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DC Machines
3.1 Introduction
Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input
to mechanical output or vice versa are called electric machines. The
process of translation is known as electromechanical energy
conversion. An electric machine is therefore a link between an
electrical system and a mechanical system. In these machines the
conversion is reversible. If the conversion is from mechanical to
electrical energy, the machine is said to act as a generator. If the
conversion is from electrical to mechanical energy, the machine is
said to act as a motor. These two effects are shown in Fig.3.21. In
these machines, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical
form or vice versa results from the following two electromagnetic
phenomena:
44
Chapter Two
Mechanical
Energy
Generator
Electrical
Energy
Motor
Fig.3.1 The Energy directions in generator and motor actions.
These two effects occur simultaneously whenever energy
conversion takes place from electrical to mechanical or vice versa.
In motoring action, the electrical system makes current flow
through conductors that are placed in the magnetic field. A force is
produced on each conductor. If the conductors are placed on a
structure free to rotate, an electromagnetic torque will be produced,
tending to make the rotating structure rotate at some speed. If the
conductors rotate in a magnetic field, a voltage will also be
induced in each conductor. In generating action, the process is
reversed. In this case, the rotating structure, the rotor, is driven by
a prime mover (such as a steam turbine or a diesel engine). A
voltage will be induced in the conductors that are rotating with the
rotor. If an electrical load is connected to the winding formed by
these conductors, a current i will flow, delivering electrical power
to the load. Moreover, the current flowing through the conductor
will interact with the magnetic field to produce a reaction torque,
which will tend to oppose the torque applied by the prime mover.
DC Machines
45
e = Blv
(3.1)
46
Chapter Two
DC Machines
f = Bli
47
(3.2)
48
Chapter Two
49
DC Machines
A
x
y
Load
1
a
2
b
d
).
dt
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to the lines of flux as
shown in Fig.3.5 (a), then, the direction of velocity of both sides of
the coil is parallel to the direction of the field lines so, there is no
cutting for the field lines. Then flux linkages with the coil is
50
Chapter Two
D
A
B
C
a
b
1
b
2
Y
2
Y
51
DC Machines
B
D
D
B
a
b
1
b
2
Y
X
Fig.3.5
2
Y
52
Chapter Two
Fig.3.6
As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux
linkages (and hence induced EMF in it) increases, till position 2,
Fig.3.5 (b) is reached at 90 degrees. Here the coil plane is
horizontal i.e. parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the rate of
Note that:
DC Machines
53
In the next half revolution i.e. from 180 to 360 degrees, the
variations in the magnitude of EMF are similar to those in the first
half revolution but it will be found that the direction of the
induced current is from D to C and B to A. Hence, the path of
current flow is along DCYXBA which is just the reverse of the
previous direction of flow. Therefore, we find that the current the
resistive load, R which we obtain from such a simple generator
reverses its direction after every half revolution as shown in
Fig.3.5 and Fig.3.6. Such a current undergoing periodic reversals
is known as alternating current. It is, obviously, different from a
direct current which continuously flows in one and the same
direction which we need to generate from the DC generator. So,
we sould make some modification to get unidirection current in
the load which will be explained soon. It should be noted that
alternating current not only reverses its direction, it does not even
keep its magnitude constant while flowing in any one direction.
The two halfcycles may be called positive and negative half cycles
respectively (Fig.3.6).
54
Chapter Two
Segments
Mica
Bruches
Fig.3.7
(a)
(b)
DC Machines
55
56
Chapter Two
A
A
B
C
1
X
b
1
2
Y
b
2
Y
57
DC Machines
C
D
D
C
1
X
b
1
2
Y
X
Fig.3.8
a
2
Y
58
Chapter Two
Fig.3.9
Commutator
(vi) Commutator
59
DC Machines
60
Chapter Two
61
DC Machines
End
connections
Coil sides
Coil Span
Back Pitch
62
Chapter Two
Front Pitch
63
DC Machines
yb
`
yf
yr
yr
Fig.3.12
yb
yr
Fig.3.13
yf
64
Chapter Two
Resultant Pitch
DC Machines
65
66
Chapter Two
67
DC Machines
d
volt
dt
(3.3)
(3.4)
EMF generated/conductor=
d PN
=
Volt
dt
60
(3.5)
PN
60
Z ZPN
=
Volt
2
120
=P
(3.6)
68
Chapter Two
PN
A=2
And A= P
60
PN
60
Z ZN
=
Volt
P
60
Z
Volt
A
(3.7)
(3.8)
for wave-winding.
for lap-winding.
DC Machines
69
70
Chapter Two
series winding mmf may aid or oppose the shunt winding mmf,
resulting in different performance characteristics.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
mmf.
71
DC Machines
Fig.3.11
72
I sh =
Chapter Two
500
=5A
100
+2
(3.9)
= 508.3 Volt
73
DC Machines
I sh =
252
= 2.52 A
100
I a = 80 + 2.52 = 82.52 A
I a Ra = 82.52 * 0.05 = 4.13V
Then the generated EMF=250+4.13+2=256.13V
Fig.3.12
Example 3.3 The following information is given for a 300 kW,
600
V,
long-shunt
compound
generator:
Shunt
field
74
Chapter Two
Solution:
Fig.3.13
Power output= 300,000 W
Output current =300,000/600=500 A
I sh = 600/75=8 A
I a = 500+8=508 A
Since the series field resistance and divertor resistance are in
parallel (Fig.3.13) their combined resistance is :
0.012 * 0.036/0.048=0.009
Total armature circuit resistance
=0.03+0.011+0.009=0.05
75
DC Machines
Voltage drop
=508*0.05=25.4 V
flux per pole of 0.07 Wb. The armature winding consists of 220
turns each of 0.004 resistance. Calculate the terminal voltage
when running at 900 rpm if the armature current is 50 A.
Solution:
=0.07 Wb ; P=A=4
E=
60
* = 462Volt
4
= I a Ra =50*0.055=2.75 volt
76
Chapter Two
E=
ZN P
* =
60 A
V
V
11V
+
=
10 100 100
11V
= 227Volt
100
DC Machines
77
78
Chapter Two
79
DC Machines
I f (eff ) = I f (actual ) I f ( AR )
(3.10)
80
Chapter Two
I=
Ia
2
(3.11)
I=
Ia
P
(3.12)
4 m
*z
360
(3.13)
81
DC Machines
Fig.3.15
As two conductors constitute one turn,
Then total number of turns in these angels =
Demagnetising amp-turns per pair of poles =
Demagnetising amp-turns/pole =
m
360
m
360
2 m
* Z (3.14)
360
2 m
ZI
360
ZI
(3.15)
(3.16)
ZI .
(3.17)
2 m
Z (found above)
360
Z 2 m
1 2
Z = Z m
P 360
P 360
(3.18)
1 2 m
P
360
Cross-magnetising amp-condurtors/pole = ZI
82
Chapter Two
1
m
2 P 360
Cross-magnetising amp-turns/pole = ZI
1
m
2 P 360
ATc/pole = ZI
(3.19)
ATd
for shunt generator
I sh
ATd
for series generator
Ia
(mechanical ) =
(electrical )
pair of pole
or m =
e
P/2
2 e
(3.20)
P
DC Machines
83
84
Chapter Two
Fig.3.16
Z
2P
Z
P
(3.21)
(3.22)
Z
Pole arc
Z
0.7 *
*
2 P Pole pitch
2P
(3.23)
= 0.7 *
ZI
= 0.7 * armature amper Turn / pole (3.24)
2P
85
DC Machines
ATd/ pole =
m
360
ZI = 420 *17.5 *
I a 35
=
= 17.5 A
2
2
10
= 204 At
360
1
10
1
m = 420 * 17.5 *
= 715 At
2 * 4 360
2 P 360
ATc/pole = ZI
I a = 2000 A, I =
ATd/ pole =
m
360
2000
= 250 A,
8
ZI = 480 * 250 *
Z = 480, m = 7.5o
7.5
= 2500 .At
360
86
Chapter Two
7.5
1
1
m = 480 * 250 *
= 5000 At
2 * 8 360
2 P 360
ATc/pole = ZI
demagnetising
amp-turns/pole
(b)
cross-magnetising
Z=880 ; I=
120
= 60 A, = 3o
2
m
360
ZI = 880 * 60 *
1
8
3
= 440 At
360
3
= 6160
360
880 60 Z I a
* = * = 6600 At
2
4 2 P
87
DC Machines
shunt
field
turns
necessary
to
neutralize
this
demagnetisation.
Solution.:
Z=492 ;
= 10o ; ATd/pole= ZI *
360
I a = 143+ 10=153 A ;
I=153/2 ...when wave wound
I=153/4 ...when lap-wound
(a) ATd/ pole = 492 *
153 10
*
= 1046 At
2 360
153 10
*
= 523
4 360
88
Chapter Two
I sh =
250
= 5A
50
I=205/2=102.5 A
m =
=400/2=200 segments
205
36
*
= 820 At
2 5 * 360
ATd 820
=
= 164 turns
I sh
5
89
DC Machines
Fig.3.17
Solution:
- = 0.88 %
30 * 746
= 25432W
0.88
25432
= 57.8 A
440
27
= 252 At
7 * 360
1
8
ATc/pole = 840 * 28 *
27
= 2688 At
7 * 360
90
Chapter Two
3.10
Shifting
The
Brushes
To
Improve
Commutation
Due to the shift in the neutral zone (Fig.3.18) when the
generator is under load, we could move the brushes to reduce the
sparking.
For generators, the brushes are shifted to the new neutral zone
by moving them in the direction of rotation. For motors, the
brushes are shifted against the direction of rotation.
As soon as the brushes are moved, the commutation improves,
meaning there is less sparking. However, if the load fluctuates, the
armature mmf rises and falls and so the neutral zone shifts back
and forth between the no load and full load positions. We would
therefore have to move the brushes back and forth to obtain spark-
91
DC Machines
92
Chapter Two
DC Machines
93
times. By nullifying the armature mmf in this way, the flux in the
space between the main poles is always zero and so we no longer
have to shift the brushes. In practice, the mmf of the commutating
poles is made slightly greater than the armature mmf. This creates a
small flux in the neutral zone, which aids the commutation
process.
Fig.3.19 shows how the commutating poles of a 2-pole machine
are connected. Clearly, the direction of the current flowing through
the windings indicates that the mmf of the commutating poles acts
opposite to the mmf of the armature and, therefore, neutralizes its
effect. However, the neutralization is restricted to the narrow brush
zone where commutation takes place. The distorted flux
distribution under the main poles, unfortunately, remains the same.
94
Chapter Two
DC Machines
95
Let us gradually raise the exciting current IX, so that the mmf of
the field increases, which increases the flux ( per pole). If we plot
96
Chapter Two
DC Machines
97
98
Chapter Two
increases the flux still more, which increases E0 even more, and so
forth. This progressive buildup continues until E0 reaches a
maximum value determined by the field resistance and the degree
of saturation. See next section.
99
DC Machines
b.
101
DC Machines
DC Machines
103
DC Machines
105
107
DC Machines
mmf of the shunt field. Consequently, the field flux under load
rises above its original no-load value, which raises the value of Eo.
If the series coils are properly designed, the terminal voltage
remains practically constant from no-load to full-load. The rise in
the induced voltage compensates for the armature drop.
3.18 DC Motor
109
DC Machines
Vt = I a Ra + Ea
(3.25a)
It = Ia + I f
(3.25b)
Ea = K a m =
zN
60
p
A
Ea = Vt I a Ra
(3.25c)
(3.25d)
DC Machines
111
efficiency =
Poutput
Pinput
(3.26)
DC Machines
113
Pm = Vt * I a I a2 Ra
(3.27)
dPm
= Vt 2 I a Ra = 0
dI a
(3.28)
Then, I a Ra = Vt / 2
(3.29)
As Vt = Ea + I a Ra and I a * Ra = Vt / 2
Then Ea = Vt / 2
(3.30)
3.21 Torque
By the term torque is meant the turning or twisting moment of a
force about an axis. It is measured by the product of the force and
the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius r meters acted upon by a circum
ferential force of F Newton which causes it to rotate at N rps
115
DC Machines
(3.31)
Series-wound DC motor
In series DC motor field & armature circuits are connected in
series, as shown in the Figure below; so
Ia = I f
. Assuming linear
Pdev = Ta * 2N watt
(3.32)
117
DC Machines
(3.33)
P
volt, we have:
A
Ta * 2N = ZN
P
* Ia
A
Then, Ta =
(3.34)
P
1
ZI a N-m
2
A
(3.35)
P
N.m
A
(3.36)
or Ta = 0.159 ZI a
Note. From the above equation for the torque, we find that
Ta I a
(a) 1n the case of a series motor,
is directly proportional to Ia
Ta =
1 Ea I a
N .m
2 N
(3.37)
B.H .P.(meteric ) =
Tsh =
Tsh * 2N
735.5
(3.38)
(3.39)
(3.40)
119
DC Machines
(ii) Tsh =
output
37300
= 356 N .m
1000
2
60
I a = 32 1 = 31A
Eb = V I a Ra = 220 (0.09 * 31) = 217.2V
Now, Eb =
ZN P
60 A
30 *10 2 * 540 * N 4
217.2 =
60
4
(i) N = 804.4 rpm = 13.4 rps
(ii) Tsh =
output in watt
5595
= 66.5 N .m
2 *13.4
800 rpm If the armature and field resistances are 0.2 and 0.1
respectively and the iron and friction losses are 0.5 k W, find the
torque developed in the armature. What will be the output of the
motor?
Solution:
Ea I a
N.m
2N
Now
800 40
= rps
60
3
Ta =
1 Ea I a
1 208 * 40
N .m =
*
= 99.3 N .m
2 N
2 (40 / 3)
121
DC Machines
= 40 2 * 0.3 = 480 W
Iron and friction losses= 500 W,
Total losses=480+500=980 W
Motor power input =220 * 40=8,800 W
Motor output=8,800-980 =7,820 W =7.82 kW
Example 3.15 A 4-pole, 240 V, wave-connected shunt motor
Ta =
(b) Tsh =
Output
11190
=
= 106.9 N .m
2N
2 * 50 / 3
(c) Ea = ZN
P
A
4
2
Effeciency =
output 11190
=
*100 = 91.4%
Input 12240
Since I a hence T I a I a
T1 40 2 and T2 30 2
DC Machines
Then,
123
T2 9
=
T1 16
T1 T2
7
*100 = *100 = 43.75%
T1
16
N 2 436 40
*
=
500 428 30
P
Ea = V I a * Ra Or ZN = V I a Ra
A
N=
V I a Ra A
*
rps
ZP
Now V I a Ra = Ea
(3.41)
(3.42)
(3.43)
Then, N =
Ea A
E
*
rps or N = k a
ZP
(3.44)
Ea
(3.45)
N1
N 2
Ea1
Ea 2
, Where Ea1 = V I a1 Ra
(3.46)
, Where Ea 2 = V I a 2 Ra
(3.47)
N 2 E a 2 1
=
*
N 1 E a1 2
(3.48)
N 2 Ea 2 I a1
*
=
N1 Ea1 I a 2
(3.49)
125
DC Machines
N 2 Ea 2 1
N 2 Ea 2
* , If 2 = 1 Then,
=
=
N1 Ea1 2
N1 Ea1
(3.50)
% Speed regulation =
N .L speed F .L Speed
*100 (3.51)
F .L Speed
As Generator [Fig.3.32(a)]
Load current, I=50,000/250=200 A;
Shunt current, I sh 250/50=5 A
Fig.3.32
I a = I + I sh = 205A,
DC Machines
127
I sh = 250/50=5 A;
I a = 200 - 5=195 A
I a Ra = 195 * 0.02 = 3.9 V
Brush drop=2 * 1 =2V
Ea 2 = 25 (3.9 + 2 ) = 244.1V
N 2 Ea 2 1
=
* , Since 2 = 1
N1 Ea1 2
Then,
N 2 Ea 2
N
244.1
=
Then, 2 =
N1 Ea1
400 256.1
Calculate (a) the torque developed (b) the efficiency (c) the speed
at this load. The particulars of the motor are as follows:
No-load current =5 A ;
No-load speed= 1150 rpm.
Arm. resistance =0.5
shunt field resistance =110
Solution.
I sh = 220/ 110 = 2 A
I a 0 = 5-2=3A
2
Input current=11,000/220=50 A ;
Armature current=50-2=48 A
Arm. Cu loss=482*0.5=1,152 W
Total loss=Arm. Cu loss + constant losses:
=1152- 1095.5=2248 W
Output=11,000-2,248=8,752 W
(b) Efficiency= 8,752 * 100/11,000=79.6%
(c) Back EMF at no-load=220-(3 * 0.5)=218.5 V
Back EMF at given load=220-(48 * 0.5)=196 V
Then, Speed N=1150* 196/218.5=1,031 rpm
(d) Power developed in armature= Ea I a = 196*48 W
129
DC Machines
N 2 Ea 2 1 Ea 2 I a1
* =
*
=
N1 Ea1 2 Ea1 I a 2
Then, T1 I a1 and T2 I a 2
2
Or,
T2 I a 2
=
T1 I a1
1 I
Then, = a 2
2 I a1
N 2 212.9 100
*
=
, Then, N 2 = 1147 rpm
800 210 70.7
Problems
1- A DC machine (6 kW, 120 V, 1200 rpm) has the following
magnetization characteristics at 1200 rpm.
I f ,A
0.0
Ea ,V 5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
20
40
60
79
93
102
114
120
125
131
DC Machines
is
adjusted to provide a
133
DC Machines
If
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
Ea
10
40
80
120
150
170
200
220
245
263
(b)
(c)
10- A DC shunt machine (24 kW, 240 V, 1000 rpm) has Ra = 0.12
10
20
30
40
50
60
Ea(v)
10
50
106
156
184
200
208
DC Machines
135
reduction
of
flux
due
to
.
(b) Determine the efficiency at the lowest and highest speeds. For
this part, assume a constant rotational loss of 300 W over the speed
range.
137
DC Machines
.
(a) Determine the value of the generated voltage at this load
condition.
(b) Determine the value of the load torque. The rotational
losses are 500 watts.
DC Machines
139