UAP Center for Career Development ‘MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS. 1. The paycho-phystes of acoustios and lighting 2. Accustca treatment and conections Architectural agouelios encompasses two types of sound control: (the acoustioal environment within. a room: positioning sound sourees wit respedt le listeners, and arranging appropriate absorptivity or reflectivity levels for alt interior surfaces: (2) isolation of unwanted sounds: inaulating building ocoupants from intrusive noiae, In come spaces, 2 continuous low background noise, level is desirable for masking distracting sounds, Acoustics ftatraichd phin near ihn Noise - Any sound thats. objectionable or net Conversations of een create unacceptably high noise Le electorlice Reverberant schoo! corridors create: annoying sound intrusions in adjacent classroom: Mechanical and electrical equipment can be a source of noise, Architectural Acoustics. ~ The effect of building desiga on the comol of sound ip buildings; appreciation of the nature of sound and the principles of aooustins to. create. a safisfactory acoustical ‘erwironment Responsiilies: 4. Engineer —keep the sound fiom mechanical equipment at an anceplable level 2. Manufecturer— it ‘operation : “Sete comm gn sory uu proposed bulding 8 0 soe “Aout a neice oh a ‘esuling in inadequate anoustoal iy adios of achtesural consultant, the Sehtes cnginde vid opi ction ‘can be most integrated with the solutions to the other demands made on the buildings. Three Ps pif regen alba alll aie pncipacdarctige ee posable ee eee eae ne ‘structural precautions te reduce noise penetration, Design Casein ti aud capt ca desi: “Dead a eee puce oe sce gonna ei spaces beinvestigated before lan is established) «aio be oneal tug etn and hacen heme ato ee Compare costs and coordinate the work of al rades to come up withthe most cost-flectve combination of modified saund sources and acoustice tealments “hey en ce tah ns aes aie eon tbe nae y , eoaues ron cusses pas a hain ape wn stor oo stick. The drum surface vibrates back and forth, As it moves forward, it pushes the air in contact with the surface, This creates @ positive (bighes) presaure by compressing the ait. When the surfaoe moves in the opposite destin, it reales a negative (lower) pressure by decompressing the air. Thus, as the drum surface vibsates, it oreakes altemaling regions of bigher and lower air pressure, These pressure variations travel through the ait. as sound waves, a NAS MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS, (AUGUST 2011) 1UAP Center for Career Development CE Ar Compression Ait Commpression i ° Following table lists the approximate velocity of sound in air and other media. in gases, the higher the velocity of sound, the higher the pitch wil be. ‘Approximate Speed of Sound in Common Materials Medium ‘Sound Velocity (ft) mis Air, dry (0C and 0.76 mm Ha) 1,100 330 Wood (soft - along the fibre) 14,100 3400 Water (15C) 4,700 1400 Conerete 10,200 3100 Steel 16,000 ‘5000 Lead 3,700 1200 Glass 18,500 18500 Hydrogen (0C and 0.76 m) 4,100 1260 ‘The hearing mechanism of the ear senses the sound waves and converts them info information and relays itto the brain. The brain interprels the information as sound. The hearing mechanism in the ear is sensitive enough fo detect even small pressure waves: tis also very delicate: ths is why loud sound may damage hearing. How small and rapid are the changes of alr pressure which cause sound? When the rapid variations in pressure occur between about 20 and 20,000 times per second (frequency between 20Hz and 20kt#2) sound is potently audible even though the pressure variation can sometimes be aslow as only a few rilionths of a Pascal. Movements ofthe ear drum as emall asthe diameter of a hydrogen atom can be audible. Louder sounds are caused by greater variation in pressure - 1 Pascal, will sound quit loud, provided thal most ofthe acoustic energy isin the mid-ftequencies (kH- 4kHz) where the ear is most sensitive, What is SOUND WAVE? Sound is trarsmited via the movement of the partes in a medium, such as air or water. Energy is transferred from one region fo another via a series of compression and tension cycles: the motion of the particles is parallel to the propagation direction. The acoustic disturbance can be represented as a ‘wave, wih the x-axis representing time, and the y-axis the displacement ofa given partite in the ‘medium from its ret postion. Increasing the strength of the sound source extends the displacement ofthe patil, and so the acoustic pressure wil also increase. This is heard as an increase in loudness. Exciting the sound more rapidly inoreases the frequency ofthe sound, and produces more cycles in 2 ven period. This is heard as an increase in pitch. ‘MODULE 4; ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 2UAP Center for Career Development Two basic quantities that can desorbe the nature of @ sound are frequency and amplitude (of cisplacement or acoustic pressure). Sounds can be formed by a simple harmonic mixture of frequencies (as produced by a guitar sting), an intentional mixture of frequencies and amplitude (music) or a seemingly random micure of frequencies and amplitudes (noise). —— 7 1! { | } Sound wave Increased volume sound wave Increased frequency sound wave What are PITCH and FREQUENCY? Frequency isthe rate al which the source produces sound waves, ie. complete oyces of high and iow pressure regions In other words, frequency isthe number of times per second thal a vibrating body Completes one oycle of motion. The unit for frequency is the hertz (Hz = 1 oycle per second). Low Pitched or bass sounds have low frequencies. High-pitched or treble sounds have high frequencies. & healthy, young person can hear sounds with frequencies from roughly 20 to 20,000 Hz. The upper frequenoy limit decrease with age, and so the older a person gets, the less well they can hear high ‘notes. Also, the male hearing range deoreases more quickly than the female, and so women can generaly hear higher pitch notes than men of similar age. The sound of human speech is mainly inthe range 300 to 3,000 He. ses ate al rave ng st bool hs sare se h systhe rumniber af eazh wave ther wl eaea me-93° suet ‘Al sound waves are traveling at about the same speed - the speed of sound. So waves with a longer wavelencth dont anve at your ear, for example) as often (requenty) as the shorter waves. This aspect ofa sound - how often a wave peak goes by, is called frequency by scientists and engineers. They measure tin hertz, which is how many wave peaks go by n one second, The word that musicians use for frequency is pitch. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency, and the higher the pte of the sound. Short waves sound high ong waves sound fow. Pith is determined by how many times a sound wave repeats itself within one second of time ‘Each repetition of a waveform is called a eycle. ‘+ The number of repetitions that occur per second is called the frequency. ‘* Froquency is measured as ops = cycles per second on Hz called hertz. "Hz" is from the name of Heinrich Hertz, a German scientist who pioneered workin electromagnetic waves during the 19" century ‘MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (auGuST 2011) 3UAP Center for Career Development ‘one assiiation | (Wequency s number ot ‘sailations per second) The closer the peaks are together, the highor th pitch ane (i Ba a aA 440 TT HHO Te one Octave Incre e doubles the frequency reer re MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 4UAP Center for Career Development What is a DECIBEL (8)? ‘The decibel scale is @ logarithmic scale applicable to any parameter. In the measurement of sound, We aro concemed with the amplitude ofthe acoustic pressure, measured in pascal (Pa). The range of ‘acoustic pressures that the human ear can detect is very wide - from the lower limit of hearing at around 20 mioro Pa (2.x 10-5 Pa) to the threshold of pain at around 20 Pa, This very wide range of values is. Lnwieldy, 20 itis converted into a logarithmic scale. This changes the range of values to the more manageable range of 0 dB to 140 dB. Thus 0 dB s roughly he lowest level a normal person can hear, but itis not the lowest level posse. ‘Acousticans use the dB scale forthe following reasons: 41) Quantities of interest often exhibit such huge ranges of variaton that a dB scale is more convenient than a linear scale 2) The humen ear interprets loudness on a scale much closer toa logatithmic scale than allinear scale, : a How Loud Is Too Loud? ard SE atl or Soaaesin the Cah rears ny Some 2 4 s es © aps Hooral Bas Psychological Responses to Various Sound Intensities Paycholopicn Response Decibel Scale Examples 140 Rock banda iS? Jot takeoff ae 200Fe Riveting machine” © Subway train at 15 fe ‘Thrahold of severe pain Panay bs 0 roo Water at foot of Niagara Falls Quiet 80 Inside automobile at 5 rmph Freeway trafic at 50 ft ‘Normal conversation 2¢3f Quiet restaurant Quiet office Liorary c Whispor arate > Normal Breathing: What is SOUND INTENSITY? This isthe rte of sound energy transittd in a specified direction per unit area normal to the direction. With good hearing the range is from about 0.000000000001 Watt per square meter fo about 1 Watt per ‘square meter (12 orders of magnitude greater). The sound intensity level is found from intensity | Very quiet 60 Justaudible 40 0 ‘Threshold of hearing © epriant bp hiya saan 10x ig (W1.0E-12) dB ee eee ‘MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 8UAP Center for Career Development Note: 1.0612 Wiin'2 normally conesponds to @ sound pressure of about 2 0E-5 Pascals which is used as the detum acoustic pressure in ai. ‘Sound intensity meters are becoming increasingly popular for determining the quantity and location of sound energy emission SOUND INTENSITY LEVELS er [ Paine ent Therein a deed irary very cust 247) J Thesnold of Fea How does sound decay wih distance? ‘The way sound changes with distance from the source is dependent onthe size and shape of the source and also the surrounding environment and prevailing at currents, Its relatively simple to calculate provided the cource is small and outdoors, but indoor caleulatons (in areverberant fla) are rather more complex. IT the noise source is outdoors and its dimensions are small compared withthe distance to the ‘monitoring poston (ideally a point source), then as the sound energy is radiated it will spread over an «rea which is proportional tothe square ofthe distance. This is an ‘inverse square Law’ where the sound level wil decine by 6dB for each doubling of distance. Line noise sources such as a ong line of moving trac wil raciate noise in cylindrical pattem, co that the area covered by the sound energy spread is directly proportional othe distance and the sound will dedine by 308 per doubling of distance, CGiose to a source (the near fed) the change in SPL wil not follow the above laws because the spread cf energy is less, and smaller changes of sound level wth distanoe should be expected. In addition itis always necessary to take into aocount attenuation due to the absorption of sound by the air, which may be substantial at higher frequencies. For ullrasound, air absorption may well be the dominant factor in the reduction. inensity at surface of sphere 1‘ Ce a The ergy tues sety tomine Qe sou obese ctu es MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 9UAP Center for Career Development What is SOUND PRESSURE? ‘The amount of ar pressure fuctuation a noise source creates. We "hear" or perosive sound pressure as loudness. Sound pressure also depends on the environment in which the source is located and the listener's distance from the source. The sound produced by the drum is louder two meters from the drum if itis in smal bathroom, than iit is struck in the middle of a football field. Generally, the farther one moves from the drum, the cuieter it sounds. Also ifthere are hard surfaces that can reflect the sound (walls in a room), the sound wil fel louder than if you heard the same sound, from the same distance, in a wide- open fel Sound pressure is usualy expressed in units called pascals (Pa).A heathy, young person can hear sound pressures as low as 0.00002 Pa. A normal conversation produces a sound pressure of 0.02 Pa. ‘A gasoline-powered lawn mower produces about 1 Pa. The sound is painfully oud at levels around 20 Pa, Thus the common sounds we hear have sound pressure over a wide range (0.00002 Pa -20 Pa). Its dificult to work with such a broad range of sound pressures. To overcome tis dffculty we use decibel (4B, of tenth [dec] of @ Be!) The decibe! is named after Alexender Graham Beli, the Canadian pioneer of the telephone who took great personal intorestn the problems of deaf peopl. What is a SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL? Sound pressure converted tothe decibel scale is called sound pressure level (Lp). The zero ofthe decibel scale (0 dB) is the sound pressure of 0.00002 Pa, This means that 0.00002 Pa isthe reference sound pressure to which all other sound pressures are compared on the dB scale, This is the reason the decibels of sound are often indicated 2s dB re 0.00002 Pa, Ree brmoneen ns Sound Pressure Lave) aa Panama CobOm (aS) ap =10 gaa a go ae Toate tao Ls 0-2 Pov Lnn one nevepaper ions OSES "Moga esc ao mp ts0m) Sf OS muna Macineatty w= F202 Eotebe Blas ens cr cop samy =F ay, Yam lane Conversation at} s0—f--o.ce MCEREOI wozfoa =F ote duit hoon «0—|-00@ fico O.ons Soe O.oot tots Ocone Whatis SOUND POWER? ‘The sound energy transferred per second from the noise source tothe air. A noise source, such 2s 2 ‘compressor or drum, has a given, constant sound power that does not change ifthe source is placed in a different environment, Power is expressed in units called watts (W). An average whisper generates a sound power of (,0000001 watts (0.1 microwatt (AW), a truck hom 0.1 W, and a turbo jet engine 100,000 W. Like sound pressure, sound power (i W) is usually expressed as sound power levels in dB, Whalis a SOUND POWER LEVEL? Sound power level, Lw, is often quoted on machinery o indicate the total sound energy radiated per second. The reference power is taken as “pW. Alawn mower with sound power level B&d2(A) wil produce a sound level of about 60d8(A) ala distance of 10 meters. Ifthe sound power level was 78dB(A) then the lawn mower sound level wouid be only 50dB{A) atthe same distance. EE EEEEEeeeeeeeEaEE TEE APE MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 10UAP Center for Career Development Whatis the relation between sound pressure and sound power? Because the sound power of a noise source is constant and specifi, it can be used to calculate the ‘expected sound pressure, The calculation requires detailed information about the noise source's environment. Usually a noise ‘source with a lower sound power generales less sound pressure. The manufaclurer can offen provide the sound power of equipment. A number of international standards are available for labeling machines and equipment with their noise emission levels. From the sound power of a compressor, one can ccaloulate the expacted sound pressure and sound pressure level at 2 certain localion and distance. ‘What is the speed of sound in ai, water? The speed of sound in air ala temperature of 0 °C and 50% relative hurmidily is 331.6 mis, The speed is proportional to the square root of absolute temperature and it is therefore about 12 mis greater af 20°C. ‘The speed is nearly independent of frequency and atmospherio pressure but the resultant sound Velocity may be substantially altered by wind velocity. ‘The speed of sound in waters approximately 1500 ms. I is possible to measure changes in ocean temperature by observing the resultant change in speed of sound over long distances. ite F-18 breaking the sound berrier Ss Mach Number C. -agaae e Mot 26°), and the top balcony should not be more than 65 ft above the stage to avoid vertigo. + Abalcony view ofthe fist few rows of main floor seating also may be desirable to achieve a sense of congregation with audience below and the prosoenium arch should not obstruct the View of bottom 7 ftof the backstage wal. A BET ny et ‘CHECKLIST FOR LECTURE ROOMS ‘Auditoriums for speech (e.g, theaters, conference rooms, classrooms) - high intelighilly of spoken words throughout the room To achieve high signal-to-noise ratios (> 15 48) shape rooms to direct sound from the speaker's location toward the audienoe avoid echoes and *hot (or "bright? spots lan to have low background noise levels, Acoustical parameters affecting the perception of speech in lecture rooms: 1. For satisfactory loudness - provide compact room shape with relatively low rom volume (Volume per seat ratio shouid be 80 to 150 ft per person) 2, Reverberation times + For theaters -lese than 1.2 s from 250 to 4000 Hz + Forclassrooms -less than 0.8 s + Long reverberation times reduce the inteligbilty of speech the same way noise masks speech signals + Select sound-absorbing finishes for absorption to be constant within the frequency range for speech. Place absorption on side walls rather than on cefings + For small rooms - use sound-absorbing panels with air space behind o prevent “ooominess at low frequencies 3, Shot distance between speaker and rear ofthe audience area for sufficient loudness to be sufficient {throughout the room and audience to see the petson talking + For drama - expressions of performers beyond 40; gestures beyond 65 ft; large body movernents beyond 100 ft. + For fan-shaped rooms, seating within 1400 angle measured atthe location ofthe speaker 4, Cellng or overhead sound-relectng surfaces provide short-delayed sound reflections directly tothe audience (path differences between direct and reflected sound should be less than 34 fi) 5. Seating - slope greater than 70 for good sight lines and reduce audience attenuation Without electronic speech reinforcement, 1000 seats - upper limit for drama using a proscenium stage; 700 seas using an open ot rust sage 400 sea using an area eee Background noise levels from the mechanical system not lo exoeed 34 dBA or noise citerion NC-25. Enclosing constructions to reduce intruding noise to avoid interference with desired sounds and prevent distractions + Consider lower limits for rooms used by children, older adults, or hearing-impaired persons, ern ‘MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 24UAP Center for Career Development 7. Seating capacity exceeding 500 - sound:-reinorcing system to augment the natural sound from sure to listener + Smaller lecture rooms, courtrooms, conference rooms require a sound-reinforcing system to assist weak-voioed speakers and to project recorded material evenly REFLECTION, DIFFUSION, AND DIFFRACTION Reflection (x>4 4) + Ifthe surface dimension xis larger than about 2to 4 times the wavelength (A) ofthe impinging sound wave, the angle of incidence angle i will equa the angle of reflection angle r + 1000 Hz = wavelength of 1.1; a surface dimension (length or width) of about 4 A= 4X 1.1=4 4/2ftwil reflect sound energy wavelengths of 1000 Hz and above + Array of suspended panels direct reflected sound energy oward the audience, the individual panels should be of varying sizes to prevent a‘rasping” sound Diffusion (x = A) * Scattering or random redistribution of a sound wave from a surface; oocurs when the surface depths of hard-surfaced materials are comparable to the wavelengths ofthe sound, + Diffusion does not ‘break up" or absorb sound: the direction of the incident sound wave is changed as I stkes a sound-4X). 2. The source of speech oF music wil nol radiate from fixed position. Optimum room shape depends ‘on a balance of the best sound distribution from several source postions to the listening area 3. A detailed evaluation of diffusion of sound by room surfaces is not possible with ray diagrams. The table is a design guide used with ray-diagram analyses fo evaluate general listening conditions. ‘The diference in length between the reflected sound path and the dtect sound peth at any listening position is directly related tothe time difference which the ear detects + Ifarefiected sound wave is heard 1/17s of laler afer itwas first heard as a direct sound, the reflected sound wave can be perceived as a discrete echo (echoes from clffs in mountain regions where reflected sounds are heard as distinct repetitions ofthe direct for original] sound. + The sound path difference in feet from a sound delayed by 1/175 (about 0.06 s) can be found as fllows: Distance = velocity X time = 1190 X 0.06 = 68% ‘Sound Path Difference (ft) Time Delay Gap (ms) Listening Conditions <2 <20 Excellent for speech and music 231034 201030 Good for speech, fair for music 340.50 2010 45 ‘Marginal (blurred) 600.68 4510 60 Unsatisfactory >68 >60 Poor (echo if strong enough) RAY-DIAGRAM GRAPHICS ‘An Inexpensive protractor to measure angles, a pencl, scale, and paper are all the equipment required {or ray-diagram calculations. Below is an auditorium section wih sound path differences calculated to front and middle-rear audience locations from a typical source location, Path difference = reflected path - direct path Example Rey-Diagram Measurements (Distances are shown in parentheses on above drawing) Frontlocation no, 4 Path difference = (11 + 18) -(12)=17 ft Excellent for speech and music because path difference is less than 23 ft. Middle location no, 2: Path difference = (16 +26) -(33) = 9 Excellent for speech and music because path difference is less than 23 ft MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 28UAP Center for Career Development SOUND PATHS IN AUDITORIUMS. The intia-time-delay gap - time interval between the artival ofthe direct sound and the first reflected sound of sufficient loudness (should be less than about 30 ms [path difference < 34 fis good for listening conditions because sounds within this time interval can coalesce as one impression in @ listeners brain, + Early-arrving reflected sound energy is important for larity and definition of musi. + "Early’ sound the direct and reflected sound arriving within the frst 80 ms, + Clarty the rato of early sound energy to late or reverberant sound energy. + Auditoriums with nartow shapes support direct and early-reflected sound because the inital time-delay gaps is short, + Intimacy - te inital-ime-deay gap influencing a listener's perception ofthe size ofthe auditorium *+ The listener in the auditorium below wil hear the direct sound fist and then, after the intial- time-delay gap, reflections from the wal (path 1 on the drawing), celing (path 2), stage enclosure (palh 3), and so on. These arrival times and sound levels are indicated by the bars ‘on the sound level vs. ime graph shown below. cage ee Aes ecred sound (pattern a oF music) rae tes sath on Grasing 9° 808. orion, ‘Sound Level vs. Time Graph for Auditorium ceLINGS “+ Hard, sound-refleting fat celing provides useful sound reflections covering the enlire seating area in alecture room + Sound reflections for speech come from the same direotion as the souroe and are delayed by tess than 30 ms + Useful celing refletions can be increased so thal the middle-rear seats actually receive reflections from both celing planes MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 29UAP Center for Career Development + The average ceiling height Hin auditoriums with upholstered seats and absorptive rear walls is approximately reated tothe mid frequency reverberation time T as follows: H-20T Where H = ceiling height (8) T=mid-frequency reverberation time (8) 46 Fim Ceting Fy * Secped Cong let and Sloped Caiing + For concert halls: long reverberation, high oelings, sound-reflecting walls are preferred ceiings thal are diffusing can improve audibilty of lateral sound by diminishing the strength of ceiling reflections ECHOES + The distinct repetition ofthe original sound and is suffcieny ioud to be clearly heard above the general reverberation and background noise in a space, + For speech signals, echoes can be perceived when the time intervals between the direct and reflected sounds are greater than 60 ms (about 1/17s). + Inaudoriums, sound-reflctng flat or concave rear walls and high or vauted ceilings are potential echo producers, “The graph shows the amount in decibels an echo is above or below the direct speech for imo dolays (ms) in rooms wit a reverberation time of about 1 s at mic-frequencies. An echo that falls in the shaded ‘area on the upper right ofthe graph will be annoying to most listeners (> 50 percent disturbed) — Sue gies ee C28) ‘MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 30UAP Center for Career Development ECHO CONTROL PRINCIPLES + Potential echo-producing surfaces should be treated with efficient sound- absorbing materials or shaped as shown. + The front portion ofthe oeling is lowered to reduce the delayed reflections from overhead and reoriented to provide useful reflections toward the rear of the auditorium. Potential Echo Proving Sutaces Rested Cation Protie Sound Absorbing Wall Treatments: ‘Deep’ treatment can be provided by either thick sound. absorbing materis or thin sound-absorbing metenalsinstaled with airspace behind REAR WALL ECHO CONTROL TREATMENT ‘fiat, sound-eflecting rear wall can produce echoes or unwanted, long-delayed reflections in medium to large aucitoriums. ‘+ Thige solutions to control slap" echoes (ie., sharp return of sound) from a rear wall are shown below. + Perforated facings, which are highly transparent o sound waves, can be used to conceal sound-absorbing treatment. SIDE WALLS Side walls lateral reflections create a favorable auditory spatial impression (or intimacy), essential for the satisfactory perception of music performances. Early sound reflections from side walls add strenglh to the direct sound + The inital-tme-dolay gap ((TDG) can be found by subtracting the direct sound path D from the reflected sound path R. Both paths are measured toa listener sealed near the centerine ofthe hal, halfway between the conductor and the first balcony face (or reat wall). ITOG in miliseconds equals the path difference (R - D) in feet times 0.9. + For concert halls, TDG should be less than 20 ms. MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 31UAP Center for Career Development + Wide fan shapes and semicircular floor plans do not provide strong, early lateral reflections because the side walls are located too far apart (music will sound distant and laok fullness of tone) + The ‘reverse" fan shape (rooms with decreasing width toward rear) can provide strongest Fn shape (for lecture room) eee” \ anne Rectangular Shape (Dashed lines indicate prefered orentations fora lecture room); Stepped Shape (Altemate ‘elements of side walls are paral to provide lateral reflections toward audlsnce for music hal) Seen MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 32UAP Center for Career Development (clockwise, rom top let Echo-Praducing Rear Wall (Echo at celing-wall reentrant engl); Sound-Absorbing Treatment (Exend deep treatment fam seated head lev); Surface Modulaions or ‘Rumples* Use cfndors with 0.70) near the source located at the left end of the stage platform. Note also that the Al drops off wth distance from the source. Reshaping of the ceiling and control of echoes off the rear wall could raise the Al at these remote locations. im Sect foe \ fr ; > es Equal AI Contours in Lecture Room ‘An objective evaluation test method, called the rapid speech transmission index (RAST), has been developed to electronically measure speech inteligibity in rooms. The method uses a modulated test signal spectrum to simulate speech at 500 Hz and 2000 Hz [Note: For communication requirements (e.g, speech, drama, musical comedy) high Als are essential for optimum listening condions. Conversely, to actieve saistactor speech privacy, alow Alis desired. An A of 0.05 to 0.15, (orto 14 percent ofthe words heard coretly, usualy indicates saisfectory speech privacy conditions. FLUTTER ECHO + Repelive inter-reflecion of sound energy between opposing parallel or concave sound- reflecting surfaces heard as a high-frequengy ringing or buzzing + Topprevent futter echo, avoid parallel surfaces, provide deep sound-absorbing treatment, or break up smooth surfaces with splayed or ‘scalloped! elements. A 1:10 splay (or > 50 tt) of ‘one ofthe parale wails wil normally prevent flutter echo in small rooms. + Mostnoticeable in small rooms at specific locations of noise soutoe and listener Comidor; Small room with concave wall Pitched-Roof Flutter Echo The echo phenomenon below (called pitched-roof futter) occur in rooms with nonparaile! walls, MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 35UAP Center for Career Development ‘SMALL ROOMS + Audible resonance is the emphasis of sound energy at particular frequencies occurring in small rooms entirely finished with sound-reflecting materials when the dimensional ralios are whole ‘numbers (cube) phenomenon is referred as the “bathroom tenor effect + Preferred ratios of room dimensions may prevent resonance (‘boominess’) by even distribution of low-frequency sound eneray + As most rooms contain absorptive materials (carpels, curtains, and furnishings) the provision of preferred dimensional ratios is unimportant ‘Sound-Absorbing Surfaces Opposite Sound Reflecting Surfaces + Inthe small music practice rooms, the amount of sound effecting between hard, sound- reflecting surfaces can be minimized by insaling sound-absorbing materials on adjacent walls cr at two opposite corners. + Effective treatment finishes can be sound- absorbing panels furred out rom the backup wall or heavy fabric curtains hung 100 percent fll (2 of curtain to 4 ft of surface width). + Toenhance low-frequency absorption, put deep airspace between the sound- absorbing treatment and the backup surface. Tr Soune -reFiecting \ walls Adjacent-Wall Treatment Sound- apsorbing 7 panels Airspace ( to increase | low-frequency absorption and reduce ‘boominess’ ) Corner Treatment ‘Adjacent Wall Treatment; Comer Treatment SS ceeeaiaeieenennneneEEEENTCTATTETTELE?! MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 36UAP Center for Career Development Nonparalle!-Wall Surfaces ‘Sound-Diffusing Well Modulations (sound-absorbing ceiling or fully carpeted floor _(Large-scale cylindrica, triangular, or other rrormaly willbe required fwalls are hard-surfaced) surface iegulartes can be used to provide diffusion) CONCAVE SURFACES + Conoave wall and celing surfaces require treatment to prevent annoying sound reflections ‘which reduce inteligbilty of direct sound. + Concave shapes (cirve,elipse, parabola) cause reflecled sound to converge ata focal point + Sound energy may be concentrated in certain areas (called focusing) or reflected along ‘smooth concave surfaces (called creep echo, or the ‘whispering galery effect’ because low Voice levels can be heard al considerable distances away) Below are problom situations and corresponding corrective measures. Note that focusing can be more noticeable for low-frequency sound eneray because mest nish materials are less absorptive at low froquencios Problem Solution Focused sound Surface undulations: Large-scale, random-sized surface undulations can provide difusion to minimize focusing ofrafected sound energy (convex brick surfaces) Creep ‘Sounc-absorbing ireatment Acoustically Fansparent materiel (spaced wood slats or open metal gile) conceals actuel enclosure, which can be treated with deep sound-abeorbing materia to reduce reflected sound energy and creep echoes. MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 37UAP Center for Career Development ‘An example of the whispering gallery effect occurs inthe Urion Terminal Buiding, Cincinn, Oho (see sketch below). Sound energy is reflected eong the domed celing surface allowing persons at opposite ends ofthe refunds (> 180 apart) to easly converse a whisper voice eves; however, persons only afew feet away fom the speakers cannot hear the conversation. Other examples where siilar effects oocur include the dome of St. Pauls Cathedral, London, England, and the old Senate Chamber atthe U.S. Capital, Washington, DC. = = Cat ansgec ng No ce eve Creep Echo from Dome ‘Noe: Domed planoariume can be designed to avid focusing by using @ sound- transparent ner on which the sky images are projcted. The plenum above the perforated liner canbe treated wih either deep sound absorption or sound-dfusing elements Below are examples of poor distbution of sound in domed auditoriums. Inthe auditorium shown at the le, the extent of seating affected by focusing wil be far greater than indieated because source locations onthe stage wil vary. ‘Aucitoram (Focused reflections fram concave shaped celng); Motion Picture Theater (Useless reftections trom dome) SOUND REFLECTORS + Aneffective sound reflector has a hard surface (thiok plaster, double-layered gypsum board, sealed wood, or acrylic plastic) and is significant larger than the wavelength of sound itis designed to reflect. + The sound-reflecting pulpit canopy below can provide useful reinforoement ofthe direct sound as well as prevent long-delayed reflections and potential echo conditions from the high ceiling Inthe church below, the organ and console are located within the sanctuary, notin a galery or other deep reoess. Section View of Church MODULE 4: ACOUSTICSUAP Center for Career Development Note: In churches, an inter of thin wood paneling apped to turing can be an unintended, effecive vibrating panel sound absorber. The absorption by the panel action can reduce low-frequency reverberation considerably, (ving an unpleasant ‘shily’ characteristic to music. If wood is desied, vibrating pane! effects can be avoided by tchering the wood drecily to arid backup wall o by using closely spaced uring supports (< 1 apart) Pulpit Canopy Details (CHECKLIST FOR WORSHIP SPACES * The need for acoustical properties to support intaligible speech and sufficient reverberance for music: provide a long reverberation time for music (about 2s at mid-frequoncies) and an electronic, sound-reinforcing system for speech articulation + iforgan music is important, along reverberation time (>2.s) is required for enhancement of tone and blending. (Noted: many organ builders seem to emphasize reverberance to the exclusion of ther equaly mportent accustica properties for music, such as even isbibuion of sound energy, suffcient lteral reflections, and tonal balance) + Reverberanoe help the congregation avoid the feeling of ‘singing alone" during hymns or sung responses or ‘speaking alone” during prayer or responsive readings. + The volume, finishes, and shape of a worship space affect the ariculation of speech and quality of music. Guidelines to help designers achieve conditions for good hearing in worship spaces +, Musio is best supported in churches with relaively narrow plans (providing shor intal-time-delay (gaps) and high room volume. * Wide plans, which wrap the congregational seating around the pulpitcholr area, do not provide sufficient lateral sound. Iis absence contributes o an impression of distant sound, lacking fullness of tone. + Forplanning purposes, volume per seat rato should be 180 to 300 #3 per person for churches where speech is the most important part ofthe servioe; 200 to 400 f'3 per person for churehes where music isthe most important part. Avoid deeply recessed sealing areas which shied listeners from reverberant sound. 2. Bevate pulpit or lectern and locate close tothe walls. in spaces wit high celings, use a pulpit ‘canopy (with Upward til) to enhance direct sound and prevent long-delayed reflections from the ceiling 3. Avoid domes, barrel vaulls, and other concave shapes which focus sound energy. To mitigate ‘ocusing effects, concave celings can be fattened’ inthe center o treated with sound-cifusing cloments such as unequal facets. If the focal point is far above the seating (> 1/2 floor-to-ceiling height), refeected sound wil be weaker than it would be if the oeing were lat. io ccaaeeennEEEEEEEREEEEEEEEREEP SRT TerTTeT MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 39UAP Center for Career Development sdang ( sees net provide J weeks retiagiiens) ‘ener ata rear pens 7 Lengo: ‘Domed Ceiling 4, Lay out seating fo achieve good sight ines and minimum pew-to-pulpitcistances to enhiance speech perception. Pew cushions and carpeting used inthe seating areas can provide constant sound absorption (reverberance does not vary greatly wit the number of occupants present). Where carpatis Used primariy to contol footal impact and shuffing noises, use carpet having low ple weight and low pile height, installed without a pad undemeath. Do not use carpet in the chancel or choir areas, or in pew areas ff active participation of congregation is desired, 5, Wall and oellng surfaces should be sound-reflecting (conorete, thick plaster, or double layer of thick ‘gypsum board or thick wood supported by closely spaced studs) with large-scale imegulartes, splays, ‘or bumps such as deep coffers to contribute to desired reverberance, diffusion, and lateral reflections (to surround listeners with sound), Avold materials which selectively absorb sound energy at low frequencies (single layer of thin wood or gypsum board) 6. Under-balconies may need special eatment such as sloped softs and depths restricted to less than the opening heights. Shape balcony faces and rear walls with large splays or convex elements to avoid longrdelayed refleotions and echoes (or carefully treat with limited amount of sound-2bsorbing finishes), 7, Locate choir, organ, and organ console close together (<40 ft apart) to achieve balance between ‘tgan tone and choral music, Surround both with sound-teflecting surfaces shaped to blend end project sound toward the congregation. Celing height above the choir should not be too ow (< 20 ft). The choir ‘must clearly hear the organ for proper support and rhythmic guidance. I the organist also the choir directo, orient the organ console so the choit can see the hands of the organist. Avoid using carpet and pew cushions in the choir areas because the absence of sound-absorbing materials at these critical locations have an overwhelming influence on loudness and pattern of early sound energy distribution. Choir areas should be somewhat elevated with direct line of sight o the congregation (not located in deep recesses) £8. Organ pipes should be located in the open where they will be acoustically connected or coupled to the sanctuary (nctin deep recess or transept with direc ine of sight to the congregation. Provide space (© 1.§-tclearance) al sides and rear of organ to alow servicing. Organs can have freestanding pipes or pipes in a wood panel casework (Io blend sound and help develop harmonics). All ranks of the organ ust be clearly heard. if the organ is to be visually hidden, place pipes in a shallow recess (> 125 4 for ‘each stop or set of pipes) finished in hard, sound-reflecting materials. Use sound: transparent grile with framing members less than 2 in wide and deep, with spacing between to provide more than 75 percent unobstructed open area, sate ratie Gaw)aa ‘MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 40UAP Center for Career Development 9. To prevent interference with meditation, prayer, and appreciation of worship services, background noise levels from the mechanical system should not exceed noise orierion NC-25 fr large spaces, of NC-30 for smaller spaces. Enclosing constructions must reduce intruding noise to levels below these citeria. In small sanctuaries, be careful to control the noise produced by air outlets and return griles ‘because occupants wil be seated closer to these terminal devioes than they would be in large spaces, Isolate noise and vibrations of the organ blower. 410. To achieve inteligible speech in reverberent spaces, use the high directional, central electronic ssound:einforcing system to concentrate amplified speech over the congregational sealing area and allow the sound fo come from the diction ofthe pulpit location. As an alternative to the preferred ‘central system, use a distributed system such as a dense array of cone loudspeakers located overhead ‘ra pew-back system with signal-delay features. In churches wit flexble seating, overhead distributed -sysiems can be designed fo switch off loudspeakers located above the unocoupied areas wovesveaker 7 Lo.csceaeer zone na. 2 Zones for Overhead Distibuted System CHECKLIST FOR MULTIPURPOSE AUDITORIUMS Important acoustical parameters affecting the design of multipurpose school auditoriums with seating capacities in the range of 1000 to 2000. 4, Site: Select a quiet exposure far away from highways, fight paths, or nolsy industries, 2. Space Use: Multipurpose uses include lectures, dramas, instrumenta recitas, and symphonic music. Consequently, afullsrequency-response sound-reinforcing system will be required. 3. Interior Location: Use corridors, storage rooms, and other “buffer” spaces to isolate the auditorium ‘rom noise. Avoid locations adjacent to music rehearsal rooms, mechanical equipment rooms (do not locate HVAC equipment under the stage), carpenty shops, and other noisy spaces, Doors to the auditorium should be solid, heavy, and gasketed around their entire perimeters to be airtight when closed. Treat cordors and lobbies wih generous amounts of sound absorbing materials to control rnoise buldup. Dead spaces tend fo induce occupants to speak at lower voice levels. 4, Volume: Volume per seat rato shouid be 200 to 240 ft per person, which can be achieved with a room volume less tan 500,000 f'3. The preliminary shape can be based on visual or seating considerations alone, To emphasize lateral reflections, plans that are rectangular, roughly square, or only slighty fanned are preferred 5. Reverberation: Use the Sabine equation to determine the reverberation times at 125, 500, and 4000 He. This is the formula generaly used by acoustical testing laboratories. Be sure to include air absorption, which may be significant at high frequencies in large spaoes. The reverberation time T should be 1 4 to 1.9 s at midfrequencies (ie. averane of reverberation at 800 and 1000 Hz), 1.3T at 125 Hz, and O.8Tat 4000 Hz. Athigh frequencies, too much reverberation usually means "harsh" or “resping’Istening conditions. Atlow frequencies, too much reverberation usually sounds “boomy,” whereas to itle sounds “shri” MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 41UAP Center for Career Development Butter zone (to iso ate a.ditorium from Shop and mecnanical room > / posading Mecnanica: equipment room (can buffer Buditorium | | j bobby. f ic from noise) Bee = aotieere Layout Using Buffer Spaces 6, Use ray-diaaram analyses to property orient the ceding and side wall, especialy near the proscenium, Celling and wall surfaces should provide useful sound reflections (Le., ear reflections with < 28 ttpath difference from direct sound) and diffusion, Avoid vaults, domes, and other con cave surface shapes. 7. Background Noise: Background noise should be low so it wll not cover up of mask performances, ‘The HVAC system should be designed so its noise wil not exceed the preferted noise orteria. Control air velocities al room registers and ofils, and use intemal sound-absorbing duct linings andlor mufflers toprevent duct borne noise transmission in both the supply and retum air-distribution systems. 8. Stage Enclosure and Orchestra Pit Shape to provide good distrbution of strong early reflections and diffusion. The reverberation time ofthe stage house should be approximately equal to that of the auditorium. Revesberation will be longer when surfaces surrounding the stage are shaped to inter-refleot or scatter sound rather than to reflect sound toward the absorplive audience. The orchestra pit, sized at about 14 to 16 f2 per musician, should have a removable sound-absorbing curtain (or panels) along its rear wall to allow the conductor to control loudness in the pit Low Stell (Side panels> 50 apart); Preferred High Shell (Stage celing > 30 fthigh, side walls < 50 1 apart, and shell <30 ft deep) MODULE 4: ACOUSTICSUAP Center for Career Development 9, Balcony; Use balconies to reduoe the distance tothe farthest row of seals andlor to inorease seating capacity. Keep the overhang shallow (ie., depth less than twice the opening height), slope the soffit, and treat the face with sound-dffusing elements (or sound- absorbing material) to prevent echoes. rs — 5 ‘Augtorium with Balcony (att) Audtrum witout Balcony 10. Sound Reinforcing System: Provide a central space just above and slighty infront ofthe proscenium opening to accommodate a cluster of loudspeakers. Be sure the audience has line of sight to the high-frequency hors of the cluster. Locale the control console fr the sound system ata centrl location in the audience seating area. ‘The folowing general quidetines can be used to select fish materials and furnishings. Ceiling: sound: effecting materials (conorete, thick wood, or thick aypsum board); if required to control reverberation, the perimeter along both sides and rear can be sound-absorbing (about one-third to one- haf ofthe celing area covered in a horseshoe patter) or use a checkerboard pattern consisting of altemate areas of sound-absorbing and reflecting materials ‘Side Walls: sound-reflecting and difusing surfaces with many iregulartes (sunken panels, solays, and Lndulations). For variable sound absorption, hang large amounts of fabric curtains or banners along the rear portion of side walls or in cubic volume above suspended sound-reflecting panels Rear Walt difusing surface with large-scale iregularies; treat with deep sound-absorbing finish to control echoes. Floor: Carpet al aisles, except infront ofthe stage, o aid in footfall impact noise control. Do not use carpet in seating areas. Seating: Use fabric-uphdistered seats. Absomptve seating provide ‘stable reverberation conditions, so the reverberation willbe nearly the same when the auditorium is full as when itis patally occupied. Use seating that does not selectively absorb sound at iow frequencies. Continental seating layouts have greater spacing between rows than conventional seating with center aisles. VARIABLE SOUND ABSORBERS When the reverberation time must be varied to satisfy the requirements of diferent activities in a room, the sound-absorbing treatment can be designed to be adjustable. For mos! situation, listeners can detect a change in reverberation greater than or equal to 0.1. In rooms for music, avoid placing absorption near the sources of sound where itcan adversely affect early sound energy. Retractable Sound-Absorbing Curtains Curtains can be adjusted fo vary the emount of absorption and, when stored in a recess, to expose @ sound-reffecting backup surface. For music perception needs, curlains should be store transmission loss enclosure so they will contribute almost no absorption MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 43UAP Center for Career Development ‘Note: A visualy oneque, sound transparent screen (called transondent) can be placed in front of curtains fo alow changes in curtain extension wihout affecting appearance. This prevents th aqustment ofthe curt for visual, tot acoustical, reasons. Ba care where music parception is importa because the deep dspace behind the Sound:ransparert screen coud absorb fo much low frequency sound energy by acting as a vlume resonator. Siding Fecings ‘Two panels of perforated material can be used to vary absorption by sliding one panel in front ofthe other. The holes are lined up for maximum absorption and are staggered (or offset) for maximum reflection, The later alignment blocks the path to the sounc-absorbing treatment installed behind the panels, Holes lined upto provide maximum absorption. Hinged Panels ‘Sound-absorbing material installed on back of sound-reffecing panel can be swung into postion to vary conditions fram hard to sof, Rotatable Elements ‘The details below are rotatable prism elements which have three sides: reflecting, absorbing, and diffusing. EGE Sool SJ NAN/ Note: Variable absorption also can be used to adjust the reverberation during orchestra rehearsals in music halls ‘30 rehearsal condlfons match performing conditions, when the audience i present 6 Be pit SSioped sett Flat Celling: Elevated pulp, sloped soft —————crmnnryTInICrTTniyh ‘MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 44UAP Center for Career Development HOW TO COMPUTE CUBIC VOLUME Reverberation time is clrectly proportional to the size of a room. Its extremely important that cubic volume be correctly computed, f cubic volume is x percent in error, predicted reverberation time would be a corresponding x percent in error. For most situations, a change of 10 percent or more in reverberation can be detected by listeners. Volume of rooms that are cubic or rectangular solid in shape ‘can be readily computed by mulplying lenath times width times height. Shown below are volume formulas for several regular and irregular shaped rooms. In many designs, itis best io subdivide room volume into smaller volumes, such as in an auditorium: main hal, orchestra pt, under balcony, above baloony, and so on, The resulting total should be far more accurate than an estimate based on average ‘overall dimensions of length, width, and height. vetwen vain vate = eri Barrel Yautt Denson fe . Rectangular Sold or Cube; Oyinder; Bare! Vaut; Dome (Segment of sphere) gos MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) 45