Running head: SPACECRAFT PROPULSION

TheFutureofSpacecraftPropulsion

AndrewSorenson

IndependentStudy
Mrs.Graves
June15,2015

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WhatIAlreadyKnew/WhatIWantedtoKnow
That'sonesmallstepforman,onegiantleapformankind,saidNeilArmstrongashe
becamethefirsthumantostepfootonthemoon1.Thatis,atleastthatweknowof.Withover
halfabillionpeoplewatchinghim,heprovidedclosureonPresidentKennedyspromisetoland
amanonthemoonbythenendofthedecade,thenthe1960s1.Thiseventwassurelyapivotal
onenotonlybecauseofthescientificfoundationnecessarytomakealandingsuccessful,butalso
becauseitfueledconfidencethatwe,mankind,couldpassallspatialboundariesthathadbeen
holdingusbackformillennia.Withthisdreaminmind,Ibegantowonderhowexactlywe
wouldbeabletomakeitacrosstheuniverseandexplorescoresofforeigndestinations.After
beingpuzzledbythisquestion,anindependentresearchclassgavemethetimeandwillpowerto
digintoit.Afterrefiningmyquery,Ibegantoresearchhow,throughpropulsion,spacecraftwill
beabletotravelthespeedsrequiredtonavigateeffectivelythroughtheinnumerablemilesofthe
known,andunknownuniverse.
Althoughthisquestionhadbeeninthebackofmymindthroughmosteveryscienceclass
sinceEarthScience,IhonestlydidnthaveastronggrasponthesciencebehinditwhenIfirst
begantheinvestigation.WhenIsaysciencebehinditIdontmeansomecrazywordthatpeople
usetodescribeitsfunctionlikeredox,thermoelectric,ormagnetoplasmadynamics.Iwantedto
understandthesciencebehindthesystemsusingwordsthatIcouldunderstandlikethrust,
momentum,propel,andcombustion.InowhadaloosegrasponwhatIwantedtogainfromthis
research.
Withaconceptoftheendproductinmind,Isetforthcapacitybuildingquestionsto
guidemyresearchinthisextremelylargefield.Howdoestheelectromagneticpropulsion

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system,designedbyNASA,functiontoachievesuchhighspeeds?Whatisthetheoreticalbasis
behindmicrowavethrustersystemstobeusedasameansofspacecraftpropulsion?Howdoes
theionelectrospraysystemworktotransportsmallpayloads?Whattestinghasbeenconducted
onsolarsailpropulsion?Whatisthescientificbasisofthissystem?
AsIhavesaid,thesequestionsweremeanttobeconstructivetomyoverall
understanding,butnotlimitingofthepotentialresearchinstore.Withthisinmind,Istillhadto
resisttheurgetofollowdozensofhyperlinksleadingtoyetmoreandmoreinformation.After
pickinguponsomemajortrendsduringtheinvestigation,Iwasabletocreateanoverarching
researchquestionthatIbelieveencompassestheresearchIconducted:Whatnewinnovationsin
propulsionareincreasingthecosteffectivenessandplausibilityofinterplanetarytravel?What
arethefundamentalprinciplesandaccomplishmentsofthesesystems?IsoonrealizedthatIhad
merelyscratchedthesurfaceofthisbodyofknowledge.
TheStoryofMySearch
Thestoryofmysearchbeganmuchasthispaperdidwithnoideawheretostart.
Similartotheactionsofmostpeopleintimesofcrisisordilemma,Ilookedbackandreliedupon
mystateofflow.Icanbeputintoastateofflowwhenresearchingpossiblemannedmissionsto
Mars;andespeciallythoseofMarsOneandNASA.Upuntilacoupleofmonthsagothisflame
wasfurtherfueledbythepossibilitythatapastOceanLakesHighSchoolgraduatecouldhavea
seatonthefirsttrip.Afterspendingclasstimeinmystateofflow,Iwasenthralledatthecrazy,
butstraightforwardplanthatMarsOnehadassembledtoputthefirsthumanonMars.After
scouringtheirentirewebsiteIthoughtIhadaroughunderstandingoftheplan.Thecompany
plannedtolaunchagroupoffourhumansonaonewaytriptoMarssometimeduringthe

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2020s2.Priortothislaunchdate,roverswouldalreadyhavesetupafullyfunctionalcolonyon
theredplanetequippedwithbackuplifesupportsystemsandanenclosedgreenhouse.This
projectwasbeginningtoseemquitefeasibletome.However,Ihadcompletelyoverlookedhow
thespacecraftwouldbegettingtoMars.AlthoughIamnotarocketscientist,Iknowthat
multipleheavyloadtripstoMarswillbequitecostlytotheMarsOneCorporation.Withfurther
researchintothisseeminglyoverlookeddetail,IrealizedtheMarsOnedidntknowhowthey
weregoingtopropeltheirspacecraft.Thismisseddetailledmetoacrossroadinmyjourney.In
onedirectionIcouldcontinuewithmyflowuntilIfoundsomethingmoreinteresting.Inanother
Icouldbegintopursuespacecraftpropulsion.Ichosethesecondpathandbegananewsegment
ofmystory.
Afterreturningtomyresearchatthecloseofspringbreak,Ihadanothertaskto
complete.WhenmyprofessorMrs.Gravestoldtheclasstoresearchenrichmentopportunities,I
reluctantlyagreedandlazilylookedatthetwoorthreewebsitesthatIwouldneedinorderto
completemyblogpost.JustwhenIwasabouttopublishapostaboutsomesummercampin
ColoradoIhappenedtotalkwithmypeer,JackLeRette,abouthispost.ItwasthenthatIwas
introducedtothesummerSTEMprogramattheUSNavalAcademy.Anopportunitytospenda
weekofresidenceatanextremelyprestigiousmilitaryacademyintheUnitedStatesinterested
mesoIdugintotheprogram.Isoonhadagoodunderstandingofthecampanddecidedtowrite
aboutitfortheblogpostinsteadoftheColoradocamp.
OnceIhadwrappedupthesmalldetouroftheadditionalblogpost,Igotstraightbackto
workinmymainresearchdirection;spacecraftpropulsion.Thefirststeptowardsmakingthis
topicthecenterofmyiSearchwascompletingmyproposalwithfoursubquestions,anoverlying

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investigationquestion,aroadmapfortimemanagement,andexplanationofimportance.I
completedthisproposalinclassandafterrevisingit,Iwassettogowiththreepropulsion
systemsthatIwantedtoresearch.Thosewereelectromagnetic/microwavethrustersystems,ion
electrospraypropulsion,andsolarsailpropulsion.Icametofullyknowandunderstandthese
systemsafterconductingresearchandaninvestigationofmysubquestions.Itisafter
concludingthisinvestigationandwritingthreeblogpoststhatIamnowwritingaboutthestory
ofmysearch.ButevenmoreimportantthanthestoryaretheresultsIobtainedfromthis
journey.
TheSearchResults
AsDr.HaroldSonnyWhitesaidinatalktoscientistsattheNASAAmesResearch
Center,Oursolarsystemisnotunique.3.Hesaidthisnotinaderogatoryway,butratherasa
complimenttothehundredsofmillionsofotherstars,planets,andsystemsthatexistinthe
universeweknowtoday.Thereis,however,onesmallproblemthatexistswhenwetrytostudy
andexploretheseforeigndestinations.Thisproblemisthefactthatthecloseststartooursunis
24.5trillionmiles,oralternatively,4.24lightyearsaway4.Thismeansthatifbysomecrazyway
humanscoulddeviseawaytotravelonetrillionmilesperhour,itwouldstilltake24.5yearsto
reachourclosestneighbor,ProximaCentauri4.ImightonlybespeakingformyselfwhenIsay
this,butwastingalargedurationofmylifeonaonewaytriptoastarImightneverreachdoes
notsoundveryappealingorpractical.SonowthequestionbecomesHowdowe(humans)
createadevicethatwillallowustoreachtheseforeignplacesinbothatimelyandsafemanner?
ItistoanswerthisquestionthatIinvestigatedthreeextremelypromisingpropulsionsystems.

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Thosebeingelectromagnetic/microwavethrustersystems,solarsailpropulsion,andion
electrospraypropulsion.
Therearemultiplenamesforthemicrowavethrustersystemsonthemarkettoday.Some
ofthoseareRFresonantcavitythrusters,ormagnetoplasmadynamicthrusters.Afteraboutfive
minutesofresearchingthistypeofpropulsionIfoundoutthatmicrowavethrustersystemswere
practicallythesamethingaselectromagneticpropulsionsystems,thefocusofanotheroneofmy
subquestions.ThisturnedouttobeagoodthingbecauseIendedupspendingmoretimeonthis
topicthanIexpected.Thistimewasputtogooduseunderstandinghowthissystemfunctions.
Supposedly,seeingasthisthrusterhasonlybeentestedonaminutescale,itworksbyamplifying
theradiationpressureoftheelectromagneticwavespassingthroughthedevice,suchaslight
particles,togeneratethrust5.Theproposedmechanismisatwostepprocessthatfunctionsusing
aspacetimefabricthathasntevenbeenproperlyproventoexist.Thismechanismstatesthat
momentumfromthecollisionsofbrieflyappearingsubatomicparticlesistransferredthroughthe
quantumvirtualplasmatocreatethethrustexperiencedbythesurroundings6.Thisconceptis
extremelycontroversialbecausemodernphysicsdoesnotprovideacomputationalbasisforthe
creationofthesmall,butmeasurablethrustfromthesystem7.Usingthelawofconservationof
momentumastheirproof,intriguedscientistssaythatthereisactuallyamathematicalbasisfor
theobservedresults.Thephysicslawstatesthatifmomentum,orinthiscasethrust,iscreated
thentheremustbeanobject(s)thatlosesthemomentumdisplayedthroughthethrustofthe
system8.Thescientistsarguingforthecredibilityofthispropulsionsystemsaythatthereare
objectsthatlosethemomentumexertedbythesystem.Theseobjectsarethesubatomicparticles
thatarenotamplifiedbythecavitythruster.Whenputtingallofthecontroversybehind,thereis

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astrongbasisforanexceptionalfutureahead.Sincetheparticlesoflight,photons,canactasthe
excitedparticlesinthissystem,solarpowercanbeusedtocreatethemicrowavesnecessaryto
powerthesystem5.Thismakesthistechnologyidealforinterplanetary,ratherthaninterstellar,
travelwheresolarlightispresent.Thefactthatthisthrusteralsocomesinacompactdesign
addstotheefficiencyofthesystem7.Multipletestshavealreadybeenperformedonthismeans
ofpropulsionbySatellitePropulsionResearchLtd,thecompanythatcreatedtheoriginal
concept,GuidoFetta,anAmericanscientist,andNASA57.Asofyet,theradiofrequency(RF)
resonancecavitythrusterstestrunshaveyielded3050microNewtonsofthrust6.Thefutureof
thissysteminvolvesfirmevidenceofinteractionwiththequantumplasmalayerandlargescale
testing.
Anothersubquestionofmyoverlyingresearchpromptfocusedonsolarsailpropulsion.
SolarsailsfunctioninaverysimilarwaytothesailsthatshipsusedhereonEarthforhundreds
ofyears.Ratherthanhavingthewindpushingthesail,photonsfromlightpushtheextremely
thinpolymermaterialthatthesolarsailismadeoutof9.Thesailismadeoutofextremely
reflectivematerialsothatwhenlightraysfromthesunimpactit,theyreflectoffandtransfer
theirmomentumtothesail.Thelawofconservationofmomentumexplainsthistransferof
energy8.Althoughphotonshavenomass,theirforwardmovementprovidesthrustforthesail
anditspayload.Propulsionviasolarsailscanonlybeusedoncethespacecrafthasexited
Earthsgravityandextendeditssails.Afterthisthecraftslowlybeginstobuildupspeedina
linearfashionbybeginningslow,buteventuallygoingextremelyfast9.InMay2015,LightSail
launcheda30cmx10cmx10cmspacecraftintoorbittotestthecompanysprototypesail
technology9.Thesailtotaled32squaremetersinsurfacearea9.Thespacecraftsuccessfully

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demonstratedtheabilitytoextenditssailandfunctioninspaceasasecondarypropulsion
system.Thecompanyplanstolaunchalargerscaleversionintospacein2016onboarda
SpaceXheavyrocket9.Thecraftwillbedumpedintodeepspacetoembarkonajourneyaround
thesun9.Thereisalsoanotherideathathasbeenbroughtupaboutsolarsailpropulsionthat
involveslasersonEarthprovidingthephotonsnecessarytopropelthespacecraft.Thiswouldbe
beneficialininstanceswhenthespacecraftpassesbehindtheshadowofaplanetwheresolar
energyisnotavailable.However,afterresearchingthisideaitsoonbecameclearthatthisidea
wouldnotbefeasiblebecauselaserswithlensesoveronemilelongwouldhavetobeusedto
directthephotonsinsuchaprecisedirection.Afterwitnessingthesuccessofonespacecraft
propelledbysolarsailpropulsionitgivesmeconfidencethatthissystemwillbeheavilyusedin
futurespacemissions.
ThefinalchannelofpropulsionthatIresearchedinthisinvestigationwasion
electrospraythrusting.Icameuponthissourceofpropulsionwhenresearchingmylastsub
questionregardingsolarsailtechnology.WhenresearchingtheLightSailmissionIfoundthat
theirspacecraftwaslaunchedinthreesmall,connectedcompartmentscallCubeSats9.Theseare
10cmx10cmx10cmboxesthatcaneasilybetransportedviaspacecraftintoorbitaround
Earth10.Whenconductingfurtherresearchintothistechnology,Icameuponionelectrosprayas
awayofnavigatingtheCubeSatsoncetheyenteredintospace.Electrospraytechnologyuses
nontoxicionicliquidasitspropellant10.Thrustinthissystemisgeneratedbyacceleratingthe
ionsfromtheliquidtohighvelocitiesusingachargedmetallicchipandthenfunnelingthemin
thesamedirectiontocreateforwardmomentum10.Whenprovided5Wattsofelectricity,one
thrustercancreateupto15microNewtonsofthrust10.Theelectricityinputrequiredforthis

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deviceisprovidedbythesolarpanelsattachedtotheCubeSat.Byshiftingpolarity
approximatelyevery5seconds,thethrusterusesboththepositiveandnegativeparticlesfromthe
propellant10.MITsSpacePropulsionLabhasestablishedacompanynameAccionSystemsthat
aimstocreateacommercialmarketfortheirionelectrospraythrusters10.SimilartoAccion
Systems,NASAalsohasaNASAEvolutionaryXenonThruster(NEXT)projectheadedoutof
GlennResearchCenterthatcreatesionthrusterscapableofacceleratingthechargedparticlesto
speedsofnearly90,000milesperhour11.Thetitleincludesthewordevolutionaryforthe
reasonthatthispropulsionsystemusesonetenthofthepropellantasagenericrocketto
accomplishfarsuperiorresults.Ionelectrospraytechnologyisnotonlyefficient,butalso
futuristicinitscompactnessandpracticality.
What'sNext?
Ifgivenmoretimetoresearchthistopic,IwouldinvestigateProjectPrometheus.This
missionfeaturedanuclearpowereddeepspacepropulsionsystemthatutilizedradioisotope
thermoelectricgenerators.Inmoresimplerterms,thisspacecraftusednuclearpowertomaintain
anelectricalinputwhenitwassofarfromthesunthatitcouldnotusesolarpowerasit'sprimary
meansofgeneratingcurrent.Iwouldalsocontinuemyresearchintosolarsailsbyinvestigating
Japan'sIkarosmission.Thismissionusedsolarsailstopropelaspacecraftonasuccessful
missionaroundthesun.Iwouldmostlikelyusearesearchpaperformattodocumentthese
studiesunlessIparticipatedinamentorship.ThroughouttheinvestigationIlocatedafew
possiblescientiststhatImaycontactinthefuturetocontinuemysearch.Ifable,Iwouldloveto
contactRogerShawyer,thecreatoroftheEmDrivethrusterthatIdiscussedwithrelationtoRF
resonancecavitypropulsion.WhencontinuingmyresearchIwouldstrivetoanswerthemain

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questionthatariseswhendiscussingthepropulsionsystemsIaminterestedin.Thisquestionis
whetherornotthesesystemswillabletobepracticallyused.Severalotherexperiencessuchas
theNASAVASTSprogramcouldhelpmeanswerthisquestionandthemanyotherthatIhave.
IfIwouldprovideoneitemofadvicetomyjunior/seniorself,Iwouldremindhimtonotsweat
thesmallstuff,butrathertofocusonthebiggerpicture.

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