Spirituality and Everyday Information Behaviour in A Non-Western Context Sense-Making in Buddhist Laos-Print

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SpiritualityandeverydayinformationbehaviourinanonWesterncontext:sensemakinginBuddhistLaos
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Spiritualityandeverydayinformationbehaviourinanon
Westerncontext:sensemakinginBuddhistLaos
NicoleM.Gaston
OpenPolytechnicofNewZealand,3ClearyStreet,Waterloo,LowerHutt,New
Zealand
DanG.DornerandDavidJohnstone
VictoriaUniveristyofWellington,23LambtonQuay,Wellington,NewZealand
Abstract
Introduction.Wereportaninvestigationintoeverydayinformationbehaviourin
Laos,anonWesterncontext,thatrevealedreligiousandspiritualbeliefsplayeda
significantroleininformationactivities.Thispaperexploresthesignificanceofthis
findinganditsimplications.
Method.Qualitativedatawerecollectedintheformofsemistructuredinterviewsin
usingthecriticalincidenttechniqueandDervin'smicromomenttimelineinterview
instrumentwiththirtyparticipantsinLaos.Interviewsrangedfromthirtytoninety
minutesandwereaudiorecordedandtranscribedtoprovidedataforanalysis.
Analysis.Interviewdatawereanalysedusingathreephaseanalysisprocessbasedon
Dervin'ssensemakingmetaphorandGee'sdiscourseanalysistools.
Results.Analysisrevealedthattheprimarycontextualfactorsaffectinginformation
behaviouramongtheparticipantsweretheirsocialandculturalenvironments,with
thereligiouscontextembeddedwithinthesocialandculturalvaluesplayinga
significantrole.
Conclusions.OurstudysupportsKari'sthatinformationcanbeacquiredbyspiritual
means,andthattheconventionalconceptionofinformationbehaviourashappening
throughthefivephysicalsensesisdeficient.Rather,thesemetaphysicalwaysof
knowingshouldbetakenintoconsiderationintheconceptualisationofinformation
behaviour.
CHANGE FONT
http://www.informationr.net/ir/202/paper665.html#.VcFJHfmqpBd
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Introduction
Thispaperexploresonekeyfindingfromadoctoralresearchprojectintotheeverydayinformation
behaviourofindividualsinLaos,acountrylocatedinSoutheastAsia.Theresearchfollowedthe
traditionofusercentredapproachestoinvestigatinginformationbehaviourthataimtounderstandthe
cognitive,sociological,andaffectiveaspectsofhumaninformationbehaviour(e.g.,Kuhlthau,1991
Nahl,1997,2005,2007Pettigrew,1999).Therehavebeenfewstudiesofinformationbehaviourand
spiritualityinthenonWesterncontext,thereforethestrongpresenceofspiritualityasacontextual
factoraffectinghowindividualsneeded,soughtandusedinformationintheireverydaylivesandthe
implicationsofthisfindingareexploredinthispaper.
Kari(2007,p.958)calledfor'moreempiricallyandmethodologicallyorientedresearch'relatingto
spiritualityanditseffectsoninformationbehaviourwhichhesuggestedwas'neededonallfrontsin
ordertobuildupasystematicknowledgebase'.Thispaperattemptstoaddressthatgapbyproviding
empiricalevidencegatheredthroughthedevelopmentofarobustmethodologytoillustratesome
importantfindingsregardingspiritualityininformationbehaviour.Therefore,ourstudyalsotestsas
wellasextendstheexistinginformationbehaviourmodels,leadingtofurtherdevelopmentof
informationbehaviourtheory.
Thetwobroadresearchquestionsaskedinthedoctoralstudyrelatedtotheroleofcontextin
informationbehaviourinanonWesternsocietyusingtheexampleofLaos.Theseresearchquestions
were:
WhatarethecontextualfactorsthataffectinformationbehaviourinanonWestern,developing
country?
HowdothesecontextualfactorsaffectinformationbehaviourinanonWestern,developing
country?
Analysisrevealedthesocial,cultural,andspiritualcontextsofindividualshadastronginfluenceon
theirinformationbehaviour.Theemergenceofsocialandculturalfactorsasplayingtheprimaryrolein
influencingindividuals'informationbehaviourwasnotsurprising.ResearchbyPaisley(1968),Wilson
((1997),1981),Cox(2012),TuominenandSavolainen(1997)amongotherssuggeststhatsocialand
culturalvaluesplayasignificantroleininformationbehaviour.However,theemergenceofreligious
beliefs,orspirituality,asplayingacentralroleininformationbehaviourwasnotexpectedtotheextent
thatwasdemonstratedinthedata.
Justificationfortheresearch
Religionhasnotplayedaverysignificantroleinmostbroadstudiesofinformationbehaviour
emanatingfromWesterncontexts.Whilespiritualityhasemergedasanimportantdimensionof
informationbehaviourinpreviousinformationbehaviourstudiesspecificallyexploringgroupssuchas
churchgoers(Freeburg,2013),membersoftheclergy(Wicks,1999)andcancerpatients(Fourie,
2008),ourstudywasageneralinvestigationofeverydayinformationbehaviourinanonWestern
societywithinasampleofparticipantsintendedtoberepresentativeofthedemographicofLaos.
Remarkably,evenamongstthisgeneralLaopopulation'severydayinformationactivities,spirituality
emergedasanimportantcontextualfactoraffectinginformationneeds,seekinganduse.Thisfindingis
generallynotseentothesameextentamongstmostWesterninvestigationsofinformationbehaviour
examininggeneralpopulationsorineverydayinformationbehaviourstudies.Thereforewebelievethis
findingmeritssomefurtherinvestigation.
ResearchintocultureandbehaviourbyNisbett(2003),Peters(2007),andKityama(Kitayamaand
Park,2010KitayamaandUskul,2011MarkusandKitayama,1991)providesevidencethatcultural
andsocialfactorsplayasignificantroleincognitiveprocessesincludinginformationneeds,seeking
anduse.Theseauthors'findingsprovidedadditionalmotivationforundertakingthedoctoralresearch
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andsupporttheresultspresentedinthispaper.
Background
Laos,ortheLaoPeople'sDemocraticRepublic,acountrylocatedinSouthEastAsiawithinthe
GreaterMekongSubregion,ishometosixandahalfmillioninhabitants(Lafont,2013.).Laosandthe
LaopeoplewasthesettingforaninvestigationintoeverydayinformationbehaviourinanonWestern
societyexploredinadoctoralthesis(Gaston,2014).Laosisranked139outof186countriesinthe
UnitedNationsHumanDevelopmentIndex(UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,2015),atthe
lowerendoftheUnitedNation'srankingsystemthatmeasuresinternationaldevelopment.
Laosisacountrywitharichculturalhistorythathaslongbeentiedtoitsofficialreligion,Buddhism.
OfparticularsignificanceisthedesignationandimplementationofBuddhismasthestatereligion
(Holt,2009).ThisunderstandingofthehistoricalandreligiouscontextsofLaos,informedbytime
spentlivinginLaosbytheleadresearcher,discussionswithLaopeopleandnumberofrecent
monographs,includingSpiritsoftheplacebyJohnHolt(2009)andPostwarLaosbyVatthana
Pholsena(2006),framedthedevelopmentoftheresearch.
Laoswasselectedasthesettingforourresearchbecauseoftheuniquesocialandhistoricalcontext
mentionedaboveandforthereasonthattheleadresearcherhasextensiveexperiencelivingand
workinginLaos.From20082009theleadresearcherworkedasatechnicaladvisorininformation
literacytotheNationalUniversityofLaos'sCentralLibrarywhereshewasimmersedinLaoculture.
ShealsolivedandworkedinAfricafrom20032005,duringwhichtimesheunderwentextensive
crossculturaltrainingasaPeaceCorpsvolunteerinBenin,WestAfrica.Theaimofthistrainingwas
tofacilitateinternationaldevelopmentthroughthecultivationofculturalsensitivityandawareness
widelyconsideredfundamentaltoeffectivecollaborationamongstpeopleofdifferentcultures.Laos
wasthereforeidealforinvestigationintothecontextualfactorsaffectinginformationbehaviourasthe
leadresearcherhadathoroughunderstandingofthecultureandlanguage,aswellaspersonalcontacts
willingtofacilitateparticipantrecruitment.Thisresearchwasthereforeundertakenfromaholistic
perspectiveofculturethatisappreciativeratherthandeficit.Allofthesefactorsinfluencedthe
developmentoftheresearchprojectandarereflectedinthedatacollection,analysis,andinterpretation
offindingdescribedinthispaper.
ThetermsdevelopingcountryandnonWesternsocietyarebothusedthroughoutthispaperwithregard
toLaos,yetrequiresomeclarification.Thesetermshavequitedifferentmeanings,andhavenotbeen
usedinterchangeably.Forlackofanacceptablealternative,developingcountryhasbeenusedto
describecountriesthathavenotdevelopedeconomicallytothesameextentasmoredeveloped
countriessuchasnationswithOECD(organizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment)
membership.However,useofthistermdoesnotimplyinferioritytomoredevelopedcountries.There
isneitherastandarddefinitionofadevelopingcountry,noranyspecificstatisticalindicatorthreshold
orrankingstodetermineifacountryisdevelopedordeveloping.Nevertheless,thetermdeveloping
countryhasenteredcommonusagetodescribecountrieswithlowereconomicdevelopmentlevels.
Developingcountryhasnoexplicitgeographicalorculturalconnotations,butrefersmerelyto
economicdevelopment.Designationassuchisoftenbasedoneconomicindicatorsincludinggross
domesticproductand/orpercapitaincomelevels.
Ontheotherhand,nonWesternsocietycanrefertoanysocietythatdoesnotpossessadominantcore
valuesystemoriginatinginanyoftheWesternEuropeancultures.Thistermcanincludecountriesthat
arehighlydevelopedeconomically,suchasSouthKorea,Singapore,andJapan,aswellasmany
developingcountriesthroughouttheworld.Thecontextofthisresearch,Laos,isconsideredtobeboth
anonWesternsocietyandadevelopingcountry.
Thestudywasintentionallylimitedtoinvestigatingingtheroleofcontextininformationbehaviourin
Vientiane,Laos.Thisdelimitationwasimposedduetothemagnitudeoftheresearchobjectives,sothat
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theycouldbemanageablyaddressed.
Overviewofinformationbehaviour
Informationcanbeconceptualisedasonelevelofunderstandingonacontinuumofhumaninteraction
withtheuniverse.Rawfacts,ordata,becomeinformationoncetheyareperceivedbyanindividual.
Thisinformationmaythengoontobecomeknowledge,andfinally,wisdom.Itiswiththis
conceptualisationofdata,information,knowledgeandwisdomthataninvestigationintoeveryday
informationneeds,seekinganduseofagenerallyrepresentativesampleofwidersocietyinthenon
WesterncontextofLaoswasundertaken.
Pettigrew,Fidel,andBruce(2001)defineinformationbehaviouras'howpeopleneed,seek,manage,
giveanduseinformationindifferentcontexts'(p.44).Theresearchdiscussedinthispaperwas
primarilyinformedbyDervin's(2008)sensemakingmetaphortheoryofinformationbehaviour,in
whichinformationseekingisconceptualisedasagapbridgingactivityaimedatmakingsenseof
confusionsorquestionsencounteredinone'sdailylife.Thesensemakingmetaphorasillustratedby
DervinisshowninFigure1below.
Figure1:Dervin'ssensemakingmetaphor(Dervin,2008,p.17)
ThesensemakingmetaphorissummarisedbyNaumer,FisherandDervin(2008)asfollows:
Apersonisseenasembeddedinacontextladensituation,boundedintimespace.The
personpicturedascrossingabridgeisusedtometaphoricallydescribethewaythat
humansaremandatedbythehumanconditiontobridgegapsinanalwaysevolvingand
evergappyreality.Thepersonisseenfacingagap(i.e.,asensemakingneed)thatarises
outofasituation.Throughtheprocessofgapbridging,peopleseekinputs(sometimesthe
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stuffsystemscallinformation)andengageinotheractivitiesthroughthetimespace
continuumthatleadtooutcomes.(p.2)
Dervin'ssensemakingmetaphorandsensemakingmethodologythereforebecamecentraltothe
undertakingoftheresearchduetotheiremphasisonthecontextofanindividual'sinformation
behaviour.TheinvestigationintotheeverydayinformationbehaviourofindividualsinLaoswasalso
influencedbycomplementarytheoriesofinformationbehaviourincludingWilson's(1997)modelof
informationbehaviourandChatman's(Hersberger,2005)theoryof'informationpoverty',among
others(e.g.,FisherandNaumer,2006Kuhlthau,2005Miwa,2005).Anindepthinvestigationinto
establishedconceptualisationsofinformationbehaviourprovidedasolidframeworkandbackground
fromwhichasuitableandinformedmethodologycouldbedeveloped.
Researchintoinformationbehaviourindevelopingcountriesthusfarappearstohavebeenlimitedto
specifictypesofindividualssuchasacademicfaculty(PatitungkhoandDeshpande,2005),fishermen
(IkojaOdongoandOcholla,2003Njoku,2004),orspecificaspectsofinformationbehavioursuchas
electronicinformationbehaviour(Borzekowski,Fobil,andAsante,2006),informationneedsor
informationseeking(Momodu,2002),ratherthanacomprehensiveapproach,assummarisedinDutta's
(2009)reviewofliteratureoninformationneedsandinformationseekingindevelopingcountries.
Thesestudiesincludeinvestigatingspecifictypesofprofessionalrelatedinformationneedsand
seeking,suchas'TheinformationneedsandinformationseekingbehaviourofshermeninLagos
state,Nigeria'(Njoku,2004),orspecifictypesofinformationneeds,suchas'Respondingto
informationneedsofthecitizensthroughegovernmentportalsandonlineservicesinIndia'(Hirwade,
2010).Explorationofeverydayinformationbehaviouramongstthegeneralpopulationofadeveloping,
nonWesternsocietyhasnotbeenextensive,andevenlessdiscussionoftheroleofreligionand
spiritualityinsuchbehaviourinanonWesterncontextiswidelyavailable.Thispaperalsodiscusses
thatperceivedgapinourunderstandingofinformationbehaviour.
Religionandinformationbehaviour
ThispaperreportsonaninvestigationintoinformationbehaviourinLaos,acountryinwhich
Buddhismisthepredominantreligion.Thestudyexploredtheconnectionsbetweenreligionandhow
individualsneed,seek,anduseinformationintheirdailylives.Whiletheroleofreligionand/or
spiritualityininformationstudiesresearchhasbeenexploredindifferentcontexts,themajorityrelates
toprovidinginformationservicesinreligiousorganizations.Theroleofreligiousbeliefsorspirituality
ininformationbehaviourhasnotbeenwidelyexploredthusfar,thoughKari's2007reviewofthe
literaturerelatedtospiritualityininformationstudiesdidincludesomedescriptionsofinformation
processinganduse,criticalaspectsofinformationbehaviour.
Kari(2007)conceptualisedthespiritualininformationbehavioursimilarlytotheOxfordEnglish
Dictionary'sdefinitionofspiritual:'oforrelatingto,affectingorconcerning,thespiritorhighermoral
qualities,esp.asregardedinareligiousaspect,frequentlyinexpressorimplieddistinctiontobodily,
corporal,ortemporal',adefinitionthatalsoinformsthecurrentresearch.Kari(2007)alsodescribes
spiritualas'sacredmatters','higherpowers',or'transcendentreality'(p.945).
Religioncanbedefinedas
asetofbeliefsconcerningthecause,nature,andpurposeoftheuniverse,especiallywhen
consideredasthecreationofasuperhumanagencyoragencies,usuallyinvolving
devotionalandritualobservances,andoftencontainingamoralcodegoverningthe
conductofhumanaffairs.aspecificfundamentalsetofbeliefsandpracticesgenerally
agreeduponbyanumberofpersonsorsects.(Religion,2012)
Thereforethesetwoterms,religionandspiritual,areconcernedwiththemetaphysicalaspectsofan
individual'scontext,andhaveconsiderableoverlap.Buddhismcanbeconceptualisedasareligion,and
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thebeliefsassociatedwithittobebothreligiousandspiritual.However,inthecaseofLaos,the
spiritualextendstobeliefsbeyondwhatisformallypartoftheorganizedreligioussystem,thoughas
thesespiritualbeliefsarestillmetaphysicalinnature,theymaybeinformedbythesameunderlying
valuesthatcomprisetheorganizedreligionofBuddhism.Inaddition,Buddhismandthevalues
associatedwithitareintertwinedintomanyotheraspectsofeverydaylifeforpeopleinLaos,and
thereforethereligiousandthespiritualintheLaocontextareevenmorecloselylinkedthaninamore
secularsocietywithseparationofchurchandstatesuchastheUnitedStatesorNewZealand.
Kari's(2007)reviewidentifieddiscussionsofthespiritualorreligiousanditsrelationshipto
informationbehaviourinanumberofpublicationsincludingBates's(2002)descriptionof'layersof
understanding'with'spiritual'atthetopmostlayer.However,asmentionedbyKari(2007),'Batesdoes
notexplainthepotentialrolesofspiritualityininformationseeking,norwhatthewholetypologyis
foundedon'(p.945).Nevertheless,itisoneoftherarementionsofspiritualbeliefsplayingarolein
informationbehaviour.
Chatman(1987)reportedonresearchintoinformationbehaviouroflowskilledworkers,inwhichthe
Biblewasreportedasasourceofinformationbyoverhalftheparticipants.Chatman(1987)further
suggestedthatunderstandingofbiblicalcontentwasoftenmediatedbypersonalinterpretationor
counselfromamemberoftheclergy(p.946).
Kari's(2007)surveyofthespiritualininformationstudiesliteratureledto,amongothers,conclusions
relevanttoinformationbehaviourresearch,including:
1. Informationcanbesupposedlyacquiredbyspiritualmeans(e.g.,trancechannelling)
2. Informationcanoriginatefromasourceconsideredasaspiritualentity(e.g.,God)
3. Informationprocessescanbeallegedlyaffectedbyaspiritualagent(e.g.,providence).(p.957)
Theseconclusionsregardingthespiritualormetaphysicalininformationbehaviourcanbecontrasted
withthelogicalininformationbehaviour,whichcanbeconceptualisedastraditionalsourcesof
informationsuchasoralcommunication,writtentext,environmentalcues,andelectronicsources
amongstothertypesofinformation.
Kari's(2007)conclusionsresultedfrominvestigationsintoinformationbehaviourconductedin
WesterncontextsbyKariandothers.However,therelevanceoftheseconclusionsinanonWestern
context,wherespiritualparadigmslikeBuddhismaredominant,remainsunclear.Thecurrentresearch
appliestheconnectionsbetweenreligionandinformationbehaviourinanonWesterncontext.
Contextininformationbehaviour
AccordingtoDervin(1997)there'isnotermthatismoreoftenused,lessoftendefined,andwhen
defined,definedsovariouslyascontext'(p.14).TheOxfordEnglishDictionaryOnline'sdefinitionof
contexthasbeenslightlyadaptedtodevelopthefollowingworkingdefinitionusedinthisresearch:
Thetotalityofcircumstancesthatformthesettingforanevent,statement,oridea,and
throughwhichunderstandingisconstructed.
Theunderstandingmentionedinthisdefinitionisconceptualisedasbeingconstructedamongst
individuals,inlinewithasocialconstructionistperspective,describedinmoredetailinthefollowing
section.Context,therefore,formsthebackgroundinwhichtheindividual,aswellashisorherthoughts
andbehaviours,isembedded,andhowheorsheperceivesthiscontextaffectshowheorsheinteracts
withinformation.
Therearenumerousdimensionsofcontextthataffecthowindividualsinteractwithandperceivethe
worldaroundthem.Whilethesenumerousdimensionsofcontext,suchasthephysicalenvironment,
politicalsystem,orinformationresourcebaseavailableplayasignificantroleinhowindividuals
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interactwithinformation,forthisresearchwechosetoemphasisehowsocioculturalandcognitive
emotionaldimensionsofcontextaffectinformationbehaviour,asthishasbeenlargelyunexploredina
nonWesterncontext.
IngwersenandJrvelin'sCognitiveFrameworkinInformationSeekingandRetrievalisoneofthefew
frameworksofinformationbehaviourtoexplicitlyarticulatetheroleofsocialandculturalcontextin
informationactivities.Whiletheirframeworklimitsitselftoinformationseekingandretrieval,it
providesarobusttoolforconceptualisingsocioculturalcontextandcognitiveemotionalcontextin
informationbehaviourthatisveryvaluableforourinvestigation.
ThecognitiveframeworkofinformationseekingandretrievalmodelshowninFigure2isoneofa
numberofvariationsonavisualrepresentationoftheframeworkdevelopedbyIngwersenandJrvelin
(2005)illustratinghowcontextisconceptualisedassociallyconstructedandfilteredbytheinformation
user'sperceptions.
Figure2:IngwersenandJrvelin'scognitiveframeworkforinformationseekingand
retrieval(2005,p.279)
Thismodelillustratesthecentralcomponentsofthecognitiveframeworkforinformationseekingand
retrievalcentredaroundtheinformationseekerwhoislocatedinthephysicalworldconstitutedof
'directlyobservableentities',aswellastheroleofcontextualfactors'aswhenperceivedbythe
informationseekerathis/hercognitiveemotionallevel'(IngwersenandJrvelin,2005,p.278).
ParallelsexistbetweenIngwersenandJrvelin'sconceptualisationofinformationbehaviourintheir
cognitiveframeworkandDervin'ssensemakingmetaphor,includinghowDervin'ssensemakerisseen
as'embeddedinacontextladensituation,boundedintimespace'(Naumeretal.,2008,p.2).Dervin
describeshowthesituationcomponentofsensemakingincludesanindividual's'experiences,horizons,
history,habitsandskills',visualisedasoccurringunderanumbrellaofcontext,whichincludes'power
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stuctures/dynamics,organizationalsystems/procedures,domainknowledgesystems,and
cultures/communities'(Naumeretal.,2008,p.2),notunlikethedimensionsofcontextdescribedin
IngwersenandJrvelin'smodelshowninFigure2.
WhileIngwersenandJrvelin'smodelparticularlyemphasisesinformationtechnologyininformation
seekingandretrievalratherthanamoreholisticconceptualisationofinformationbehaviour
encompassinginformationneeds,seeking,anduse,suchasDervin'ssensemakingmetaphor,this
modelnonethelessarticulatestheimportantroleoftheindividual'scognitiveandemotionalframework
aswellasthesocialandculturalcontextsinhisorherinformationactivities.AccordingtoIngwersen
andJrvelin(2005):
Themodelemphasisestheinformationprocessesthatareexecutedduringinformation
seekingandretrievalovertime:First,processesofsocialinteractionarefoundbetweenthe
actorsandtheirpastandpresentsocioculturalororganizationalcontext.Socialinteraction
mayinstigateinformationseekingandretrievalactivities,butmayalsoformpartoftheir
fulfilment.(p.261)
IngwersenandJrvelingoontodescribehowinformationinteractiontakesplacebetweentheactors'
cognitiveprocessesandcognitivemanifestationsembeddedinITandinformationobjectsvia
interfaces.InthecontextoftheresearchinLaos,wherethemajorityofinformationbehaviourincidents
reportedbyparticipantsdidnotinvolveIT,wecanconceptualisetheinformationobjectsasknowledge
orcognitivemanifestations(understanding)embeddedwithinotherindividualsthattheactorinteracts
withviatheinterfaceoforalcommunication.
AsshowninFigure2,anindividual'ssocioculturalframeworkinfluenceshisorherperceptionofhis
orhercontext.MarkusandKitayama(1991)proposed'thatformanyculturesoftheworld,theWestern
notionoftheselfasanentitycontainingsignificantdispositionalattributes,andasdetachedfrom
context,issimplynotanadequatedescriptionofselfhood'(p.225).Thisevidenceofvariationsin
conceptualisationsoftheselfillustratesnotonlythediversewaysinwhichindividualsmayperceive
themselves,butalsothedynamicnatureofhowcontextisperceived,aconsiderationwhichisalso
illustratedinIngwersenandJrvelin'smodelabove.
Thesocioculturalandcognitiveemotionaldimensionsofcontextpotentiallyplayasignificantrolein
howindividualsneed,seekanduseinformation,yethavethusfarreceivedlittleinvestigationwith
regardtoinformationbehaviourinnonWesterncontexts.IngwersenandJrvelin'smodelwas,
therefore,averyusefultoolforvisualisinghowcognitivefactorsaffectinformationbehaviour,which
providedadditionalevidencefortheneedtofurtherinvestigatethesecontextualfactorsininformation
behaviour.
Methodology
Asocialconstructionistperspectiveproviding'adialogicviewpointtostudytheassumptionsand
implicittheoriesthatpeopledrawonwhentheyengageininformationpracticesandproduceaccounts
ofthem'(Tuominen,Savolainen,andTalja,2005,p.328)informedthedevelopmenttheresearch
methodology.Theresearchwasundertakenbasedonthebeliefthataccountsofinformationbehaviour
wererepresentativeofasociallyconstructedrealityfortheindividualparticipant,andthereforealso
representativeofthebroadersocialandculturalcontextinwhichtheinformationbehaviouroccurred.
Inaddition,thesocialconstructionistperspectiveinformedtheinterpretivistepistemologyinwhich
datawereinterpretedbasedontheunderstandingofrealityassociallyconstructed.
DatacollectionwasundertakenduringfieldworkoveranineweekperiodinVientiane,Laosin2011.
Aninitialconveniencesampleofparticipantswasrecruitedfromtheleadresearcher'spersonal
network,andfurtherparticipantswererecruitedthroughsnowballingmethodsrelyingonthepersonal
networksofparticipantsandtheinterpreter.Whilerandomsamplingmethodsmayprovidedatawith
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lesslikelihoodofbiasormorerepresentationaldata,researchundertakenbyanoutsiderislimitedby
thesocial,cultural,political,andlinguisticcontextofLaos.However,theuseofconveniencesampling
doesnotnecessarilyimplythedataisunrepresentativeorbiased.AccordingtoBryman(2008)social
researchisoftenbasedonconveniencesampling(p.183).
Whiletheinitialsamplewasbasedonconvenience,apurposiveselectioncriterionwasappliedto
potentialparticipants.Thepurposivecriterionwastheselectionofpotentiallyinformationrichcases.
AccordingtoPatton(1990),'informationrichcasesarethosefromwhichonecanlearnagreatdeal
aboutissuesofcentralimportancetothepurposeofresearchthusthetermpurposefulsampling'(p.
169).Forourstudy,informationrichcasesweredeemedtobethoseindividualswhowereableprovide
agreatdealofdataillustrativeoftheirinformationbehaviour.Theinterpreterhelpedtorecruit
individualswhohadeitheruniqueorhighlydevelopedinformationbehaviour,individualswho
engagedinawidevarietyofinformationbehaviouronaregularbasis,orwhomayhavebeenableto
richlyarticulatetheirinformationbehaviour,whichwereallpotentiallyinformationrichcases.
Thesemethodssuccessfullyyieldedasampleof30participantsfromdiverseeducational,professional
andsocioeconomicbackgroundswiththeaimofidentifyingagenerallyrepresentativesampleof
individualswhoidentifiedasLaoLoum(theethnicmajorityinLaos).Interviewsrangedfromthirty
minutestoninetyminutesandaveragedapproximatelyonehour.Whenpossible,interviewswere
conductedinEnglishwithparticipantswhohadgoodfluencyintheEnglishlanguage.However,
individualswithlittleEnglishlanguagefluencywerenotexcludedfromparticipationinordertoavoid
biasingthesample,andthereforetenofthethirtyinterviewswereconductedintheLaolanguagewith
theaidofaninterpreter.
Thirteenparticipantsweremale(44%),andseventeenfemale(56%),withanaverageageof32.9years,
makingthesamplegenerallyrepresentativeofoverallLaopopulationdemographicsexcludingthose
under16yearsold(CentralIntelligenceAgency,2013).Informedconsentwasobtainedpriorto
interviewingandtheinterpreteralsosignedaconfidentialityagreement,ensuringanonymityfor
participantsandminimisingpotentialethicalissues,andtherelevantethicscommittees'approvalwere
obtained,fromboththeresearchers'homeinstitution,andtheNationalUniversityofLaoswhich
overseesresearchprojectsconductedinthecountry.
Dervin's'micromomenttimelineinterview'(2008)instrumenthasbeenspecificallydesignedto
explorethecontextofaninformationbehaviourincident,andthereforewasideallysuitedtothe
researchquestions.Dervindevelopedasemistructuredinterviewtechniquetocapturesensemaking
situations,calledsensemakingmethodologyquestioning.Dervin'squestionsweredesignedtobe
flexibleandthefollowingselectedsensemakingmethodologyquestionswereusedasthebasisfor
understandingtheinformationbehaviourofthestudyparticipants:
Whatwasyoursituation?
Whatstoodintheway?
Didyouhaveanyquestionsinmind?Whatarethey?
Howdoyoutryfindtheanswertothesequestions?Anyhelp?
Whatconclusions/ideas/didyoucometo?
Didyoufinallygetananswertoyourquestions?Doesithelp?How?
Howdoyouhandle/dealwiththeseusefulanswers?
Didyouhaveanydifficultiestogettheanswer?Whatarethey?
Howdidyoudecidethattheinformationyoufoundwashelpful(ornothelpful)
Whatledyoutothatassessment?
Whatdidthatallowyoutodo/achieve/think?(Dervin,2008,p.19)
Additionalpromptssuchas'Tellmemore...'and'Whathappenedthen?'werealsousefulineliciting
richaccountsofinformationbehaviourinthesemistructuredinterviewstyleemployedinthisstudy.
DatayieldingfromDervin'srosterofsensemakinginterviewquestionswereanalysedusingathree
phaseanalysisprocesscombiningtwoprimaryanalytictoolsdescribedinTable1.Dervin'ssense
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makingmetaphor,anditsfivecomponents(situation,gap,bridge,sensemaking,outcome)becamea
frameworkforanalysis,anddescriptionsofinformationincidentswerecodedaccordingtowhich
componentofsensemakingtheydescribed.ThesameinterviewdatawasthenanalysedusingGee's
(2011b)'sevenbuildingtasksoflanguage'discourseanalysisframework,inwhichaccountswere
examinedforevidenceoftheunderlyingcontextualfactorspresentintheinterview.Finally,thesense
makingbehavioursidentifiedduringthefirstphaseofanalysisweremappedtothecontextualfactors
identifiedduringthesecondphase,revealinghowthosecontextualfactorsaffectedtheinformation
behaviourcapturedduringdatacollection.Table1summarisesthephasesofdataanalysis.
Table1:Phasesofdataanalysis
Phase
Objective
Framework
Overview
Identificationofinformationbehaviourwasaccomplishedby
Identify
usingthecriticalincidenttechniqueconcomitantlywith
everyday
Sense
Phase
Dervin'ssensemakingmethodologyasanalyticaltools.The
information
making
one
criticalincidenttechniquewasusedprimarilyinthe
behaviourofthe methodology
identificationofdistinctinformationbehaviourincidents,which
participants
formedtheindividualunitsofanalysisforfurtherexamination.
Identifythe
contextual
factors
Oncecommoninformationbehaviourpatternsofthe
Phase influencingthe Discourse
participantswereidentified,contextualfactorswereidentified
two information
analysis
usingDervin'ssensemakingmethodologyconcomitantlywith
behaviour
discourseanalysisasanalyticaltools.
identifiedin
phaseone
Sense
Articulatethe
Theinfluenceofthecontextualfactorsemergingfromphase
making
roleofcontextin
twoofanalysiswasexaminedinrelationtotheinformation
Phase
methodology
theinformation
behaviouridentifiedduringphaseoneusingdiscourseanalysis
three
plus
behaviourof
astheprimaryanalyticaltoolwithadditionalinvestigationand
discourse
participants.
interpretationinformedbyDervin'ssensemakingmethodology.
analysis
Analytictoolswereselectedbasedontheirabilitytobeusedwithinasocialconstructionistparadigm
tointerpretvaryingaccountsofinformationactivitiesasexperiencedwithineachindividual'sperceived
reality.AccordingtoDervin(1999),insensemaking,'therealisalwayspotentiallysubjecttomultiple
interpretations,duetochangesinrealityacrossspace,changesacrosstime,differencesinhowhumans
seerealityarisingfromtheirdifferinganchoringsintimespaceanddifferencesinhowhumans
constructinterpretivebridgesoveragappyreality'(p.731).Thesecoreassumptionsregardingthe
natureofrealityandknowledgethatunderpinsensemakingresearchhavesimilarparallelswithinthe
philosophicalfoundationsofsocialconstructionismandarethereforecomplementaryframeworksfrom
whichtoexplorethecontextualnatureofinformationbehaviour.
Dervin(1999)arguedthatthepracticesofresearchinginformationneedsandseekingarealso
communicativepractices,andproducedcollaborativelyamongstresearchersandparticipants.Inthis
sense,boththeresearchersandparticipantscanclaimownershipovertheresearchanditsoutcomes.
Conceptualisingtheresearcherandtheparticipantsassuchsupportsarelativistontologyand
interpretiveepistemology,astherealisalwayssubjecttointerpretationandtheknownis
conceptualisedasrelativetotheindividualwithinthisparadigm.
Inthefirstphaseofanalysisinformationbehaviourincidentsweremappedtothefivecomponentsof
thesensemakingmetaphorbasedonDervin'sdescriptionsofthesecomponentsandthelanguageused
byparticipantstodescribetheirbehaviour.Useofthesensemakingmetaphorasaframeworkfordata
collectionandanalysispermittedindepthinvestigationofallstagesandaspectsofaninformation
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behaviourincident,andevidenceofthesebehaviourswasidentifiedthoughtheuseofDervin's
description'sforthosecomponentsofsensemaking.Thesecomponentsofsensemaking,andexamples
fromthedatausedtodevelopandunderstandingofsensemakingactivitiesinLaosduringPhase1of
analysisaredescribedinTable2below.
Table2:Sensemakingininterviewdata
Code/component
ofsensemaking
Situation
Gap
Sensemaking
Bridge
Outcome
Examplesfrom
interviewdata
'Iwasa/at/in'
History,experience,horizons,constraints,barriers,habits/skills 'Atthattime'
'Ihaddone'
'Iwantedto
know'
'Myquestion
Questions,confusions,muddles,riddles,angst
was'
'Wantedmore
information
about'
'Askingmy
friends'
'Goingtothe
Verbings,procedurings,strategiesandtactics
shop'
'Searchingthe
internet'
'Ifelt'
Ideas,cognitionsandthoughtsattitudes,beliefsandvalues
'Ithought'
feelings,emotionsandintuitionsmemories,storiesand
'Ifound'
narratives
'Iused'
'Iliked'
'Imadethe
Helpandfacilitationshurtsandhindrancesconsequences,
decisionto'
impactsandeffects
'Ifoundout'
'Iwassatisfied'
Description(afterDervin,2008)
ThediscourseanalyticmethodusedinphasetwoofthisstudyisbasedontheonedevelopedbyGee
(2011b)forinterpretinghowanindividualconstructshisorherrealitythroughlanguage,aconceptthat
alsoparallelsthecentralprinciplesofsocialconstructionism.
Geedescribesseven'areasofreality'thatareconstructedthroughtheuseoflanguage(Gee,2011a).
AccordingtoGee,'wheneverwespeakorwrite,wealways(oftensimultaneously)constructorbuild
seventhingsorsevenareasofreality'(2011a,p.17).Geetermedthesesevenareasthe'sevenbuilding
tasks'oflanguage(Gee,2011a,p.17).Interviewswithparticipantsproducedaccountsofinformation
behaviourthatprovidedevidenceofthesebuildingtasksoflanguage,inturnprovidingindicationsas
tohowanindividualconstructedandperceivedhisorherreality.
ThesevenbuildingtasksidentifiedbyGee(2011a,p.1720)are:
Significance
Practices(Activities)
Identities
Relationships
Politics(thedistributionofsocialgoods)
Connections
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Signsystemsandknowledge.
Inphasethreeofanalysistheinformationbehavioursmappedtothefivecomponentsofthesense
makingmetaphoridentifiedinphaseonewerethenexaminedalongsidethesevenbuildingtasksof
languageidentifiedinphasetwoinordertoestablishhowtheinformationbehavioursandcontextual
factorswereinfluencedbyoneanother.
Theparticipantsreportedoncriticalincidentsinvolvinginformationbehaviourthatoccurredintheir
dailylife.ChellandPittaway(1998)conciselydefinedCriticalIncidentTechniqueas'aqualitative
interviewprocedurewhichfacilitatestheinvestigationofsignificantoccurrences(events,incidents,
processesorissues)identiedbytherespondent,thewaytheyaremanaged,andtheoutcomesinterms
ofperceivedeffects'(p.25).
Fiftytwoincidentsofinformationbehaviourwerecollectedusingthechoseninterviewingtechnique.
Theindividualincidentwasthereforeusedastheunitofanalysisforthepurposesofthisstudy.The
interviewrecordingsweretranscribedandincidentscollatedintofivebroadclustersofinformation
relatedactivities:
Consumerrelatedinformationbehaviourforexample,makingpurchasessuchasacar,alaptop,
etc.
Professionalrelatedinformationbehaviourforexample,jobseeking,professionaldevelopment,
etc.
Educationrelatedinformationbehaviourforexample,scholarshipinquiries,studypathway
decisionmakingetc.
Socialorrecreationrelatedinformationbehaviourforexample,organizingrecreationalsports
activities,hobbyrelatedinformationbehaviouretc.
Healthrelatedinformationbehaviourforexample,sensemakingrelatedtoillness,medical
informationbehaviouretc.
Findingsregardingspiritualityininformationactivitiesamong
individualsinLaos
EvidenceoftheimportantroleofthespiritualininformationactivitiesamongindividualsinLaoswas
presentinnearlyeveryinterviewanalysed.Often,individualsdescribedvisitingtemplesormonks
whentheyneededadvice,consultingfortunetellers,orobtaininggoodluckblessingsaftermaking
significantpurchases.Otherindividualsdescribedtheroleofreligiousbeliefsinactivitiessuchasjob
seeking,suchasintheexamplebelow:
Interviewer:Wasthereanythingelsethatcouldhavehelpedyou?
Si:MaybemyfortuneIthink.
Interviewer:Okjustluck,Buddha?
Si:YeahjustpraytoBuddhatohelpmefindajob.Yeahbecauseforthejobinterviewday
afortunetellercametomyhouse,andIasktodo,liketheycheckmyfortune
Thisintervieweewentontodescribehowthefortunetellertoldhimhewouldbesuccessfulinhisjob
interview.Similarinteractionswithspiritualadvisorsandfortunetellerswerereportedinanumberof
incidentswithparticipantsdescribingtheirbeliefintheinfluenceofBuddhaorfortuneonotherevents
indifferentways.Whileonthesurfacetheseactivitiesdonotinitiallyappeartobe'information
seeking'or'informationgathering'behaviour,theyaresensemakingactivitiestheparticipantsusedto
makesenseoftheirsituationandbridgeagapintheirknowledge,usingtheinformationcommunicated
tothembythefortunetellerormonktohelpthemcometoaconclusion.WhileasWesternerswe
mightnotviewideascommunicatedbyamonkorfortunetellerasbeinginformationobjectsinthe
senseconveyedbyIngwersenandJrvelin's(2005)cognitiveframeworkshowninFigure2,those
ideaswereperceivedbytheparticiapntsinthisstudyasinformationobjectsandthemonksandfortune
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tellerstheyconsultedasinterfaces,andthereforenolessapartoftheirinformationseekingbehaviour
assearchingGooglewouldbetomostreadersofthispaper.
ThefollowingextractfromaninterviewwithSiphok,a31oldfemale,providesanexampleofhowone
participantviewedhersuccesstoberelatedtometaphysicaloccurrences,andhowactivitiessuchas
prayingwereaformofinformationbehaviourinhereffortstomakesenseofasituation.
Siphok:Someonesaidthat'YoushouldbelieveGod'.IthinkGodisjustonepart.'Godcan
makeyousucceed,youcangotothetempleandpray'theysuggesttome.
Interviewer:Soyoudon'tagreewiththat?
Siphok:Idid,youknow,Ifollowtheirsuggestion.
Interviewer:Butitwasnotsuccessful?
Siphok:Idon'tknow.Ithinkit'sapart.NowIthinkIbelieveitabout10%.Youknow,it's
hardformetoget5.5[InternationalEnglishLanguageTestingSystemscore].Thedaythat
ItooktheIELTS[InternationalEnglishLanguageTestingSystem]testfortheNZ
scholarship,Igotupearly,andthenIwenttoSiMuangtemple,andIprayedandprayed
anditmademefeelyouknow,feelwarm,confidentandmorerelaxed,andItookthe
exammaybearound9or9:30,andfinally,whenIknewtheIELTS[score],thatIgot5.5,I
thought,'OhIcan'tbelieveit!'IthinkthatduringthetestIfeltIcouldn'tdowell,butIgot
5.5,maybefromBuddha.Yeah,Ithoughtthat.
Siphokrelatedadviceshereceivedfromotherpeople,herownbeliefs,andherexperienceatthetemple
withherEnglishlanguageproficiencytestscore.WhilesheadmittedtobelievingsomewhatthatGod
orBuddhaplaysaroleintheoutcomessheexperiences,shealsodescribedsomescepticism,andlater
shedescribedhowhersuccessfuloutcomewasduetothesemetaphysicalforcesmorethanshehad
initiallybelieved.Inthissituation,hervisittothetemple,theadvicefromfriends,andherownbelief
systemwereallpartofhersensemakingbehaviour,inadditiontotheformalandinformalstudyshe
haddonetoprepareherselfforthetest.
Later,Siphokdescribesvisitingafortunetellerduringthesameperiod.
Siphok:Shetoldme,'Youcan,Ipredictthatyoucan',andshesaidthat'Youwilltravelfar
awayfromyourhometown,andsoon',atthattimeyouknowIgottrainingscholarship
fromSingapore,andthenIaskedheragain,'WhataboutNewZealandscholarship?Do
youthinkthatIcan?IwilltakeIELTStest',shesaid'Youcan'.
Interviewer:Sothathelpedyoutobeconfident?
Siphok:YeahIthinkso.
Interviewer:Soforthefortuneteller,wouldyousayyoualsobelieveinit10%or?
Siphok:Yes,10%,becauseIhavetocomebacktoconsiderthatnotallfortunetellerscan
predicttherightthing.Youknow,it'snotonlyherthatIwentto,butIwenttoother
fortunetellers,manytimes.Andmanydifferentfortunetellers,butitwasonlyherthat
predictedcorrectly.
Thisexcerptprovidesanexampleofhowtheparticipantviewedtheconnectionbetweenafortune
teller'spredictionandreality.Despiteclaimingtoonlybelieveonlyabout10%inrelationtothe
validityofsupernaturalabilities,theparticipantindicatedthatshehadrepeatedlyandoftenvisited
fortunetellers.
Saobet,a31yearoldmale,alsoprovidedevidenceofhowparticipantstriedtorationalisetheirbeliefs
inthepowerofspirituality,describingthepsychologicalaffectofprayingorvisitingfortunetellersas
beingapossibleinfluenceontheoutcomestheyexperienced.Insomecasesprayingorvisitingfortune
tellerssupplementedmoreactiveinformationseeking,suchasfindingIELTSstudymaterialsonlineor
askingcolleaguesforadvice,howeverinotherinstancesprayingorgettingadvicefromfortunetellers
wastheonlysensemakingactivityinwhichanindividualengaged.
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Thiskindofcontradictionanduncertaintyregardingthevalidityorvalueofthistypeofsupernatural
informationwasechoedbyotherparticipants,asinthefollowingexample,whereaparticipantwas
askedifheeversoughtadviceatatempleorfromafortunetellerwhenhewasmakingsenseofa
complicatedfamilysituation:
Saobet:Irespectaboutthis,butdon'tbelieve.
Interviewer:Doyoubelieveinkarma?
Saobet:Yeahbelieveit,butsometimesthekarma,baap(badluck),nowitturnsonme
sometimes.Iknowthat.Sometimesmyfiancewantsmetotakehertothetemple,andget
theadvicefromthemonk,becausewewanttoknow,ifwelivetogether(withoutbeing
married),thesituationwillimproveornot.Becausenowgettrouble.
Interviewer:Whatkindoftrouble?
Saobet:Likefinancialtrouble,andmymotherinlaw,gotthyroidcancer,andeverything
difficultcometomethisyear.SosometimesIbelieveinbaap(badluck)andsok(good
luck).
Thisintervieweereportedrespectingreligiousbeliefsandemphasisedthevalueofrespectingtradition,
yetheindicatedhepersonallydidnotbelieveinBuddhism,andconveyeduncertaintyregardingthe
effectofluckorkarmaonreality.Despitehisprofessedscepticism,religion,karmaandluckall
influencedhiminvariouswaysoverthecourseofthethreeinformationbehaviourincidentshe
described.Again,thisuncertaintyandwhatseemedtobeasomewhatconflictingbeliefsystemwas
foundthroughouttheinterviewdata.
Thefollowingexcerptprovidesanotherexampleofanindividualwhofoundhisunderstandingof
realityatoddswiththeculturalandreligiousvaluescommoninLaos.Theintervieweeexpressedthe
samefeelingsofdisbelief,butrespectforspirituality.
Interviewer:So,youdon'tgotothetemple?
Saoet:YeahIdon'tgo,butIrespect.
Interviewer:Sowhatdoyouthinkaboutgoingtogetablessingforgoodluckfromthe
monkorsomething?
Saoet:It'squitesuperstitious,butforme,itdepends.
Interviewer:Doyoubelievewhatthefortunetellerstellyou?Trustthem?
Saoet:Yeah,ummitdepends.JustbeforeIdon'tknowforsurewhetherit'sthetruthor
not,Iwenttofortunetellerbecausemyfriendwantsmetogowithhim.Inevertried
before.IaskedwouldIbeabletowinthescholarshiptogototheUSandtheysaid'You
will,youwillgetthescholarshiptostudyoverseas'andafterthat,Igotthescholarship.
Interviewer:Soyoutrustthefortunetellernow?
Saoet:Eventhoughit'strue,I'mnotconvinced.
Saoet,a20yearoldmale,describedhoweventhoughhehadafortunetelleraccuratelypredicthis
future,hewas'notconvinced'thatthispersonwasareliablesourceofinformation.Similarlytothe
previousinterviewees,Saoet'sunderstandingofrealityconflictedwithhiscoreculturalassumptions.
Cutler(2005)describedthesecoreculturalassumptionsas'actingbelowconsciouslevels'inhismodel
ofthe'culturalonion'(p.75).
Theconflictbetweenreligiousbeliefandrealitywasfoundthroughoutthedatabutwasmoreapparent
inaccountsbyparticipantswhowereyoungormorewelleducated,asopposedtointervieweesover
theageof40orthosewithlesseducation.Young,educatedintervieweesjustifiedwhattheyknewtobe
superstitiousbeliefsbysuggestingthatreligiousactivitieshadimplicationsontheoutcomesofthe
relatedactivities,asshowninSiphok'sinterviewabove.Sao,a19yearoldmale,alsorationalised
religiousactivities,asintheexcerptbelow.
Interviewer:Atthattime,didyouevergotofortunetellerorgototempleforblessing?
Sao:Blessingofcourse,forgoodluck.
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Interviewer:Doyouthinkifyouhadgonetothetempleyouwouldhavehadbetterluck
withthatjob?
Sao:Yes,becauseifIgotothetempleandaskGod'sblessingme,thatmeansinmyheartI
ask,Iamambitious.Iwantthejob!Iwantthejob!Maybe,ifIdon'tgothetemple,ordo
anything,thatmeansIdon'tcareaboutthejob.
Interviewer:Soforyournextinterview,youplantogotothetemple?
Sao:Yes.Yesofcourse!
Thesequotationsprovideexamplesofhowparticipants'accountsincludedescriptionsofkarmaand
luck,andhowthesebeliefsaffectedtheinformationbehaviourinwhichparticipantsengaged.Aswell
asengaginginactiveinformationseeking,suchasgatheringinformationaboutaprospectiveemployer
toprepareforajobinterview,participantswouldalsovisitatempleandreceiveablessingfroma
monktohelpmakesenseoftheirsituation.Theadviceorinformationprovidedbythemonk,oreven
lesstangiblythefeelingsexperiencedorawarenessobtainedasaresultofvisitingatempleorfortune
teller,canbeconsidered'bridges'inthesensemakingmetaphorthatindividualssoughtinorderto
addressagapintheirknowledge.Eschewingthespiritualimpactofkarma,luck,andfortunetellers,it
seemstherewassignificantpsychologicalimpactonthebehavioursofthosewhobelievedinthem.
Theinterviewees'reverenceforreligiousorspiritualinformationappearedtoaffecttheintensityofthe
informationseekinginwhichtheywereengaged.Inadditiontoseekinginformationtoresolveissues,
individualsreliedondeeplyingrainedconceptscloselylinkedtoBuddhismsuchaskarmaandluckin
responsetotheirinformationneeds.Theirreligiousbeliefsresultedinwhatappearedtobealower
intensityofactiveinformationseekingthatattimesinfluencedtheresolutionofimportantinformation
needsinsomecases,suchasserioushealthrelatedconcerns.Asignificantpartofthefollowing
interviewee'shealthrelatedinformationseekingbehaviourincludedgoingtothetempleandprayingto
helpmakesenseoftheirsituation.
Phet:Ialwaysgototempleandpray,hopewehavesomeonehelpuslikemagic,someone
tohelp.
InPhet'ssituation,hervillagehadveryfewhealthrelatedinformationresourcesavailable,andthe
templewasthelogicalplaceforherseekabridgetothegapinherknowledge.Anotherindividual
dealingwithahealthrelatedproblemalsovisitedthetempleandprayedinlieuofseekingother
alternativeinformationresources.
Saobet:Iwenttotempleatthattime,untilnow.
Interviewer:Alot?
Saobet:Alot,andIprayed,'IhopeIwillseesomeday',ormyeyesgettingbetter.
SaobetandPhet'sdescriptionsofgoingtothetempleconformtoDervin'sconceptualisationofsense
makingbehaviour.Whileprayingmaynotbetraditionallyconsideredinformationseeking,itisa
sensemakingactivity,wheretheindividualseekssomekindofunderstanding,resolution,orcomfort
tobridgeagapintheirlives.Theparticipants'accountsindicatedthattheybelievedthepoweroftheir
faithwasasensemakingbehaviourtheyusedtoaddresstheincidenttheydescribed,oftenaftertrying
toengageinotherkindsofinformationseekingbehaviourtohelpresolvetheirgapinknowledge.This
relianceonprayerandspiritualsensemakingactivitiesmayhavebeenaresultofsimplyhavingno
otherresourcesavailable.InPhet'scase,shehadaccesstoneitherbooksnornewspapers,norwasthere
atelevisionorevenaradioinhercommunity.Whileshedidseekinformationfromthosepeople
aroundher,noneofthemwereknowledgeableaboutherspecifichealthrelatedinformationneed.
Prayerwasawayforhertotrytomakesenseofhersituationwhennootherinformationseeking
behaviourweresuccessful.WhileSaobetdidhavemorehealthrelatedinformationsourcespresentin
hercommunity,barrierstoheraccessingthemincludedculturalfactorssuchastheimportanceof
savingface,socioeconomicfactors,andalackofawarenessoftheavailabilityofresources.The
implicationsofthesefactors,andsomediscussionoftheirimpact,areprovidedbelow.
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Thisresearchdoesnotintendtodiscountthevalidityofreligiousbeliefsnormakeanyjudgements
regardingthelegitimacyofprayerasaninformationseekingactivity.Nevertheless,thedatashowed
thatintheincidentswhereprayerwascitedasasensemakingactivity,additionalsensemaking
activities,suchastheuseofinterpersonalnetworksforinformationseeking,werealsopresentin
participants'accountsoftheresolutionoftheinformationneeds.
Discussion
Thisstudyaddressedtheneedforfurtherresearchconcerningspiritualityininformationbehaviour
recognisedbyKari(2007),whosuggestedfurtherempiricalevidencewasneededtodrawgeneral
conclusionsaboutspecificinformationphenomena,suchasinformationseeking,and'larger
informationprocessesorcorrelations'(p.958)concerningspirituality.
Thefirstphaseofanalysisusedthesensemakingmetaphortorevealalloftheinformationbehaviour
presentintheinterviewdata.Thesecondphaseuseddiscourseanalysistoidentifythecontextual
factorsalsopresentintheinterviewdata.Thethirdphasesynthesisedthetwoanalyticaltools,mapping
thecontextualfactorstotheinformationbehaviours,resultingintheidentificationofarangeof
contextualfactorsthataffectedinformationbehaviouramongtheparticipants.Thestudythereforecan
beconsideredtobothtestexistinginformationbehaviourtheory,andextendourcurrentinformation
behaviourtheorybydevelopingnewinsights.
Somefindingsthatbroadlyconfirmexistinginformationbehaviourtheoryaretheidentificationof
severaldifferentfactors,alsocalled'interveningvariables'byWilson(1999).
Theycanbegroupedintotwobroadcategories,primaryfactorsandsecondaryfactors,basedonthe
degreeofinfluencetheyexertedonhowanindividualengagedwithinformation.Primaryfactorswere
presentineveryincidentinvestigated,whilesecondaryfactorswerepresentinsome,butnotall,ofthe
incidents.
Primaryfactors
Socialcontext
Religiouscontext
Culturalcontext
Religiouscontext
Secondaryfactors
Physicalcontext
Socioeconomiccontext
Educationalcontext
Politicalcontext
Personalcontext
Situationalcontext
Religiouscontextemergedasbeingacontextualfactorrelatedtoboththesocialandculturalcontexts,
whereasEducationalcontextemergedasbeingdirectlyrelatedtosocioeconomiccontext,amongst
otherfactorsincludingpoliticalcontext.Thesecontextualfactorsaffectedinformationbehaviour
amongtheparticipants,butalsoaffectedandinfluencedeachother.Thisfindingisconsistentwith
Bandura'ssocialcognitiontheory,inwhich'triadicreciprocalcausationpositsthatbehavioural,
cognitive,andotherenvironmentalinfluencesalloperateinteractivelyasdeterminantsofeachother'
(Miwa,2005,p.54).
Thiscomplex,interdependentwebofsocial,culturalandreligiousfactorsmadeitdifficulttoconducta
reductionistanalysisofthefactorsintoseparate,distincteffects.Forexample,initiallyBuddhismor
religiousvaluesappearedtobeasecondarycontextualfactor.However,uponcloserconsideration,it
becameapparentthatthereligious,socialandculturaldimensionsweresocloselyinterrelatedthatit
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wouldbedifficulttoconsiderthemasdistinct,separatefactors.Inaddition,participants'educational
contextwasrevealedtobetheresultofanumberofdifferentfactorsincludingthesocioeconomic
context,politicalcontext,andpersonalcontext.Nevertheless,theeducationalcontextdidplayarolein
informationbehaviour.Thecontextualfactorsidentifiedduringtheanalysisandtheirinterdependent
natureconformtofindingsandtheoryputforthinWilson's(1997)modelofinformationbehaviour
includes'interveningvariables'suchasenvironment,andIngwersenandJrvelin's(2005)framework,
showninFigure2.
Discourseanalysisrevealedthatsocialandculturalcontextualfactorsaffectedtheinformation
behaviourofparticipantsineveryinformationbehaviourincidentreported.Ineveryincidentcollected,
thesocialandculturalvaluesoftheparticipanthadeitheranexplicitorimplicitinfluenceonhowthe
intervieweeinteractedwithinformation.Examplesincludeoneparticipant'sdescriptionofherdecision
tobeginengaginginconsumerrelatedinformationbehaviour.
Interviewer:So,atthattime,whenyoufirststartedtalkingtopeopleaskingforadvice
abouthowtoselectacarhowtobuyit,whatwasyournumberonequestion?
Gao:Theyaskedme,'Whynotbuyit?',youknow,'Buyit,it'sconvenientforyou',
somethinglikethis,'Ifyouhavemoneywhydoyourideamotorbike?Youhavetobuya
car.'Sothat'sthequestionspeopleaskedme,andtheyimpressedmetobuyit.
Whilethisexampledoesnotspecificallyusetheword'culture'orreferto'Laopeople'asasociety,its
referencetothesocialandculturaldimensionsofcontextaffectingheractivitiesareimplicit.Within
Gao'ssocialcontext,peoplewithsufficientfinancialresourcesareexpectedtoownacar,ratherthan
rideamotorbike.CarownershipisanimportantstatussymbolinGao'ssocialcontext,andthishas
affectedherinformationneeds,thusimpactingherinformationbehaviour.Afurtherexplicitexample
ofculturalvaluesinfluencinginformationbehaviouris:
Interviewer:So,ifsomeoneisolderthanyou,youhavetorespectthemandbepoliteto
them?
Siphok:YesIthinkbecauseofculture.Onemorething.Notonlyolderpeople,butolder
peoplewithhighposition.Wenotonlyme,allLaopeoplehavetorespectthem.
Intervieweesalsomadegeneralstatementsregarding'Laopeople',indicatingtheattitudesand
behaviourcommoninLaosociety,shownbelow.
Laopeopleiftheyhaveacompetitionit'slikejealousy:Saobetonwhyshedidnot
asktheneighbourforbusinessadvice
Laopeoplenowwedon'treallytrusttobuythingsoninternet:Sipsionwhyhe
wouldnotlookforconsumerinformationonline
Theseexamplesprovideadditionalevidenceofhowsocialandculturalvaluesaffectedinformation
behaviour.
Nahl(1997,2005)providesuswithalensfromwhichwecanunderstandinformationbehaviouras
operatingwithinthreelevelsordomainscalledaffective,cognitive,andsensorimotor(or
psychomotor).Nahl(2005)suggeststhat'informationsearchingbehaviorcanbedefinedwithinthis
triuneclassificationsystemasaformofgoaldirectedbehaviorinwhichpeoplearemotivated
(affective)toformulateaplan(cognitive)andperformit(sensorimotor)'(p.191).Nahl(2005)also
suggeststhatbecauseoftheimportanceoftheaffectiveandcognitiveprocessesininformation
behaviourwemustextendourinvestigationintothesocialsetting,andto'thementalnormsthateach
persondevelopsintheformofhabitsoffeelingandinterpretingthatareinherenttoculturalgroup
membership'(p.191).Nahl(2005)confirmsthat'motivationalstatesandgoaldirectedthinkingare
internallyorderedbyboththesocialvalues(affective)andthestructure(cognitive)oftheinformation
environment,therefore,informationscienceoverlapswithasocialbehavioralpsychologyof
developmentandhabitformation'(p.191).
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WorkinpsychologybyauthorssuchasNisbett(2003)andKitayama(KitayamaandPark,2010
KitayamaandUskul,2011)supportNahl'sassertions,describinghowsocialandculturalcontexts
affectcognition,citingnumerousstudiesshowingevidencethatindividual'scognitiveprocessesvary
accordingtotheirculturalbackground.Kitayama'sworkinparticulararticulatestheeffectsofcultural
valuesoncognitionaccessibletoreadersfromoutsideofthepsychologyorneuroscienceareasby
providinganaccountofhow'peoplecarryoutthesametasksbyrecruitingvaryingcomponentneural
operationsdependingontheirsocialorculturalbackgrounds'(KitayamaandPark,2010,p.112)
Thesestudiesprovidefurtherevidencethatthewayindividualsengagewithinformationinanon
WesterncontextmaybedifferentfromthoseinWesternsocieties,andsupportthefindingthatsocial
andculturalvaluesplayaveryimportantroleininformationbehaviour.
Thespiritualandreligiousineverydayinformationbehaviour
Distinguishingthesocialcontextfromtheculturalorreligiouscontextwithintheinterviewdatawas
notfeasible,asthesethreedimensionsofcontextareverycloselyrelatedandinterdependent.
AccordingtoHofstedeandHofstede(2005)cultureisacollectivephenomenonthatis'sharedwith
peoplewholiveorlivedwithinthesamesocialenvironment,whichiswhereitwaslearned'(p.4).
Theyalsosuggestedthatindividualsdevelopbasicbeliefsandvaluesearlyinlifethroughsocialisation
andeducation,andsharethesevaluesandperceptionswithothermembersoftheirsociety.
Theystatethatthepowerdistancedimensionrelatestotheextenttowhichindividualsassumeor
tolerateanunequaldistributionofpower.Itreflectsthedegreetowhichacommunitymaintains
inequalityamongitsmembersbythestratificationofindividualsandgroupswithrespecttopower,
authority,prestige,status,wealth,andmaterialpossessions(HofstedeandHofstede,2005).Itis
importanttonotethat,forHofstedeandHofstede(2005)thereligiousbeliefsystemisoneofthe
primaryindicatorsforthepowerdistancedimensionofculture.Laoshasbeendescribedasahigh
powerdistancesociety(DornerandGorman,2011),indicatingthatinequalitystratificationof
individualsandgroupswithrespecttopower,authority,prestige,status,wealth,andmaterial
possessionsistoleratedmorethaninalowerpowerdistancesociety,suchasNewZealand(Hofstede,
2001).
LaoslagsbehindmanyWesternnationsinavailabilityofaccesstotheInternet(TheWorldBank,
2015),consistentwithfindingssuggestinghighpowerdistancesocietiesadoptnewinformationand
communicationtechnologiesmoreslowlythanthosewithlowerpowerdistancevalues(eg.Khaliland
Seleim,2010).ThestrongreligiousbeliefsystempresentinLaosexistsinparallelwithitshighpower
distance,whichKhalilandSeleim(2010)foundtoimpactinformationcommunicationtechnology
adoption,andthereforealsohasimplicationsforinformationbehaviour,asmanyparticipantswere
unlikelytousetheInternettoresolvetheirinformationneeds.
Thedataanalysisrevealedanumberofsecondarycontextualfactorsincludingthephysical,socio
economic,political,personalandsituationalcontextwhichalsoinfluencedinformationbehaviour,
thoughtoalesserextent.ThesefactorsandtheirimplicationsarediscussedingreaterdetailbyGaston
(2014)inherPhDthesis.
Kari's(2007)reviewofthespiritualininformationbehaviourfoundthat'informationcanbe
supposedlyacquiredbyspiritualmeans'(p.958),whichaccordingtoKarisuggeststhatthe
conventional'conceptionofinformationseekingashappeningthroughman'sfivephysicalsensescan
bedeficient,andthattheremaybemorewaysofknowingthanweusuallyrealize'(p.959).
Wesuggestthatinclusionoftheterm'supposedly'inKari'sfindingsimpliessomescepticisminthe
abilityofindividualstoacquireinformationbyspiritualmeans,whichthispaperdemonstratesis
indeedthecasefortheparticipantsinthisstudy.
Kari(2007,p.957)alsodevelopedatypologyof'elevenmajorfindings'relatingtothespiritualin
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informationbehaviour,whichare
1. informationcanbeaboutthespiritual(e.g.,mysticism)
2. informationitselfcanbereckonedholy(e.g.,Bible)
3. informationcanbesupposedlyacquiredbyspiritualmeans(e.g.,trance
channelling)
4. informationcanoriginatefromasourceconsideredasaspiritualentity(e.g.,God)
5. aninformationactorcanbeanexpertinspiritualmatters,oraspiritualcommunity
(e.g.,spiritualadvisor)
6. aninformationactormayclaimtopossessspiritualabilities(e.g.,medium)
7. aninformationactorcanfeelhim/herselfdevelopspiritually(e.g.,spiritualhorizons
expanding)
8. aninformationprocesscanbesimultaneouslyexperiencedasaspiritualprocess
(e.g.,libraryworkasministry)
9. informationsystemscanbebelievedtoparallelorevenreplaceassertedspiritual
methods(e.g.,internetasomnipotenttool)
10. informationphenomenacanbeinfluencedbyaspirituallyorientedenvironment
(e.g.,spiritualhappening)and
11. informationprocessescanbeallegedlyaffectedbyaspiritualagent(e.g.,
providence).
Kari(2007)wentontosuggestthatfollowingtheindepthinvestigationspiritualinformationcanbe
definedas'informationthatcomplieswithcriterion(1),(2),(3)or(4)above'(p.957).Theevidenceto
emergefromourinvestigationintoeverydayinformationbehaviourinLaosthereforesupportsKari's
findingthatinformationcanbeacquiredbyspiritualmeans,andthattheconceptionofinformation
behaviourashappeningthroughman'sfivephysicalsensesisdeficient,andthesemetaphysicalwaysof
knowingshouldbetakenintoconsiderationinourconceptualisationofinformationbehaviour.In
particular,inanonWesterncontextsuchasLaoswithastrongreligiousculturewoventhroughout
everydaylifeanddailyactivities,informationbehaviourmayoftenreflecttheinfluenceofspirituality
andothermetaphysicalelementsembeddedwithininformationactivitiesconsideredmoreconventional
byWesternstandards.
Limitationsandconsiderations
Whilethisstudypresentssomeusefulinsightsabouttheroleofcultureandthemetaphysicalin
everydayinformationbehaviourinLaos,itwasnonethelesslimitedbyanumberoffactors.Asnoted
byDervin(1997),thestudyofcontextpresentsmultiplechallenges,asitisneitherstaticnor
independent.Whiletheresearchaimedtoexploretheinfluenceofcontext,thecontextofthe
researchersalsomayaffectthedata.Theambiguousnatureofcontextpresentsadditionalchallenges
forthestudyofcontext.Courtright(2007)suggeststhatindependentinvestigationsofcontextual
factorsfromaninformationscienceperspectivemaytestinitialassumptionsaboutcontextual
boundaries,astheresearcherischallengedtoremainobjective,aswellasawareoftheirownimplicit
assumptions.Courtright(2007)alsosuggeststhatthistestofinitialassumptionsmayactuallystimulate
newquestions,whichmaybeposedtoinformationactorstorevealfurtherinsightsabouttheir
informationbehaviour.Awarenessoftheseassumptionsfromanearlystageyieldedareflexive
approachtoallaspectsoftheresearchundertakingandminimisedthepotentialforalimitinginfluence.
Theundertakingofthisresearchtestedthecontextualboundariesandinitialassumptionsofthe
researchteaminparticularwhenitcametodatacollectionandanalysis.Theassistanceandinsight
providedbytheinterpreterduringdatacollectionprovedinvaluableinunderstandingsomecontextual
nuancesthatweredifficulttoperceiveasanoutsider,despitehavingextensiveexperienceinLao
culture.Inaddition,theinitialassumptionthatspecificrecommendationsfortheLaocontextwould
ariseoutofthisresearchprovedunrealistic,asaninsider'sunderstandingoftheculturalnuancesas
wellasthepolitical,economic,andeducationalcontextofLaosbeyondthegraspofanoutsideris
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required.Gaston(2014)describessomestrategiesfordevelopingspecificrecommendationsfortheLao
contextincludingtheidentificationofacollaboratorandkeystakeholderwithinsiderknowledgeofthe
cultural,political,economic,andeducationalcontextofLaos.
Despiteanunderstandingofcontextasdynamicandresponsivetohumanbehaviour,forthepurposes
oftheresearchcontextwasconceptualizedasstaticatthetimeofinvestigation.Intheapplicationof
socialconstructionismininformationscienceresearchoneconceptualissuetoarisewasthe
understandingtherelationshipbetweentheindividualandsociety,andwhethertheformerexertsan
influenceonthelatter,orviceversa(Burr,2003).AccordingtoBurr(2003),researchwithinthesocial
constructionismframeworkperceivestherelationshipbetweentheindividualandsocietyasoperating
inbothtopdownandbottomdowndirections.InBurr'swords'humanbeingscontinuallyconstruct
theirsocialworld,whichthenbecomesarealitytowhichtheindividualmustrespond'(p.185).She
elaboratesfurther:
Althoughhumanbeingsconstructtheirsocialworld,theycannotconstructitinanyway
theychoose.Atbirththeyenteraworldalreadyconstructedbytheirpredecessors,andthis
worldassumesthestatusofanobjectiverealityforthemandlatergenerations.(p.185)
Indeed,thismutuallyinformingrelationshipisacircularprocess,involvingsubtleshiftsinsocietythat
occurovergenerations,builtuponpreviousconstructions.Conceptualisingtherelationshipbetweenthe
individualandsocietyinsuchamannerreiteratesmanyoftheideasthatbecametheimpetusfor
undertakingthisresearch,namelythesuggestionthatindividualthinkingandreasoning,andhence
informationbehaviour,donotoccurinahistoricalorculturalvoid.Instead,thesebehavioursarebuilt
uponthehistoricalandsocialframeworksofthecultureintowhichoneisborn,anddemonstratethe
effectsofallaspectsofthosesocial,cultural,andhistoricalframeworks,suchasreligiousbeliefs.
Thedynamicconceptualisationofcultureanditsrelationshiptosocietyisreflectedintheinterpretation
ofthefindings.Awarenessofthisrelationshipandtheshiftsthatoccurovertimeresultedinthe
identificationofchangesortrendsininformationbehaviourapparentwhenparticipants'agesand
educationlevelsweretakenintoconsideration.Thisresearchdidnotintendtoexaminecontextual
changeandisnotalongitudinalstudyastheinfluenceoftheindividualuponcontextoccursslowlyand
isonlyperceptibleovertime.Neverthelesstheinvestigationdididentifysomechangesininformation
behaviourarisingasaresultofrapidcontextualshiftsoccurringatthetimeofthedatacollection.
Thosechanges,theirimplications,andthecontinualconstructionandreconstructionofthesocial
worldandtheresultingrealityarethefocusofapublicationentitled'Informationbehaviourin
transition:adevelopingcountryperspective'(Gaston,Dorner,andJohnstone,2013).
Theuseofavettedinterpreter,andtheleadauthor'sunderstandingoftheLaolanguage,permitted
reliablecollectionandanalysisofdata,thoughtheinabilityofdatacollectiontobecarriedoutina
nativelanguagecommontoboththeresearchersandparticipantsmaybeperceivedasalimitation.To
furthervalidatethedatacollection,atrialinterviewwasaudiorecorded,andthetranslationvalidated
byathirdparty.Thetranslationwasfoundtobeofahighqualitystandardbyaseniorofficialatthe
NationalUniversityofLaosandthereforethislimitationwasminimised.
Despiteourbestattemptsatneutrality,weareawarethatinherentculturalbiastowardsWestern
cognitivepatternsmaybepresentinthisstudy.Eliminatingthisbiaswouldbealmostimpossible,asall
researchmusttakeplacewithinasocial,cultural,andhistoricalcontext.However,anawarenessofthe
possiblepreferenceforWesterncognitivepatternspermittedustoquicklyrecogniseandrespondto
potentialissuesarisingfromtheresearcher'ssocial,culturalandhistoricalcontext.Thelead
researcher'sextensivetargetedtraininginculturalawarenessandextendedimmersionsinnonWestern
culturesalsoprovidedausefulperspectivefromwhichculturalbiasescouldbebetterperceivedand
addressed.
Implications
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Thefollowingbroadthemesemergedastheprimaryfeaturesofinformationbehaviouraffectedby
contextualfactorsinLaos,allofwhichhavesomeevidenceoftheroleofreligiousandspiritualvalues
amonginterviewees:
Astrongpreferenceforinterpersonalinformation
Limitedactiveinformationseeking
Avoidanceofcertaintypesofinformationandinformationsources
Implicittrustinmostinterpersonalsourcesofinformation
Respectfortraditioninfluencinginformationbehaviour
Decisionmakingbasedonincompleteinformation.
Theabovelistisnotexhaustive,butrepresentsthemostcommonlyfoundfeaturesofinformation
behaviourpresentintheinterviewdata.Eachoftheabovebroadfeatureswasinfluencedbyacomplex
systemofinterconnectedcontextualfactors.SpiritualityandBuddhismrepresentsjustoneofthese
interconnectedcontextualfactorsthatplayedasignificantroleininformationbehaviourinLaos,yetits
substantialinfluenceisevidentinalloftheabovefindingstoresultfromthisresearch.
Anumberofpreviousstudiessupporttheabovefindings,includingHarrisandDewdney's(1994)
findingsregardingpreferenceforinterpersonalinformationinNorthAmericabeforewidespread
internetadoption,andMarkwei's(2013)findingsregardingeverydayinformationbehaviourina
developingcountryandwhatcanconsideredlessactiveinformationseeking.Bothsetsoffindings
wereexploredingreaterdepthinthemainresearcher'sdoctoralthesis(Gaston,2014).
Ourfindingsregardingavoidanceofinformation,implicittrustinclosepersonalsources,andarespect
fortraditioninfluencinginformationbehaviourareallstronglylinkedtotheculturalidentityofthe
participantsinthisresearch.Thesefindingssupportbehaviourbeenidentifiedwithregardstopersonal
uncertainty,andresearchintohowcultureandworldviewsaffectthewaysinwhichpeoplemakesense
oftheirworldandresolvepersonaluncertainties(VandenBosandPoortvliet,2005VandenBos,
Uwema,Poortvliet,andMaas,2007VandenBos,2009).VandenBos(2009)foundthat
Uncertaintyleadspeopletostartprocessinginformationtheysubsequentlyreceivein
experientialintuitiveways,makingthemreactinstrongpositiveaffectivetermstopeople
andeventsthatbolstertheirculturalworldviewsandinstrongnegativeaffectivetermsto
things,individualsorexperiencesthatviolatetheseworldviews.(p.199)
VandenBos'sfindingsthereforesupportourconclusionthatresourcesandbehavioursproviding
informationconsistentwithindividuals'existingworldviewswaspreferredoversourcesthatconflict
withthesesubconsciousbeliefsystems,asconflictinginformationoractivitieswouldresultin'strong
negative'reactions,eveniftheseinformationsourcesofferedpotentiallymoreefficientoreffective
resolutiontotheirinformationneeds.Therefore,itisnotsurprisingthatdecisionmakingwas
sometimesbasedonincompleteinformation,astheseaffectiveresponsestoinformationplayastrong
roleintheresolutionofpersonaluncertaintyandtheresolutionofinformationneeds(VandenBos,
2009).Thesefindingscanthereforeprovidesomeinsightintotherelationshipbetweenanindividual's
culture,hisorherworldviews,andhowheorsheengagesininformationbehaviour,demonstratingthat
itisacomplexandmultidimensionalonethatmeritsyetfurtherresearch.
Conclusionandfutureresearch
Inthisresearchwefoundthattheprimaryandsecondarycontextualfactorscombinedtoforma
complexandinterrelatedsystemthatinfluencesinformationbehaviourindifferentwaysamong
participantsinLaos.OurfindingssupportWilson(1999)whocontendsthatcertainfactorsactas
'interveningvariables'enablingorhinderinginformationbehaviour,andothersinfluencebroader
decisions,choices,andpreferences,combiningtoinfluenceeveryaspectofinformationbehaviour.
Inparticular,wefoundthatreligiousbeliefs,closelytiedtotheculturalandsocialaspectsofthe
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individual'scontext,affectedhowheorsheengagedwithinformationinparallelwithavarietyofother
factors,inadynamicandmultifacetedmanner.ByexamininginformationbehaviourinLaos,andby
explicitlyarticulatingtheroleofcontextininformationbehaviourinthissetting,ourstudyfurther
extendsthetheoriesregardingtheroleofcontextininformationbehaviourintononWestern
developingcountries.
OurfindingsshowthatexistingmodelsofinformationbehaviourarerelevantinanonWestern
developingcountrywhentheroleofcontextisverybroadlyarticulated.Nonetheless,itisworthwhile
tonotethatinanonWesterncountrysuchasLaos,Buddhismandspiritualityplayaverystrongrolein
informationbehaviour,yetthespiritualcontextisrarelygivenexplicitconsiderationininformation
behaviourresearchbecauseitispredominantlyWesternfocussed.Therefore,onemustconsiderhow
spiritualitywillaffectthewayanindividualneeds,seeks,andusesinformationintheLaocontextfor
anyinformationrelatedactivityorforthepurposesofdesigninganyinformationresources.Resources
rangefromoraltoprinttoelectronic,andactivitiesmayincludeinteractingwithinternational
informationsystems,engagingwithtrainingoreducationmaterials,obtaininghealthcare,makinga
purchase,staffrecruitment,orevenorganizingafootballmatchallofwhichrequiresomeinteraction
withinformation.Thefindingsdescribedaboveprovidesomeinsightsintohowreligiousbeliefs
affectedinformationbehaviouramongsttheparticipantsinthisstudy.Namely:
Astrongpreferenceforinterpersonalinformationsuggestsindividualarelesslikelytoturnto
electronicorimpersonalinformationsources
Lessactiveinformationseekingsuggestingindividualmayprefermorepassiveinformation
seekingmethodsindicatingthatinformationresourcesmaybemoreusefulifverywidely,easily
available,orobvious.
Avoidingcertaintypesofinformationandinformationsourcesbecauseofsocialvaluesincluding
theneedto'saveface'maylimitsomeinformationsources.
Implicittrustinmostinterpersonalsourcesofinformationmayresultinunverifiedorinaccurate
informationbeingwidelyinuse.
Arespectfortraditioninfluencinginformationbehaviourmayresultinactivitiesorresources
requiringindividualstobehaveinamannernotaligningwithhisorhertraditionalvalues
meetingsignificantresistance.
Decisionmakingbasedonincompleteinformationmaybedonesoto'saveface'.
Theinformationpoorperceivethemselvestobedevoidofanysourcesthatmighthelpthem(See
Chatman,1996,p.196).
Informationpovertyisdeterminedbyselfprotectivebehaviours,whichareusedinresponseto
socialnorms(SeeChatman,1996,p.196).
Acomprehensiveandspecificunderstandingofinformationbehaviourwithinagivenlocalcontextor
societyrequiresconsiderationforthecontextualfactorspresentwithinthegivencommunity,andhow
theyaffectinformationbehaviour.Anindepthinvestigation,suchastheoneconductedoverthecourse
ofthisresearch,hasthepotentialtoprovidesuchanaccurateandspecificunderstandingofinformation
behaviour.
ThisresearchhasalsopermittedthefutureinvestigationofinformationbehaviourinnonWestern
contexts,withfurtherresearchcurrentlyunderwayinSamoa,anonWesternsocietywithChristianity
asthedominantreligiousparadigm,andadditionalsitesforstudyunderconsideration.Itishopedthat
theinvestigationofdiversesettingsandsocietieswillhelpfurtherourunderstandingoftheroleof
contextininformationbehaviour.Ultimately,asmoresocietiesareinvestigated,wemaybeableto
furtherextendinformationbehaviourtheorywithregardstotheroleofthemetaphysicalineveryday
informationbehaviour.
Acknowledgements
Theauthorswishtothankthereviewersfortheirtimeandfeedbackonthispaperandalsotothank
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AmandaCosshamforherguidanceandassistancewithpreparationofthefinaldraftofthispaper.
Finally,theauthorswouldliketothanktheinterpreterandintervieweesfortheirtimeandassistance
withthisresearch,withoutwhomnoneofthiswouldhavebeenpossible.
Abouttheauthors
NicoleGastonisaLecturerininformationandlibrarystudiesintheSchoolofSocialSciencesatthe
OpenPolytechnicofNewZealand.ShereceivedherBachelor'sdegreefromtheUniversityofIllinois
atChicago,herMasterofLibraryandInformationScienceatMcGillUniversity,Montreal,Canada,
andherPhDinInformationStudiesfromVictoriaUniversityofWellington,NewZealand.Shecanbe
contactatnicole.gaston@openpolytechnic.ac.nz.
DanielGDorner,FLIANZA,Ph.D.,isaSeniorLecturerintheSchoolofInformationManagementat
VictoriaUniversityofWellingtoninNewZealand.Hehasconsiderableexperienceinlibraryeducation
andinformationliteracyeducationinSoutheastAsia,particularlyVietnam,Laos,Cambodiaand
Thailand.HiscurrentresearchinterestsincludetheareasofinformationbehaviourinnonWestern
contexts,digitizationandrelatedissues,andadvocacystrategiesbymajorlibraryassociationsand
institutions.DrDornerisChairofDivisionV,IFLA.Hecanbecontactatdan.dorner@vuw.ac.nz.
DavidJohnstoneisaSeniorLecturerininformationsystemsintheBusinessSchoolatVictoria
UniversityofWellingtoninNewZealand.HereceivedhisBachelors(withHonours)andMastersof
SciencedegreesfromMasseyUniversityinPalmerstonNorthandPhDinInformationSystemsfrom
VictoriaUniversityofWellington,allinNewZealand.Hecanbecontactedat
david.johnstone@vuw.ac.nz.
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