WELL COMPLETION, ‘Michel Michaux Ek Nelson Benoit Vick Saint-Etienne, France Faced with the concrete skyline of an urban landscape, few people would guess that {cement faces its toughest challenge under= spround—in oil and gas wells where envi- ronmental conditions are far more severe than any encountered on the earth's surface. ‘This article outlines the chemistry of pott- land cement, the variety used 10 cement ‘casings in wells and provide zonal isolation, ‘and explains how additives facilitate cement placement and ensure stability ater setting! Rudimentary cementing of oil wells began at the tuen of the century when few wells ‘went deeper than 2,000 feet (610 meters} Cementing operations were usually per- formed by the ig crew. Today, specialist ser vice companies routinely cement wells of 20,000 feet [6,098 meters| and deeper. Cementing operations are either primary, done in the course of drilling a well, or sec: ondary or remedial, intended to remedy deficiencies in primary cementing or aller the well completion for production (eight. Recently, sophisticated computer model ing has been introduced to simulate and ‘optimize the cementing operation. Data recorded while pumping the cement are analyzed to judge whether the cement has been correcily placed. Cement evaluation logs and other casee!-hole logs can indicate the strength ofthe set cement and whether it is bonded to the casing (fr eigh?). The out- come of a cementing job, however, depends ultimately on choosing the appropriate ‘cement ancl additives to cope with particu- lar well conditions. 1 Pia erent wan delped by ne Aspin ‘hte af stone hat seb eo the lout roar he English Conse 2. Ronand Cements Ske tino Portand Cement ‘Avociton, 1955 3. "the yao of Posand Crmere and “the Se nga HaynigofPotard Cement in Len Ft Te Chemin of Coment and Concrete 3X New York-chemest Pelahing Cane, 1971 18 Cement Chemistry and Conductor casnae are comontad to prevent diling fds circulating outside the casing, causing surface ning ose al Surface casings are comentedio prevent hydrocarbons encroaching ito fresh waler zones, tGanchor Blow oul proventers and to support oop easing stg Intermediate casing stings are comented to isoiale {ormations whieh ight break dow and cause a. fe=4 fee of ercutaton nthe wel. : Gon ating fo that zones and to prevent the sloughing formations causing a drop in prosuctily. "2 [Various stapes in the primary cementing of nessy dled well. Secondary, or remedial cementing, nay be required te the wel competed to core dficionies nthe primary cementing ot log bak ey hole Oilfield Reviewae |e se er ae aoe | leet ee 2 omer | [ommaseron] or, Additives rnantcaca | & [Gainagrown || la in__ 9 10,000" FA Cement Eva tion (CET" og tom 3 wel na Mile East Carbonate meron The CET wo! fis eight liosonie raneduces dhistibute eadhally on mand. Cited Seoustic energy 1 ‘ates he casing tere iso cement Domed ae shines op a wien the mage in track Yof the fog: A good! band shows up The raw ingredients of portland cement are lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide.” Lime is obtained from calcareous rock deposits and industrial alkali waste prod= ucts, Alumina, silica and iron oxide are derived irom clays and shales and from blast furnace slag or fly-ash waste from coal-fired power stations. These materials are pulverized into fine powder, combined to obtain a given bulk oxide composition ad fel into a rotating kil, Heated as high as 1,5 °C [2,730°F], the ‘aww materials undergo a complex series of ae chemical reactions to produce the four main The top third ofthe ‘compounds that make up cement: tcale logis most back tum silicate, Ca,SiO,, [abbreviated as C,S) Jnccatng good bond dlicakcium silicate, Ca,S1O, [CS]; wicaleiurn Boning monty white aluminate, Ca,Al,0, (C,Al; and tetracalel- ‘poor bond that tum aluminoferrite, Ca,Al,Fe,Oyy [CAF] ‘ios eran will bot prevent fd cons {see "Chemical Shorthand,” below), These: four compounds, as well 3s minor amounts ‘free lime anid other oxides, leave the kiln munication, The bat tom third shows white vera steak as clinker. Afier the clinker has cooled, a thy probably core small amount of gypsum (CaSO,°2H,0) is spends oan po ‘added, and the mixture is pulverized and ‘round! to obtain finished portland cement How Cement Sets Portland cement isthe most common of the “hydraulic” cements, which set and develop { compressive strength through hydration, not by drying out, Hydeation involves chemical reactions between water and the cement ‘compounds.’ I therefore sets and hardens whether let in air or submerged in water, (Once set, it has low permeability and resists attack from water, All these attributes make portland cement ideal for completing wells ‘and maintaining isolation between zones. Volume 1 Number 1 19Mixed with water silicates C,S and C5, which constitute up to 80 percent of port- land cement, produce similar hydration products: 26,$46H > CSM, + 3CH 2C,544H > CS:th+ CH The calciumsilicate-hydrate, C\S,Hy, also called the C-S-H gel, i largely amorphous, comprises roughly 70 percent of the set cement and gives cement its strength. The calcium hydroxide, CaiOH), [CH], known asportlandite, saturates the cement slunrys ‘aqueous phase raising its pH to between 12.5 andl 13, ‘Av first, these hydration reactions proceed vigorously and a dense layer of C-S-H gel builds up arouncl each silicate particle, But the gel is relatively impermeable and it soon prevents more water teaching the surface of the anhydrous silicates, hindering further hydration, An interval of low reactivity fol lows, called the induction period. Hydration ‘eventually picks up when the permeability ff the C-5-H gel layer begins increasing, allowing more water to reach the silicate grain surfaces (befow!. (Why the gel becomes more permeable is not well under stood.) The onset of setting and early strength development is controlled by C5 because it hydrates quicker than C,S and because i's more abundant. The C,5.com= ponent affects the harclened cements final strength (above right ‘The aluminate components, particularly GA, react most strongly atthe beginning of hydration and therefore affect the theology fof the cement slurry and early strength development. Both C\A and C,AF produce the calcium-aluminate-hydrate, CAH, through intermediate metastable reactions lonly the C,A reactions are shown) é § Induction L Period nutes Fou 20 100 ett ts of peices dS 5 % Foc iitates £ quicker than€,S and Bo Bras % 40] Hydration cate of both > 20 2 fe oor Ot . 10 100 © 1000 2 2 5 b a Time, days, 2G,A4 27H > GAH, + CAMs > 2C,AH, + 15H Unlike the C hydrates are crystalline, not amorphous, and don’t form a protective layer around the aluminate grain surfaces. Consequently, hydration would normally occur rapidly ‘and has to be controlled to prevent prema- Ture stiffening of the cement, called “lash sel.” Ths is where the gypsum, added to the clinker to produce porlanc! cement, comes, Dissolved in water, gypsum releases cealciutn and sulfate ions. These react with aluminate and hydroxyl ions released by -H gel, caleium-aluminate- ydation ofthe i {ate components of Poatand cement Picton ds at se tapi thon enters 2 ‘Shon “nciction” pert fc, cause bythe fycaion rode, CSH got covers the unhycate em innis oe sieste rans and preventing tater fom reching tern Fnaly the ge! fees water ian hycaion picks up. ‘Days the aluminates forming a trisulfoaluminate hydrate [C,A"3C5"-32H1 called ettingit. The ettringite precipitates as ncedle-shaped crystals on the CA grain surfaces, hindering further hydration and creating an artificial induction period (above right ‘The hydration of portland coment as a whole can be considered a sequence of ‘overlapping reactions leading to a continu- ‘us thickening and hardening cement slutry (ight), During initial hydration, when the anhyclrous material is added to water and hydration products begin to form, the ‘coment grains remain independent and the cement slurry can be pumped. This state of affais continues for most ofthe induction period. But when hydration picks up after the induction period, the cement grains begin to link together and the slurry is not pumpable, Compressive strength develops as the hydration products become inter jgrown. The reactions speed up as tempera- ture increases. Reaction speed also depends on the rela- tive concentrations of the cement compo- nents and their particle size or fineness. For ‘example, the more C,S there is relative 10 GS the quicker a cement sels, because C5 reacts quicker than C,S. Generally, the finer the coment, the more water is required to prepare a pumpable slurry and the faster compressive strength develops, Speed is a key lactor in designing a cement operation “Another factor isthe concentration of CyA. Oilfield Review50 No Gypsum ‘with Gypsum O10 20SCSCDSC*CO Time, hrs ‘ydhation ofthe alominate componens, C,A and CAF, with and without ‘aypsum, The gypsim promotes formation of eingte ound Be alent ‘rains, hich slows hyation and cretes an atl induction period. A Scanning electro micrograph othe spy tring growth was made at rely 5000-X maghideation. approsima Hydration Rate minutes: Schematic of cement Iyaton. Fal ‘omen stent pro ide rainy the erphous CSM gol ‘rete bythe ‘ements yetating sib ‘cate components Water Coment Grains C-S-Hg0l Ettringito Special Application 2 2 2 | 120011300 | tae eta Cc 16 i 8 2,000 to 2,800 “early setting ‘D&E 54 12 1,200t0 1,600 | retarded aa [eo | a8 FE TACOS | a TT Portland cements containing low amounts of CyA are less susceptible to sulfate attack magnesium and sodium sulfates in ‘downhole brines react with cements hydra tion products and cause loss af compressive strength, Relative concentrations of components and fineness are criteria by which the Amer ican Petroleum Institute classifies oil-ield “cements (see “Typical Properties of API Port land Cements,” below left)! Classes A, B and C (the letters indicate a chronology} ‘were developed in the 1950s and rated for wells less than 6,000 feet {1,830 meters} deep. Class B has less C,A and was designed for sulfate resistance. Class C, with more C,S and CyA and ground much finer, ‘was designed to give high early compressive slrengih. Classes D and E, so-called eetarded cements, were designed for cementing wells ‘up to 14,000 feet [4,250 meters} deep. Their Jow concentrations ofthe fas-hydrating C,S and C,A and their coarse grind prolongs hydration and consequently the available pumping time. Inthe 1960s, the development of adlives ‘extended the depth limitation of all cements The most recently introduced cements, lasses G andl H, have stringent manufactur ing specifications and behave more pre- dictably, Classes G and H have a similiar ‘composition to Class B, but Class H is no tally coarser than Class G, {Seton 2 pecan tr Ava and esting {er We CamenasAPSpeeation 1, shinCement Additives Today's well cements have to withstand an enormous range of well depths ancl condi- tions. In permatrost zones, the cement must withstand below-freezing conditions, while in thermal cecovery wells or geothermal fields they must endure temperatures above 350°C (660°F}. They must contend with weak formations, formations that might cause lost circulation, and corcosive and ‘overpressured formation fluids, How can ‘cement be formulated to accommodate such varied conditions? The answer lies in additives, which come in eight main v lies (see "Summing Up The Additives, opposite. Accelerators In shallow, low-temperature wells, accelera- tors speed up the early stages of hydration and cut the cements setting time. Aeccelera- {ars are also used to counteract the setting delay caused by othe aditives, such as dis persans and fluic-loss agents The most common accelerator is calcium chloride {CaCl |. Why it accelerates hycea- tion is nt completely understood. Evidence suggests calcium chlorcle may increase the permeability of the C-5-H gel building around each silicate grain and therefore sive water ready access to the grain's anhy- drous surface. This would shorten the induction period. Calcium chloride is normally added at concentrations of 2 to 4 percent by weight (of cement (BWOC}, Higher concentration decreases thickening time—equivalent the length of time the slurry is pumpable (above righ, 2 £ 2 or » 4 iF i z 4 cxci Ave, 9 009 7 6 51) awewoccac, 3 a 4 con) 8 4a | e 12 1 Ba Tom es “Thicke tne, te period ding which coment car be pump accelerated by acing ‘lenin chine (CXC, tap) Compressive Sonat abo develops aster wil cary chloe rie thotion, Retarders Retarders inhibit hydration and delay set- ting, allowing sufficient time for slurry placement in deep and hot wells. The tech: nology of retarders is well developed and several types are used. Why they work is ‘something of an enigma, although several theories have been developed > ‘The most common relarders are derived from wood pulp, They comprise sodium and caleium salts of lignosulionic acids and Contain some saccharides. These retarders 5 10xE/ 9877 ‘Thickening Time, hrs 07 0203 Lignosuiionate BOO, % Oa Thickening ne is protonged when retards Such as ignoseitonate are ae 9 cemen. are thought to adsorb anto the initial layer ‘of C5-H gel, rendering it hydrophobic and prolonging the induction perio. Added in concentrations of 0.1 10 1.5 percent BWOC, they retard hydration at temperatures up © 122°C [250°FI {below left When treated with other chemicals such as borax, ligno- sulfonates can be use! to 315°C [600°F| Hydroxycarboxylic acids, such as glu cconate and glucoheptonate salts, also retard hhydration but are not used when the bot tombole temperature is below 93°C [200°FI Otherwise, thickening times become exces sively long. These compounds attach them selves to calcium ions and as a result are thought ro inhibit nucleation and growth of hhycation procucts, Cellulose derivatives such as car boxymethy! hydroxyethyi cellulose (CMHEC have been used for many years as cement retarders. They are generally effec: tive to 120°C |250°F|, Like the lignasul fonates, they slow hydration by rendering the C-S-H gel hydrophobic. CMHEC imparts some secondary effects such as improved fluid-loss control, which may be desirable, and higher slurry viscosity, which may be Undesirable. A relatively new class of retarders, ‘organophosphates, are effective at bottom: hole cizculating temperatures as high as 208°C 1400°F|.” They tend to tolerate var tions in cement composition and can lower the viscosity of high-cleasity cement shues, is known about their mode of action, Extenders Cement extenders reduce slariy density and ower hycostatc pressure during. cementing operations. This helps prevent the break clown of weak formations and loss of cites lation. They also reduce the amount af ‘cement needed forthe cementing operation, Because they're less expensive than cement, they bring considezable savings. Three types extenders are water extenders, low-den ty aggregates and gas. Often more than one Iype is used in the same slury 5 “Aki or Oil Coren n Comenng technol Lonton: Devel Sesunberer 1 ‘6. tueazs f"Aemnures i Conc: sho ‘eh haces Comer Texinalny. nord Poe Sino Pes LM 1908 7 Nebion 8 "Wel Taine Pucss and Campos: hn” Cand Patent Ni 205742 ary 10, 1, 1. Sh RC, Poners CA ane Deis TAA New range Cement Sper Seen ou ‘aa Petes fet 32180. 18:44 1 Sat of Devel Somer Oilfield ReviewWater extenders allow the addition of water to the slurry while ensuring that solids remain in suspension. The most common is bentonite, a clay mineral that has the unusual property of expanding several times its original volume when placed in water This increases the slurry’s viscosity and its ability o suspend solids. Bentonite is added in concentrations as high as 20 percent BWOC- Slurry density quickly decreases with bentonite cancentration. However, there isa price to be paid in terms of con. pressive strength (right). Another water ‘extender is sodium silicate. This reacts with the calcium hydroxide in the cement slurry to produce a viscous C-S-H gel allowing large volumes of water to be added to the slury Low-density aggregates are materials of density ess than that of portland cement, which is 3.15 g/em>. The most commonly used are pozzolans,finely-dlivided siliceous, and aluminous materials. They are obtained from volcanic ash, diatomaceous earth and fly ash from coal-burning power stations. Pozzolans not only reduce cement-slurry density, but also increase its compressive strength by reacting with the calcium hydroxide in the sluny. At present, the most efficient low-density aggregates are microspheres, small gas-filled beads with specific gravities as low as 0.2." Since they are lighter than water, slurry den: 2800 8 8 8 Bentonite = Compressive Strength, esi g Foamed Cement Microspheres Extenders such as Bentonite foamed cement and mcr Spheres decrease the Cement shay densty—to Cut down Sd protect apis the Ircakdown of weak formations bu 60 decrease tia com pressive sengih. The bentonite and fan daa were obtained on ‘camont cured at 38°C 00°F) ond the microsphere dats. on ‘cement cued at 274 80°F Cun tio in ‘all eases wae 24 Bos 16 1 12 «10 8 eae Slurry Density, toga! 512 20. Bentonite BWIOC, % 10 9 |a0100" va Water BWOC, % sity is substantially reduced without acing, large quantities of water. As a result, com= pressive sirengl is preserved. The improve- ‘ment is dramatic when compared with ben: tonite (above) Summing Up The Additives ‘Cement additives, which number more than 100, can be grouped into eight major categori Accelerators reduce cement setting time. and speed up the development of compres: sive strength. They are commonly used in shallow, low-temperature wells Retarders extend cement seting time and allow sufficient time for slurry places ment in deep wells. Volume 1 Number 1 Extenders reduce coment density and ‘may also reduce the amount of cement needed for a job. Low-density cement is needed for cementing weak formations, which would otherwise break down and cause lost circulation ‘Weighting agents increase cement densi. ly. These are used for cementing high-pres- sure formations, which might become unstable if slurry density were 100 low, Dispersants reduce the viscosity of ‘coment slurry and ensure good mud removal during placement. Fluid-loss control agents (r14c¥) control water loss from the cement into the forma- tion Gases such as nitrogen, or sometimes ai, are used to prepare foamed cement with ‘exceptionally low density. As with micro: spheres, using gas as an extender requires ro addtional water above) Lost-circulation control agents reduce the loss of cement slury into weak or ‘vugay formations. Loss of cement may necessitate a costly, remedial cementing ‘operation, Special additives, such as antifoam agents and fibers, are manufactured for specific comenting tasks, such as the pre~ vention of foaming that might lead to a loss In hydraulic pressure, 23.Weighting Agents In high-pressure gas wells or in physically unstable wellbores, high-density fluids are tequired to maintain contro. In such cases, drilling mud densities often go up to 2.16 ‘g/cm? (18 Ib/gal] and cement slurries of ‘equal or higher density become necessary. The most obvious way of increasing ‘cement density isto reduce the amount of water ia the slury. However, this can make the slurry dificult to pump. Alternatively, materials of high specitic gravity can be added, These must have a patticle size simi lar to that of the cement. The most com- monly used weighting agents ae ilmenite [FeTiO,}, hematite [Fe:Os and barite [BaSO,] with densities of 4.45, 4.95 and 4.33 g eo respectively. Dispersants Successful cementing relies on good mud removal, best achieved by pumping the concrete slurry in turbulent love. Disper sanis control slurry sheology and help induce turbulence at low pumping rates. Dispersants also allow the water content of the cement to be lowered without making it clficult to pump. Basically, dspersants neutralize positive charges on cement particles which would otherwise make them mutually atractive. ‘They effectively break up aggregates into individual particles. At the right concentra- ton, dispersants improve cement homo: ‘neneity and lower is peereability, Howev- «er, an averdlose of dispersants can produce a pphase separation ia the cement slurty that results in cement particles setting out of solution and the development of ree water? ‘The mast common dispersants are sul- fonates containing highly branched poly- mers. Polynapthalene sulfonate is the most widely used 24 Fluid-Loss Control Agents (acs) ‘When cement is placed across a permeable formation under pressure, a filration pro- ‘cess is created. Water {rom the slurry ‘escapes into the formation and the cement particles are left behind. I this fluid! loss is rot controlled, the rheology, thickening time and density ofthe slurey will change and the ‘cementing jab could fail. To prevent water Joss and maintain slury characteristics, Lac agents are added to the cement slurry. How FLAC agents work is, again, not fully under stood, However, it is known that they reduce the permeability of the cement filter ‘cake that is deposited on the formation sur face when fui! loss tats. Some FLac agents also increase the viscosity of the aqueous phase of the cement slurry, thus reducing the rate of flation ‘Two types of FLAC agents are used: finely« divided materials and water-soluble poly- ters, Finely-divided materials, such as ben tonite, enter the fiker cake, lodge between the particles and lower permeability. More ‘commonly used are emulsion polymers made of latex particles that act the same ‘way as bentonite. So-called latex cements have excallent fluid-loss characteristics and can be used to 176°C [350°F).1° Water-soluble polymers operate by increasing the viscosity of the aqueous phase andlor lowering the filter cake perrne- ability. Water soluble cellulose derivatives, such as hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), are also used. However, these can make the slurry more viscous and difficult to mix. Their eiciency also decreases with increas- ing temperature. Nonionic synthetic poly- ‘mers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), are also effective. At high well temperatures, cationic polymers, such as polyethylene imine (PE), are frequently adopted. These can control fluid loss at temperatures up to 225°C [437°F}, but they also encourage slury sedimentation, Lost-Circulation Control Agents If circulation is Jost during a primary ccemrenting job, expensive remedial cement ing will usually be needed, Circulation loss ‘can occur in fractured, vugy or cavernous formations; generally, driling parameters tell the operator when to expect lost circula tion problems. Circulation losses are normally prevented by adding materials that bridge fractures and block weak zones. Granular materials, such as gilsonite and granular coal are ‘excellent bridging agents but ground walnut ‘or pecan shells, coarse bentonite of even ‘com cobs are sometimes used. Cellophane flake is another important bridging agent “The flakes form a mat that seals the face of the fracture and prevents cement trom eetering the formation, {1 yups oF caverns in the formation are so large that bridging agents do not work, thixotropic cements can be used. When thixotrapic cement enters the formation and slows down, itexperiences less shear force and begins to ge, becoming sell-supporting ‘and eventually plugging the cavern or vu Special Additives ‘Additives performing special tasks include antifoam agents, fibrous additives and Agents to prevent gas migration. ‘Antifoam agents prevent foaming that often arises when additives are mixed into the cement slurry. Excessive foaming can ‘cause a loss in hydraulic pressure possibly wrecking the cementing operation: Polyethylene glycol is the cheapest and most commonly used antifoaming agent. To ‘work properly itis mixed with the water before slurty preparation. The more expen: sive silicone emulsions will defeat a foam regardless of when they ate added, Fibrous materials are mixed with cement to increase its resistance to stresses that develop around drill collars or during perfo- rating. Nylon fibors and particulate rubber are the two most popular strengthening, agents. ‘Gas wells present special problems. Dur Ing drilling ancl while the cement is being pumped, the hydrostatic pressure of the borehole fluid prevents gas entering the ‘wellbore. But as soon as the slurry begins setting, it oses its ability to tansoit hydro- static pressure and gas can migrate into it tn recent years, adltives have been developed to prevent gas migration. Among the most successful are special lattices, such as cas. sox! that coagulate at the gas-coment interface forming a membrane impermeable toga. Oilfield ReviewHigh-Temperature Wells High temperatures present the greatest ‘cemeting challange, Above 110°C [230], the behavior of Portland cement changes, not only during hydration but also after set Ling. High temperatures ae encountered in deep oil and gas wells, geothermal wells (see “the Earth’s Heat,” page 54) and ther imal recovery well High temperature accelerates hydration, so retards and other additives are use 10 slow reaction times and allow successful placement, But high temperature aso affects ‘cement strength ater setting. Depending on temperature and the cement’ C/5 ratio, the set cement converts toa variety of calcium silicate phases. Some ofthese reduce com- pressive srengih and inctease permeability tight above. ‘One such phase is alpha dicaleium sil- icate hydrate [ee-C,SH) that forms from C-S-H gel and calcium hydroxide, which jointly have a C/S ratio of 1.5 t 2.0. Forrna- tion of a-C,SH can be prevented by ang about 35 percent BWOC of silica tothe ‘coment, altering the C/5 ratio to about 0.8. “The C-5.H gel then produces diferent cae: Lm silicate phases-—tobermorite [C54] and xonotlite [C,$,/1)—that are stable (vght). Other calelum silicate phases have been extensively studied, and some like teuscotite and a sodium-substiuted calcium silicate, pectoite, have been found table. 4 Portland cement becomes totally unstable above 400°C [750°F}, which is much lower than the temperature usually foun in a fre flood well. For the ultra-high temperatures ‘of thermal recovery, special coments are used that comprise mainly monocalcium aluminate {CA} Even with today’s technology, no cement ‘operation is eirely routine. Cement chem. istry is highly complex and cements can byehave unpredictably—cements and ad tives are routinely tested in the laboratory before taking them into the field. But our understanding is advancing and it can only increase the safety and eficiency of cement jew operations as wel as extend the range of well conditions in which we can reliably cement. —cc Volume 1 Number 1 000 a & 6000 EN 5 ¢ 3 4000 : 2 8 5 2000 8 1 4 9 L|— sitca sand cued at 200° Silica Flour cured at 230°C 10 > —- Siica Flour cured at 320°C 1 ot 0.01 0.001 o 4 Oo aii cee neentan 24 (Curing Time, months. 1 Class G, 15.6 b/gal 2 Class G, 16.2 bb/gal 3 Glass H, 17.0lb/gal 4 Class G, 13.0 b/gal “9: ichao< Mand Deowe C: Ol Well Coneat Sars. Miceaructral ‘Approach Ther helo" Cement and Conte Resor 16198) 23:0 10, Parva PA, Pot Band Vera Cl "Cement Compson fr Cermnting ‘Welly Allowing Pear Gas Channeling in the Cenent Anlst be Can troll" U's Pant No. 4.537818 (Ras 27.1985, 1, Mesenge]U: Loa Cheulion us Oko: PennWell 12,Parevaus “Gas Migation and GASBLOK Teebacogy” Oring and Purging Journal 3 gus 1987). 1-22 13, Neto £0 ad Elles Li: "Cemerting Stand and leon! Wels—slury Design Journal of Canaan Peta tconalgy 24, no. Sapterbe- OO ba tons) 83 14, Nelson Eilers Han Kalosek GL; “Formation and havo of Cala ‘ite yates na Ceuta Envtonment> Cement and Concrete Research I fisens71381 shine Compa aletumsiicate ‘phase dgram show: Jing changes occuring tothe S11 gel emporatare increases and thecl rato aries, A el OS ratio of 15 1020 changes fo unstable fC SH above HOC [2B0°FI-A gel witha lowe ratio oF 0.8, ‘blaine by adding sit Ieatothe coment, changes to stable cal ium sticates, ober tonite and wanes ‘Another stable phase is twascotite Degradation of ‘cement performance a igh curing tempera tures le and restored performance with faded sles igh Without ext sifia, standard elses G and Heeemeris cured at 230°C 50°F “prade n compres- ‘Sve strengih an per meaty. Adding sit a sand rain sie 89 1 100 gm) restores performance. Atthe higher curing tempera tre of 320°C 1610°F. adding silica in the Town of four ain size 400 304m) becomes necesary to estore perfomance. 25