p. xx) sounds exciting.
Perceived weaknesses
Not a paragraph later in the same section, the author lost me at Place the burden of proof
on your students (p. xx), referring to the issue of what constitutes effective
comprehension instruction. I found that mentality to be a weakness of the program
overall, in that it does not comprehensively address the prior knowledge and perspectives
of students.
By aligning so closely to the Common Core, it also borders on equating assessment with
comprehension (Class notes).

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture
Dr. Massey
Review of Reading Program
October 30, 2014

12

Comparison to Durkins findings

As we learned, Durkin found that comprehension was being virtually ignored in reading
instruction, and later asserted that the practice of equating assessment with
comprehension was highly ineffective. While Journeys explicitly teaches
comprehension, it also assesses it alongside Common Core Standards, targeting
somewhat decontextualized skills and strategies. On the plus side, it does provide
activities that support comprehension directly in whole-group and small-group settings.

Comparison of Journal Issues: The Reading Teacher

EDC&I 528: Foundations of Literacy, Language & Culture

Journal Comparison
Caitlin Araldi
December 04, 2014

Araldi 1

Comparison of Journal Issues: The Reading Teacher

Araldi 2

a) Table of Contents Topics

Content

The Reading Teacher, Vol. 32,

No. 8 (May, 1979)

The Reading Teacher, Vol. 66, No.

8 (May, 2013)

Language

Language skills
o Effects on
mathematic
performance
o Solution strategy
o Problem solving

Early childhood
o Phonics
o Phonemic awareness
o Phonological awareness

Reading

Reading instruction
o Mainstreaming
visually disabled and
hearing impaired
children
o Sensory input
o Individualized
reading instruction:
HILS Reading
Laboratory (systems
approach)
o Use of puppets as
teacher tool
o Books as tool to
counter TV violence
Illiteracy
o Reform of Persian
written script in Iran
to combat
o Literacy Corps
Basal readers
o Readability level
compared to basal
workbook
o Controlled
vocabulary
o Teacher obligation
Comprehension and
vocabulary skills
o Middle school
readers
assessment results
comparison

Reading Instruction
o Use of interactive ebooks in K-6
o Teacher
education/perspective
o Transfer of print-based
comprehension
strategies to tablets
o Scaffolding
o By Educators, for
Educators column
o Challenging traditional
approaches
o Cooperative learning
Comprehension strategies
o Reflecting on 15 years
of instruction (19982013)
o Effect of scrutinizing
own reading habits
o Strategies as means to
an end, not end goal
o Metacognition
o Prior knowledge
o Predicting/making
inferences
o Assessment-dominated
era
o Common Core State
Standards
Fluency
o Intervention plan to
increase authenticity

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o Replication of two
older studies:
Thorndike (1917);
Caldwell and Courtis
(1923)
Hope for reading in
America
o Book reading and
purchasing habits of
consumers
The Childrens Book
Council
o Summer Reading
program materials
Inclusion of poems, reader
responses

Reading difficulties
o Connection to socioemotional issues
o Relationally Oriented
Reading Instruction
(RORI): systematic
picture book reading
intervention
Digital literacies
o Student-produced
movies as medium for
literacy
Close reading
o Text-based evidence
Reading/analyzing expository
texts in elementary grades

Writing

Agency of written print

o Influence of Western
ideals in Iran

Scaffolding early writing skills

in preschool

Multicultura
l Issues

Non-English speakers
o Positive experiences
with literature as a
means to literacy
development
o Difficulties presented
by language
differences
o Mexican-American
education

Increased diversity in
classrooms
o Achievement gap
o Social justice
Black male readers
o Skills-based learning
ignores cultural, social
and personal
development
o Use of critical literary
strategies recommended
Self-perception/concept

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b) Article Summaries
Maring, G. H. (May 01, 1979). Books to Counter TV Violence. The Reading
Teacher, 32, 8, 916-920.
This article asserts that by reading books with nonviolent themes, young children will
discover alternatives to the violence they see on television (Maring, 1979, p. 916). The author
presents the issue of TV violence as one of global concern, focusing on its effects on thinking,
conscience and behavior. An unspecified recent court case is referenced as a motive for
particular concern about this in the United States; in the case, it was argued by the defense that
the young murder suspect was not guiltybecause his moral sensitivity had been deadened by
viewing excessive amounts of violence on television (Maring, 1979, p. 916).
The author then invites parents and teachers to become involved in combating this issue
in two ways: 1) by adding pressure on local media networks and government entities, although it
is not indicated explicitly what the intended goal of this recommendation is (presumably to
pressure networks to censor their productions); and 2) to encourage children to read and listen to
books with nonviolent themes.
Expanding upon the context of the classroom, the article offers various examples of
activities that target the practice of an alternative way to solve problems (Maring, 1979, p.
916) through implementing the topic of nonviolence in specifically recommended books, For
example, children can create and produce a creative dramatization of one of the books listed by
the author. The book list included in the paper is titled Books with nonviolent solutions to
conflict, and grouped by approximate grade level (primary and intermediate). As the article
outright suggests, the matter of matching children and books is one of great controversy.
Ideally, the teacher makes a recommendation on the basis of his/her personal knowledge of the
book and of the child (Maring, 1979, p. 917). Some of the books included for primary grades are:

Aliki. The Story of William Penn. Prentice-Hall, 1964.

o Biography of a man who in his youth followed his conscience to become a
Quaker. Leaving his for tune behind in England, he de voted his life to the
development of a peaceful and tolerant community in America. (Approx.
grade: 2) (Maring, 1979, p. 917)

Baker, Betty. The Pig War. Harper & Row, 1969.

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o In 1859, an incident caused by an intrusive pig nearly escalated into armed

conflict between the United States and British Canada. Primary grade children
can read this book themselves and discover that too often violence has idiotic
roots. (Approx. grade: 1) (Maring, 1979, p. 917)
Only the following two references are listed:

Powers, R. What Ever Became of TV Violence? TV Guide, 26, 31(August 5, 1978),

2-8
Understanding Reading: A Psycholinguists Analysis of Reading and Learning to
Read, 2nd ed. New York, N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978.

Cabell, S. Q., Tortorelli, L. S., & Gerde, H. K. (May 01, 2013). How Do I
Write? Scaffolding Preschoolers' Early Writing Skills. The Reading Teacher, 66,
8, 650-659.
This article argues that providing children with rich writing experiences [in preschool]
can lay a foundation for literacy learning (Cabell et. al., 2013, p. 650), and provides a
subsequent concrete framework for individualizing early writing instruction. It attempts to
demonstrate why it is important to foster these emergent skills, how they might typically develop
in young children, and how teachers can be active in their support. It also implements the use of
classroom vignettes to demonstrate that explicit early writing instruction is difficult to
differentiate, largely due to the diversity of skill levels in a typical early childhood classroom.
The authors go on to claim that teachers are not provided with the practical guidance necessary
to be able to apply research on early writing to their instruction; recent research indicates that
few teachers understand how to appropriately scaffold instruction to help children take the next
steps in their writing development (Cabell et. al., 2013, p. 650).
According to the article, early (or emergent) writing encompasses the manual act of
producing physical marks; the meanings children attribute to these markings; and understandings
of how written language works (Cabell et. al., 2013, p. 651). Its primary focus is on
orthographic knowledge, or the construction of understanding about the workings of the writing
system. Early writing is part of a set of important foundational literacy skills that serve as
necessary precursors to conventional reading (Cabell et. al., 2013, p. 651), including knowledge
of print and sound (phonological awareness). A critical achievement in early literacy is
alphabetic principle, which is is the understanding that oral language is made up of smaller

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sounds and that letters represent those sounds in a systematic way (Cabell et. al., 2013, p. 651).
In short, Writing serves as a type of laboratory, in which even very young children are actively
creating and testing hypotheses about how writing works (Cabell et. al., 2013, p. 651).
The article cites research that indicates that young children learning to write in an
alphabetic language such as English typically follow a particular sequence of development. By
describing the four levels of this development, the authors seek to provide teachers with a
straightforward framework with which to evaluate childrens written efforts, as Each childs
writing provides teachers with a window into what that child knows about print and sound
(Cabell et. al., 2013, p. 651). The four levels are: 1) drawing and scribbling; 2) letters and letterlike forms; 3) salient and beginning sounds; and 4) beginning and ending sounds.
The following chart is offered with suggestions for how to individualize instruction based
on understanding the four levels:

The article concludes by emphasizing that it is possible to support all levels of ability
within one activity, but by strategically individualizing how they involve each child (Cabell et.
al., 2013, p. 657). It is first necessary to thoughtfully observe the current level of a childs ability,
continued by ongoing examination.

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c) Comparison of article topics

A total of thirty-four years have passed between the publications of the two issues of The
Reading Teacher discussed, and although diverging themes and trends become obvious in this
timespan, many have similar roots in the greater historical context of literacy instruction. The
following themes/trends in particular emerged when comparing the two: 1) the rise of cognitive
psychology and its effects on what is considered best practice; 2) roles of self-concept, prior
knowledge and motivation in reading; 3) evolving issues of reading comprehension; 4) changing
conceptualization of teacher responsibility; and 5) the strive for balanced literacy as the era of
the basal reader comes to an end and is replaced with all-in-one, assessment-directed
curriculum. Although skills and strategies are highlighted in both issues as means to instruct
reading comprehension, the ways in which they are applied vary due to the contrasting goals of
the instruction in context. The differentiation between these instructional tools remains unclear in
both eras of publication, but a general trend moving away from skills-dominated instruction can
be seen in the more recent publication.
An increased reliance on a research base can be seen in the reference lists of each article;
while the 1978 issue only cites two, the 2013 publication draws from a total of nineteen sources,
plus offers an additional seven for the reader to consult for even more information. Experts and
educators in 1979 and in 2013 emphasize to some extent the importance of ones relationship to
reading, even going so far as to suggest that a teachers reading habits have a measurable
influence on the effectiveness of literacy instruction. As social cognitive research began to rise to
greater prominence in the late 1970s, more attention was given to the roles of self-concept, prior
knowledge and motivation in learning, and a more balanced approach to literacy instruction
began to appear as a push for quality literature gained momentum into the 1990s.
Perspectives on teacher accountability have become more demanding, perhaps after
Durkins 1978 observation that little was being done by the instructors to ensure comprehension.
This has evolved to encompass a complex web of issues surrounding assessment and standards
alignment, as increasing pressure and responsibility is placed on educators to serve the needs of
highly diverse groups of children with time constraints and potentially limited resources. While
some of the more progressive practices of the late twentieth century have continued into this
decade, resulting deeply embedded issues surrounding high stakes testing has further encouraged
what the course lecture refers to as a crisis mentality.

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Having permeated reading instruction since primarily after the mid-century publication of
Why Johnny Cant Read (Flesch, 1955), the rapidly expansive nature of globalization in the
second half of the twentieth century has further incited this notion, complicated by growing
concerns about international competition and educational outcomes for the American workforce.
Crisis-oriented keywords such as achievement gap are paired with progressive themes such as
social justice to produce instruction recommendations that are wrought with a particular tension
between assessment outcome-driven instruction and child-centered, differentiated practices.
Ironically, this tension is at odds with the shift in focus for comprehension instruction in
the last three decades, which relies on efforts of balanced literacy and whole language, in
which skills and strategies are taught in order to scaffold critical thinking about quality text. The
Common Core State Standards creators would suggest that this is achieved through close
reading, which also claims to attend to issues of motivation by developing a working
relationship to the text through evidence-based rationale.

d) Themes/trends in the larger context of the course

When relating this larger themes and trends to the larger context of the course, the
persistent strain between scientific and progressive paradigms of educational theory seems most
striking. As we saw in Dewitz et. al.s A History of Core Reading Programs (2010) and A
History of Comprehension Instruction (2014) publications, the 1960s to mid-1970s saw the
domination of skills management programs/instruction give rise to a growing concern for quality
literature and whole language (Goodman) approaches into the 1990s, which, coupled with the
crisis outlook on public education, eventually cycled back to include an incorporation of both
skills and strategies as basal readers were relabeled as core reading programs in 2000. Overall,
the shift seen in the 1980s-1990s as a growing literature-based era was comprised of two
revolutions that influenced content and methods: 1) cognitive/psycholinguistics, which
emphasizes reading as a rich interactive language process v. sequence of skills; and 2)
equality/civil rights/concern for individual and authenticity (Dewitz et. al., 2010).
More recent publications, such as the California Reading Language Arts Framework in
1987, further outlined growing expectations for effective instruction and publishers attempted to
reconcile whole language/reader response with familiar skills to achieved balanced literacy
instruction (Dewitz et. al., 2010). By the start of the twenty-first century, the Report of the

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National Reading Panel was published (2000) and stressed five components of reading:
phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension, with research-based
instructional strategies offered for each (Dewitz et. al., 2010). In spite of other efforts to the
contrary, it did not address oral language development, motivation, or effective classroom
management processes/differentiation, and the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001
added to a conflicting picture of best practice.
When thinking about Marings 1979 issue of The Reading Teacher, some of the very first
readings come to mind, such as The Proust and The Squid: The Story and Science of the Reading
Brain, in which the relationship between oral language, emotion and print is explored (Wolf,
2008). Wolf asserts that linguistic abilities are nurtured or neglected by a childs environment,
which are all based on underlying changes in the developing brain, growing conceptual
knowledge and developing emotions and understanding of others (2008). We might infer that
this would continue to have a connection to the effects of TV violence on children, although
Maring does not break down this theory in an explicit way.
Also easily applied to what was presented in the Cabell et. al. (2013) publication, Wolf
offers findings in research that conclude that written narrative employs different vocabulary and
word order (syntax), and that written language must convey meaning in decontextualized/recontextualized way (cannot rely on gesture, facial expression or shared experience) (Wolf,
2008). The complex relationship between oral and written language development has been
emphasized in a recently renewed interest in early childhood education, supported by calls for a
more revered reciprocal relationship between reading and emotional development, in which
children learn to experience new feelings through exposure, preparing them to understand more
complex emotions in themselves and others. According to Wolf (2008), this is the foundation for
ability to take someone elses perspective or experience empathy, and ultimately for constructing
meaning through oral and written language.
In Tyres The Writing Revolution (2012), a look at the importance of writing abilities in
underperforming high school students further emphasizes the need for balanced literacy
instruction, and supports Cabell et. al.s recent claim that the differentiation of emergent writing
instruction as early as preschool is critical for later literacy skills. As we look ahead to the
challenges and pressures inherent in the landscape of literacy instruction, the role of relationships

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and socio-emotional/self concept become crucial pieces to future success, whether it is measured
by assessment alone or with real world applications.

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