Test of Written Spelling

Fourth Edition
Authors: Stephen C. Larsen, Donald D.
Hammill and Louisa C. Moats
Publisher: pro-ed
Cost of test: $101.00
Examiners manual $62.00 and
response forms (50) $48.00

Why give spelling special

attention?
Spelling and word decoding are the most common
problems for students with diagnosed learning
disabilities.
Difficulties with spelling often lead to frustrations with
writing
Poor spelling often persists into adulthood

TWS-4 Introduction
The Test of Written
Spelling (TWS-4) is a
norm referenced test of
students ability to spell
words in written form
(Jenik & Hicks, 2005).

Purpose of the
TWS-4
Authors identified three specific purposes of the test
1. To identify students whose spelling ability is deficient
enough to call for direct instruction designed to improve
their spelling.
2. To document overall improvement in spelling when it
occurs as a consequence of intervention.
3. To serve as a measure in research designed to
measure spelling achievement in individuals with different
types of learning disabilities.

Theoretical Basis:
How do people learn to
spell?
Connectionist Theory- extraction and recall of
information
Processes (neural systems) at play during word
spelling are phonological, orthographic, and semantic
associations
Through exposure and repetition neural connections
are strengthened in the above neural systems
No difference in the way predictable /unpredictable
words are processed.

TWS-4 Theoretical Basis:

People with Spelling
Difficulty
Typically, all 3 processors are at play simultaneously
during spelling
1. phonological
2. orthographic
3. semantic
. The phonological processor is most important to
good spellers
. Poor spellers may have a weakness in one or more
processors
. Students with spelling challenges often have issues
with phonological processing

History of the TWS-4

TWS (1976)

Test was originally called the Larsen- Hammell Test of Written Spelling
2 subtests (Predictable and Unpredictable words)
Up and down reviews with the first edition (overall great reliability and
validity but unhappy with absence of standard scores)
Only 60 words to test across 8 grades

TWS- 2 (1986)

Increased the number of words for both subtests

Age range was changed

Standard scores and percentiles were added

Supplied test/retest data

Reviews of the new version suggested a need to improve normative data by

providing more evidence supporting the demographic representation of the
sample as well as concerns with its criterion-related validity

History of the TWS-4 (cont.)

TWS- 3 (1994)

Added material to the manual that spelled out clearly the uses and limitations of the test

Added criterion related validity evidence and showed relation to other spelling tests

Added studies to show absence of racial and gender bias

Added 855 new cases to the normative sample

Added a detailed description of how the subjects in the normative sample were selected

Keyed the normative sample to the 1990 census

Reluctantly added spelling age and grade equivalent (due to state requirements)

Reviews of updated version questioned the validity of providing subtests for predictable and
unpredictable words
TWS- 4 (1999)

Considerable advances have been made in the understanding of the structure of the English
language and how kids learn since this test was originally created- changes have reflected
current research and understanding

The predictable and unpredictable word lists were combined to create one list, as well as
two alternate and equivalent forms of the test (test-teach-test)

Standardization data was conformed to current norms

The tests validity, measurement accuracy and clinical utility have been strengthened

To demonstrate that the words are still instructionally relevant in todays schools, their presence
on six current spelling series was investigated

TWS-4 Features
What are the main features of the TWS-4?

It is a norm-referenced test of students spelling ability

There are 2 forms
The test is administered using a dictated word form (aka weekly spelling test
style)
Test results are reported as standard scores, percentiles, spelling ages and
grade equivalents
This test can be administered individually in a one-on-one format or in a
group setting (ie classroom)

TWS-4 Administration
Would typically be administered to students who are
1. Struggling with spelling skill
2. Have various learning disabilities
. The TSW-4 is designed for students aged 6-0 to 18-11
. Has 2 equivalent forms (A and B) which should be administered 6
months apart.

TWS-4
Administration Continued
7 rules are presented in the examiners manual in an
attempt to ensure reliable administration.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Familiarity with the manual

Practice administrations
Appropriate testing environment
Rapport
Awareness of examinee fatigue
Encouragement
Appropriate time allowance (15-20 minutes)

TWS-4 Features: Entry

Levels

TWS-4
Basal,
Ceiling,
and
Scoring

The ceiling is 5
consecutive
errors

The basal is 5
consecutive
correct items

Interpretation of TWS-4 Scores

5 types of scores
1. Raw scores- number of items scores correct
2. Standard scores-clearest indication of student achievement
3. Percentiles-represents value of score on a scale of 100
4. Spelling ages / Grade equivalents- derived by calculating the
average score of students in the normative group at each age
interval and at each grade interval.

Supplementary Assessment of Spelling and Related

Skills
The authors suggest 7 steps of informal assessment procedures to help
meaningfully examine a students spelling

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Examine the students written composition

Measure phoneme awareness,
Survey alphabetic knowledge
Survey developmental level of spelling knowledge
Use a criterion-referenced test to survey knowledge of specific phonic
patterns and spelling rules6. Survey knowledge of highest frequency, unpredictable words in writing7. Linguistic analysis of spelling errors

TWS-4 Test Reliability

Standardization sample

High degree of reliability across

1. content sampling exceeds .90.
2. time sampling exceeds .90.
3. intescorer differences exceeds .90.

Minimum standard of test reliability should be .90

Test users can have confidence in the results

TWS-4 Test Validity

Criterion-related validity- demonstrated coefficients significant beyond the .01 level
Content validity1. Test items (spelling words) were found to be instructionally relevant to core
vocabularies
2. Item discrimination index was found to be higher than .35
3. Item difficulty was widely dispersed and averaged .50
Construct validity- Test does appear to measure constructs of written spelling
1. Spelling is developmental
2. Test should identify students who show spelling diffculties and those who do not
3. Test should correlate with other school subjects
4. Relationship should exist between intelligence and spelling achievement
5. Intervention should have an effect on spelling skills
6. Test items measure similar traits and should correlate highly with total test scores

TWS- 4 Strengths and

Limitations
+ Quick and easy to administer
+ Children are familiar with the format
+ Can be administered by classroom teacher or educational assistant
+ Two forms allow for testing during the school year to measure
progress without worrying about practice effect
- Laminated cards with the test items and prompting (basals, ceilings)
would be convenient when administering.
-There is no mention of repetition, and whether or not it is permitted.
- Adding a space for the student to record their own name may
provide further information for the examiner.

Special Considerations
The TWS-4 is useful for the purposes of
1. Identifying spelling difficulties
2. Documenting improved spelling abilities after intervention
3. Measuring the spelling ability of students with various learning
disabilities
When the topic under examination is skills of written spelling, the
TWS-4 is highly recommended. However, it is useful as only one part
of a more comprehensive academic assessment.

The Word on the Streetreviews,

practitioner views, feedback etc
great for IEP goals (pre-test, creating a goal and
then post-test)
students are very relaxed (spelling tests are a well
established weekly routine in many classes)
reasonable cost for Independent schools
helpful for differentiating instruction

References
Jenik, C., & Hicks, D. (2005). Test of Written Spelling. Journal of Psycholeducational Assessment,
23, 189-195. doi:10.1177/073428290502300209
McLouchlin, J., & Lewis, R. (2008). Assessing students with special needs (7 ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Larsen, S., Hammill, D., & Moats, L. (1999). Test of Written Spelling (4th ed.). Austin, Texas: pro-ed.