Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission 2.1 Digital Transmission 2.1.1 Line Coding + Line coding is process of converting bit stream into digital signal. Fig, 2.1.1 shows the process of line coding. ' 1 o110701 100110101 Line coding o Bi ream Ion Fig. 2.1.1 Line coding 2.4.1.1 Characteristics of Line Coding 41. Signal Level Versus Data Level * The number of values allowed in a signal is referred as number of signal levels and number of values used to represent data as number of data levels. * Consider the signals shown in Fig. 2.1.2. vA Signal fovel = 2 | | Data level = 2 t Signal level = 3 Data level =2 Fig. 2,1.2 Signal level versus data level (2-1)Data Communication 2-2 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission 2. Pulse Rate Versus Bit Rate * Pulse rate is number of pulses per second. Bit rate is number of bits per second. Bit rate = Pulse rate x log 2 L L is number of data levels of the signal. where, 3, D.C. Components + D.C. components in line coding are not desirable, because i) D.C. components can not pass through transformers. ii) It is extra energy component. + Fig. 2.13 shows two signals, with and without d.c. component. v With D.C. component Without D.C. component n Fig. 2.1.3 DC component 4. Self Synchronization There is enough timing information in the transmitted data that keeps sender and receiver synchronized. This feature is called as self-synchronization of digital signal. 2.1.1.2 Line Coding Schemes * The Line coding schemes can be categorized into three types i.e. - unipolar, polar and bipolar.St cet ats waco tial ere Te ee Se eee Fig. 2.1.4 Line coding schemes 4. Unipolar * Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level, 1’s are encoded as positive value and 0's are encoded as zero value, fig. 2.1.5 shows unipolar encoding. Fig. 2.1.5 Unipolar encoding 2. Polar . * Polar encoding uses two voltage levels i.e. positive and negative. There are four types of commonly used polar _— encoding schemes ie, NRZ, RZ, Differential e M manchester | Manchester, Differential Manchester. Fig. 216 shows polar encoding types. Fig. 2.1.6 Polar encoding types * Non Retum to Zero (NRZ) encoding uses either positive or negative signal. In NRZ-L (NRZ-Level) encoding the level of signal depends on the type of bit that it represents. In NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the signal is inverted if a ‘I’ is encountered. + Retum to Zero (RZ) uses three values i.e. positive negative and zero. The RZ encoding provides synchronization information. + Manchester Encoding uses an inversion at the middle of each bit interval for synchronization and bit representation.Data Communication 2-4 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission * Differential Manchester uses the inversion at middle of bit internal for synchronization purpose. The bit representation is defined by the inversion or noninversion at the beginning of the bit. 3. Bipolar * Bipolar encoding uses three levels i.e. positive, zero and negative. Zero level represent binary '0' and alternating positive and negative voltages represents binary ‘1’. An example of bipolar encoding is Alternate Mark Inversion (AMD. 2.1.1.3 Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) In NRZ encoding, binary 1 is transmitted by sending positive voltage level, and a 0 is transmitted by sending a 0 voltage. In NRZ encoding, voltage level stay constant during the time a bit is transmitted. This method is simple to implement. The types of NRZ is given below. a) NRZ-L: * It is Non-Retum to Zero Level. In this the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the bit. In NRZ-L coding, binary 0 bit is represented by positive voltage and bit 1 is represented by negative voltage level. For a given 8 bit data stream shown 00110101, the voltage stays at the level positive for the first 2 bits, then goes to the negative level for the next 2 bits, then backup to positive (+ve), then down to negative (-ve), again down to positive and finally up to negative voltage. The following Fig. 2.1.7 shows the NRZ-L encoding. Amplitude Fig. 2.1.7 NRZ-L encoding * If the data bit stream contain continues 0's or 1's then receiver receives a continuous constant voltage. It is difficult to identify the total number of bits transmitted by the sender. Clock synchronization is required to identify the total number of bits to be transmitted.Data Communication 2-5 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission b) NRZ4: + It is non-retum to zero, invert. In NRZ-I, the signal is inverted if a 1 is encountered. The amplitude is also changes between positive and negative voltage. The states is changes only for 1 and for bit 0, no state change. It remains in same state. « The figure 2.1.8 shows the 8 bit data stream 00110101. It is also called non Tetum to zero, Time Fig. 2.1.8 NRZ-4 encoding ¢) NRZ-S : * It is non return to zero-space. In NRZ-S, the signal is inverted if a 0 is encountered. The states is change only for 0, for bit 1, no state change. Fig. 2.1.9 shows the 8 bit data stream 00110101. Fig. 2.1.9 NRZ-S. encoding 24.4.4 Retum to Zero (RZ) * In RZ, the data pulses that represent binary 1 return back to the binary 0 level in the middle of the time period allowed for the bit. This means that for every 1, there is a signal transition, which helps the receiver develop synchronization to the incoming data stream. RZ signal requires two signal changes to encode one bit and therefore occupies more bandwidth. © Fig. 2.1.10 shows the encoding waveform for 8 bit data stream 11000101.Data Communication 2-6 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission Fig. 2.1.10 RZ encoding 2.1.4.5 Manchester Encoding . * In this, each bit period has both the high and low voltage values. If the data is a 1, the first half of the bit time period is sent at the positive level, and the second half of the period is at the negative level. For data bit of 0, first a negative signal and then a positive signal. There is a transition which can be used for a synchronization. Sometimes this method is called self clocking encoding method. It requires more bandwidth than NRZ. + Fig. 2.1.11 shows manchester encoding waveform for the 8 bit data stream 11000101. Binary 1 wv Binary 0 -v Fig. 2.1.11 Manchester encoding 2.1.1.6 Differential Manchester + In differential manchester encoding, a binary 0 is marked by a transition at the beginning of an interval, whereas a 1-is marked by the absence of a transition. In this encoding method, detecting changes is often more reliable, especially when there is a noise in the channel.Data Communication 2-7 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission Fig. 2.1.12 shows the differential manchester encoding for 8 bit data stream 101011100. Fig. 2.1.12 Differential manchester 2.1.1.7 Pulse Cade Modulation (PCM) PCM is a digital scheme for transmitting analog data. The signals in PCM are binary. In PCM the signal samples are quantized to discrete levels. The quantization level of each sample is transmitted instead of the sample value. The range of voltages for signal f(s) is divided into discrete quantized steps(s). The signal is sampled at each step with the resulting amplitude of the samples coded into binary values. The binary equivalents are actually associated with analog values midway between step amplitudes to minimize errors. Fig. 2.1.13 shows the process. 4M m 110 110 101 101 100 100 on ont o10 010 001 001 000. 00. Analog signal Fig. 2.1.13 PCM The original waveform is transmitted as a serial stream of binary bits representing the quantised level of each of the samples. At the receive station, the binary bits are decoded into the quantizing errors resulting from original levels that were not exactly the same as the quantized step value appear in the replicated waveform.Vata Communication 4-o Digital Transmission and Analog transmission 2.4.4.8 Delta Modulation (DM) * Delta modulation minimize the effects of noise without increasing the number of bits being sent. This increases signal to noise ratio, improving system performance. Delta modulation take samples close enough to each other so that each samples amplitude does not vary by more than a single step size. Then instead of sending a binary code representing the step size, a single bit is sent signifying whether the sample size has increased or decreased by a single step. © Fig. 2.1.14 shows the delta modulator and demodulator. (Comparator Serial delta code bits Signal samples {a) Delta modulator Serial delta Replicated code bits: — uP DOWN staircase ‘signal Staiease Sampo gonsraio {b) Delta demodulator Fig. 2.1.14 Delta modulator / demodulator + Fig. 2.1.14 shows the functional block, diagram. Samples form the original signal are compared to the output of a staircase generator. If the results of that comparison show the original signal to be larger than the staircase voltage, the comparator is set high. This is sent out as a logic 1 and causes the staircase generator to increase by a step. If the comparator indicates that the staircase voltage is greater than the original signal, then the comparator goes low and causes the staircase generator to decrease by one step.Vata Communication e-9 Digital transmission and Analog !ransmission 2.1.1.9 Data Transmission * Device may be connected by a bundles of wires is called interface. Data transmission refers to movement of the bits over some physical medium connecting two or more digital devices. It also defines whether bits may travel in both directions simultaneously or whether devices must take turns sending and receiving. a) Serial Transmission © Serial transmission uses one line and transmits all the bits along it one afier another. The least significant bit transmitted first. Serial transmission is more reliable and cheaper. Speed of data transmission is slow because the bits are sent one at a time. © There are two way to provide serial communication : Synchronous and Asynchronous. The transmitter device and receiving device have an additional complexity. « Fig. 2.1.15 shows the serial transmission. ° 4 0 1 11001010 o 0 1 1 Transmitter Reoeiver Fig. 2.1.15 Serial transmission Advantages : 1. It is cheaper. 2. Suitable for long distance communication. 3. More reliable. 4. It requires single communication channel. Disadvantages : 1. Data transmission speed is slow. 2. Throughput is depends on bit rate.Data Communication 2-10 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission b) Parallel Transmission * Parallel transmission means that a group of bit is transmitted simultaneously by using a separate line for each bit. Parallel transmissions are common especially where the distance between the two devices is short. + Fig. 2.1.16 show parallel transmission. a i o Transmitter [0 | Fig. 2.1.16 Parallel transmission * Advantage of parallel transmission is the speed. + Paraltel transmission losses its advantage over long distances. Using multiple lines over long distance is more costly. Transmitting over longer distance requires thicker wires to reduce signal degradation. Advantages : 1. Data transmission speed is more. 2. Suitable for short distance communication. 3. Group of bits are transmitted simultaneously. Disadvantages : 1. Cost is more. 2. Transmitting over longer distance requires thicker wires to reduce signal degradation. 3. Tt requires multiple communication channel. cc} Comparison between Serial and Parallel Transmission z Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission 1 | It sends data bit by bit. It sends data simultaneously. 2 _| used for long distance transmission. Used for short distance transmission. 3. | Transmission cost is less. ‘Transmission cost is more.4 | Speed of data transmission is slow. Data transmission speed is fast. 5 | Throughput is depends on bit rate. ‘Throughput is constant. 6 | Itrequires single communication channel. | It requires eight communication channels. 7 | Synchronous and asynchronous | No modes in parallel transmission. transmission are the modes of serial transmission. Table 2.4.4 2.1.1.10 Modes of Data Transmission This type of data transmission is related to the timing control of sender and receiver's clock. Modes of data transmission is divided into two types. 1. Asynchronous transmission 2. Synchronous transmission a) Asynchronous Transmission In asynchronous transmission, bits are divided into small groups and sent independently. The sender can send the groups at any time and the receiver - never knows when they will arrive. To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore an extra bit is added to the beginning of each byte, which is called as start bit. The start bit is always ‘0’. To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits is called stop bits. Asynchronous transmission is typical of byte-oriented input output, an operating systems term meaning that data is transferred a byte at a time. Following Fig. 2.1.17 shows data format for asynchronous transmission. Stop 7 bit B bits. T bit or 2 bits Transmitter Reeaiver Fig. 2.1.17 Asynchronous data format There is a potential problem with asynchronous transmission. Remember that the receiver does not know when data will arrive until it gets there. Asynchronous transmission is designed for use with slow devices such as keyboard and some printers. It also has a high overhead.Se Serer a* te en: ee ee ee Ve ne eee Advantages : 1. Very inexpansive to implement. 2. It can provide required performance at low cost. 3. Both sides buffering is not required. Disedvantages : 1. Performance is poor. 2. Efficiency is low. 3. Considerable amount of communication time is lost between character. b) Synchronous Transmission * With synchronous transmission much larger bit groups are sent. Instead of sending many characters separately, each with its own start and step bit, they are grouped together and then transmitted as a whole, We call this group a data frame or frame. In this, transmission is carried out under the control of a timing source. The first part of the frame contains SYN characters, unique bit patterns that alert the receiver that a frame is arriving. SYN character is similar to start bit. + Fig. 2.1.18 shows format for synchronous transmission. Fig, 2.4.18 Synchronous data format * The data bit define the information being sent. There are no short bit and stop bits between the characters. The error checking bits are used to detect and correct transmission errors. Synchronous transmission is much faster than asynchronous transmission. Synchronous transmission is more useful for high speed application. Advantages : 1. Capable for high performance. 2. Efficiency is high. 3. Error checking and acknowledgement schemes work well. 4, Data transfer rate is high.Disadvantages : 1, Expansive to implement. 2. Both sides needs buffering. ¢) Difference between Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission ‘Asynchronous transmission Synchronous transmission Single character is sent. Group of character is sent. 2 Very inexpansive to implement. Expansive to implement. 3 Efficiency is low. Efficiency is high. Performance is poor. Capable for high performance. Low cost. Costty. Data transfer rate is low. Data transfer rate is hi Both sides buffering is not required. Both sides needs buffering. Ener checking and acknowledgement} Error checking and acknowledgement schemes is not used. schemes works well. Table 2.1.2 d) Communication Links 1. Simplex communication : A system can be configured to send and receive data in one direction only. Communication goes only in one direction. Examples are television sets, printers and airport monitors. Device Device 1 Fig. 2.1.19 Simplex communication Simplex transmission is useful in an environment where large amount of data are to be sent without acknowledgement of the reception. Data transfer is fast and continuously. 2. Half duplex communication : It is bidirectional data transfer method. In half duplex communication, both devices can send and receive the data but one at a time. * Fig. 2.1.20 shows half duplex communication.Sen SUN eee erty ee er eee ree ee Device Devieo 1 2 Fig. 2.1.20 Half duplex communication 3. Full duplex communication : Full duplex is the simultaneous transmission and reception of data between the two device, primary to secondary and secondary to primary most reliable method. Many computer terminal uses full duplex. Duplex systems are commonly used in teleconferencing. Fig, 2.1.21 shows the full duplex communication. Device Device Fig. 2.1.21 Full duplex communication 2.2 Analog Transmission 2.2.1 Analog Modulation 2.2.1.1 Amplitude Modulation The modulating signal modulates amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier according to its variations in amplitude. This results in amplitude, frequency or phase modulation. The frequency and phase modulation is also called angle modulation. * Theory of DSBFC (Double Sideband Full Carrier) AM In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a ‘carrier signal is varied according to variations in the amplitude of modulating signal. Fig. 2.2.1 shows the modulating signal in Fig. 22.1 (a) Fig. 2.2.1 (6) shows high frequency carrier and Fig. 2.2.1 (c) shows amplitude modulated signal. In Fig. 2.2.1 (c), observe that the carrier frequency remains same, but its amplitude varies according to amplitude variations of the modulating signal. Let us represent the modulating signal by ¢,, and it is given as, en = Em sinOat w 221)eT a ee eee: Ne been. sterendiisrtececieacents cca aden ibarinae_ Pact eat ane Baseband signal @) Carrier signs &) Fig. 2.2.1 (a) Sinusoidal modulating signal (b) Sinusoidal high frequency carrier {c) Amplitude modulated signal and carrier signal can be represented by e, as, e, = E,sinat wm (2.2.2) Here E,, is maximum amplitude of modulating signal E, is maximum amplitude of carrier signal @,, is frequency of modulating signal and ©, is frequency of carrier signal. Using the above mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals, we can create a new mathematical expression for the complete modulated wave. It is given as, Equ = Ectem = E,+E,, sino,t — by putting e,, from equation 2.21eee eee ee oa EN) ae ee ee ee eee .. The instantaneous value of the amplitude modulated wave can be given as, eam = Egy sind = Egy sin@t = (EctEm sin @p t) sinwgt we (22.3) The ratio of maximum amplitude of modulating signal to maximum amplitude of carrier signal is called modulation index. ie., E Modulation index, m= 5 w= (2.2.4) Value of E,, must be less than value of E, to avoid any distortion in the modulated signal. Hence maximum value of modulation index will be equal to 1 when E,,=E,. Minimum value will be zero. If modulation index is higher than 1, then it is called over modulation. Data is lost in such case. When modulation index is expressed in percentage, it is also called percentage modulation. The modulated carrier has new signals at different frequencies, called side frequencies or sidebands. They occur above and below the carrier frequency. ie. fave Cee, tsaee b= 8, Here f, is carrier frequency and fq is modulating signal frequency fuse is lower sideband frequency and fuse is upper sideband frequency. Consider the expression of AM wave given by equation 223, ie, ean = (Ect Em sin Omt) sin w,t . 225) We know that m=. from equation 224. Hence we have E,, =m E,. Putting this 2 value of E,, in above equation we get, eam = (E-+mE, sing,,t) sin o.t E, (1+ msin@,,t) sino,t = E, sina,t+ mE, sino, tsino,t a (226) We know that sin (A) sin (B)= 5 cos (A -B)-} cos (A+B). Applying this result to last term in above equation we get,‘ E Qu = E. sin, tees cos(@, =, ) t -mEe cos(a,+W_) t wa (2.2.7) In the above equation, the first term represents unmodulated carrier, the second term represents lower sideband and last term represents upper sideband. Note that @, =2n f. and w,, =2n f,,. Hence above equation can also be written as, eat = Eesin nf t+ me cos 2(f.— fy) t mE, — ee cos 2a (f+ fn) t ww (2.28) mE ME cos 2m figs t (2.29) = E,sin2nf t+ 25 cos 2n fisg t+ Fronr this equation we can prepare the frequency spectrum of AM wave as shown below in Fig. 2.2.2. mEe “2. tet f {se fuse Fig. 2.2.2 Frequency domain representation of AM wave This contains full carrier and both the sidebands, hence it is also called Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) system. We will be discussing this system, its modulation circuits and transmitters next, in this section. We know that bandwidth of the signal can be obtained by taking the difference between highest and lowest frequencies. From above figure we can obtain bandwidth of AM wave as, BW = fuss~fiss = (b+ hn) =(f- fn) = 2E, sew (2.2.10) Thus bandwidth of AM signal is twice of the maximum frequency of modulating signal.Dale Comme mcavon e-i8 DIGNs! TranstuSSiOn SNC ANSOG 'TansMmission 2.2.1.2 Frequency Modulation In frequency modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier is varied according to amplitude variations in the modulating signal. But the amplitude of the frequency modulated signal remains constant. The frequency modulated carrier by sinusoidal modulation is shown in Fig. 2.23. When the modulating signal has zero amplitude, then the carrier has frequency of @, or f.. As the amplitude of the modulating signal increases, the frequency of the carrier increases. Similarly, as the amplitude of the modulating signal is decreased, the frequency of carrier is also decreased. Observe in Fig. 22.3 that the amplitude of frequency modulated carrier is constant. I HUA Hill Fig. 2.2.3 Frequency modulation The mathematical equation of the FM signal is given as em = E,sin(@t+m, sin@,,t) ws (22.11) Here ep is the instantaneous amplitude of FM signal. E, is maximum amplitude of the signal. w, is the carrier frequency. ©, is the modulating frequency. and m, is the modulating index of FM.Data Communication 2-19 * Comparison of AM and FM Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Amplitude of the carrier is varied according to amplitude of modulating signal. Frequency of the camier is varied according to amplitude of the modulating signal AM has poor fidelity due to narrow bandwidth. Sin¢e the bandwidth is large, fidelity is better. Most of the power is in carrier hence less efficient. All the transmitted power is useful, Noise interference is more. Noise interference is minimum. Adjacent channel interference is present. Adjacent channel interference is avoided due to guardbands. AM broadcast operates in MF and HF range. FM broadcast operates in VHF and UHF range. In AM only carrier and two sidebands are present. Infinite number of sidebands are present. The transmission equipment is simple. The transmission equipment is complex. Transmitted power varies according to modulation index. Transmitted power remains constant irespective of modulation index. 10. | Depth of modulation have limitation. It can not be increased above 1. Depth of modulation have no limitation. It can be increased by increasing frequency deviation, Table 2.2.1 22.4.3 Phase Modulation In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier varies according to amplitude variations of the modulating signal. The amplitude of phase modulated (PM) signal remaining constant. The PM signal can be expressed mathematically as, erm = E,sin (oat m, sin @,,t) wv. (2.2.12) Here m, is the modulation index for phase modulation. It is given as, mp = Om Here 4, is the maximum value of phase change introduced by maximum amplitude of the modulating signal. © Comparison between FM and PM : Table 2.2.2 shows the comparison between FM and PM.Sa SURE R Swen aca See CSN eee eres ven Owe nae Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation 1. | The maximum frequency —_ deviation depends upon amplitude of modulating voltage and modulating frequency. The maximum phase deviation depends ‘only upon the amplitude of modulating voltage. Frequency of the carrier is modulated by modulating signal. Phase of the carer is modulated by modulating signal. 3. | Modulation index is increased as | Modulation index remains same if modulation frequency is reduced and vice | modulating frequency is changed. versa, Table 2.2.2 Comparison of FM and PM Actually in FM, when frequency is changed, phase is also varied. FM is basically obtained from phase modulation. tm) Example 2.2.1: The phase deviation constant in a phase modulation system is k=001 rad /V. Calculate the maximum phase deviation when @ modulating signal of 10V is applied. Solution : In phase modulation we know that the phase is changed according to amplitude of the modulating éignal. i.e., AO = kEnx = 0.01x 10 = Olrad 2.2.2 Digital Transmission * Digital modulation methods are of three types = 1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), 2. Frequency Shift Keying (ESK) and 3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK). 2.2.2.4 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) * ASK is the simplest digital modulation technique. In this method, there is only one unit energy carrier and it is switched on or off depending upon the input binary sequence. The amplitude of a single frequency audio tone is switched between two levels at a rate determined by the bit rate of the transmitted binary data signal. © The single frequency audio tone is known as the carrier frquency. The carrier is selected to be within the band of frequencies. The amount of bandwidth required to transmit binary data signal is then determined by theData Communication 2-21 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission signals bit rate. If bit rate is higher, it required larger bandwidth. Fig, 22.4 shows the block diagram of ASK and waveform. Masai!) vat) (Data signal) (b) Waveforms Fig. 2.2.4 ASK * The carrier is a single frequency. audio tone, assuming a unity amplitude signal: Thus it can be represented by following expression. Ved) = cosft on (2.2.13) where f, is the carrier frequency in radians per second. From unipolar periodic data signal, vg (1), with unity amplitude and fundamental frequency fy, by the fourier series : 22 1 1 vat) = 5+ 2 feos ye feos 3% tg 0055 f ton} a» (22.14) Hence ASK can be represented mathematically by the following expression : Vask (t) = Ve (t)* vq (t) ow (2.2.15) From equation (2.2.13) and (2.2.14). ‘The equation (2.2.15) represent as follows :Data Communication 2-22 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission vase = Feost.t+Z (eos, teosft—Feasf, e083 ft } 2216 1 1 = Zoos kites {cos(f.- fp) t+ cos(f, -f) t — Ecos (5, ~Bfg) t~4 cos (fe +349) t+ +} = 217) ‘Equation (2.2.17) works on mathematical formula 2.cos A cos B= cos (A -B)+cos (A +B) * ASK signal is equivalent to the original data signal translated up in frequency by the carrier signal (f,) but with two frequency components for the fundamental (f. - fp) and (f, +f) and two for the harmonic (f, ~3f) and ({. +3%). All are equally spaced either side of the carrier and are known as sidebands. Now a days ASK is used in conjunction with PSK in the higher bit rate modem designs. 2.2.2.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) * Frequency shift keying is the modulation method used in the low bit rate modems. In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. Frequency shift is known as the difference between the two carriers. The modulation operation is equivalent to summing together the outputs of two separate ASK modulators. * The bandwidth required for FSK is Vesx (t) = cos, t-vg (t)+ cosh t-v4 () ws (2.2.18) where f, and f, are the two carrier signals and vj (t) is the complement of the original data signal v g(t). Hence v4 (t) = 1-va (t) w+ (22.19) Therefore v px (t) = cos f ofr / 242 / (cos f, t-1/ 3cos3 fy t+....)} +eosf, t{1 / 2-2 / (cos fy t-1 / 3cos 3fy t....)} (2.2.20) =1/2cosh t+1/" {cos ~h) t+cos(f +f) t -1/3c0s(f, ~3f) t-1 / 3 cos(f, +3f) t+... } +1/2c0s f t+1/ x { cos(f —fy) t+c08(h +f) t = 1/30c08(f —3fy) t-1/ 3 cos(f, + 3fy) tt ~}Data Communication 2-23 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission Fig. 225 shows the waveform of FSK. Fig. 2.25 FSK isstor + FSK avoids most of the noise problem of ASK, because the receiving device is looking for specific frequency changes over a given number of periods. © The limiting factors of the FSK are the physical capabilities of the carrier. The bandwidth required for FS K transmission is equal to the baud rate of the signal plus the frequency shift. 2.2.2.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) * In PSK the frequency and amplitude of the carrier signal are kept constant while the carrier is shifted in phase as each bit in the data stream is transmitted. Fig. 2.26 shows the waveforms of the PSK.‘Data Communication 2-24 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission * Two types of PSK waveforms are shown in the figure. The first uses two fixed carrier signals to represent a binary 0 and 1 with a 180° phase difference between them. Since one signal is simply the inverse of the other, it is known as phase coherent PSK. * For PSK, a bipolar periodic data signal of unity amplitude and fundamental frequency fy is represented by the fourier series : va lt) = 4/m{cosf, t-1/3 cos Hf t+1 /5 cos 5h, t....} w Q.2.21) Hence Vpsx = A feos f, teosfy t-1/ 3.cos f, t6053 tt on } wi (22.22) = 2 {cos({. fp) t+ c0s(f, +f) t-1/ 3 c0s(f,-3h) t-1 / 3cos(f, +36) t+} This is the same frequency spectrum as for ASK except there is no carrier component. Multilevel Modulation * In an effort to improve the bandwidth efficiency, multilevel schemes are prime candidates. These methods improve the bandwidth efficiency by transmitting more information per symbol, Although these schemes aliow greater amount of data to be transmitted through the channel, they are more sensitive to the channel non-linearities and noise than the binary schemes. 2.2.2.4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) * QPSK is four phase modulation technique. Input of QPSK is the 2 bit splitter. The first bit into the bit splitter is presented to the upper modulator and the second bit to the lower one. Two binary bits can form four different combinations of 1 and 0 states. * Each combination generates a separate vector symbol at the output. For example, if both bits are low, the output of the balanced modulators will be 187 gig. 99-7 QPSK phaser diagram out of phase with their respective f. inputs. This results in a negative sine signal summed with a positive cosine signal. Following Fig. 2.2.7 shows the QPSK phaser diagram. Table 2.2.3 shows various combinations of successive input bits and corresponding phase shift in the carrier.Data Communication oho Digital [ransmission and Analog transmission Successive Symbols | Phase shift input bits in carrier 1 ° Ss 4e 0 Q S Be o [4 % 225 1 1 & 315° Table 2.2.3 Fig. 2.2.8 shows block diagram of QPSK generator. Product modulator | be(t) or sintxf.a) ™ Band; QPSK Demuttiplexer} Adder — es bolt) Product modulaior| cos(2nfct) Fig. 2.2.8 QPSK generator * The input binary sequence is first converted to bipolar NRZ type of signal. This signal is called b(t). The b(t) signal is divided into two separate bit stream by the demultiplexer. It represents by odd number b, (t) and even number b, (t). Every symbol contains two bits. * The upper modulator is given sin (27 {,t) and lower modulator is given by cos (2x ft). These two modulators produce two PSK signals with bit duration of 2T,. The adder block simply adds these two PSK signals to generate QPSK signal. * QPSK is used in Bell 212 A compatible modems and V.22. Both are 1200 bps full Duplex standards. Advantages of QPSK Over PSK 1. Band of QPSK is almost half as compared to PSK. 2. Variation in QPSK amplitude is minimum, hence carrier power remains almost constant.3. Because of reduced bandwidth, the information transmission rate of QPSK is higher. These are the advantages of QPSK as compared to PSK and DPSK. Disadvantage of QPSK is the increased complexity as compared to PSK and DPSK. 2.2.25 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) © QAM is a technique in which a group of bits is assigned a signal defined by its amplitude and phase shift. QAM refer to QPSK with amplitude modulation. * QAM phase modulates’ the carrier and also modulates the amplitude of the carrier. Fig. 229 shows the phase modulated and amplitude modulated carrier. Fig. 22.9 QAM * QAM are of two types : 8-QAM and 16-QAM 8-QAM encodes 3 bits of data for every baud and 16-QAM encodes 4 bits of data for every baud. 8-QAM and 16-QAM both are used in the V.32 standard for 9600 bps modem. 8-QAM transfers 4800 bps and 16-QAM transfers 9600 bps. Higher data transfer rate use much more complex QAM methods. 2226 Differential PSK © Differential PSK (DPSK) is differentially coherent modulation method. The input sequence of binary bits is modified such that the next bit depends upon the previous bit. Therefore in the receiver the previous received bits are used to detect the present bit. * Fig. 22,10 shows DPSK generator block diagram. The input binary bit sequence is d (t). Output sequence is b (t) and b(t—T,,) is the previous output delayed by one bit period. Depending upon the values of d (t) and b(t-T,)" exclusive OR gate genrates the output sequence b (t). a Input e sequence b(t-Tp) Fig. 2.2.10 DPSK generator block diagramData Communication 2-27 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission 2.2.2.7 Comparison of Digital Modulation Techniques Table 2.2.4 shows the comparison of PSK, FSK, ASK, DPSK and QPSK techniques we discussed in last few sections. Sr. No.| Parameter Psk FSK ASK 1 | Modulated | Phase (180°) Frequency Amplitude parameter of carrier 2 | Number. of | One ‘One One bits/ symbol 3 | Noise Moderate Less than PSK ° | Maximum interference 4 | Bandwidth | More than ASK | Maximum Less than FSK requirement 5 | Detection | Compiex Simpler than | Simplest complexity | compared to | PSK, DPSK FSK and ASK Amplitude | Abrupt changes | Almost constant | Varies variations at phase shifts Table 2.2.4 Comparison of digital modulation techniques 2.3 Telephone Modems © Phone lines are designed for analog, voice signals. Data communication using phone line requires a special communication device, which convert the data signals to those more compatible with the phone line capabilities. Special communication device "modem" is used with telephone line for data transfer. Modem means ‘Modulator-demodulator’. * Modem uses the data signal to modulate a waveform that is usable with the telephone system. Any system, whether simplex, half duplex or full duplex requires a modem at the transmitting end and the receiving end. Fig. 23.1 shows the block diagram of modem.Data Communication 2-28 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission Fig. 2.3.1 Block diagram of modem 2.3.1 Functions of Modem * At the transmitting end, the modem must do the following function : a) It takes data from the RS-232 interface and convert this data into the appropriate tones. It perform line control and signaling to the other end of the phone line. Sends the dialing signal if this modem is designed to dial without the user present. b Receiving modem must perform the corresponding operations : Receive tones from the phone line. Demodulate these tones into 1s and 0s (ones and zeros) put the demodulated signal into RS-232 format and convert to the RS-232 interface. Perform line control and signaling. Fig. 23.2 shows the connectivity of modem. Data Data uu uu Modem, Modem PC Dee =f FRSA. DCE pea DTE Telephone a DCE tine Receiver Transmitter Fig. 2.3.2 DTE-DCE interface * Modem works on the following concept. The concept is to use tones (ie. sinewaves) of various frequencies, phases or amplitudes te represent. the binary data. Tones are what the phone system is designed to handle, since voice is made up of many tones combined. © Different modems use frequency modulation (FM), phase modulation (PM) and amplitude modulation (AM) or some combination of these to achieve theSe ee eT — Se. Str ee ne vee SO Ll eee desired data rates and low-error performance over different types of telephone lines. ‘Digital modulation uses three basic types of modulation for the conversion af a binary signal into a Suitable form for transmission over the public switched telephone network (PSTN). When binary data is to be transmitted, only two signal levels are required. The signal switches (shifts) between these two levels as the binary data signal alternates between a binary 1 and 0. The three basic modulation types are known as amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK) and phase shift keying (PSK) respectively. 2.3.2 Operation of Modem * Consider a modem which uses FSK. It uses 1000 Hz to send binary 0 and 2000 Hz for binary 1. Binary input consists of 1 and 0 so modem generate tones of 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz according to input. These frequencies are reasonably within the bandwidth range of telephone lines, they are transmitted without much attenuation. * The rate at which modulation level is changed is called baud rate. The tones of 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz are transmitted on the telephone line from sender. At the receiving modem, the receiving circuitry, first amplify the signal and reduce the noise. There are two filters in the receiving circuitry tuned to 2000 Hz and 1000 Hz. If signal contains 2000 Hz frequencies, then output of 2000 Hz filter will be maximum whereas output of 1000 Hi filter will be minimum. Using these two output, detector decides that symbol 1 is transmitted and same way 0 is detected. The timing circuitry in the receiving modem regenerates the sequence of binary data with correct time durations. 2.3.3 Features of Modem * Modem supports the following features : 1. Speed : Speed is measured in bits per second. The speed at which the modem can send data is in bps. Typically modem speeds are : 300 bps, 600 bps, 1200 bps, 2400 bps, 4800 bps, 9600 bps, 14.4 kbps, 19.2 kbps, 28.8 kbps and 56 kbps. 2. Self Testing : Modem can test the digital connection to the computer and the analog connection to a remote modem. This feature is added to the new modem. 3. Auto Answer : Most modem can automatically answer the phone when an incoming call comes in.Data Communication 2-30 Digital transmission and Analog transmission 4. Auto Dial/Redial : Smart modem can dial the phone number and auto redial if a busy signal is received. Voice Over Data : It allows a voice conversation to take place while data is being transmitted. Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission : Modem support both type of transmission. 2.3.4 Types of Modem Types of modem depends upon some features. The features are transmission mode, connection to the line and directional capability. 2.3.4.4 Half Duplex and Full Duplex Modem When one end transmits other end receives and vice versa. This is called half duplex transmission. When the receiving channel needs to transmit data, the data line is turn around. This signal is communicated with the help of some protocol. When large size of data blocks are to be transmitted in one direction only, then half duplex communication is very good option. When data communication takes place in both the directions simultaneously, then it is called full duplex communication. Full duplex communication is used when frequent change over of data direction required. Fig. Fig. 2.3.3 Full duplex system * 233 shows the full duplex system. Two modems are used for communication through link. One end modem is called originate modem and other end modem called answer modem. Depending upon the data to be transferred or received, the modem set themselves automatically in originator answer modes. This is also called two-tone pair solution. Only one telephone line is used for full duplex communication. It is the category of directional capability mode. 2.3.4.2 Four Wire Modem Two separate loops are used from phone exchanges to modem. One pair of wires is used for the outgoing carrier and the other is used for the incoming carrier. One loop is dedicated to signal transmission in one direction only.trialled sa act onan * Many modem installations use the four wire system. Because of two separate loops, there can be no interference or interaction between the data flowing to and from the modem. These two loops are special loops that do nat have the hybrid circuit at the phone office. Each loop runs to the phone office and then onto a wire pair to the next phone office or other user. Fig.23.4 shows 4 wire modem. Telephone Fig. 2.3.4 Four wire modem system © Four wire method is more costly in terms of telephone lines. It does allow much better performance. It gives higher data rates, full duplex and no echo. 2.3.4.3 Asynchronous and Synchronous Modems * An asynchronous modem data contains start and stop bits. Modem clocks are not synchronized with DTE and other modems. * In synchronous modem, clock synchronization is required. It can handle a continuous stream of data bits. Data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal. 2.3.5 Standard Modems © Many modems are developed for various application and performance levels. Standard modems were originally developed by the Bell Telephone system. They are considered as Bell system model numbers : Bell 103, Bell 212 and Bell 202. 2.3.5.1 Bell 103 © One of the simplest modem from Bell telephone system. It provides full duplex communications at up to 300 baud. Frequency shift keying modulation technique is used. It uses one pair of frequency for originate modem and other pair of frequency for answer modem. Fig. 23.5 shows the frequency spectrum for the tones of a Bell 103 modem.Data Communication 2-32 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission Bandwidth of telephone fine Frequency (Hz) 300 1070 1270 2025 2225 3300 Fig. 2.3.5 Frequency spectrum of Bell 103 modem The Bell 103 modem in originate mode sends the following pattem of frequencies : 1070, 1070, 1070, 1270, 1070, 1070, 1070, 1270, 1270 Hz. The Bell 103 modem in Answer Mode sends the following pattern of frequencies. 2025, 2025, 2025, 2225, 2225, 2025, 2025, 2025, 2225, 2225 Hz. 2.3.5.2 Features of Bell 212 and Bell 202 Modems (A) Bell 212 Modem : 1. Support full duplex communication. 2. 1200 baud speed for synchronous and asynchronous. 3._No reverse channel. 4. FSK for 300 baud and QPSK for 1200 baud. 5. 300 baud for asynchronous mode only. {B] Bell 202 Modem : 1. Support half duplex communications. 2. 1200 baud and 1800 baud speeds. 3. FSK modulation. 4. Reverse channel at 387 Hz is used. 5. 1200 baud for dial-up lines and 1800 baud on leased,Data Communication 2-33 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission i 8. 1 2 Points to Remember Review Questions , Define the following : 2. Dratw the QPSK phaser diagram and explain. 2. Dato the block diagram of QPSK generator. . List the adzantages of QPSK. |. What is QAM ? Explain. . Explain the differential PSK. Also give the advantages of PSK. . List the functions of modem at the transmitting end. . Explain the functions of modem at the receiving end. . Explain the working of modens, 5. List the features of modem. . List the different types of modem. |. What is full duplex and half duplex modem 2 . What do you mean by four wire modem: ? ). Write a short note om standard modem. Non Return to Zero (NRZ) : An encoding scheme in which one voltage represents binary 1 and another represents binary zero for the entire bit period. Return to Zero (RZ) : It provide some synchronization for the system clock. Digital modulation methods are : ASK, PSK and FSK. In ASK there is only one unit energy carrier and it is switched on or off depending upon the input binary sequence. FSK is used in low bit rate modems. In PSK frequency and amplitude of the carrier signal are kept constant. QAM is a technique in which a group of bits in assigned a signal defined by its amplitude and phase shift. QPSK is four phase modulation techniques. What is digital modulation ? Drawo the block diagram of modem and explain. @) ASK, b) FSK, ¢) PSK What is ASK ? Draw the waveform for bit stream. 1011001 Explain the FSK. Explain the multilevel modulation. Explain the PSK with suitable diagram.Data Communication 2-34 Digital Transmission and Analog Transmission 21. Explain the features of following modems : 4) Belt 103 modem b) Bell 282 modem ) Bell 202 modem 22. Explain the Bell 103 modem. 23. Explain the ASK, PSK and FSK modulation method. 24. Draw and explaim the block diagram of DMT. 25. Explain how the QPSK is superior than PSK? QoQ